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Basic Theory
There are three types of elements in the periodic table depending on their electronic structure
1. Noble gases have their outmost shells completed with 8 electrons except Helium which is smaller
sized atom and completes it outmost shells with 2 electrons.

2. Metals have rare no. of electrons in their outmost shells.

3. Non-metals needs rare number of electrons to complete their outmost shells like noble gases.

Noble gases are inert and most stable elements in the periodic table, every element either metal or non-metal
want to become like the noble gas present nearest to it by
Losing or gaining electrons (ionic bonding)
Sharing electrons (covalent bonding)

Ionic Bonding
Electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions is called ionic bond.

When metals and non metals react they form ionic bond.
a. Ionic bond is formed when electrons are transferred from a metal to non-metal, due to which
metal forms positive ion and non-metal form negative ion.
b. Metals lose electrons in this way they become positive ions and get the electronic structure of
noble gas present before it in the periodic table.
c. Non metals gain electrons in this way they become negative ions and get the electronic structure
of noble gas present after it in the periodic table.
d. Strong electrostatic force of attraction present between positive and negative ion is called ionic
bond.

Formation of Sodium Chloride

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When metal sodium reacts with non-metal chlorine, they form ionic bond. Sodium atom (2,8,1) loses an
electron and gets electronic structure of noble gas neon (2,8). Chlorine(2,8,7) gains an electron and gets
electronic structure of noble gas argon(2,8,8).

Na → Na+ + e¯ and Cl + e¯ → Cl¯

2,8,1 2,8 2,8,7 2,8,8

Oppositely charged ions held in a regular 3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction

In binary compounds like NaCl six Na+ are surounded by six chloride ions and in the same way chloride ion
are surounded by six Na+ ions as shown
Chloride ion

Sodium ion

Physical properties of ionic compounds

Melting point are very high because a large amount of energy must be put in to overcome the strong
electrostatic attractions and separate the ions.

They are very brittle because any dislocation leads to the layers moving and similar ions being adjacent.
The repulsion splits the crystal.

IF YOU MOVE A LAYER OF IONS, YOU GET IONS OF THE SAME CHARGE NEXT TO EACH
OTHER. THE LAYERS REPEL EACH OTHER AND THE IF YOU MOVE A LAYER OF IONS, YOU
GET IONS OF THE SAME CHARGE NEXT TO EACH OTHER. THE LAYERS REPEL EACH OTHER
AND THE CRYSTAL BREAKS UP.

Electrical conductivity:
They don’t conduct when solid becasue ions held strongly in the lattice and cannot move free.
They can conduct when molten or in aqueous solution because the ions become mobile and conduction
takes place.

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Solid state Molten and solution form

Ions are fixed Ions move freely
Solubility
Insoluble in non-polar solvents but soluble in water
Water is a polar solvent and stabilises the separated ions. Much energy is needed to overcome the
electrostatic attraction and separate the ions stability attained by being surrounded by polar water molecules
compensates for this

Formation of Magnesium Chloride

When metal magnesium reacts with non-metal chlorine, they form ionic bond. Magnesium atom (2,8,2)
loses two electrons and gets electronic structure of noble gas neon (2,8) and becomes positive ion. Two
Chlorine(2,8,7) gains an electron each and gets electronic structure of noble gas argon(2,8,8) and becomes
negative ion. So, two electrons are transferred from a magnesium atom to two chlorine atoms to make ionic
bond between them.

Covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electron pair between twonon-metals.

Both atoms get the electronic structure of nearest noble gas by sharing electron in their outmost shells.

Examples of some covalent molecules

Hydrogen molecule is formed when two hydrogen atoms share an electron pair (single covalent bond), in
this way they get the electronic structure of nearest noble gas helium.

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Chlorine molecule is formed when two chlorine atoms share an electron pair (single covalent bond), in
this way they get the electronic structure of nearest noble gas argon.

Oxygen molecule is formed when two oxygen atoms share two electron pair (double covalent bond), in
this way they get the electronic structure of nearest noble gas neon.

Nitrogen molecule is form when two nitrogen atoms atoms share three electron pair (triple covalent
bond), in this way they get the electronic structure of nearest noble gas neon.

Methane molecule is formed when a carbon atom shares an electron pair each with four hydrogen atom, in
this way carbon gets electronic structure of neon and each hydrogen atom gets electronic structure of
helium.

Ethene molecule is formed when two carbon atoms share two electron pair with each other and an electron
pair each with two hydrogen atoms, in this way carbon gets electronic structure of neon and each hydrogen
atom gets electronic structure of helium.

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Carbon dioxide molecule is formed when a carbon atom shares two electron pair each with two oxygen
atoms, in this way both carbon and oxygen get electronic structure of noble gas neon.

Hydrogen chloride molecule is form when hydrogen shares an electron pair with chlorine atom, in this way
hydrogen gets electronic structure of helium and chlorine gets electronic structure of argon.

Water molecule is formed when an oxygen atom shares an electron pair each with two hydrogen atoms, in
this way hydrogen gets electronic structure of helium and oxygen gets electronic structure of neon.

Ammonia molecule is formed when a nitrogen atom shares an electron pair each with three hydrogen atom,
in this way hydrogen gets electronic structure of helium and nitrogen gets electronic structure of neon.

Physical Properties of covalent molecular compounds:

Bonding
Atoms are joined together within the molecule by covalent bonds.

Electrical
Don’t conduct electricity as they have no mobile ions or electrons

Solubility
Tend to be more soluble in organic solvents than in water; some are hydrolysed

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Boiling point
are Low due to weak intermolecular forces (van der Waals’ forces); little energy is required to separate
molecules from each other.

some boiling points are higher than expected for a given mass because you can get additional forces of
attraction due to dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding (these forces will not be discussed at this level)

they increase as molecules get a larger surface area

e.g. CH4 -161°C

C2H6 - 88°C
C3H8 -42°C

MOLECULAR SOLIDS
IODINE
At room temperature and pressure, iodine is a greyish solid. However it doesn’t need to be warmed much in
order to produce a purple vapour. This is because iodine is composed of diatomic molecules (I2) which
exist in an ordered molecular crystal in the solid state. Each molecule is independent of the others, only
being attracted by van der Waals’ forces. Therefore, little energy is required to separate the iodine
molecules.

GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES

DIAMOND, GRAPHITE and SILICA

Many atoms joined together in a regular array by a large number of covalent bonds

GENERAL PROPERTIES

MELTING POINT are very high because structure is made up of a large number of covalent bonds, all of
which need to be broken if atoms are to be separated

ELECTRICAL
They donot conduct electricity because have no mobile ions or electrons
but... Graphite conducts electricity because each carbon in graphite forms three covalent bond and leaving
one unbonded electron on each carbon atom, which is responsible for conductance.

Solubility
They are not soluble in organic solvents and in water
STRENGTH

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They are hard because exists in a rigid repeated 3 dimensional network (Diamond and silica (SiO2)... but
Graphite is soft because exist in layers and layers are held by weak van der Waals’ forces. The layers can
slide over each other on slight application of force.

DIAMOND GRAPHITE SILICA

SILICA

MELTING POINT are very high because many covalent bonds are needed to break to separate the atoms
apart from each others

HARDEST STRUCTURE because each silicon atom is joined to four oxygens, each oxygen atom are
joined to two silicons. The structure repeats to make a 3 dimensional network.

ELECTRICAL NON-CONDUCTOR because no mobile electrons are present.

METALLIC BONDING

Involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

Metal atoms achieve stability by losing electrons to attain the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas.
These electrons join up to form a mobile cloud, attraction between mobile electronic cloud and positive ions
makes a strong metallic bond.

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Atoms arrange in regular close packed 3-dimensional crystal lattices.

The outer shell electrons of each atom leave to join a mobile “cloud” or “sea” of electrons which can roam
throughout the metal. The electron cloud binds the newly-formed positive ions together.

Coductivity of metals
For a substance to conduct electricity it must have mobile ions or electrons.

Because the ELECTRON CLOUD IS MOBILE, electrons are free to move throughout its structure.
Electrons attracted to the positive end are replaced by those entering from the negative end.

HIGH MELTING POINTS

Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate individual particles. In metals it is a measure
of how strong the electron cloud holds the + ions.

The ease of separation of ions depends on the...

ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD

IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE

PERIODS Na (2,8,1) < Mg (2,8,2) < Al (2,8,3)

m.pt 98°C 650°C 659°C
b.pt 890°C 1110°C 2470°C

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