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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2000-01-3546
Dermot O. Mackey
OPTIMUM Power Technology
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
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2000-01-3546
Dermot O. Mackey
OPTIMUM Power Technology
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of VIRTUAL 4-STROKE [4] handles only a single-cylinder temperatures are as follows; intake duct, 200 °C within
engine but is otherwise similar in operation to the the cylinder head and 35 °C beyond it; primary exhaust
professional edition which can handle any number of duct, 250 °C within the cylinder head and 450 °C beyond
cylinders inter-connected, or not, by intake or exhaust it; collector tail pipe and exhaust tail pipes, 400 °C.
ducting.
Combustion within the simulation model 4.0 THE 900 cm3 ENGINE SIMULATED
This is as described in Reference [2] and, in the absence
of precise burn data for this mythical 900 cm3 engine and The simulated performance characteristics
combustion chamber, experimentally-derived data for The overall performance characteristics predicted by the
another 4-valve pent roof chamber is ascribed here within VIRTUAL 4-STROKE [5] simulation are shown in Figs.
the simulation model. The precise data can be found 6-13. They are plotted in both Imperial and SI units to
within this same Reference [2, Ch.4, Fig. 4.10]. widen the relevance of the discussion.
It is assumed within the simulation that the engine will Power output
burn unleaded fuel with an air-fuel ratio of 12.0. Power output is of primary importance in racing engine
design. It can be seen in Fig. 6 that the engine has a
Discharge coefficients within the simulation peak power of 172 bhp (128 kW) phased as required at
This very important issue is well-debated by Blair [2] and 13500 rpm. This corresponds closely with the required
the discharge coefficient, Cd, maps for the valves in this power for the target design seen in Fig. 2. The power
engine are also experimentally-derived from a 4-valve spread is seen to be satisfactorily wide over a 3000 rpm
pent-roof racing engine cylinder head and shown power band with 149 bhp (111 kW) available at 10500
elsewhere [2, Figs. 3.37-3.40] for both directions at the rpm. While there is no dip in the power curve at 11500
intake and exhaust valves. The discharge coefficient rpm, as warned by the empirical intake ramming
maps for the bellmouth or plain ends of pipes at the analysis, it is clear that the power curve does increase
atmosphere or a plenum can be found from the same more steeply after that engine speed.
source [2, Figs. 3.6-3.10].
Torque and brake mean effective pressure (bmep)
Further relevant simulation data This is shown in Figs. 7 and 8. In Fig. 8 the peak torque is
It is assumed that the engine breathes to and from a at 10500 rpm (or below) at 101 Nm (75 ft-lbf) and it can
(static) atmosphere at 1.01325 bar and 25 °C. be observed that there is a torque dip at 11500 rpm
It is also assumed that the in-cylinder surface before rising to a second peak at 12000 rpm.
temperatures are 300, 200 and 150 °C for the cylinder The bmep profile in Fig. 8 naturally mimics the torque
head surface, the piston crown surface, and the cylinder curve, with a peak at 10500 rpm of 14.2 bar before
liner, respectively. A (incomplete) list of the pipe skin yielding a second peak at 12500 rpm of 13.3 bar. At the
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Figure 8. Brake mean effective pressure. Figure 9. Brake specific fuel consumption.
peak power engine speed of 13500 rpm the bmep is at 11500 rpm is seen to be justified, as too is its more
12.70 bar (187.6 lbf/in2) which is almost identical to the optimistic prediction that another ramming peak exists at
target value of 12.8 bar seen and set in Fig. 2. 10000 rpm. Later, in this paper, the pressure (and other)
time histories will be examined to confirm the origins of
Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) the positive tuning events at 13500 rpm and the negative
The bsfc profile for the engine is shown in Fig. 9 and it tuning effects at 11500 rpm.
can be seen that values in the peak power zone are
about 305 g/kWh (0.5 lb/hp.hr). Although this matter has The Charging Efficiency (CE) and Trapping Efficiency
not been aired before it is a fairly important issue as the (TE) show the overall outcome of much of the intake and
races in World Superbike racing are of a not exhaust tuning. It may be recalled that CE is the multiple
inconsiderable length. Most legs, there are two legs of DR and TE and represents the dimensionless mass of
raced each day at any given Championship meeting, last air trapped in the cylinder during each cycle. Hence, as
for about forty minutes. Taking the average power usage the CE profile is relatively flat with a maximum of 1.095
at 60% of maximum, and using the above bsfc figures and a minimum of 1.05, so too must be the profile of the
over a 40 minute period, simple arithmetic yields a total indicated torque. It is clear that the trapping efficiency
fuel consumption of 14 kg (31 lb). Assuming a specific behaviour offsets some of the effects of the poor
gravity for the fuel of 0.8, that implies a possible total fuel ramming at 11500 rpm; here the TE is 100%. However, it
consumption over a 40 minute race of 17.5 litres (3.85
Imp. Gall., 4.6 US gall.). If the brake specific fuel
consumption could be lowered by, for instance, 10%, then
that reduces the potential top hamper of the motorcycle
by 1.4 kg (3 lb) in mass terms and the bulk by 1.75 litres
(0.38 Imp. gall.). Of these two reductions, the bulk is the
more important as the airbox and fuel tank vie for the
same available space within the motorcycle frame and
1.75 litres of space added to the intake airbox plenum
would increase it by 35%, undoubtedly improving the
engine breathing and power performance.
Airflow as Delivery Ratio
This is shown in Fig. 10, together with Charging and
Trapping Efficiency [2]. It can be seen that peak airflow is
indeed at the required speed for peak power at 13500
rpm. Here the Delivery Ratio (DR) is commendably high
at 1.14. The ramming length, allied to the valve geometry
selected, is indeed phased correctly; the empiricism
employed [3] has been most effective in this regard. Its Figure 10. Delivery Ratio and charging efficiencies.
pessimism regarding the trough in the ramming process
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Figure 11. Indicated and pumping mep. Figure 12. Friction mep and Mechanical Efficiency.
deteriorates the CE value at the peak engine speed as The increasing severity of the parasitic losses of pumping
the DR value is 1.14 but the TE value is 0.94. The origins and friction with respect to speed can also be seen in Fig.
of this behaviour can only be observed from the time- 12. Here the Mechanical Efficiency (ME) of the engine is
related events around the cylinder at the significant plotted and it has an almost linear profile of decay with
engine speeds and these are examined later. engine speed. It will be recalled that ME is defined as the
Indicated and pumping mean effective pressure division of bmep by imep. At peak power it is 0.73 which
The indicated mean effective pressure (imep), which is means that 27% of the energy provided to the piston has
directly related to indicated torque, is shown in Fig. 11. been dissipated; but then all such Philistines will attest
The correspondence of the imep profile with that of that if the engine is merely used for racing it is supremely
Charging Efficiency in Fig. 10 and which is explained obvious that 100% has been dissipated!
above as being logical, is now clear. Noise output
The pumping loss (pmep) is recorded as pumping mean Motorcycle racing engines have to meet FIM-dictated
effective pressure in the cylinder over the nominal open noise legislation. The VIRTUAL 4-STROKE simulation
cycle, i.e., from +180 to +540 degrees crankangle, where code [2, 5] predicts the noise level and noise spectra at
0 degrees crankangle is the tdc point during combustion.
The profile of pmep with respect to engine speed is quite
normal for a racing engine where it increases almost
linearly, and quite considerably, with that speed. At
maximum engine speed it consumes some 5.5 % of the
work done on the piston, i.e., the imep.
Friction mep and mechanical efficiency
The characteristics for the engine friction loss, as friction
mean effective pressure (fmep), are an empirical
relationship and the one used can be found elsewhere [2,
Ch.5, Sec.5.3]. It is plotted in Fig. 12 and its assumed
linear characteristic is clear. For this engine it varies from
3.25 bar to 3.95 bar over the speed range. As the brake
mean effective pressure (bmep) is the residue of the
imep after the pumping and friction loss (as pmep and
fmep) are subtracted, the origins of the decaying bmep
profile in Fig. 8, from the relatively flat imep profile in
Fig. 11, are now obvious. Figure 13. Exhaust and intake noise levels.
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Figure 14. Airflow at 11500 and 13500 rpm. Figure 15. Pressures at 13500 rpm.
any point in space beyond the ends of the ducting. The To illustrate this point, the dynamic growth of air flow (as
profile of the intake and exhaust noise is theoretically DR) within cylinder number 1 is plotted in Fig. 14 with
deduced at a microphone location of 1.0 m in free space respect to crankangle at 11500 and at 13500 rpm. They
equidistant from the atmospheric exit of the intake and are only plotted over a relevant crankangle period to
exhaust systems. The values of those noise levels over make more obvious to the reader the DR profiles during
the engine speed range are shown in Fig. 13 and are induction. The valve event timing marks of intake valve
plotted in dB (A scale) units, i.e., as dBa. The exhaust is opening and closure (IO and IC) and exhaust valve
at its most raucous at the lowest engine speed, whereas closure (EC) are marked on the diagram. It should be
the intake system noise increases with engine speed. noted that with symmetrical cylinder timing and identical
Curiously, the engine speed with the lowest intake airflow, piping for each cylinder the behaviour in the other two
i.e., 11500 rpm, is one of the loud zones in the intake cylinders is similar to that in cylinder no.1; this is not
noise profile. always true and can have deleterious effects, e.g., with
asymmetrical cylinder timing events [2, Ch.5, Secs.
The total noise output, i.e., the combined intake and
5.7-8]. In Fig. 14 at 13500 rpm, it can be seen that the
exhaust noise, is also plotted in Fig. 13. It is, of course, a
airflow into the cylinder commences almost as soon as
logarithmic addition procedure.
the intake valve opens. The DR reaches 25% by the time
The simulation does not debate the quality of the noise the exhaust valve closes at 60 °atdc and then rises to a
although it is possible to have the simulation playback the maximum of 1.14 by 40 °abdc and does not deteriorate
exhaust or the intake noise or the total noise spectra. To until the valve closes. On the other hand, at 11500 rpm,
date in World Superbike racing, the vee-twin engines with the incoming airflow commences at tdc, and is
their off-beat note have been the machines to excite the disadvantaged by some 10% at the exhaust valve closing
ears of the enthusiasts. This three-cylinder racing engine point. While the profile apparently recovers in the middle
should easily assume that role, as can be attested by any of the suction stroke, that 10% disadvantage has not
who ever had the good fortune, or are old enough, to been recovered by 40 °abdc with some small backflow
remember Giacomo Agostini and his MV Agusta! evident until the intake valve closes. How do these effects
come about at these engine speeds?
5.0 ENGINE TUNING AT 11500 AND 13500 RPM Pressure diagrams at 13500 and 11500 rpm
In Figs. 15 and 16 are plotted the pressures in the
General cylinder, and in the intake and exhaust ducts near to the
Hinted at by the empiricism, it is shown above by intake and exhaust valves, at 13500 and 11500 rpm,
simulation that the engine breathes easily and is well respectively. The pressure oscillations at 13500 rpm are
tuned at 13500 rpm, but some deterioration of that tuning noticeably more pronounced than at 11500 rpm,
takes place at 11500 rpm. The Delivery Ratio is 1.05 at although the exhaust pressures around tdc in the overlap
11500 rpm but is 1.14 at 13500 rpm; see Fig. 10. The valve period are somewhat similar at both 11500 and
simulation [5] output can be queried at any point 13500 rpm; here the collector pipe system has been
throughout the entire engine and its ducting to provide tuned correctly to provide suction waves of some 0.6-0.7
time-related data for pressure, temperature, mass flow atm to assist with scavenging the cylinder of exhaust gas
rate, charge purity, density, etc., etc. with the intake valves open.
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Figure 17. Gas particle velocities at 13500 rpm. Figure 18. Gas particle velocities at 11500 rpm.
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Figure 19. Charge purities at 13500 rpm. Figure 20. Charge purities at 11500 rpm.
charge right through the relatively small cylinder volume; Temperature at 13500 and 11500 rpm
at +/- 60 degrees either side of tdc the cylinder volume is In Figs. 21 and 22 are plotted the charge temperature in
not much larger than the clearance volume. Naturally, this the cylinder, and in the intake and exhaust ducts near to
exhaust gas extraction and cylinder scavenging process the intake and exhaust valves, at 13500 and 11500 rpm,
comes at a price, namely the reduction of trapping respectively. The plot looks only at the critical valve
efficiency at 13500 rpm as seen in Fig. 10. overlap period.
By contrast, in Fig. 20, at 11500 rpm, the cylinder purity The upshot of the pressure, charge purity and velocity
hovers around zero until tdc, then rises to about 82% at flow effects around the cylinder at these two engine
exhaust valve closure. That amount of exhaust gas is speeds can now be observed in the temperature of the
permanently trapped in the cylinder. The intake system gas which resides in these locations at various junctures
records the exhaust blowback and falls to about 0.8 during this period of engine operation. Simplistically,
before recovering as normal intake flow resumes, the first exhaust gas is ‘hot’ and air is ‘cold’.
inflow of which is the return of that same cylinder gas. In Fig. 21, at 13500 rpm, the local gas temperature in the
The exhaust system sees very little exhaust system intake tract, due to local heat transfer and compression
tuning effect on cylinder scavenging and its fresh charge effects is about 60 °C and then drops as cooler air comes
content barely gets to 4% by exhaust valve closure. This along from the atmospheric end of the intake tract. The
explains the high trapping efficiency at 11500 rpm seen cylinder temperature drops from over 700 °C to about
in Fig. 10.
Figure 21. Temperatures at 13500 rpm. Figure 22. Temperatures at 11500 rpm.
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Figure 26. Individual wave pressures in the tailpipe. Figure 27. Mass flow rates in primary and tailpipe.
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pipe, and hence that cylinder, without sending awkward Exhaust system design
(positive) pressure wave reflections up each primary pipe From the evidence presented, it appears that the design
to interfere with the scavenging process at each cylinder. approach suggested in Reference [2] for the collector-
type exhaust system of a high performance engine has
7.0 CONCLUSIONS fairly wide applicability and can be extended to those
systems which must contain silencers.
The 900 cm3 three-cylinder motorcycle engine
The output data from the simulation indicates that this 8.0 REFERENCES
engine would produce in excess of 170 bhp at 13500 rpm
with a fairly broad power curve, in which case it would be 1. A.A. Boretti, G. Cantore, E. Mattarelli, F. Preziosi,
very competitive in World Superbike racing. The engine is “Experimental and Computational Analysis of a High
quite compact in mass and bulk terms making it an even Performance Motorcycle Engine”, SAE Motorsports
more attractive prospect in this regard. With an in-line Engineering Conference, Dearborn, MI, November
configuration, the engine mass is preferentially located to 1996, SAE 962526.
optimise the weight distribution within the motorcycle by 2. G.P. Blair, “Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke
comparison with vee-engine designs. Engines”, Society of Automotive Engineers, R186,
ISBN 0-7680-0440-3, Warrendale, PA, August 1999.
The empirical design procedures described by Blair [2]
3. G.P. Blair, “Education and Design Software for Four-
for cylinder dimensioning, valve geometry, and the intake Stroke Engines”, Society of Automotive Engineers,
and exhaust systems are shown to be relevant and to R186SW, Warrendale, PA, August 1999.
provide a well-matched initial design prior to further
4. G.P. Blair and OPTIMUM Power Technology,
optimisation with an accurate engine simulation. “VIRTUAL 4-STROKE Engine Simulation Model for
An accurate engine simulation [2, 5] provides invaluable Four-Stroke Engines”, Society of Automotive
design insights into the operational behaviour of the Engineers, R186M, Warrendale, PA, August 1999.
engine at any speed or load, be it about intake ramming, 5. OPTIMUM Power Technology, “VIRTUAL 4-STROKE,
cylinder scavenging, or exhaust collector system Professional Edition”, Internet, www.optimum-
dynamics, etc. Without such insights, the development of power.com.
an ‘unknown’ racing engine by purely experimental
means is a frustrating, time-consuming, expensive, and
potentially fruitless exercise.
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