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A
SEMINAR REPORT
ON
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Modelling Air Pollution due to Road Traffic
ABSTRACT
The Transportation system in cities has become one of the most important
infrastructure facilities for achieving the high standard of living of people. But, in recent
years, the enormous growth of vehicle population has created many problems by its side
effects to the environment and to human. Vehicle emissions are becoming the main
culprit for causing more health hazards.
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CONTENTS
Page No
Chapter-1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Need for the study 2
1.3 Objectives of the study 2
1.4 Definition of Air Pollution 3
1.5 Sources of Air Pollution 3
1.6 Effects of Air Pollution 7
4.1 General 20
4.2 Deterministic Models 21
4.3 Statistical Models 23
Chapter-6 Summary 27
References 28
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Table Page
Description
No. No.
Classification of Anthropogenic Air Pollution Sources
1.1. 5
Air Pollution Damage to Various Materials
1.2 12
Pollutant Analysers Used to Monitor Each Pollutant
3.1 18
Fig5.1 Suggested Methodology for Air Pollution Modelling
26
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 General
Air pollution is a major threat in the present century. Every human
being needs fresh air for his survival. It’s a prime need too. Due to the increase of number
of vehicles and industries, air is becoming more and more polluted. As the degree of
urbanization increases, it definitely causes harm to the environment. Developments in
terms of more industrialization and vehicular growth lead to harm the environment. Air
pollution is the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as
dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour in quantities, of characteristics and of
duration such as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property.
In both developed and rapidly industrializing countries, the major
historic air pollution problem has typically been high levels of smoke and sulphur dioxide
arising for the combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and
industrial purpose. But rapid growth of urbanization has ruled in sharp rise of automobile
population on metropolitan roads and as a result major threat to clean air is now posed by
traffic emissions.
In rapidly urbanization country, like India, the transportation sector is
growing rapidly and the number of vehicles in Indian roads in increasing at a rate more
than 7% per annum. During the period of 50 years, from 1951 to 2001, the number of
vehicles increased from 3 lakhs to 430 lakhs, i.e., an increase of almost 143 times.
According to a study, cars and two-wheelers contribute to 11 percent and 78 percent of
the total air pollution and vehicles are responsible for around 64 percent of the total air
pollution load. This alarming increase in the pollution in our cities has been primarily
responsible for most of the respiratory problems in the Indian metropolitan cities.
As road transport is one of the sectors showing most rapid growth, and
it is particularly important to pay proper attention to the pollution problems of vehicle
exhaust gases. These emissions include some that are known to be toxic when absorbed
into the body at high concentrations. Increasing amounts of potentially harmful gases and
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particles are being emitted into the atmosphere on a global scale, resulting in damage to
human health and the environment. It is damaging the resources needed for the long-term
development of the planet. Hence, it is needed to develop echo friendly systems by
controlling the exhausts that causes harm to environment.
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1.5.1 Classification I
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Usually they are divided into two categories of primary sources and
secondary sources.
a. Primary Sources: Primary sources also called as natural sources. Natural process such
as forest fires, decaying vegetation dust storms, and volcanic eruptions result in air
pollution.
Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly from the sources. Pollutants
included under this category are particulate matter such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist
and spray; Inorganic gases such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, nitric oxide,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons.
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1.5.2 Classification II
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a. Line Sources: Line sources reflect the contribution of mobile sources of pollutants.
The predominant line sources are road traffic, although aircraft, shipping and railways
can in certain circumstances represent significant line sources.
b. Point Sources: Point sources are composed of industrial sources, the processes of
which are regulated by the Environment Agency and local authorities respectively.
c. Area Sources: Other Sources, which may singly have relatively small contribution,
still warrant inclusion because collectively they are significant. Such sources include
emissions from domestic central heating or contributions from smaller roads.
a. Exhaust emissions: A significant proportion of the hydrocarbons come from the fuel
tank, the carburetor and the crankcase, but the exhaust gases are the major source of
pollutants. In addition to these air-borne pollutants there is a quantity of dust produced
from the gradual wearing away of the rubber tyres, brake linings, and clutch plates of the
vehicle. Incomplete combustion and oxidation leads to the emissions of exhaust gases.
About 65-70% occurs by exhaust emissions Exhaust gases includes water vapour (not
considered to be a pollutant), carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, lead
compounds, hydro carbons, sulphur dioxide, carbon particles (smoke). Except for lead,
which is confined to petrol, petrol engines and diesel engines produce similar materials in
their exhausts, although the relative proportions are very different. The emission rates
also vary considerably with the operating mode; i.e., idling, accelerating, cruising, or
decelerating.
b. Crank case emissions: About 20% of total HC occurs through blow by gases from
crank case emissions. Emissions of HC from crank case of automobiles can be largely
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eliminated by the positive crank case ventilation (PCV) system. This system recycles
crank case ventilation air and blow by gases to the engine intake instead of venting them
to the atmosphere.
c. Evaporative emissions: These emissions contain only hydrocarbons. These are due to
evaporation from fuel tank and carburetor. It contributes to about 15% of total
hydrocarbons. Evaporative emissions can be eliminated by storing fuel vaporous in
crankcase, which absorbs HC for recycling to the engine.
a. Sulphur dioxide: The most important oxide emitted by pollution sources is sulphur
dioxide (SO2). Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a characteristic, sharp, pungent
odour. It is an acidic gas which combines with water vapour in the atmosphere to produce
acid rain. These gases are formed when fossil fuels containing sulphur are burned. The
principal source of this gas is power stations. Major sulphur dioxide problems tend to
occur in cities in which coal is still widely used for domestic heating, in industry, and in
power stations. As many power stations are now located away from urban areas, SO2
emissions may affect air quality in both rural and urban areas. It is oxidized slowly in
clean air to sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide is generally emitted along with SO2, at
about 1-5 percent of the SO2 concentration.
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Health effects: Even moderate concentrations may result in a fall in lung function in
asthmatics. Tightness in the chest and coughing occur at high levels, and lung function of
asthmatics may be impaired to the extent that medical help is required. Sulphur dioxide
pollution is considered more harmful when particulate and other pollution concentrations
are high.
b. Carbon monoxide: It constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere.
CO is colourless, odourless, and tasteless and has a boiling point of -1920C. It is a toxic
gas, which is emitted into the atmosphere as a result of combustion processes, and is also
formed by the oxidation of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. It has a strong
affinity towards the hemoglobin of the bloodstream and is a dangerous asphyxiates. The
rate of oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere seems to be
very slow. Carbon monoxide is present in small concentrations (0.1ppm) in the natural
atmosphere and has a residence time of about six months. In urban areas, CO is produced
almost entirely (90%) from road traffic emissions.
Health effects: This gas prevents the normal transport of oxygen by the blood. This can
lead to a significant reduction in the supply of oxygen to the heart, particularly in people
suffering from heart disease.
c. Oxides of Nitrogen: Nitrogen oxides are formed during high temperature combustion
processes from the oxidation of nitrogen in the air or fuel. The principal source of
nitrogen oxides - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), collectively known as
NOx - is road traffic. NO and NO2 concentrations are therefore greatest in urban areas
where traffic is heaviest. Other important sources are power stations, heating plants and
industrial processes.
Nitrous oxide is a colourless, odourless nontoxic gas present in the natural atmosphere in
relatively large concentrations (0.25ppm). The major source of NO2 in the atmosphere is
the biological activity of the soil.
Nitric oxide is a colourless, odourless gas produced largely by fuel combustion. It is
oxidized to NO2 in a polluted atmosphere through photochemical secondary reactions.
Nitrogen dioxide is a brown pungent gas with an irritating odour, which can be detected
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d. Hydrocarbons: The gaseous and volatile liquid hydrocarbons are of particular interest
as air pollutants. Hydrocarbons can be saturated or unsaturated, branched or straight-
chain, or can have a ring structure. The hydrocarbons in the air by themselves alone cause
no harmful effects. They are of concern because the hydrocarbons undergo chemical
reactions in the presence of sunlight and nitrogen oxides forming photochemical oxidants
of which the predominant one is ozone.
e. Lead: Particulate lead in air results from activities such as fossil fuel combustion
(including vehicles), metal processing industries and waste incineration. As tetraethyl
lead, it has been used for many years as an additive in petrol; most airborne emissions of
lead in Europe therefore originate from petrol-engine motor vehicles. With the increasing
use of unleaded petrol, however, emissions and concentrations in air have declined
steadily in recent years.
Health effects: Even small amounts of lead can be harmful, especially to infants and
young children. Exposure has also been linked to impaired mental function, visual-motor
performance and neurological damage in children, and memory and attention span.
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could be further oxidized or may react chemically with the environment. Particulates may
be classified as Dust, Smoke, Fumes, Mist, Fog, and Aerosol. PM10 particles (the
fraction of particulates in air of very small size (<10 µm)) are of major current concern,
as they are small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and so potentially pose
significant health risks. The principal source of airborne PM10 matter in European cities
is road traffic emissions, particularly from diesel vehicles.
Health effects: Fine particles can be carried deep into the lungs where they can cause
inflammation and a worsening of the condition of people with heart and lung diseases. In
addition, they may carry surface-absorbed carcinogenic compounds into the lungs.
g. Ozone: Ground-level ozone (O3), unlike other pollutants mentioned, is not emitted
directly into the atmosphere, but is a secondary pollutant produced by reaction between
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrocarbons and sunlight. Ozone levels are not as high in urban
areas (where high levels of NO are emitted from vehicles) as in rural areas. Sunlight
provides the energy to initiate ozone formation; consequently, high levels of ozone are
generally observed during hot, still sunny, summertime weather.
Health effects: Ozone irritates the airways of the lungs, increasing the symptoms of
those suffering from asthma and lung diseases.
h. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): VOCs are released in vehicle exhaust gases
either as unburned fuels or as combustion products, and are also emitted by the
evaporation of solvents and motor fuels.
Benzene is a VOC, which is a minor constituent of petrol. The main sources of benzene
in the atmosphere in Europe are the distribution and combustion of petrol. Of these,
combustion by petrol vehicles is the single biggest source (70% of total emissions).
1,3-butadiene, like benzene, is a VOC emitted into the atmosphere principally from fuel
combustion of petrol and diesel vehicles.
Health effects: Possible chronic health effects include cancer, central nervous system
disorders, liver and kidney damage, reproductive disorders, and birth defects.
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b. Effect of air pollution on vegetation: Normal air contains a myriad of gaseous and
particulate components. In addition to the principle components nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon monoxide, the air contains an array of chemicals that can be considered as air
pollutants. Air pollution has an adverse effect on plants. Industrial pollution, particularly
from smelters, causes destruction of vegetation. Pollutants from road vehicles also have
an adverse impact on air pollution. Necrosis, Chlorosis, Abscission, Epinasty, suppressed
growth etc are the effects on plants due to pollutants.
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Principal air
Materials Effects
Pollutants
Textiles and SO2, acid gases and Deterioration, reduced tensile strength, and
textiles dyes NO2, Ozone fading
Chapter 2
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Literature Review
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Air quality also depends upon the environmental factors such as the
ambient air temperature, humidity, wind speed and wind direction etc. The motor vehicle
exhaust emissions are strongly sensitive to ambient temperature. In cold climate they
exhaust more emissions. Wind speed and direction will not influence the emissions from
vehicles. But they are very useful for air quality modeling. As the wind speed increases
the rate of dispersion will be increased, which results in the reduction of pollution
concentrations. Similarly wind direction also plays an important role in the pollutant
concentration reduction.
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2.2.1 General
During the early 1970 s, several highway dispersion models, mostly
Gaussian based (HIWAY 1 and CALINE 1 and 2) were developed to carry out prediction
estimates of vehicular pollutants near the roads and highways as part of the
environmental impact analysis process as per the requirements of various regulatory
agencies. These models were suitable primarily for rural, flat terrain under homogeneous
traffic conditions. However, limitations of these models (earlier versions) to account for
enhanced dispersion due to vehicle wakes and vehicle generated turbulence has lead to
significant variation in observed and actual field values particularly under strong unstable
and stable conditions at distances few meters away from the road edges.
These controlled dispersion studies, supplemented through several model
performance evaluation studies have also helped in critically evaluating the prediction
capabilities of these models under varied traffic, meteorological and atmospheric
conditions. Effect of vehicle wakes and turbulence were incorporated in these models
(HIWAY 3 and 4 and CALINE 2 and 3) by enhanced (modified) dispersion parameters
for distances close to the road edges. Vehicular pollution dispersion phenomena in
vehicle wakes and near field was further explained by various numerical modelling
techniques and studies carried out in wind tunnel leading to the development of
ROADWAY model and further improvement in existing highway dispersion models
(CALINE 3 and 4). Various wind tunnel studies have further helped in understanding the
complex dispersion phenomenon in vehicle wakes. Earlier efforts to account for oblique
wind direction and infinite road length assumptions were also taken care of by improved
Gaussian dispersion models like GFLSM (General Finite Line Source Model) and
CALINE 4 models and by developing various empirical models. Several recent studies
have revealed the inability and unreliability of these Gaussian based dispersion models to
predict pollution concentrations under complex urban and heterorganic traffic conditions
for which various other physical, numerical and statistical modelling approaches have
been used in the light of the above, interpretations must be drawn very carefully when
these Gaussian based dispersion models are used to simulate urban conditions.
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Motor vehicles have been closely identified with increasing air pollution
levels in urban centers of the world. Besides substantial CO2 emissions, significant
quantities of CO, HC, NOX , SPM and other air toxins are emitted from these motor
vehicles in the atmosphere, causing serious environmental and health impacts.
In India, 25% of the total energy (of which 98% comes from oil) is
consumed by road sector only. Although gasoline vehicles dominate (approximately
85%) the vehicular population, the consumption of diesel is six times more than the
consumption of gasoline (petrol). A gradual shift in passenger and freight movement
from rail to road-based transportation has also lead to marked increase in fuel
consumption by the road sector. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities of India are
estimated to account for 70% of CO, 50% of HC, 30%-40% of NO X , 30% of SPM and
10% of SO2 of the total pollution load of these cities, of which two third is contributed by
two wheelers alone. These high level of pollutants are mainly responsible for respiratory
and other air pollution related ailments including lung cancer, asthma etc which is
significantly higher than the national average. Several laws have been enacted in India to
control vehicular pollution, however, their implementation cannot be considered
satisfactory. Recently, the central government, various state governments and other
regulatory agencies have taken several initiatives to control and reduce the vehicular
emissions. The Supreme Court of India has also played an important and active role by its
landmark judgements forcing concerned agencies to take necessary actions to control the
nuisance of vehicular pollution in India. Although at present, most of these vehicular
pollution reduction strategies are confined to major metros only, however, they are being
gradually extended to other urban centers also. However, it is still a long way before air
pollution situation of these cities can be considered safe with reference to the ambient air
quality guidelines specified by World Health Organization (WHO) and Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) in India.
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In India various Gaussian based line source models like CALINE 3 and 4,
GM and HIWAY 4 are routinely used to predict the impact of vehicular pollution along
the roads/ highways. Most of these predictions or estimations are carried out a part of
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies. Various Gaussian based line source
dispersion models have been used in India to predict the level of vehicular pollutants near
the roads in the urban atmosphere. Most of these studies and model applications are
confined and related to major metros like Chennai, Mumbai and Delhi only. Munshi and
Patil used ATDL model to estimate SO2 Concentrations in Bombay city and found its
performance to be satisfactory. Luhar and Patil had developed GFLSM model for
vehicular pollution prediction and compared it with GM models by using CO data
monitored near two traffic junctions in Mumbai city. Chary had used GM model to find
out the air pollution status near the major roads in Delhi. Sivacoumar and Thanasekaran
had used GFLSM developed by Luhar and Patil and compared its performance with that
of GM model by using air quality data collected near major highway in Chennai. A CRRI
report reported the use of CALINE 4 to assess the impact of vehicular pollution on NH-2
between Delhi and Agra. Earlier, Goyal had compared the line source model developed at
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi (IITLS), with that of HIWAY 2 and CALINE
3 by using air quality data collected at various intersections of Delhi and found IITLS to
be more close to observed values, although on lower side. It was further concluded that
IITLS is more suitable for Indian traffic and meteorological conditions than the other two
models viz HIWAY 2 and CALINE 3. Kumar, et al has carried out source apportionment
study of SPM at two traffic intersections in Mumbai city by using Factor Analysis-
Multiple Regression (FA-MR) technique and concluded that road dust contributed
maximum to the observed SPM concentrations at the traffic intersections followed by the
vehicular sources.
Chapter 3
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Chapter 4
Air Pollution Modelling Techniques
4.1 General
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Road transport is the major source of air pollution in urban areas. It is necessary
to quantify emission levels as accurately as possible, with appropriate spatial and
temporal resolutions. Estimation of emissions from road vehicles is usually calculated
through emission factors dependent of mean speed. The modeling of air pollution
produced by traffic activity has been widely used to develop emission inventories, in the
urban areas (Zachariadas e al 1997; Barth et al 1996). There are different approaches to
obtain spatially and temporally disaggregated traffic information, such as surveys
(Cardelino 1998), transport models (Algers et al 1998), or information on real time
(Reynolds, et al 2000). The main limitation of surveys is that they produce information
limited to a given instant of time and geographic location. Whereas acquisition of
information on real time requires a complex adaptive traffic control system. The more
extended approach corresponds to traffic models, which can simulate complete urban
domains with different levels of spatial and temporal desegregations. The more accurate
the simulation of traffic activity, the better the pollutant emission estimates will be.
Macroscale (characteristic lengths exceeding 1000 km); at this scale, the atmospheric
flow is mainly associated with synoptic phenomena, i.e. the geographical distribution of
pressure systems. Such phenomena are mainly due to large scale inhomogeneties of the
surface energy balance. Global and the majority of regional-to-continental scale
dispersion phenomena are related to macroscale atmospheric processes, for which the
hydrostatic approximation can be considered as valid.
Microscale (characteristic lengths below 1km); in general air flow is very complex at this
scale, as it depends strongly on the detailed surface characteristics (i.e. form of the
buildings, their orientation with regard to the wind direction etc.). Although thermal
effects may contribute to the generation of these flows, they are mainly determined by
hydrodynamic effects (e.g. flow channeling, roughness effects) which have to be
described in an appropriate simulation model.
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Mesoscale (characteristic lengths between 1 and 1000 km); the flow configuration in the
mesoscale depends both on hydrodynamic effects (e.g. flow channeling, roughness
effects) and inhomogeneties of the energy balance mainly due to the spatial variation of
area characteristics (e.g. land use, vegetation, water), but also a consequence of terrain
orientation and slope. From the air pollution point of view , thermal effects are the most
interesting, as they are of particular importance at times of a weak synoptic forcing, i.e.
bad ventilation conditions. As a minimum requirement, mesoscale meteorological models
should be capable of simulating local circulation systems, as for instance sea and land
breezes. Mesoscale atmospheric processes affect primarily local-to-regional scale
dispersion phenomena, for which urban studies are the most important examples. The
description of such phenomena requires, even for practical applications, the utilisation of
fairly complex modelling tools.
Gaussian models have been developed by Pasquill (Pasquill 1961) and Gifford (Gifford
1961). Gaussian plume dispersion model designed to predict ground-level concentrations
(glcs) due to emissions from one or more sources. Sources may be modelled as point,
area or volume sources. The model is generally used in an area of up to a few hundreds of
square kilometers around the sources.
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Gaussian models are mostly employed for simulating the dispersion of non-reactive
pollutants, such as SO2, with flat terrain, distances from the source up to some tens of
kilometers, for short-term intervals (e.g. half an hour or one hour) in order to justify the
hypotheses of stationary conditions. Long-term evaluation can be obtained by using the
so-called climatological versions of the Gaussian models. In these climatological
applications each concentration computed by using the traditional Gaussian expression
weighted by the frequency of occurrence of its corresponding meteorological conditions.
Short-term Gaussian models are ALHOA, CDM, BLP, CRSTER, DIMULA, HIWAY,
ISC, MPTER, PAL, PLUVUEII, and TUPOS etc. In particular CDM, DIMULA and ISC
allow long-term simulations.
1. Continuous emission from the source or emission times equal to or greater than
travel times to the downwind location under consideration, so that the diffusion in the
direction of transport may be neglected.
2. The material diffused is a stable gas or aerosol (less than 20μm diameter) which
remains suspended in the air over long periods of time.
is fulfilled, that is, none of the material is removed from the plume as it moves down
wind and there is complete reflection at the ground.
4. The mean wind direction specifies the x-axis and a mean wind speed
representative of the diffusing layer is chosen.
6. Standard deviations (σ) used to quantify plume spread are consistent with
averaging time of the concentration estimate.
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χ ( x, y , z ) =
Q
exp −
1 exp − 1
+ exp −
1
2πσ xσ y u y 2
2 z − H
2
2 z + H
2
2 σ σ z σ z
y
H= height of emission
u= wind speed
σy,σz= standard deviation of plume concentration distribution across the horizontal and
vertical dimensions of the plume at the downwind distance x.
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Chapter 5
Highway Pollution Modelling Software
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The CALINE-4 model is a fourth-generation line source air quality model. It is based on
the Gaussian diffusion equation and employs a mixing zone concept to characterize
pollutant dispersion over the roadway. Given source strength, meteorology, site geometry
and site characteristics, the model predicts pollutant concentrations for receptors located
within 150 meters of the roadway. The CALINE-4 model allows roadways to be broken
into multiple links that can vary in traffic volume, emission rates, height, width, etc. The
screening form of the CALINE-4 model calculates the local hourly–averaged
contribution of nearby roads to the total concentration.
Input requirement for CALINE 4: CALINE 4 highway dispersion model requires the
following data as input:
• Traffic parameters: Traffic volume (hourly and peak), traffic composition (two
wheelers, three wheelers, cars, buses, goods vehicle etc.), type of the fuel used by
each category of vehicles, fuel quality, average speed of the vehicles.
• Meteorological parameters: Wind speed, Wind direction, stability class, mixing
height
• Emission parameters: Expressed in grams /distance travelled. It is different for
different categories of vehicles and is a function of type of the vehicle, fuel used,
average speed of the vehicle and engine condition etc.
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• Road geometry: Road width, median width, length and orientation of the road,
number and length of each links
• Type of the terrain: Urban or rural, flat or hilly
• Background concentration of pollutants
• Receptor location
The suggested study methodology is presented in figure 5.1 in the of flow chart form
. Identification of
Air Pollution
Parameters (CO,
NOx, SOx, SPM)
Identification of
Study area and
Survey Locations
Design of Data
Collection Sheets
Field Studies
Traffic Factors
Road Characteristics
Temperature & Humidity
Pollution concentrations
(CO, NO2, SO2, SPM)
Chapter 6
Summary
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Air pollution is becoming a major environmental problem. Even though various sources
of air pollution are there, among them vehicular exhausts are becoming major
contributors for the air pollution. In urban areas air pollution is produced largely by
motor vehicles.
Transport’s contribution to urban air pollution is a serious and growing issue because:
• Transport or mobile sources contribute the majority of most pollutants in urban
areas, particularly when viewed in terms of human exposure.
• Transport contributes the vast majority of increases in levels of urban air
pollution, and
The rapidly increasing vehicular traffic is a major contributor to air
pollution. Among the vehicular exhausts, Particulate Matter, Carbon Monoxide, Oxides
of sulphur are the main culprits for causing health and environmental hazards.
Air pollutants cause adverse health affects if they are present in the air in
sufficient concentrations and for a sufficient length of time. Atmospheric pollutants can
cause a range of effects on human health and the environment, with the severity of effects
often related to the duration of exposure and concentration of the pollutant.
These include:
• Nuisance effects (eg. decreased visibility, odour)
• Acute toxic effects (eg. eye irritations, increased susceptibility to infection)
• Chromic health effects (eg. mutagenic and carcinogenic actions) and
• Environmental effects (eg. material soiling, vegetation damage, corrosion)
The dispersion modeling is used to predict the concentration of pollutant. These are
useful to predict the ambient air quality. For the implementation of effective air pollution
control measures, effective pollution quantification is necessary. Therefore, Models are
necessary for forecasting and planning purposes. The various types of modeling
techniques used for air pollution were discussed. The highway air pollution softwares,
which are now using for vehicular pollution modeling, have also been presented.
References
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