European Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN 1450-216X Vol.29 No.1 (2009), pp.157-169

© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm

Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials

Under Variable Amplitude Loading

S. M. Beden
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA
E-mail: sabah@vlsi.eng.ukm.my

S. Abdullah
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA

A. K. Ariffin
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA

N. A. AL-Asady
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA

M. M. Rahman
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University
Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
Tel: +603-8921-6511 / 8921-6518; Fax: +603-8925-9659

Abstract

Structural components are frequently subjected to complex time histories of stress

for which the prevalent mode of failure is fatigue. For reliable and cost-effective fatigue
life calculations of metallic materials the systematic characterization of their fatigue
behavior and the detailed understanding of basic fatigue mechanisms are of prime
importance. Based on fatigue failure theories (stress-life theories such as; Goodman and
Gerber, and strain-life theories such as; Morrow and SWT), this paper presents a technique
to predict the fatigue life of a shell structure of different materials with application of
measured variable amplitude loading. The finite element analysis technique was being used
for the modeling and simulation. Numerical life prediction results of the shell materials,
low and medium carbon steel (ASTM A533, AISI 1020, AISI 4340) are presented and
discussed. There are many factors affecting the life predicted, a surface condition effect
was shown here. Reasonable difference appears through the comparison of the above
materials.
Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials Under
Variable Amplitude Loading 158

Keywords: Finite Element Analysis, Steel Material, Shell, Stress-Life, Strain-Life,

Variable Amplitude Loading.

1. Introduction
Most engineering components contain geometrical discontinuities, such as shoulders, keyways, and
grooves, generally termed notches. When a notched component is loaded, local stress and strain
concentrations are generated in the notch area. The stresses often exceed the yield limit of the material
in the small region around the notch root, even at relatively low nominal elastic stresses. When a
notched component is subjected to cyclic loading, cyclic inelastic strains in the area of stress and strain
concentrations may cause formation of cracks and their subsequent growth could lead to component
fracture. For cracks that nucleate from a shallow or blunt notch, the fatigue behavior is often dominated
by crack nucleation. Cracks that nucleate from a sharp notch often nucleate rather quickly due to the
elevated local stresses, and crack growth often dominates the fatigue behavior in this case (Fatemi et al.
2004).
During the last decades, many investigations have been carried out to develop prediction
models for the high cycle fatigue (HCF) life, since it takes tremendous time and efforts to construct a
Stress–life (S–N) curve. It has been well known that the high cycle fatigue life is greatly influenced by
the microstructural variables such as grain size, the volume fraction of secondary phase and the amount
of solute atoms or precipitates (Landgraf 1979). The earlier models on HCF life have been developed
primarily based on the continuum damage mechanics utilizing many kinds of fatigue damage
parameters (Fatemi & Yang 1998). Many efforts have been devoted to develop various models for
predicting high cycle fatigue life utilizing the small crack concept, but few models have included the
microstructural parameters. Recently, it has been suggested that, there is a model predicting HCF life
of pure iron considering the grain size (Park et al. 2005), pure iron was adopted in their study to
investigate the sole effect of grain size.
In 1950s Coffin and co-workers (Coffin 1954) expressed the linear damage rule in terms of
plastic strain range, which is related to fatigue life through the Coffin-Manson relation. In a later study,
Topper and Biggs (1966) used the strain-based to correlate their experimental results. Review on the
applications of linear damage rule to strain-controlled fatigue damage analysis given by Miller (1970).
The earliest models of multiaxial fatigue behavior were based on elastic estimates of the
combined applied stress. Starting in the 1970s, much development effort was devoted to strain-based
multiaxial fatigue models. The more recent multiaxial fatigue models use energy-based parameters for
life predictions, such as Ellyin et al. (1991) The recent critical plane models, such as the Smith–
Watson–Topper model (1970), and also Fatemi and Socie (1988) define the damage parameter, which
is an energy parameter with the normalized model stress. Among many multiaxial-based models, the
Von Misses equivalent strain range, which has been adopted by the ASME Code approach (1988). This
model is based on the distortion energy, which is an average measure of the shear stress/strain states
represent damage parameters. The weakness of this parameter for non-proportional loading (Li et al.
2006) may be overcome by correction for the effects of non-proportional loading.
The strain-life method is a comprehensive approach, which can be applied for the treatment of
both low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue. In the low-cycle region the plastic strain component is
dominant, whereas in the high-cycle region the elastic strain component is dominant, therefore, at large
strains, better fatigue resistance depends more on ductility, while at smaller strains it depends more on
strength. It is important to note that changing the operational environment can significantly degrade the
safety of a structure, failed under abnormal operations due to the fracture or throughout its operational
life (Molent et al. 2006). Low-alloy steels have been extensively applied in fabricating pressure
boundary components in nuclear power plants due to their relatively excellent mechanical properties
and moderately good weldability (Xinqiang et al. 2004). The problem of the material fracture in
pipeline is a coupling of gas decompression and material cracking resistance, remains a critical issue.
159 S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah, A. K. Ariffin, N. A. AL-Asady and M. M. Rahman

Several methodologies have been proposed for that purpose (Pavankumar et al. 2005). In the other
hand many laboratory studies and some field experience have shown that water environments
accelerate the fatigue crack propagation rate in ferritic steels (Erent et al. 1988). Fatigue crack initiation
and growth properties are crucial material data input parameters. Moreover, an understanding of the
fatigue crack initiation and growth characteristics of the required reactor pressure vessel grade
materials is essential to evaluate useful life.
There are at least 50 models for cumulative fatigue damage and life prediction, none of which
has been generally accepted. Therefore it is still necessary to study the fatigue accumulation processes
further (Zheng & Wang 1997). In the most of the previous work, cyclic loading components with
constant amplitude have been assumed. Approximate model has been developed under fatigue loading
with variable amplitude in many studies as a constant load to simplify the analysis (Savaidis et al.
2002).
The main objective of this paper is to present a technique for the fatigue life prediction of
different materials using stress and strain based methods with variable amplitude loadings (VAL)
measured from experiments. The application here was a shell structure (pipeline) with infinite length
affected by cyclic internal pressure analyzed using finite element approach (FEA). The selection of the
material depends mainly on the design and the application of it, which has a direct effect on the life of
the material’s components. The analysis showed different fatigue life prediction through stress-life and
strain-life curves under the same VAL for three types of low and medium carbon steel materials
(ASTM A533, AISI 1020 and AISI 4340). There are many factors affected the life prediction, some of
them depends on the material such as chemical composition, surface condition, heat treatment etc. The
others depends on the application; i.e., the type of the loads (CAL or VAL) or the surrounding effect
(moisture, percentage of hydrogen etc.). The effect of surface condition was also discussed in this
paper.

2. Theoretical Background
During fatigue testing, the test specimen is subjected to alternating loads until failure. The loads
applied to the specimens were defined by either a constant stress range ( σ r ) or constant stress
amplitude ( σ a ). The stress range and stress amplitude are defined in Equations (1) and (2),
respectively.
σ r = σ max − σ min (1)

σa =
σr
=
(σ max − σ min ) (2)
2 2
where σ max and σ min are the maximum and minimum cyclic stresses respectively.
The magnitude of the stress range or amplitude is the independent variable and the number of
cycles to failure is the dependent variable. Most of the time, S-N fatigue testing is conducted using
fully reversed loading. Fully reversed indicates that loading is alternating about a zero mean stress. The
mean stress and stress ratio are defined as in Equations (3) and (4) respectively
(σ + σ min )
σ m = max (3)
2
σ min
R= (4)
σ max
Equation (5) represents the typical S-N curve:
σa = σ ' f (2 N f )
b
(5)
Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials Under
Variable Amplitude Loading 160

where b is the fatigue strength exponent, and σ ' f is the fatigue strength coefficient. This expression
developed from log-log S-N graphs is the most widely used equation (known as the Basquin relation)
in the stress-based approach to fatigue analysis and design (Julie et al. 1990).
Fatigue life data exhibit widely scattered results due to the inherent micro-structural in
homogeneity in the materials properties, differences in the surface and the test conditions of each
specimen, and other factors. In general, the variance of log life increases as the stress level decreases. It
has been observed that once grains nucleate cracks in a material at high stress levels, these cracks have
a better chance of overcoming the surrounding microstructure. Most of the grains can successfully
nucleate cracks at low stress levels, but only very few of them can overcome the surrounding obstacles
such as orientation, size, and microstructure to grow a crack. As a result of the unavoidable variation in
fatigue data, median S-N fatigue life curves are not sufficient for fatigue analysis and design. The
statistical nature of the fatigue must be considered.
The fatigue damage of a component correlates strongly with the applied stress amplitude or
applied stress range and is also influenced by the mean stress. In the high-cycle fatigue region, normal
mean stresses have a significant effect on fatigue behaviour of components. Normal mean stresses are
responsible for the opening and closing state of micro-cracks. Due to the opening of micro-cracks that
accelerates the rate of crack propagation and the closing of micro-cracks retards the growth of cracks,
tensile normal means stresses are detrimental and compressive normal mean stresses are beneficial in
terms of fatigue strength. The shear mean stress does not influence the opening and closing state of
micro-cracks, and, not surprisingly, has little effect on crack propagation. There is very little or no
effects mean stress on fatigue strength in the low-cycle fatigue region in which the large amounts of
plastic deformation erases any beneficial or detrimental effect of a mean stress. Early empirical models
(Julie et al. 1990) were proposed to compensate for the tensile normal mean stress effects on the high-
cycle fatigue strength.
Gerber (1874) proposed a parabolic representation of Wöhler’s fatigue limit data on a plot of as
shown in Figure 1. Goodman introduced a theoretical line representing the available fatigue data based on
an impact criterion for bridge designs. Goodman justified the use of the impact criterion on a basis that it
was easy, simple to use, and provided a good fit to the data. Haigh (1917) first plotted fatigue data for
brasses on σ a vs. σ m plot. Figure 2 represents the Haigh plot of Gerber and Goodman mean stress
corrections. The ordinate of the Haigh plot is the normalized fatigue limit, and the maximum mean stress
is limited to the ultimate strength σ u . The curve connecting these two points on the two axes represents
combinations of stress amplitudes and means stresses given at the fatigue limit life.

Figure 1: Gerber’s and Goodman’s diagrams for Wöhler’s data.

161 S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah, A. K. Ariffin, N. A. AL-Asady and M. M. Rahman
Figure 2: Haigh’s plot for the Gerber’s and Goodman’s diagram.

Mathematically, the Gerber parabola and the Goodman line in Haigh’s coordinates (Erent et al.
1988) can be expressed as the expressions in Equations (6) and (7). It mentioned about the Gerber’s
mean stress correction, i.e.:
σa
σe = 2
(6)
⎛σ ⎞
1− ⎜ m ⎟
⎝ σu ⎠
and the Goodman’s mean stress correction i.e.:
σa
σe = (7)
σ
1− m
σu
where σ e is the fatigue limit for fully reversed loading, σ a is the stress amplitude and σ m is the mean
stress.
Based on the proposal by Morrow (1968) the relation of the total strain amplitude ( ε a ) and the
fatigue life in reversals to failure (2Nf) can be expressed as in Equation (8).
σ′
E
( ) ( )
ε a = ε ae + ε ap = f 2 N f b + ε ′f 2 N f c (8)
where σ ′f is the fatigue strength coefficient, ε ′f is the fatigue ductility coefficient, b is the fatigue
strength exponent, c is the fatigue ductility exponent, and 2 N f is the fatigue life in reversals. Equation
(8) also known as the strain-life equation is the basic expression for the strain-based approach for
fatigue. This equation is the summation of two separate curves for elastic strain amplitude-life
( ε ae − 2 N f ) and for plastic strain amplitude-life ( ε ap − 2 N f ). Dividing the Basquin Equation (1910) by
the modulus of elasticity gives the equation for the elastic strain amplitude-life curve.
Smith, Watson, and Topper (SWT) (1970) proposed a method that assumes that the amount of
fatigue damage in a cycle is determined by σ max ε a , where σ max is the maximum tensile stress and ε a is
the strain amplitude. The SWT parameter σ a ε a for fully reversed test is equal to σ max ε a for a mean
stress test. Thus this concept can be generalized and expressed in the following mathematical form:
σ max ε a = σ a ,rev ε a, rev σ max > 0 (9)
where σ a ,rev and ε a , rev are the fully reversed stress and strain amplitudes, respectively, that produce an
equivalent fatigue damage due to the SWT parameter. The value of ε a , rev obtained from the strain-life
curve (Equation 8) and the value of σ a ,rev from the cyclic stress-stain curve (Equation 9). The SWT
Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials Under
Variable Amplitude Loading 162

parameter predicts no fatigue damage if the maximum tensile stress becomes zero and negative. When
materials behave ideally and satisfy the compatibility condition (i.e. n′ = b / c and K ′ = σ ′f / (ε ′f ) ),
n′

the maximum tensile stress for fully reversed loading is given by

σ max = σ a = σ ′f (2 N f ) b (10)
Equation (10) multiplying the strain-life equation, then the SWT means stress correction
formula is expressed as follows:
σ max ε a E = (σ ′f ) 2 (2 N f ) 2 b + σ ′f ε ′f E (2 N f ) b + c σ max > 0 (11)

3. Methodology
It is well known that fatigue life predictions, based on the Wöhler curve (Fatemi & Yang 1998) from
the constant amplitude tests, often give large systematic prediction errors for service loads at variable
amplitude. Many refinements of the fatigue damage calculations have been suggested, especially mean
stress corrections, and also crack closure models. The main contribution of this paper is the method for
prediction of the S-N and ε -N curves for different materials with variable amplitude loadings as well
as to study the factors affecting that prediction.
The start of fatigue failure is a strictly local process and it is also one that depends on the
dynamics of the system. The time history of stress or strain, at the exact location where a crack is going
to start, is the critical factor and the general distribution of these parameters throughout the component
is of secondary interest. This is precisely why finite element analysis (FEA) is important in this
discipline. By using FEA an analyst can choose any location within a model and concentrate attention
on it. Using FEA gives tighter control over the move from general geometry and loading to local
parameters, and allows dynamic factors to be dealt with more analytically.
The finite element technique was used for modeling and simulation of the case study of the
shell as a cylinder with infinite length in three-dimension mesh shown in Figure 3. For this purpose,
the Finite Element analysis technique with tetrahedral elements (10 nodes) was being used for the
modeling and simulating based on MSC Nastran/Patran analysis codes. To study the fatigue life
prediction a shell with T/D<0.1 (where T is the thickness and D is the diameter) and L/D>10 (where L
is the length) was analyzed.

Figure 3: Finite element mesh of the shell

163 S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah, A. K. Ariffin, N. A. AL-Asady and M. M. Rahman

Components or structures are subjected to quite diverse load histories, their histories may be
rather simple and repetitive, and at the other extreme they may be completely random. The load using
here are of the second type measured from experimental work.
In this study, the load history is strain signal was measured on a newly designed lab scale
piping system and the fluid tested was water (Loman et al. 2008). The sections measured were for
different pipe surfaces (smooth, rough and corroded) at two different flow rates minimum and
maximum. The strain gauges were used in order to measure the strain signal. The fatigue data
acquisition system, called SOMAT eDAQ (nSoft 2001) was used.
Masing’s assumption (Xinqiang et al. 2004) states that the stress amplitude versus strain
amplitude curve can be described by the cyclic stress-strain curves, meaning
σ ⎛σ ⎞
ε = εe +ε p = +⎜ ' ⎟ 1 ' (12)
E ⎝K ⎠ n
The strain load data in this case study is of maximum flow rate with rough surface shown in
Figure 4, which are used directly to predict ε -N curves, while for S-N curves, it was converted into
stresses using Equation (12).

Figure 4: Strain signal on rough surface pipe with maximum flow

Economic studies have shown that development of oil and gas transportation over long
distances requires the use of steels whose mechanical properties allow to substantially increase the
internal pressure for a given pipe thickness.
In this analysis, different carbon steel (low and medium carbon steel) materials (ASTM A533,
AISI 1020 and AISI 4340) with different mechanical properties are selected, which they are normally
used in manufacturing gas and petroleum pipes due to their relatively excellent mechanical properties
and moderately good weldability. The chemical compositions and mechanical properties at the room
temperature (Metals Handbook 1990; SAE standards 1999) are listed in Table 1 and Table 2
respectively.
Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials Under
Variable Amplitude Loading 164

Table 1: Chemical composition (wt%) of steel materials

Material
Chemical ASTM A533 AISI 1020 AISI 4340
Composition %
Carbon C 0.160 0.170 - 0.230 0.370 - 0.430
Iron Fe 97.376 99.080 - 99.530 96
Manganese Mn 1.150 0.300 - 0.600 0.700
Phosphorous P 0.010 ≤ 0.040 ≤ 0.035
Sulfur S 0.003 ≤ 0.050 ≤ 0.040
Silicon Si 0.200 0.230
Molybdenum Mo 0.200 0.200 - 0.300
Nickel Ni 1.830
Chromium Cr 0.700 - 0.900

Table 2: Mechanical properties of steel materials

Materials
ASTM A533 AISI 1020 AISI 4340
Mechanical Properties
Yield strength [MPa] 670 295 731
Ultimate strength [MPa] 720 395 855
Modulus ofElasticity [GPa] 205 200 205
Hardness [Brinell] 230 111 255
Elongation at Break [%] 28 36.5 21.7

4. Simulation works: Results and Discussion

To understand the evaluation and distribution of cyclic stress and strain fields under cyclic loading
conditions by using the cyclic load history mentioned in Figure 4, as an internal shell pressure. The
linear static analysis was performed using finite element software to determine the stress and strain
results for the model. The results of the maximum principle stresses and strains are used for the
subsequent fatigue life analysis. Figure 5 shows the image of the stress distribution on the shell.

Figure 5: Contour displays of stresses on shell structure.

The normal mean stresses have a significant effect on fatigue behavior of components. Normal
mean stresses are responsible for the opening and closing state of micro-cracks. The effects of the
mean stress on alternating fatigue life, which they are varied from curve (Gerber) to straight line
(Goodman). These effects lead to Gerber approach gives higher predicted life than Goodman approach,
165 S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah, A. K. Ariffin, N. A. AL-Asady and M. M. Rahman

which are shown clearly in Figure 6. These results (S-N curves) for the ASTM A533 steel material,
which are in a good agreement with the results obtained by Liaw et al. (1997).

Figure 6: Stress-Life Curve for ASTM A533 steel material using Goodman and Gerber theories

The effect of using Morrow or SWT correlations in studying crack initiation was used and
shown in Figure 7, which gave small differences in the log life curve, but the SWT formula is as more
promising for use. The two formulas take in to account the effect of mean stress. The inclusion of mean
stress effect in fatigue life prediction methods involving strain-life data is more complex, several
models dealing with mean stress effect on strain-life fatigue behavior.

Figure 7: Strain-Life curves for ASTM A533 steel material using Morrow and SWT theories

The behavior of different low and medium carbon steel materials were studied and shown in
Figure 8. These curves indicate that, high ultimate strength and hardness of medium carbon steel (AISI
4340), also the chemical composition such as chromium, manganese and nickel gives long life greater
by more than 95% compared to AISI 1020 and more than 85% as compare with ASTM A533, but still
ASTM A533 better than AISI 1020 by 80% of the predicted life
Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials Under
Variable Amplitude Loading 166

Figure 8: Stress-life curves for different steel material materials

The strain-life behavior of these materials were also studied and the results shown in Figure 9,
indicate that, the life of the AISI 4340 steel is still the maximum while AISI 1020 gave the minimum
life. As a percentage differences between them, the strain-life given by AISI 4340 is 80% and 70%
greater than AISI 1020 and ASTM A533 respectively, while the last one is greater than AISI 1020 by
65%. This is clear in low strains, while reduced in high strains.

Figure 9: Strain-Life curves for different materials

Since most of fatigue failure originates at the surface, the surface will have a substantial
influence on fatigue behaviour. Surface effects are caused by differences in surface roughness,
microstructure, chemical composition, and residual stresses. Most engineering parts, however, are not
highly polished, and grinding or machining, even if done carefully, will cause degradation in fatigue
strength. To show the effect of various surface finishes on fatigue life of the shell, the material used
here is ASTM A533 with Goodman approach for three types of surface finishing. Figure 10 show the
effect of surface finish on fatigue life of the shell as a comparison between the polished, machined and
hot rolled; the polished surface gave better life at the same stress with others. This is clear at low
stresses, but the differences are so small at high stresses. The polished surface reduced the crack
167 S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah, A. K. Ariffin, N. A. AL-Asady and M. M. Rahman

nucleation and hot rolled cause surface decarburisation, which leads to low strength, while the
machined surface mainly affected by the stress concentration.

Figure 10: Effects of different surface condition on S-N curve of ASTM A533 shell structure using Goodman

5. Summary and Concluding Remarks

The fatigue life of different steel materials using stress and strain based methods with variable
amplitude loadings measured from experiments was discussed using finite element approach. The
application here was a shell structure (pipeline) with infinite length. The analysis showed different
fatigue life prediction through stress-life and strain-life curves under the same VAL for three types of
low and medium carbon steel materials (ASTM A533, AISI 1020 and AISI 4340), taking into account
the effect of mean stress by using Goodman, Gerber, Morrow and SWT theories. The effects of surface
condition (polished, machined and hot rolled) examined in this paper.
The results obtained indicate that, the influence of the mean stress correction is different for the
compressive and the tensile mean stress. The predicted fatigue life appears to be more conservative for
the tensile mean stress than compressive mean stress. It observed that Goodman mean stress correction
method for the stress-life approach gives the most conservative results when the time histories are
predominately tensile mean. However, the Gerber mean stress correction model gives the conservative
results when the time histories predominantly are zero mean. In the majority of the lifetime analysis,
the deformation pattern remains stable and the material stiffness degrades due to the damage
accumulated after each cycle. The fatigue resistance of steel depends more on material strength, the
higher ultimate strength and hardness, the longer life.
The strain-based approach to fatigue problems is widely used at present. An advantage of the
strain-life approach to fatigue life prediction is its ability to account directly for the plastic strains often
present at stress concentrations and can be applied for the treatment of both low-cycle and high-cycle
fatigue. In the low-cycle region the plastic strain component is dominant, whereas in the high-cycle
region the elastic strain component is dominant, therefore, at large strains, better fatigue resistance
depends more on ductility, while at smaller strains it depends more on strength. Morrow accounted for
the effect of the mean stress by modifying the strain-life curve, while the SWT strain-life model, the
damage parameter is taken to be the product of the maximum stress and the strain amplitude of cycle.
For loading sequences that are predominantly tensile the SWT approach is more conservative and
therefore recommended. In a case of the loading being predominantly compressive, particularly for
wholly compressive cycles, the Morrow model provides more realistic life estimates.
Fatigue Life Assessment of Different Steel-Based Shell Materials Under
Variable Amplitude Loading 168

The condition of the surface and the residual surface stress cause by a machining operation are
important criteria to be investigated. Since the fatigue can be associated with the surface phenomenon.
The hot rolling causes surface decarburisation and the loss of atoms from the surface of material
weakens the material strength and may also produce residual tensile stresses. Both of these factors are
really detrimental to fatigue strength. The surface compressive residual stress has the greatest effect on
the fatigue life. It can be concluded that the polished surface finishes provide the unsurpassed results
while the hot rolled provide the minimum life.
For future work need to focus on the another group of materials grades X80, X100 and X120,
to develop their mechanical behavior to be characterized both in terms of plastic behavior and crack
growth resistance. In particular resistance to ductile crack initiation and longitudinal propagation to be
evaluated and assess the high-grade pipelines structural integrity. Also more calculation needs to be
done to optimize thickness of the shell with respect to loading and material.

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