HBMT 2103
Topic 1:Number Concepts and Symbols
Numbers: to name objects, to designate where
objects & events are in sequence, to describe size
of sets.
Nominal numbers:as names on addresses and
sports jerseys (1). Tag for identification(ADT123).
Ordinal numbers: identify the position of an object
in a sequence.
Cardinal numbers: counting numbers that tell how
many objects are in a set. (2km, 2 pens)
Nominal, ordinal, and cardinal numbers all
demonstrate meaningful uses of the number
system.
Numeration:concerned with an understanding of
number concepts and notation, specifically the
understanding and skills needed to count, name,
write, read, interpret and process numbers
Link bet numbers:
material
NUMBER
language
symbols
Counting process by which children call number
values by name.
The counting process involve two distinct actions.
- say the number name & point to a different object
as each number is spoken.
Five principles of rational counting:
• abstraction principle: any collection of
real or imaginary objects can be
counted.
• stable-order principle: counting
numbers are arranged in a sequence
that does not change.
• one-to-one principle: requires ticking off
the items in a set so that one and only
one number is assigned to each item
counted.
• order-irrelevance principle: the order in
which items are counted is irrelevant.
• cardinal principle gives special
significance to the last number counted
because it is not only the last item
counted in the set but also the total
number of items in the set. It tells how
many are in the set.
Counting On - correct number names are given as
counting proceeds, but the starting point is flexible.
Children can start counting at any number.
Counting on is an essential strategy in developing
addition.
Counting Back - correct number names are given
as children count backward from a particular point.
Counting back is also a strategy in developing
subtraction.
Gelman and Gallistel - several common
counting errors:
make a coordination error when the count is
• learn to add two numbers without
not started until after the first item has been
touched, which results in an under-count, or
when the count continues after the final item
has been touched, which results in an
overcount.
• make an omission error when one or more
items are skipped.
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• make a double-count error by counting one
or more items more than once.
• use idiosyncratic counting sequences such
as “one,two, four, seven, eight, ten.”
Place value: allows us to read, symbolize, and
manipulate both large and small numbers.
A thorough understanding of place value is
necessay if computational algorithms for addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division are to be
developed and learned in a meaningful way.
Place-value manipulatives are a faster way to
represent larger numbers than counting one by
one.
Flexibility in representing numbers is very important
to understanding the number system and is
essential for number operations, estimation, and
number sense.
The compact form, such as 653 can be represented
in several ways:
653
600 + 50 + 3
6 hundreds + 5 tens + 3 ones
These simple expanded forms will help children
develop their understanding of algorithms for
operations on whole numbers.
Expanded form : it makes the place-value structure
obvious and aid in understanding alorithms.
Suggested pedagogical development for the
topic Numbers in Year 2:
SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT
• Counting numbers to 1000 in hundreds,
tens, fives, twos and ones.
• Reading numbers to 1000.
• Writing numbers to 1000.
• Decomposing numbers into hundreds,
tens and ones.
• Recomposing hundreds, tens and ones
into numbers.
• Counting on and counting back numbers.
• Comparing two or more numbers and
arranging numbers in ascending and
descending order.
• Recognizing ordinal numbers up to
twentieth.
TOPIC 2: ADDITION AND SUBSTRACTION IN
THE RANGE OF 1000
Shulman (1986): teachers need to master two
types of knowledge:
• Content knowledge of the subject matter
and
• The ways of representing the subject
matter that makes it easy for pupils to
understand
Addition:an operation on two numbers, the
addends, to obtain a third number, the sum.
Addition:related to the union of disjointed groups of
objects.
• Addition without regrouping
regrouping. involves the application of
basic addition facts and place value
concept to record the sum.
For example, 26 + 43 = 69.
It is vital that children understand that
they are adding 6 ones and 3 ones and
they write the sum in the ones place
value. Then they add 2 tens and 4 tens
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and write the sum of 6 tens in the tens
place. Very often we allow children just to
add the numbers in each column and do
not think of the tens and ones. Attention
here should be focused on the meaning
of what they are doing, rather on the
mechanical procedure.
• Addition with regrouping
(sometimes called carrying) parallels
the teaching of addition without
regrouping. However, children may find
it more difficult to add with regrouping.
A suggested sequence to teach
addition with regrouping is as follows:
Example: Leela has 25 rubber bands.
Her friend gives her 18 more. How
many rubber bands has she now?
1. Use manipulative materials,
ungrouped:
Lay out 25 rubber bands (or
other objects), then lay out
18 more. Count to find the
sum.
2. Use maipulative materials,
grouped:
25 rubber bands (2 group of
tens and 5 ones) than 18
(one group of tens and 8
ones)
3. Use of pocket chart: 2 column
(tens / ones) under each
column put materials
4. Use of place value chart: : 2
column(tens/ones) under each
column put number
After working with materials,
children need to be able to relate the
written form of the algorithm with
the materials.
consistent in the ways you convert
mathematical sentences to the
vertical form.
Mathematical sentence :12 + 6 =
18 / 6+12=18
Vertical form:
12
6
+ 6
+ 12
18
18
Subtraction: the inverse of addition.
Subtraction has several meanings related to real-
life situations:
• Take-away (baki =remainder)
In the take-away interpretation, 150 – 6 =
144 means if 6 objects are removed from
a group of 150 objects, 144 remain. The
answer, 144 is the remainder. To learn
the take-away concept, children study
examples that involve removal or
separation of a subset from a set.
Concrete materials demonstrate this
interpretation of subtraction more
effectively than graphic materials. Story
problems in which a subset is removed,
lost, eaten or the like are useful in helping
children understand this concept. For
example, “Ali picked 17 rambutans. He
ate 9 of the rambutans. How many did Ali
have left?”
• Comparision (baki = difference)
In the comparison interpretation, two
sets are compared: “There were two
circus performances. One was
attended by 859 people and the other
by 934 people. How much larger was
the audience for the second
performance than the first?” The
answer in this subtraction is called the
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difference and tells how much greater
(or lesser) one number is than the
other.
• Completion( cari addend/ nombor yg
perlu ditambah)
In the comparison interpretation, the
numbers of two sets are given. The
question is, “What is the number of the
set to join to the smaller set
to obtain the larger set?”.
For example, “James
completed a 900 postage
stamp album collection by
putting in additional stamps.
How many additional stamps did he put
into the album if there were 856
stamps when he started?” 856 + N =
900. In this question an addend, N is
missing. Since addition and subtraction
are inverse operations, the missing
addend, N can be solved by
subtraction: 900 – 856 = N.
Subtraction- introduced through discussion of
actions on real objects and with classroom learning
aids such as chips, blocks, and ice-cream sticks.
Easiest of the three subtraction concepts for
children to learn is the take-away situation and the
language associated with it.
sequence used to illustrate the ideas of addition
and subtraction: (=children move through the
experiences from the concrete to semiconcrete to
the abstract)
1. Use a variety of problem settings and
manipulative materials to act out and
model the operation.
2. Provide representations of objects in
pictures, diagrams and drawings to
move a step away from the concrete
toward symbolization.
3. Finally, use symbols to illustrate the
operation.
SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT
A problem involves a situation in which a person
wants something and does not know immediately
what to do to get it.
To gain skill in solving problems, one must have a
lot of experience in solving problems.
Example:
Given the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Using each of
them once, form three two-digit numbers with the
sum of 102.
To obtain a solution, the children will have to try
many possibilities. The children have the
prerequisites for solving the problem, but the
solution is not immediately apparent. They may
have to guess and check a number of possibilities.
This is indeed problem solving for the children.
Distinction:
Routine problems involve an application of a
mathematical procedure in much the same way as
it was learned.
Non-routine problems often require more thought
since the mathematical procedure to solve the
problem is less obvious.
Suggested pedagogical development for the
topic of Addition and Subtraction in Year 2:
• The meaning of addition.
• Addition without regrouping.
• Addition with grouping.
• Meaning of subtraction.
• Subtraction without regrouping.
• Subtraction with grouping.
• Solving number stories for addition and
subtraction.
• Making up number stories for addition and
subtraction.
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TOPIC 3: MULTIPLICATION OF 2, 3, 4 AND 5 • Multiplying by 2 and 3 TOPIC 4: DIVISION BY 2, 3, 4 AND 5

The numbers you multiply are called factors. The • Multiplying by 4 and 5 • Distributive property: The sum of two Divide= over or of. (inverse of multiplication)
answer is the product. numbers times a third number is equal to the
sum of each addend times the third number. Two over three=two divided by three,/one of four
Multiplication of whole numbers: repeated addition • =one divided by four.
of the same number
Four Basic Properties of Multiplication
Eg: [a x (b + c) = a x b + b x c] Division - the most problematic of the basic math
The result of multiplication is the total number operations; you may end up with a remainder or
(product) that would be obtained by combining • Commutative property: When two numbers fractional answer.
several (multiplier) groups of similar size are multiplied together, the product is the For example: 4 x (6 + 3) = 4 x 6 + 4 x 3
(multiplicand). same regardless of the order of the
multiplicands. Division of whole numbers=repeated subtraction of
the same number.
Standard form:
Eg: [a x b = b x a] Four different algorithms for
20 ÷ 5 = 4 then, 5 is called the (divisor - it is
multiplication.(vertical order)
7 (multiplier) how 20 will be divided). 20 is called the
x 4 (multiplicand) For example: 4 x 2 = 2 x 4 (dividend- it is the number being divided). 4 is
called the quotient.
28 (product)
Meaning of division
• Associative Property: When three or more
numbers are multiplied, the product is the 1. Division as the Inverse of Multiplication
Two common meanings of multiplication.
same regardless of the grouping of the
factors. To answer, we divide;
Q: ? × 5 = 20. A: 20 ÷ 5 = ?
We have to divide 20 into groups of 5:
The major mathematical skills related to
multiplication to be mastered by Year 2:
Eg: [(a x b) x c = [a x (b x a)]
2. Division as Equal Shares
• Understanding “multiplication” To divide a number into 2 equal parts
For example: (2 x 3) x 4 = 2 x (3 x 4)
o Multiplication as repeated
addition
The basic facts of multiplication involve the o Multiplication as “times” 3. Division as Repeated Subtraction
products of any two 1-digit whole numbers, till o Writing multiplication sentences Also, we could subtract 5 from 20 four times.
9x5=45 • Multiplication tables
• Multiplicative Identity Property: The
product of any number and one is that o Arrays and groups
The important basic multiplication facts: original number itself. o Multiplication tables for 2, 3, 4
and 5 4. Division as Grouping
o Multiplying two numbers Now we look at breaking up products into
• Multiplying by 0: Any number multiplied smaller groups,
by 0 equals 0. • Multiplication in everyday life
o Finding unknown numbers in
Eg: [a x 1 = a] number sentences
• Multiplying by 1: Any number multiplied o Solving number stories
by 1 equals that number. For example: 5 x 1 = 5 o Writing number stories

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Division difficult and time-consuming if we had
to draw the boxes each time. So quicker
method= use symbols.
Break 16 into groups of 4 ;is written in shorter
form as 16 divided by 4 in symbol as:16 ÷ 4
The Basic Facts of Division
1. Dividing by 0:
Numbers cannot be divided by 0
because it is impossible to make 0
groups of a number.
2. Dividing by 1:
Any number divided by 1 equals that
number.
3. Dividing by 2 and 3
4. Dividing by 4 and 5
Four Basic Properties of Division
1. Commutative property: When two numbers
are divided, the quotient is not the same.
Therefore, division is not commutative.
Eg: [a ÷ b ≠b ÷ a]
Eg: 4 ÷ 2 ≠2 ÷ 4
2. Associative Property: When three or more
numbers are divided, the quotient is not the
same. Therefore, division is not associative.
Eg: [(a ÷ b) ÷ c] ≠ [a ÷ (b ÷ c)]
Eg: [(8 ÷ 4) ÷ 2] ≠ [8 ÷ (4 ÷ 2)]
3. Division Identity Property: The quotient of
any number and one is that original number
itself.
Eg: [a ÷ 1 = a]
For example: 5 ÷ 1 = 5
4. Distributive property: The sum of two
numbers divides a third number is only
sometimes equal to the sum of each added
divided by the third number.
Eg: [a ÷ (b + c) ≠(a ÷ b) + (a ÷ c)]
For example: [(2 + 3) ÷ 6] = [(2 ÷ 6) + (3 ÷ 6)]
However: [6 ÷ (2 + 3) ≠(6 ÷ 2) + (6 + 3)]
The Computational Procedure for Division
A common way in computing division is through a
process called long division.
The major mathemathical skills related to
division to be mastered by Year 2:
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• Understanding “division”
o Division as sharing equally
o Division as grouping
o Writing number sentences for
division
• Division facts
o Division as the reverse of
multiplication
o Division facts for 2, 3, 4 and 5
o Dividing two numbers
• Division in everyday life
o Finding unknown numbers in
number sentences
o Solving number stories
o Writing number stories
TOPIC 5: MONEY
Money reinforces place-value concepts because it
uses the base 10 system.
Need activities that help them develop the skills for
estimating prices and doing mental
computations.
How estimation and mental computations on money
can help them:
• save time doing long calculations;
• judge the reasonableness of prices of
items on sale; and
• solve problems when exact answers are
not required.
Three common processes for estimating sums:
• rounded numbers,
• front-end estimation,
• compatible numbers.
Take-Home Activities on Money
• Take-home activities can show parents
that there is more to the curriculum
than practicing computations with
algorithms. Take-home activities are
SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT
good cooperative-learning activities for
adults and students at home.
• The topic on money provides many
opportunites for such take-home
activities.
• Doing these take-home activities will
not burden the parents Instead it is part
of spending quality time together as a
family.
Suggested pedagogical development for the
topic money in Year 2:
• Identifying and reading amount of money
in Ringgit and sen up to RM 50;
• Using different combinations of notes to
represent a given amount of money up to
RM 50;
• Using different combinations of notes and
coins to represent a given amount of
money up to RM 50;
• Adding money up to RM 50;
• Subtracting money up to RM 50; and
• Solving story problems involving money in
real life situations up to RM 50.
TOPIC 6: TIME
The word clock was first used in the 14th century
(about 700 years ago). It comes from the word for
bell in Latin ("clocca").
The oldest type of clock is a sundial clock( a sun
clock.) They were first used around 3,500 B.C.
(about 5,500 years ago). Sundials use the sun to
tell the time. The shadow of the sun points to a
number on a circular disk that shows you the time.
Around 1400 B.C. (about 3,400 years ago),
water clocks were invented in Egypt lmade of
two containers of water, one higher than the
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other. Water travelled from the higher container
to the lower container through a connecting tube.
Water clocks worked better than sundials
because they told the time at night as well as
during the day and more accurate.
Pendulum clock developed by Christian
Huygens,1656. Also had a minute hand. One
problem = stopped running after a while and had
to be restarted. The first pendulum clock with
external batteries was developed around 1840.
By 1906, the batteries were inside the clock.
Quartz crystal clocks ,1920. Quartz is a type of
crystal that looks like glass. When you apply
voltage, or electricity, and pressure, the quartz
crystal vibrates or oscillates at a very constant
frequency or rate. The vibration moves the clock's
hands very precisely.
History of Time
The Greeks divided the year into twelve parts that
are called months. They divided each month into
thirty parts that are called days. Their year had a
total of 360 days, or 12 times 30 (12 x 30 = 360).
Since the Earth goes around the Sun in one year
and follows an almost circular path, the Greeks
decided to divide the circle into 360 degrees.
The Egyptians and Babylonians decided to divide
the day from sunrise to sunset into twelve parts
that are called hours. They also divided the night,
the time from sunset to sunrise, into twelve hours.
Whole day=24 hours
Why 12 parts? Twelve is about the number of moon
cycles in a year, a special number in many cultures.
Sumerian sexagesimal system; hour is divided
into 60 minutes, and each minute is divided into 60
seconds, developed 4,000 years ago.
To tell time, we use these terms:
• A.M.--Ante meridiem, from the Latin for
"before noon"
• P.M.-- Post meridiem, from the Latin for
"after noon"
Times Zones
In 1884, delegates from 25 countries met and
agreed to divide the world into time zones. If you
draw a line around the middle of the Earth, it is a
circle (equator). The delegates divided the 360
degrees of the circle into 24 zones, each 15
degrees (24 x 15 = 360). They decided to start
counting from Greenwich (pronounced GREN-
ich), England, which is 0 degrees longitude.
United States:four time zones varies by one hour:
Eastern (7), Central(6), Mountain(5), and
Pacific(4).
Faces of Clocks
clockwise direction.
O’clock = of the clock
Two hands that point to the time - hour hand(little
hand) and minute hand (big hand).
Smaller marker = minute( every 5 marks same as
hour marks)
Bigger marker = hour
Saying Time Correctly
Quarter past three, Half past seven, Quarter to six,
Eleven minutes past nine.
Write: one o'clock is 1:00. The symbol : is called a
colon.
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SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT
There are two types of clocks: the span of a hand and the breadth of
• A clock with hands, called an analog clock a thumb.
• A clock with numbers only, called a digital
clock
The major mathematical skills related to time to
be mastered by Year 2: • Egyptian cubit developed around
3000 BC. Based on the human body, it
was taken to be the length of an arm
Read and write time
from the elbow to the extended
• Read time to five minutes fingertips.
• Reading time in various ways
• Write time
Relationship between time
• Understand that 1 hour = 60 minutes
• Understand that 1 day = 24 hours
• Saxon king Edgar kept a “yardstick" at
• Solving problems involving relationship Winchester as the official standard of
between time measurement. A traditional tale tells
Knowledge of time in everyday life the story of Henry I (1100-1135) who
• Computing time after an event decreed that the yard should be "the
• Computing duration of an event distance from the tip of the King's nose
• Using alternative strategies to compute to the end of his outstretched thumb".
time after an event and the duration of an
event
TOPIC 7: LENGTH • 1799 which was known as the 'Mètre
des Archives' and was the master
standard for the world's new measuring
Important information regarding the content and
system, the so-called metric system.
pedagogical aspects for teaching length covers the
following aspects:
• Historical note on length.
• The basic principles of measurement. • 1889 a number of platinum-iridium
• The meaning of length. metre bars were produced and one of
these (number 6) replaced the Mètre
• Units of length.
des Archives to become the
• Relationship between units of length.
International Prototype Metre.
• Sequence of teaching length.
Historical Note on Length
Four Basic Principles of Measurement
• Ancient measurement of length based
on the human body, for example the
length of a foot, the length of a stride,
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1. Comparison principle – comparing and
ordering of objects by a specific attribute.
using suitable vocabulary to describe and
compare length such as
1 km = 1000 m; short, shorter, tall, taller,
long, longer, high
1 m = 100 cm;
1 cm = 10 mm 2. Transitivity principle –
comparing and ordering of
three or more objects using appropriate
language. E.g. If A is longer than B and C is
longer than A, then C must be longer than B.
3. Conservation principle – the length of an
object does not change even when the
position or the orientation of the object is
changed.
4. Measuring principle – fact that
measurement involves stating how many of a
given unit match the attribute (e.g. length) of
an object. For example, when measuring the
length of a rod, stating the number of
centimetres that can be fitted along it.
Conceptual differences between counting and
measuring.
Counting the number of pupils in the classroom,
the result must be a whole number, 12, the quantity
is discrete.
Measuring the height of pupils, the result can take
on values other than whole numbers, 129.3
cm,quantities are continuous quantities.
The Meaning of Length
Def. of length = distance bet any two
points/locations measured along straight line.
The length of an object refers to the number of
standard units (e.g. centimetres) which can be laid
in a straight line along or besidethe object.
Measuring a length is actually comparing that
length with a measuring instrument such as a ruler
or scale
Basic concept of measurement
a. Appropriate units
Use units of measure appropriate to the thing
being measured.
b. Non- standard units of measurement
Non-standard unit for length is any arbitrary
length used as a unit. Eg:
• body parts such as span, foot, pace and
arm length; and
• objects such as pen, paper clip, rod, chalk
and straws, etc.
c. Standard Units of measurement
A standard unit for length is any fixed length
that has been accepted as a standard
internationally.
• yards, miles, feet, inches; (Imperial units)
• metres and kilometres, (metric units)
d. Identical units
To say that a candy bar is 6 centimetres long
means that every centimetre is exactly the
same.
e. Iteration
Measurement means repeated application of
identical units of measure.
Relationship between Units of Length
The basic SI unit for length is the metre.
A metre- distance from your left ear to the tip of the
fingers on the end of your outstretched right arm.
Greek prefixes like kilo-, hecto-, and deka- are
used for measurements larger than the metre.
6
Latin prefixes such as deci-, centi-, and milli- are
used for smaller measurements.
The major mathematical skills related to length
to be mastered by Year 2:
Vocabulary related to length
• Using words related to length
• Direct comparison of lengths
• Comparing the lengths of two objects
Non-standard measurements of length
• Identifying instruments used for non-
standard measurements of length
• Measuring lengths using non-standard
measurements
• Stating and recording non-standard
measurements for lengths
Standard measurements for length
Metres and centimetres
•
Relationship between metre and
•
centimetre
• Measuring, stating and recording lengths
in metres and centimetres
Sequence of learning concepts of measurement
of length
(a) identifying the attribute of measurement of
length
(b) building and consolidating the concepts of
measuring units of length
(c) developing the relationships between standard
measuring units of length
TOPIC 8: MASS
SI = Le Systeme International d’Unites (
international system of units)
SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT
1889, a unit called kilogram accepted as the official
unit of weight measurement. 1960 adopted by the
11th General Conference on Weights and Measure
Meanings of Mass
Mass=measure of the amount of matter in an
object.
Weight = the gravitational force acting on that
mass.
Hence, it is normal to refer weighing of an object as
a process to find its mass.
Primary school students, the concept of mass = the
general “heaviness” of an object.
An arbitrary mass used as an unit is called a non-
standard unit,(paper clips, cups)
A fixed unit of mass used that has been accepted
as a standard unit internationally is called a
standard unit.
• Kgs, grammes – metric units
• Ounces, pounds – imperial units
Sequence of learning the Topic of
Mass(direc/indirect)
• recognising the unit of measurement for
mass;
• estimating using the unit; and
• measuring using the unit.
Estimating:encourages them to think and it will also
help them to attain “measurement sense”.
Practice in conversion between the standard units =
help children acquire high mathematical
competencies with respect to measurement of
mass.
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Eg: 1 tonne equals 1000 kilogram, 1 kilogram
equals 1000 grams and hence 1 tonne is 1 000 000
gram.,
Sequence of teaching the Topic of Mass
i. perceiving and identifying the attributes of
mass through direct and indirect
comparison
ii. building the concept of measuring units
through the use of non-standard units
followed by standard units directly
iii. consolidating the concept of measuring
units through the use of measuring
instruments
iv. developing the relationship between
standard units of measurement
v. performing arithmetic operations involving
standard units for mass
vi. solving daily problems involving standard
units for mass
The major mathematical skills related to mass
to be mastered by Year 2:
Vocabulary related to mass
• Using words related to mass
• Direct comparison of masses
• Comparing the masses of two objects
Non-standard measurements of mass
• Idea of balancing masses
• Measuring mass using non-standard
maeasurements
• Stating and recording non-standard
measurements of mass
Standard measurements for mass
• Kilogrammes
• Weighing using weighing scales
• Measuring, stating and recording mass in
kilogrammes and grammes
TOPIC 9: VOLUME OF LIQUID
Attribute for Volume of Liquids
Empty, full, half full. (pre-measurment coz no
number involved)
Reasons for introducing measurement of liquid
to children through the use of non-standard
units:
• Materials for non-standard units are
easier to obtain;
• Historically, humans used non-standard
units for measurement before
establishing standard units;
• Non-standard units are easier to use;
• Non-standard units use materials that
seem naturally related to the child’s
everyday experiences;
• It is good to give children experience with
unfamiliar systems of measurement just
as they might use bases other than ten in
numeration.
Suggested pedagogical development for the
topic Volume of Liquid in Year 2:
• Identifying the attribute for the volume of
liquid
• Direct comparisons of volumes of liquid
• Indirect comparisons of volumes of liquid
through a reference
• Identifying instruments used as non-
standard measurements for volumes of
liquid
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• Measuring volumes of liquid using non-
standard measurements
• Introducing standard measurements for
volumes of liquid
• Measuring volumes of liquid using
standard measurements in litres (ℓ).
TOPIC 10: THREE DIMENSIONAL AND TWO
DIMENSIONAL SHAPES
Development of Geometry Concepts – The Van
Hiele Theory (Dina &Pierre van Hiele)
• the learning of geometry concepts is
through a hierarchical series of five
levels and a series of phases for thinking
from each level to the next;
• the levels are based in part on the
Piagetian stage theory but not related to
the age of the student; and
• the levels are based on the actual
geometric learning that the student has
experienced.
Five levels of geometric experiences:
• Level 1 – Recognition – visualizing and
naming the figures
• Level 2 – Analysis – describing the
attributes
• Level 3 – Ordering – classifying and
generalizing by attributes
• Level 4 – Deduction – developing proofs
using axioms and definitions
SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT
• Level 5 – Rigour – working in various
geometrical systems
The first three levels occur during the
primary school years. At Level 1,
children are able to:
recognise and label common
•
figures such as circles,
squares, triangles and
rectangles;
• name simple solids with those
labels or with less formal
names such as the solids look
like a “box” or a “ball”;
• recognise simple solids such as
cubes, spheres, cylinder,
pyramids and cones.
At Level 2, children are able to start
describing the attributes of the shapes
and solids.
• not necessarily be precise
mathemathical terminology. A
sphere is a “ball” and a square
has four “straight” corners –
The level 3 begins in upper primary,
• Children classify and organize
shapes and solids according to
their characteristics.
Level 4 and 5
• Dwell on the advanced mode of
thinking and correspond to a more
complete understanding of the
nature of geometry. Students at
these levels are capable of
formulating proofs of theorems
HBMT 2103 SYAMSINAHARNI BT HAWALIT

without the need of concrete • Describing and classifying three

experience. dimensional shapes.
• more of deductive study and
occurrs from secondary schools
and right through to post-
secondary education.

Describing and Classifying Geometric Shapes

Studying the geometrical properties of three

dimensional and two dimensional shapes is built
around the processes of describing and
classifying, constructing, exploring and
discovering as well as relating 3D to 2D shapes.

Describing and classifying are processes that

develop over time as children add new and more
complex properties. Similarly, the vocabulary used
should be introduced gradually for beginning,
intermediate and more advanced students. A
teacher should build on the children’s own
vocabulary; adding new words as appropriate.

Suggested pedagogical development for the

topic Shape and Space in Year 2:

• Understanding and using vocabulary to

name and label two dimensional
shapes;

• Describing and classifying two

dimensional shapes;

• Building models using three dimensional

and two dimensional shapes;

• Understanding and using vocabulary to

name and label three dimensional
shapes; and