Chemistry Stage 6

9.3 The Acidic Environment

1. Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some flowers depends on soil
composition
1.2.1 classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral
Acidic substances: vinegar, lemon juice, aspirin, vitamin C, car batteries, rust converters
Basic substances: washing soda, antacid tables, oven and drain cleaners, garden lime
Neutral substances: water
1.2.2 identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and bromothymol blue can be used
to determine the acidic or basic nature of a material over a range, and that the range is identified by change in
indicator colour

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An indicator is a substance (usually a vegetable dye) which in solution changes colour depending on
whether the solution is acidic or alkaline. The range of the indicator is identified by a change in the
indicator colour.

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1.2.3 identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the testing of soil acidity/basicity
Indicators are used for:
Ÿ testing the acidity/basicity of soils (due to some plants needing specific soil)

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Ÿ testing home swimming pools (need to be approximately neutral)
Ÿ monitoring wastes from photographic processing (must be nearly neutral: photographic solutions
often basic) m
1.3.1 perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator
A natural indicator was prepared from red cabbage. The leaves were chopped up and mashed using a mortar
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and pestle in the presence of water and ethanol. The solution was then distilled to a higher purity. A few drops
of the cabbage dye were added to a range of solutions.
Solution Colour
Water Purple
Acidic Red
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Alkaline Yellow/Green
1.3.2 identify data and choose resources to gather information about the colour changes of a range of indicators
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Indicator Highly Slightly Neutral Slightly Highly

acidic acidic alkaline alkaline
Methyl orange red -----> yellow yellow yellow yellow
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Bromothymol blue yellow yellow -----> blue blue

Litmus red red -----> blue blue
Phenolphthalein colourless colourless colourless colourless -----> red
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1.3.3 solve problems by applying information about the colour changes of indicators to classify some household
substances as acidic, neutral or basic
Household substance Nature
Water Neutral
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Vinegar Acidic
Lemon juices Acidic
Car batteries Acidic
Ammonia Basic
Drain cleaner Basic
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides
of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing since the
Industrial Revolution
2.2.1 identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under which they act as acids
Acidic oxides react with water to form acids or react with bases to form salts.
Basic oxides react with acids to form salt, but does not react with alkali solutions
Acidic oxides Basic oxides
CO2 Na2O
NO2 MgO

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P2O3 CaO
SO2 Fe2O3
2.2.2 analyse the position of these nonmetals in the Periodic Table and outline the relationship between position
of elements in the Periodic Table and acidity/basicity of oxides

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Basic oxides are oxides of metals (ionic compounds); generally towards the left of the Periodic Table.
Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals (covalent compounds); generally towards the right of the Periodic
Table.

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2.2.3 define Le Chatelier’s principle
Le Chatelie'rs principle states that: "if a system at equilibrium is subjected to stress, the equilibrium will
be displaced in such a direction to relieve the stress"
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2.2.4 identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
The factors that can affect equilibrium are: concentration, pressure and temperature
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2.2.5 describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions as an equilibrium process and
explain in terms of Le Chatelier’s principle

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) l H2CO3 (aq)

As pressure increases, solubility increases and pushes the equilibrium to the right.
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As temperature increases, solubility increases as this is an exothermic reaction, so the equilibrium will
move to the left.
Addition of nitrogen or argon gas will not affect equilibrium, as they will not change the pressure of the
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system.
Adding hydroxide ions can shift the equilibrium to the right or bring it to completion as it removes the
product as it forms
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2.2.6 identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
Sulfur dioxide

Natural sources- geothermal hotsprings, volcanoes, oxidation of H2S during decay of organic matter
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Industrial sources- combustion of fossil fuels, extracting metals from sulfide ores, manufacturing sulfuric
acid and coke from coal, petroleum refining
Oxides of nitrogen
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Natural sources- nitric oxide forms from lightning forcing oxygen and nitrogen gases to combine, nitric
oxide reacts will oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide, nitrous oxide formed from bacteria on nitrogenous
material in soil
Industrial sources- combustion, nitrogenous fertilisers
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
2.2.7 describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide and chemical
reactions which release oxides of nitrogen

S(in compounds) + O2 (g) ---> SO2 (g)

2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) ---> 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)

O2 (g) + N2 (g) ---> 2NO (g)

2NO (g) + O2 (g) ---> 2NO2 (g)

2.2.8 assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen

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Obtaining reliable information about atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen is difficult,
as they are constantly washed out of the atmosphere by rain. Thus there is a lack of reliable data for
periods before 1950. However, the general trend indicates increasing amounts of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen in the atmosphere. Ice core samples from Antarctica show the atmospheric gasses trapped in

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the ice over hundreds of years.
2.2.9 calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in reactions, and calculate masses of
substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0°C and 100kPa or 25°C and 100kPa

n = cv and n = m
Use the formulae:

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mm

2.2.10 explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Acid rain is formed by the high emission of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. The
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pollutants are converted into sulfuric and nitric acids which dissolve into the rain as described below:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) ---> H2SO4 (aq)

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2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) ---> HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

2.3.1 identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to decarbonate soft drink and gather data to
measure the mass changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25°C and 100kPa
Soft drink was measured before opening on a beam balance. It was then heated using a water bath,
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using the thermometer as a guide. Litmus paper was used to determine if CO2 was being released.
This is known as decarbonating the soft drink. After cooling, the can and its contents were then
weighed again on the beam balance.
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Calculations:
Ÿ Calculate the molar mass of carbon dioxide; approx 44
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= m
Ÿ Determine the number of moles released by using the formulan mm

Ÿ Multiply the number of moles by the volume of gas constant

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2.3.2 analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of the above gases and
evaluate reasons for concern about their release into the environment
The gases sulfur and nitrogen dioxide cause concern about their release into the environment, as they
potentially could cause acid rain. Effects of acid rain include:
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Ÿ increased acidity of lakes- can kill the organisms in the lake

Ÿ damage to pine forests

Ÿ damage/erosion to marble and limestone building surfaces

 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
3. Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomachs
3.2.1 define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water

Acids in solution produces protons H+ or strictly H3O+. The H+ ions attach to water molecules in the
ionisation reaction eg.

HNO3 (l) + H2O (l) ---> H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

3.2.2 identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and
sulfuric acid

Acetic acid (CH3-COOH) is present in vinegar

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Citric acid (C6H8O7) is found in citrus fruits.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is found in the stomach of the human body.

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is manufactured.

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3.2.3 describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases
pH can determine if a substance is acidic or basic, a pH<7 indicates acidity, pH>7 indicates basicity
and pH=7 indicates neutrality

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3.2.4 describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong, weak, concentrated and
dilute

A strong acid is one in which all the acid present in solution has ionised to form H+; no neutral ions
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present.
A weak acid is one in which some of the acid present in solution has ionised to form H+
A concentrated solution is one in which the total concentration of solute species is high.
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A dilute solution is one in which the total concentration of solute species is low.

3.2.5 identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+]
As pH is a negative log, an increase in the concentration of hydronium ions means a decrease in pH.
As it is a log, a change of pH in 1 means a ten-fold change in concentration of protons.
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3.2.6 compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and explain
in terms of the degree of ionisation of their molecules
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Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, this means that the degree of ionisation of their molecules is 100%;
all the molecules are ionised. Acetic and citric acid do not dissociate as much in solution, therefore
they are weak acids.
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3.2.7 describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an equilibrium between the intact
molecule and its ions
A strong acid when placed in solution is not a reversible reaction. this is because there are no intact
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molecules left and they have all become ions. However, a weak acid when placed in solution is
reversible and it will eventually reach equilibrium where there are some intact molecules and some ions,
depending on the strength of the acid.
3.3.1 solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH meters/probes and indicators to distinguish
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between acidic, basic and neutral chemicals

pH meters were used to distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral chemicals:
ph<7- acidic
pH=7- neutral
pH>7- basic
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
3.3.2 plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical concentrations of strong and
weak acids
0.1M concentration solutions were used.
Acid pH Strong or
weak?
HCl ~1 Strong
H2SO4 ~1 Strong
C6H8O7 ~2.5 Weak
CH3-COOH ~2.5 Weak

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3.3.3 gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic equations to represent the ionisation
of acids
Strong acids, when ionised, will always be denoted by a single arrow. Weak acids, however, are
denoted by a reversible arrow; indicating that it will reach equilibrium. For the above acids, the ionisation

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equations are:

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) ---> H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) ---> H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

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C6H8O7 (aq) + H2O (l) l H3O+ (aq) + C6H7O7- (aq)
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) l H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) m
3.3.4 use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and simulate the ionisation of strong and
weak acids
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3.3.5 gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use of acids as food additives
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Acids are used as food additives such as in soft drinks to produce the "fizzy" taste. Other acids such
as ascorbic acid are necessary for human health, and are thus used as food additives. Acids are also
often used to prevent the development of dangerous pathogens in food, and inhibiting the growth of
bacteria.
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3.3.6 identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify examples of naturally
occurring acids and bases and their chemical composition
Acids:
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Acetic acid (CH3-COOH)

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Vitamin C- ascorbic acid (C6H8O6)
Bases:
Calcium carbonate- CaCO3
Sodium Hydroxide- NaOH
3.3.7 process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong acids given appropriate hydrogen ion
concentrations
Use the formula: pH = -log10 [H+]
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used and studied for hundreds of
years. Over time, the definitions of acid and base have been refined
4.2.1 outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:
- Lavoisier
- Davy
- Arrhenius
Laviosier:
Ÿ proposed that acids were substances that contained oxygen

Ÿ non-metal oxides reacted with water to form acidic solution

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Davy:
Ÿ suggested that acids contained replaceable hydrogen, which could be partially or totally replaced by
metals

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Arrhenius:
Ÿ proposed that acids were substances which ionised in solution to produce hydrogen ions as the
only positive ion in solution
Ÿ

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bases produced hydroxide ions as the only negative ion in solution

Ÿ acids were strong if completely ionised, weak if slightly ionised

4.2.2 outline the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

The Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases states:
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Ÿ An acid is a substance which when in solution donates a proton
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Ÿ A base is a substance which when in solution accepts a proton

4.2.3 describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its conjugate acid
Acids give up protons to form its conjugate base, while a base gives up protons to form its conjugate
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acid. The conjugate base of a strong acid is extremely weak, as it will not react with water, as dictated
by the non-reversable arrow in the ionisation reaction. The conjugate base of a weak acid is a weak
base as it can still react with water.
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4.2.4 identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or
basic nature
Salt Nature Explanation
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Sodium hydrogen sulfate Acidic HSO4- ion produces H+

(NaHSO4)
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) Acidic NH4+ is the conjugate acid of
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the weak base (ammonia)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) Neutral
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) Neutral
Potassium nitrite (KNO2) Basic NO2- ion is the conjugate base
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of the acid (KNO2)

Acetic acid (CH3-COOH) Basic Acetate ion is the conjugate
base of acetic acid, so it
accepts hydroxide ions
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
4.2.5 identify conjugate acid/base pairs
Strength Acid Base
Strong H2SO4 HSO4-
HCl -
Cl
Weak CH3COOH CH3COO-
H2CO3 HCO3-
NH4+ NH3
HSO4- SO42-
Very weak H2O OH-

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4.2.6 identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their behaviour in acidic and basic
solutions
Amphiprotic substances are ones which can accept protons or donate them, depending on the
conditions eg. hydrogen carbonate when placed in water

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HCO3- (aq) + H2O (l) l H3O+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)
HCO3- (aq) + H2O (l) l H2CO3 (aq) + OH- (aq)

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When hydrogen carbonate is placed into a basic solution, it acts as an acid:

HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq) ---> H2O (l) + + CO32- (aq)

When placed in acidic solution, it acts as a base:

HCO3- (aq) + H+ (aq) ---> H2CO3 (aq)

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4.2.7 identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic
Neutralisation is a proton transfer reaction in which a acid and a base react to form salt and water.
acid + base ---> salt + H2O + heat
4.2.8 describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard solutions
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Conducting titrations:
Ÿ Burette rinsed with solution A
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Ÿ Burette filled with solution A of known concentration to the zero mark

Ÿ Conical flask rinsed with distilled water

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Ÿ Rinse pipette with solution B

Ÿ Conical flask filled with some of solution B by using rinsed pipette

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Ÿ Titration of reaction with solutions A and B, until indicator changes colour

Preparation of standard solutions:

Ÿ using a pure and dry substance (Na2CO3 is common standard base: pure, stable and water-soluble)
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Ÿ Weigh the substance

Ÿ Rinse volumetric flask with distilled water

Ÿ All solute (substance) transferred to volumetric flask

Ÿ Small amount of water to dissolve solute

Ÿ Fill volumetric flask up to the graduation mark

 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment

4.2.9 qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a natural system
Buffers can resist changes in pH when significant amounts of a strong acid or strong base is added to it.
The blood in the human body has a complicated buffer system to prevent remarked changes in pH.

HbH+ (aq) + O2 (aq) l HbO2 (aq) + H+ (aq)

Hb (aq) + H3O+ (aq) l HHb+ (aq) + H2O (l)
In addition to this haemoglobin buffer system, the H2CO3-HCO3- system is also used in the blood.
4.3.1 gather and process information from secondary sources to trace developments in understanding and

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describing acid/base reactions
The theories regarding acids and bases as proposed by Laviosier, Davy and Arrhenius was due to their
observations regarding acid/base reactions. Lewis also proposed his theory regarding acids and bases:
bases donate electron pairs and acids accept electron pairs.

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4.3.2 choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the pH of a range of salt solutions
pH paper and pH meters were used to identify the pH.

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Salt pH
Calcium hydrogen orthophosphate 8
Sodium orthophosphate 11
Antacid m 8
Calcium carbonate 8
4.3.3 perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations and including the preparation of
standard solutions, and use available evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively describe the reaction between
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selected acids and bases
Titrations and preparation of standard solutions were conducted by follow the conventional rules strictly.
Generally, the titrations involved a reaction between a acid and a base, and the indicator phenolphthalein
was used as an indicator for the end point of the neutralisation reaction.
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4.3.4 perform a first-hand investigation to determine the concentration of a domestic acidic substance
The concentration of acetic acid in vinegar can be determined by titrations. By titrating against 0.20M
NaOH against 10mL vinegar, the titrations were repeated until the results agreed to within 0.1mL. The
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reaction for the reaction is:

CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) ---> CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)
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4.3.5 analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation reactions as a safety
measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills
Neutralisation is often used for safety in laboratories and factories where acids and bases are used.
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Since often these substances can be extremely corrosive, it is important to neutralise the spills.
Sodium carbonate is often used to neutralise spills because:
Ÿ it is amphiprotic

Ÿ stable solid, easily and safely handled and stored

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Ÿ cheapest alkali available

Ÿ excess use does not pose problems like those found with using NaOH
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment

5. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed in the laboratory

5.2.1 describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in carbon compounds
Alcohols are compounds which contains a OH group attached to a C atom that only has C or H atoms
attached to it, regardless of what else is in the molecule. Alkanols are formed by replacing a H atom
with a OH group from its parent alkane. The general formula for alkanols is CnH2n+1OH
Alkanoic acids have a COOH functional group. The general formula is R-COOH where R is the alkyl
group and the COOH is a carboxylic group.
5.2.2 identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by reactions of straight-chained

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alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained primary alkanols from C1 to C8
The products are dictated by the following equation:
alkanoic acid + alkanol ---> alk(alkanol)yl alk(acid)anoates
eg. ethanoic acid + propanol ---> propyl ethanoate

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The same stem names are used for naming the ester.
5.2.3 explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained alkanoic acid and
straight-chained primary alkanol structures

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C-O and O-H bonds are polar; meaning that alkanols are polar molecules. The C=O bond is also polar,
and the presence of these three polar bonds makes the alkanoic acid extremely polar. The OH bonds
also form hydrogen bonding. The stronger intermolecular forces in alkanols and alkanoic acids account
for the higher boiling points of alkanoic acids and alkanols of similar molecular weight.
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5.2.4 identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe, using equations,
examples of esterification
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Esterification is the process in which a acid (usually alkanoic acid) and a alkanol react.
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5.2.5 describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis

Because esterification is relatively slow are room temperature and reaches equilibrium rather than
completion, catalysts are used to speed up the reaction. H2SO4 is often used as a catalyst because it
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absorbs the water produced and by Le Chatelier’s principle, forces the equilibrium to the right.
 Chemistry Stage 6
9.3 The Acidic Environment
5.2.6 explain the need for refluxing during esterification
Esterification is often carried out at a temperature near the boiling point of the alcohol to speed up the
reaction. Refluxing is the process of heating a reaction mixture in a vessel with a cooling condenser
attached in order to prevent loss of any volatile reactant or product. Refluxing is used to prevent the loss
of the alcohol and eliminates the need for the reaction to be performed in a close vessel which could
lead to a build up in pressure (explosion).
5.2.7 outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters
Esters are commonly used due to their pleasant, fruity odours. They can be used as artificial flavours
as they are cheaper than natural extracts and represent little health hazards. Artificially synthesised
odours are also used as perfumes, cosmetics and aromas. Ethyl acetate is widely used as a solvent in

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nail polish remover.
5.3.1 identify data, plan select equipment and perform a first hand investigation to prepare an ester using reflux
An ester was prepared using butyric acid and 1-propanol under reflux. By separating it in a separating

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funnel using sodium carbonate, it could be extracted from the mixture. It had a strong associated smell.
5.3.2 process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the uses of esters as flavours and
perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics
Esters are used as glycerols for fats and oils in margarine and fats. Often esters are used as flavours in

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processed foods. They are also used in cosmetics and soaps.

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