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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2000-01-3546

Racing Engine Design Options


Investigated by Engine Simulation
Gordon P. Blair
Mechanical Engineering Department
The Queen’s University of Belfast

Dermot O. Mackey
OPTIMUM Power Technology

Reprinted From: Proceedings of the 2000 SAE Motorsports


Engineering Conference & Exposition
(P-361)

Motorsports Engineering Conference & Exposition


Dearborn, Michigan
November 13-16, 2000

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
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2000-01-3546

Racing Engine Design Options Investigated by


Engine Simulation
Gordon P. Blair
Mechanical Engineering Department
The Queen’s University of Belfast

Dermot O. Mackey
OPTIMUM Power Technology

Copyright © 2000 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ABSTRACT according to the rules established by the Fédération


Internationale Motocycliste (FIM), but such was the
The paper discusses the design of a racing motorcycle continuing success of the Ducati that by 1998 all
engine to compete in World Superbike racing. This class machines had a minimum weight set at 162 kg
of motorcycle racing is based on production machines irrespective of the engine type being employed. Some of
with four-stroke engines only. The rules allow three the opposition finally paid Ducati the supreme
engine variants to be used, a 750 cm3 four-cylinder compliment by opting for vee-twin engines for the year
engine, a 1000 cm3 twin-cylinder engine, and a 900 cm3 2000 racing series.
three-cylinder engine. To date only the first two variations During all of this racing, none accepted the challenge to
have been employed but this paper shows that the 900 compete with the third engine variant, namely the 900
cm3 engine has the highest potential power output of the cm3 three-cylinder version, possibly because of the FIM
set. This is demonstrated using engine simulation homologation requirements to have in production a
software and the finest detail of the design of the engine motorcycle fitted with this engine type. Perhaps only
and its ducting are supplied within the discussion. Triumph in England, or Benelli in Italy, come close to
The input data for the engine simulation is provided by satisfying the rules in this regard. Also, it may be that the
empiricism so that the design is initially well-matched several manufacturers competing in World Superbike
from the intake bellmouth to the end of the exhaust racing considered that this engine configuration would be
system. The outcome of this empirical process is non-competitive. If that theory ever existed, the
confirmed by the engine simulation to be a relevant initial discussion in this paper should dispel that opinion.
design procedure. There is no doubt that a vee-twin engine provides the
motorcycle with the narrowest frontal area profile, hence
1.0 INTRODUCTION reducing the aerodynamic drag at high speed. Almost by
definition, an across-the-frame four-cylinder unit has the
The racing in World Superbikes is among the hardest and largest frontal area. Nevertheless, with a (750) vee-four
most closely fought in all of automotive sport and design, as in the RC45 design raced by Honda, there is
provides a spectacle which has enthralled racing very little difference in the frontal area of the vee-twin and
enthusiasts world-wide. It is not too much of an vee-four engine layouts. To put some flesh on this
exaggeration to say that the Italian company of Ducati discussion, the sketch in Fig. 1 is provided. It shows,
has been the most successful over the years, drawn to scale using the cylinder bore dimensions
campaigning a vee-twin engine of firstly 888 cm3, then deduced later and shown in Fig. 2, the basic frontal
with 916, 955 and finally with engines of 995 cm3 profile exhibited by most of the logical cylinder layouts for
capacity. The design of the 955 cm3 variation has already this racing class. While the primary gearbox and the
been presented and debated at an earlier Motorsports camshaft drives are not included in this sketch, Fig. 1, the
Engineering Conference by Boretti [1]* and is discussed basic point regarding aerodynamic drag is well-
in more detail by Blair [2]. In the early days of this racing illustrated. The 750 cm3 in-line four-cylinder unit is the
class, the 1000 cm3 vee-twin enjoyed a weight advantage worst-case drag scenario, the 1000 cm3 vee-twin is the

* Numbers in parentheses indicate References.

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performance with the other machines currently racing. In


recent times, Honda have raced 750 cm3 vee-four and,
now, 1000 cm3 vee-twin machines. Kawasaki and Suzuki
race with 750 cm3 in-line four-cylinder engines. Aprilia
and Ducati use 1000 cm3 vee-twin power units. There are
two ways to conduct this investigation into the potential of
the 900 cm3 engine, either experimentally or purely
theoretically. Until recent times, the former, i.e., by design
based on experience, then building, cutting, trying and
modifying often proved to be a long-drawn out, expensive
and possibly fruitless process but was the only possible
solution. The alternative is to investigate the potential of
this, or any other, design theoretically using an accurate
1D engine simulation code [5]. The word ‘accurate’ is an
essential adjective to use here as an engine simulation
model that is not an absolute predictor could provide
equally confusing output information as the poorly-
conducted experimental approach. The requirements for
simulation model accuracy are clearly spelled out by Blair
[2], such as the employment of non-isentropic
thermodynamics and gas dynamics and particle tracking
throughout the engine and ducting, branched pipe
models which include relevance to inter-pipe junction
angles, multi-zone combustion processes, and the use of
maps of discharge coefficients based on both pressure
ratio and geometry for every type of boundary
encountered within the powerplant envelope. In the
absence of some or all of the above requirements, some
engine simulation engine models need ‘calibration with
experimental data’ to be ‘accurate’. In the design context
being investigated here only the engine concept exists so
such ‘calibration’ is not possible. Hence, an engine
simulation which is ‘absolute’ in its accuracy is essential.
In the theoretical design process which is to be
conducted here, a second requirement is essential. The
need is for the rapid assembly of all relevant data for the
engine simulation, i.e., the data for the engine and
ducting geometry, including that for the valves, which
data in its entirety should be selected so as to be
sufficiently well-matched in order to provide the requisite
Figure 1. Drag profiles of Superbike engine blocks. engine breathing, tuning, and performance
characteristics within the selected engine speed range.
best with the 750 vee-four being very similar, but the 900 The need for this process, and the empiricism to supply
cm3 three-cylinder unit is not hugely worse-off in frontal it, can be found in Reference [2].
area than the vee-four and certainly better-off than the in-
line four-cylinder case. 2.0 THE 900 cm3 THREE-CYLINDER ENGINE
There is no detailed discussion here regarding engine
Target power and cylinder dimensions
mass, but, if one takes the block area profiles for each
The assessment of the potential power output of an
engine as shown in Fig. 1 as being roughly indicative of
engine, including the basic cylinder dimensions to
their potential engine mass and bulk, it is not improbable
accomplish it, is described elsewhere [2, Ch.1, Sec.1.8].
that the 900 cm3 three-cylinder unit could have the lowest
Indeed, one of the engines used in illustration of the
values of any shown there.
assessment technique is, no less than, a 1000 cm3
If there is any future in World Superbike racing for a 900 vee-twin racing motorcycle engine! The theory is
cm3 three-cylinder engine it must have at least equal programmed within a software package [3], and the input

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Figure 2. Engine geometry and performance data.

data to it for the 750 cm3 four-cylinder, 1000 cm3 twin-


cylinder and 900 cm3 three-cylinder engines is illustrated
in Fig. 2. The basic data needed is; total engine capacity;
number of cylinders, bore-stroke ratio; mean piston
speed; and the bmep expected at the engine speed
where peak power is required. These numbers are based
on experience and, apart from the number of cylinders
and the cubic capacity, they are used commonly for the
three candidate engines so as to give relevant
comparisons based on some expectation of equality of
behaviour. The output data from the theory and the
software is also shown in Fig. 2. To the afficianado the
output data for the first two Superbike engines for the
bore, the stroke, and the peak power at the rated engine
speed, will seem familiar.
For the candidate 900 cm3 engine, the output data
establishes the bore, the stroke and an engine speed of Figure 3. Cylinder head geometry and valve locations.
13500 rpm, at which speed it must run and breathe and
burn so as to provide the 12.8 bar bmep (torque) if it is to inter-valve clearance between the exhaust valves; and
attain the 173.5 bhp (129.4 kW) predicted for it. All other the inter-valve clearance between the intake and exhaust
things being equal, if it can do that it will be the winner of valves. The valve size in question is the outer seat
the horsepower race by some 4.4 bhp. In short, it would diameter of each valve. The input data, in mm, in the
not only be competitive, it would be very competitive. above sequence is; 82.5; 1.14; 1.5 and 2.5; 2.4; 5.2; 3.0.
The candidate engine has a bore of 82.5 mm and a The location of the valves in plan view is dimensioned in
stroke of 56 mm. Simplistically, for the simulation analysis Fig. 3. The outer seat of an exhaust valve is found to be
to follow, let a connecting rod of 105 mm centres be 28.5 mm and that of an intake valve is 32.5 mm.
attached to it and a geometric compression ratio of 11 be To accommodate the necessary clearance volume of 30
applied to each cylinder. cm3 above a (more or less, apart from the valve cut-outs)
The valves in the cylinder head flat-topped piston and with a squish clearance of 1.2 mm,
There are many requirements for the design of the valves then pent-roof head angles of 14 and 13 degrees, i.e., an
in the cylinder head but priority must be given to making included valve angle of 27 degrees, will be necessary;
them fit within it! A conventional four-valve pent-roof this is illustrated to scale in Fig. 3. The spark-plug, of 10
cylinder head is selected as the design base and a mm, is centrally-located between the valves.
software package [3] is used to select the size of the The basic dimensioning of each valve
valves. The output data, which shows the outcome of this The outer seat diameter, dos, of the exhaust valve is 28.5
process for this 82.5 mm cylinder bore, is drawn to scale mm. As described by Blair [2, Ch.1, Fig. 1.14], a plan
in Fig. 3. The input data specifies; the cylinder bore; the seat width of 1.25 mm is selected, so the inner seat
intake/exhaust valve size ratio; the radial side clearances diameter of the exhaust valve, dis, is 26.0 mm. Let the
of the exhaust and intake valve from the cylinder bore, maximum exhaust valve lift, Lv, be 10.5 mm, i.e., 40% of
the inter-valve clearance between the intake valves; the the inner seat diameter.

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The exhaust and intake overlap valve periods have


specific time-area values of 29.5 x 10-4 and 39.7 x 10-4
s/m, respectively. All of these empirical criteria suggest
that these valves, opened, closed and lifted at these
timings and rates at 13500 rpm would breathe sufficiently
well to provide 12.8 bar bmep, which also assumes that
all other tuning and duct flow criteria are to be designed
to match these valves.
For the record, at 13500 rpm, the maximum valve velocity
for the intake valves is 11 m/s and the maximum
acceleration is 3400 g. For the exhaust valves, the
equivalent maxima are 9 m/s and 3000 g. This valve
Figure 4. Cylinder head valve and manifold data. and lift geometry should be capable of being handled
by a normal double-overhead camshaft system with
The outer seat diameter, dos, of the intake valve is 32.5 conventional coil springs for each valve.
mm. Similarly [2, Ch.1, Fig. 1.14], a plan seat width of
1.25 mm is selected, so the inner seat diameter of the The manifolds at the cylinder head
intake valve, dis, is 30.0 mm. Let the maximum intake As mentioned above, unless the ducting system is tuned
valve lift, Lv, be 12.0 mm, i.e., also 40% of its inner seat to match the valve timing and geometry then the outcome
diameter. will be poor cylinder filling and emptying. The first gambit
in this argument is the size of the aperture at the cylinder
Let the intake and exhaust valve stems, ds, each have a head to which the exhaust and intake ducting is
diameter of 6.5 mm. The ports at each valve have the connected for this proportions the maximum amplitude of
same dimensions as the inner seats, i.e., dp equal dis. All the intake and exhaust waves proceeding into their ducts.
of the above data, and that to be deduced below, are This topic is discussed at great length in the Reference
summarised in Fig. 4. [2, Ch.6, Sec.6.1.9] in terms of the requisite manifold-port
The valve timings area ratios, Cm, for the exhaust and intake system at the
In Blair [2, Ch.6, Sec.6.1], there is empiricism provided cylinder head.
for the timing of valves of known physical dimensions so For the exhaust system the value of the manifold-port
as to potentially give the requisite breathing area ratios, Cm, is normally in the range 1.2 to 1.4, so
characteristics at rated speed and load. Valve lift that the maximum amplitude of the exhaust pulse which
characteristics are also discussed in the same Reference is created at the maximum power engine speed is about
[2, Ch.1, Sec.1.5] and the ensuing lift curve determined 2.0 bar. Any larger exhaust pulse will tend to steep-front
in terms of ramp lift ratios with the upshot calculated in the exhaust blowdown pressure wave and lose wave
terms of lift, velocity and acceleration with respect to energy in the process and a lesser amplitude exhaust
crankshaft angle at any given engine speed. These wave will provide weak tuning from its wave reflections
theories are programmed into software [3] and used within the exhaust system. From Fig. 4, it can be seen
here. The engine speed for the computations is at 13500 that a value of 1.26 is selected, which devolves to an
rpm, the engine speed where peak power is anticipated. exhaust manifold diameter, dm, of 40 mm at the cylinder
For the intake and the exhaust valves, the ramp lift ratio, head face.
Cr, is 0.20, i.e., it is 20% of the maximum valve lift and For the intake system the value of the manifold-port area
occurs over a 40 [°crank] ramp duration. ratios, Cm, is normally in the range 0.9 to 1.0, so that the
The outcome of using the software is that the following amplitude of the intake pulse which is created is as deep
valve timing events are selected; the valve opening and a suction wave as possible without incurring energy
closing events, vo and vc, are 60 °btdc and 87 °abdc for losses in its wave transmission to the bellmouth. The
the intake valve, while they are 90 °bbdc and 60 °atdc for deepest suction wave provides the largest ramming wave
the exhaust valve. These selections are based on the reflection at the bellmouth end which is absolutely
geometry described above and the specific time-areas necessary so as to provide airflow Delivery Ratios in
found by the programmed theory for these valves to be in excess of unity. From Fig. 4, it can be seen that a value of
accordance with the empiricism specified in the 0.93 is selected, which devolves to an intake manifold
Reference [2, Ch.6, Sec.6.1]. The time-area analysis for diameter, dm, of 40 mm at the cylinder head face.
the intake valves shows that the pumping and ramming The coincidence of the two numbers, i.e., that the intake
period values have specific time-area values of 129.6 x and exhaust manifold diameters are both 40 mm, is
10-4 and 17.56 x 10-4 s/m, respectively. The time-area unexceptional but should not be taken as a ‘rule of
analysis for the exhaust valves shows that the exhaust thumb’!
blowdown and pumping periods have specific time-area
values of 14.7 x 10-4 and 97.3 x 10-4 s/m, respectively.

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programmed into software [3] and used here with a


collector area ratio, Ccoll, of 6.0. To optimise the system
tuning at 13500 rpm, the prediction is that the primary
pipe length should be 450 mm, and the collector tailpipe
should be 640 mm long with a diameter of 80 mm. The
primary pipe length of 450 mm is split between 75 mm
within the cylinder head and 375 mm beyond it to the
collector. At the four-way branch the inter-pipe angles are
each assumed to be a mutual 10 degrees to the outlet
pipe axis.
The remainder of the piping system with the silencers
then mimics this 640 mm tuning length with two pipes
each of 56 mm diameter which equates outflow from the
primary plenum to inflow from the 80 mm diameter of the
collector pipe. The above dimensions may be found
sketched in Fig. 5.
Figure 5. Exhaust and intake ducting layout and data. The intake system design
The main design item here is the length for the intake
The engine ducting valves to the bellmouth end so as to optimally phase the
A dimensioned sketch of the engine ducting is shown in ramming at the engine speed for maximum power,
Fig. 5. It is not to scale. namely 13500 rpm. This issue is extensively discussed
The basic layout of the exhaust system is a ‘three-into- elsewhere [2, Ch.6, Sec. 6.3]. The empirical theory
one collector’ system which, unlike car racing engines in detailed there is programmed into software [3]. The
Formula 1 or IRL, cannot end in the atmosphere. All optimum ramming length for the intake tract is found to be
motorcycle racing is conducted with (partially) silenced 230 mm and this dimension can be observed sketched in
engines which must meet FIM-dictated noise legislation Fig. 5. The empirical theory also warns us that while the
and testing conducted by FIM Technical Stewards. Unlike intake ramming is set to peak at 13500 rpm, and that
much automobile racing, attending motorcycle racing is there will be another ramming peak at 10000 rpm, there
an aural pleasure and not pain! Hence, at the end of the will also be troughs in the engine airflow curve caused by
collector pipe a small primary plenum is installed to ineffective ramming at 11500 rpm and at 8700 rpm. This
provide a ‘dummy atmosphere’ to induce the necessary latter speed of 8700 rpm is of little concern for a racing
wave tuning characteristics of a 3-1 collector pipe engine where an effective engine speed range of 3000
system. Beyond that, two further pipes with a combined rpm is more than adequate, but the warning of a trough
area equal to that of the 80 mm collector pipe proceed to at 11500 rpm is of much greater concern so the effect of
two mufflers and tailpipes and thence to the atmosphere. that will be closely monitored within the results obtained
The fundamental design thinking is to place the primary from the engine simulation.
exhaust plenum below and behind the engine/gearbox The minimum effective airbox size is some 5 to 6 times
unit and in front of the rear wheel of the motorcycle and the total cylinder capacity, so an airbox of some 5 litres is
then route either side the final pipes to two silencers seen sketched in Fig. 5. In practice, it could well be
placed under the rider’s seat on the motorcycle, à la (usefully) larger. In this first instance, the intake duct to
Ducati. the atmosphere is set large and short, but it should be
The basic layout of the intake system is to connect the the subject of further optimisation as an important tuning
three intake ram pipes, which have bellmouth ends, to an issue has been shown to be involved [2, Ch.7, Sec.7.6.5].
airbox plenum situated behind the steering head and Data is assembled
below the fuel tank, from which airbox a duct goes Having assembled all of the geometric data for the
forward to the front of the motorcycle fairing to collect air simulation of the engine, this data is presented to the
pressurised by the forward motion of the machine. In the engine simulation [5] for the computation and subsequent
engine simulation analysis conducted here that forward analysis of the calculated performance characteristics.
motion is presently neglected so as to ascertain the
reference engine performance characteristics in still air, 3.0 THE 900 cm3 ENGINE SIMULATION
i.e., as on the dynamometer during performance testing.
The exhaust system design The simulation model
The basic design of the primary pipe and collector-pipe The simulation model employed is the professional
exhaust systems is described elsewhere [2, Ch.6, Secs. edition of VIRTUAL 4-STROKE [5] by comparison with
6.4.5-6]. The empirical theory detailed there is the SAE edition associated with Blair [2]. The SAE edition

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Figure 6. Power output. Figure 7. Torque output.

of VIRTUAL 4-STROKE [4] handles only a single-cylinder temperatures are as follows; intake duct, 200 °C within
engine but is otherwise similar in operation to the the cylinder head and 35 °C beyond it; primary exhaust
professional edition which can handle any number of duct, 250 °C within the cylinder head and 450 °C beyond
cylinders inter-connected, or not, by intake or exhaust it; collector tail pipe and exhaust tail pipes, 400 °C.
ducting.
Combustion within the simulation model 4.0 THE 900 cm3 ENGINE SIMULATED
This is as described in Reference [2] and, in the absence
of precise burn data for this mythical 900 cm3 engine and The simulated performance characteristics
combustion chamber, experimentally-derived data for The overall performance characteristics predicted by the
another 4-valve pent roof chamber is ascribed here within VIRTUAL 4-STROKE [5] simulation are shown in Figs.
the simulation model. The precise data can be found 6-13. They are plotted in both Imperial and SI units to
within this same Reference [2, Ch.4, Fig. 4.10]. widen the relevance of the discussion.

It is assumed within the simulation that the engine will Power output
burn unleaded fuel with an air-fuel ratio of 12.0. Power output is of primary importance in racing engine
design. It can be seen in Fig. 6 that the engine has a
Discharge coefficients within the simulation peak power of 172 bhp (128 kW) phased as required at
This very important issue is well-debated by Blair [2] and 13500 rpm. This corresponds closely with the required
the discharge coefficient, Cd, maps for the valves in this power for the target design seen in Fig. 2. The power
engine are also experimentally-derived from a 4-valve spread is seen to be satisfactorily wide over a 3000 rpm
pent-roof racing engine cylinder head and shown power band with 149 bhp (111 kW) available at 10500
elsewhere [2, Figs. 3.37-3.40] for both directions at the rpm. While there is no dip in the power curve at 11500
intake and exhaust valves. The discharge coefficient rpm, as warned by the empirical intake ramming
maps for the bellmouth or plain ends of pipes at the analysis, it is clear that the power curve does increase
atmosphere or a plenum can be found from the same more steeply after that engine speed.
source [2, Figs. 3.6-3.10].
Torque and brake mean effective pressure (bmep)
Further relevant simulation data This is shown in Figs. 7 and 8. In Fig. 8 the peak torque is
It is assumed that the engine breathes to and from a at 10500 rpm (or below) at 101 Nm (75 ft-lbf) and it can
(static) atmosphere at 1.01325 bar and 25 °C. be observed that there is a torque dip at 11500 rpm
It is also assumed that the in-cylinder surface before rising to a second peak at 12000 rpm.
temperatures are 300, 200 and 150 °C for the cylinder The bmep profile in Fig. 8 naturally mimics the torque
head surface, the piston crown surface, and the cylinder curve, with a peak at 10500 rpm of 14.2 bar before
liner, respectively. A (incomplete) list of the pipe skin yielding a second peak at 12500 rpm of 13.3 bar. At the

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Figure 8. Brake mean effective pressure. Figure 9. Brake specific fuel consumption.

peak power engine speed of 13500 rpm the bmep is at 11500 rpm is seen to be justified, as too is its more
12.70 bar (187.6 lbf/in2) which is almost identical to the optimistic prediction that another ramming peak exists at
target value of 12.8 bar seen and set in Fig. 2. 10000 rpm. Later, in this paper, the pressure (and other)
time histories will be examined to confirm the origins of
Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) the positive tuning events at 13500 rpm and the negative
The bsfc profile for the engine is shown in Fig. 9 and it tuning effects at 11500 rpm.
can be seen that values in the peak power zone are
about 305 g/kWh (0.5 lb/hp.hr). Although this matter has The Charging Efficiency (CE) and Trapping Efficiency
not been aired before it is a fairly important issue as the (TE) show the overall outcome of much of the intake and
races in World Superbike racing are of a not exhaust tuning. It may be recalled that CE is the multiple
inconsiderable length. Most legs, there are two legs of DR and TE and represents the dimensionless mass of
raced each day at any given Championship meeting, last air trapped in the cylinder during each cycle. Hence, as
for about forty minutes. Taking the average power usage the CE profile is relatively flat with a maximum of 1.095
at 60% of maximum, and using the above bsfc figures and a minimum of 1.05, so too must be the profile of the
over a 40 minute period, simple arithmetic yields a total indicated torque. It is clear that the trapping efficiency
fuel consumption of 14 kg (31 lb). Assuming a specific behaviour offsets some of the effects of the poor
gravity for the fuel of 0.8, that implies a possible total fuel ramming at 11500 rpm; here the TE is 100%. However, it
consumption over a 40 minute race of 17.5 litres (3.85
Imp. Gall., 4.6 US gall.). If the brake specific fuel
consumption could be lowered by, for instance, 10%, then
that reduces the potential top hamper of the motorcycle
by 1.4 kg (3 lb) in mass terms and the bulk by 1.75 litres
(0.38 Imp. gall.). Of these two reductions, the bulk is the
more important as the airbox and fuel tank vie for the
same available space within the motorcycle frame and
1.75 litres of space added to the intake airbox plenum
would increase it by 35%, undoubtedly improving the
engine breathing and power performance.
Airflow as Delivery Ratio
This is shown in Fig. 10, together with Charging and
Trapping Efficiency [2]. It can be seen that peak airflow is
indeed at the required speed for peak power at 13500
rpm. Here the Delivery Ratio (DR) is commendably high
at 1.14. The ramming length, allied to the valve geometry
selected, is indeed phased correctly; the empiricism
employed [3] has been most effective in this regard. Its Figure 10. Delivery Ratio and charging efficiencies.
pessimism regarding the trough in the ramming process

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Figure 11. Indicated and pumping mep. Figure 12. Friction mep and Mechanical Efficiency.

deteriorates the CE value at the peak engine speed as The increasing severity of the parasitic losses of pumping
the DR value is 1.14 but the TE value is 0.94. The origins and friction with respect to speed can also be seen in Fig.
of this behaviour can only be observed from the time- 12. Here the Mechanical Efficiency (ME) of the engine is
related events around the cylinder at the significant plotted and it has an almost linear profile of decay with
engine speeds and these are examined later. engine speed. It will be recalled that ME is defined as the
Indicated and pumping mean effective pressure division of bmep by imep. At peak power it is 0.73 which
The indicated mean effective pressure (imep), which is means that 27% of the energy provided to the piston has
directly related to indicated torque, is shown in Fig. 11. been dissipated; but then all such Philistines will attest
The correspondence of the imep profile with that of that if the engine is merely used for racing it is supremely
Charging Efficiency in Fig. 10 and which is explained obvious that 100% has been dissipated!
above as being logical, is now clear. Noise output
The pumping loss (pmep) is recorded as pumping mean Motorcycle racing engines have to meet FIM-dictated
effective pressure in the cylinder over the nominal open noise legislation. The VIRTUAL 4-STROKE simulation
cycle, i.e., from +180 to +540 degrees crankangle, where code [2, 5] predicts the noise level and noise spectra at
0 degrees crankangle is the tdc point during combustion.
The profile of pmep with respect to engine speed is quite
normal for a racing engine where it increases almost
linearly, and quite considerably, with that speed. At
maximum engine speed it consumes some 5.5 % of the
work done on the piston, i.e., the imep.
Friction mep and mechanical efficiency
The characteristics for the engine friction loss, as friction
mean effective pressure (fmep), are an empirical
relationship and the one used can be found elsewhere [2,
Ch.5, Sec.5.3]. It is plotted in Fig. 12 and its assumed
linear characteristic is clear. For this engine it varies from
3.25 bar to 3.95 bar over the speed range. As the brake
mean effective pressure (bmep) is the residue of the
imep after the pumping and friction loss (as pmep and
fmep) are subtracted, the origins of the decaying bmep
profile in Fig. 8, from the relatively flat imep profile in
Fig. 11, are now obvious. Figure 13. Exhaust and intake noise levels.

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Figure 14. Airflow at 11500 and 13500 rpm. Figure 15. Pressures at 13500 rpm.

any point in space beyond the ends of the ducting. The To illustrate this point, the dynamic growth of air flow (as
profile of the intake and exhaust noise is theoretically DR) within cylinder number 1 is plotted in Fig. 14 with
deduced at a microphone location of 1.0 m in free space respect to crankangle at 11500 and at 13500 rpm. They
equidistant from the atmospheric exit of the intake and are only plotted over a relevant crankangle period to
exhaust systems. The values of those noise levels over make more obvious to the reader the DR profiles during
the engine speed range are shown in Fig. 13 and are induction. The valve event timing marks of intake valve
plotted in dB (A scale) units, i.e., as dBa. The exhaust is opening and closure (IO and IC) and exhaust valve
at its most raucous at the lowest engine speed, whereas closure (EC) are marked on the diagram. It should be
the intake system noise increases with engine speed. noted that with symmetrical cylinder timing and identical
Curiously, the engine speed with the lowest intake airflow, piping for each cylinder the behaviour in the other two
i.e., 11500 rpm, is one of the loud zones in the intake cylinders is similar to that in cylinder no.1; this is not
noise profile. always true and can have deleterious effects, e.g., with
asymmetrical cylinder timing events [2, Ch.5, Secs.
The total noise output, i.e., the combined intake and
5.7-8]. In Fig. 14 at 13500 rpm, it can be seen that the
exhaust noise, is also plotted in Fig. 13. It is, of course, a
airflow into the cylinder commences almost as soon as
logarithmic addition procedure.
the intake valve opens. The DR reaches 25% by the time
The simulation does not debate the quality of the noise the exhaust valve closes at 60 °atdc and then rises to a
although it is possible to have the simulation playback the maximum of 1.14 by 40 °abdc and does not deteriorate
exhaust or the intake noise or the total noise spectra. To until the valve closes. On the other hand, at 11500 rpm,
date in World Superbike racing, the vee-twin engines with the incoming airflow commences at tdc, and is
their off-beat note have been the machines to excite the disadvantaged by some 10% at the exhaust valve closing
ears of the enthusiasts. This three-cylinder racing engine point. While the profile apparently recovers in the middle
should easily assume that role, as can be attested by any of the suction stroke, that 10% disadvantage has not
who ever had the good fortune, or are old enough, to been recovered by 40 °abdc with some small backflow
remember Giacomo Agostini and his MV Agusta! evident until the intake valve closes. How do these effects
come about at these engine speeds?
5.0 ENGINE TUNING AT 11500 AND 13500 RPM Pressure diagrams at 13500 and 11500 rpm
In Figs. 15 and 16 are plotted the pressures in the
General cylinder, and in the intake and exhaust ducts near to the
Hinted at by the empiricism, it is shown above by intake and exhaust valves, at 13500 and 11500 rpm,
simulation that the engine breathes easily and is well respectively. The pressure oscillations at 13500 rpm are
tuned at 13500 rpm, but some deterioration of that tuning noticeably more pronounced than at 11500 rpm,
takes place at 11500 rpm. The Delivery Ratio is 1.05 at although the exhaust pressures around tdc in the overlap
11500 rpm but is 1.14 at 13500 rpm; see Fig. 10. The valve period are somewhat similar at both 11500 and
simulation [5] output can be queried at any point 13500 rpm; here the collector pipe system has been
throughout the entire engine and its ducting to provide tuned correctly to provide suction waves of some 0.6-0.7
time-related data for pressure, temperature, mass flow atm to assist with scavenging the cylinder of exhaust gas
rate, charge purity, density, etc., etc. with the intake valves open.

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valve overlap period which is the root cause of the


reduced airflow at 11500 rpm [2, Ch.6, Sec.6.3]
Velocity diagrams at 13500 and 11500 rpm
In Figs. 17 and 18 are plotted the gas particle velocities in
the intake and exhaust ducts near to the intake and
exhaust valves, at 13500 and 11500 rpm, respectively.
The gas particle velocity is plotted as Mach Number (NB
the local speed of sound is about 350 m/s or 1150 ft/sec).
The remarks passed above regarding particle flow can
be seen to be confirmed. In Fig. 17, at 13500 rpm, the
intake flow commences at intake valve opening and only
a negligible amount of backflow takes place at intake
valve closure. In Fig. 18, at 11500 rpm, the intake flow
shows reverse flow from the cylinder until tdc and then
further loss of cylinder charge by reverse flow at intake
valve closure. There is reverse flow of exhaust gas into
the cylinder from about tdc until exhaust valve closure.
Figure 16. Pressures at 11500 rpm. This exhaust gas then occupies cylinder space which can
never be filled by intake air.
It is the behaviour of the residual waves in the intake
Charge purity at 13500 and 11500 rpm
manifold which causes the airflow differences at 11500
In Figs. 19 and 20 are plotted the charge purities in the
and 13500 rpm. At 13500 rpm, a residual pressure
cylinder, and in the intake and exhaust ducts near to the
oscillation in the intake tract exceeds the cylinder
intake and exhaust valves, at 13500 and 11500 rpm,
pressure from intake valve opening until exhaust valve
respectively. It will be recalled that air has a charge purity
closure. As the exhaust pressure is less than either of
of 1.0 and exhaust gas a charge purity of 0.0. The plot
them so flow takes place from intake through the cylinder
examines only the critical valve overlap period.
to the exhaust pipe. At 11500 rpm, the residual pressure
oscillation in the intake tract arrives too early and the The upshot of the pressure and velocity flow effects
cylinder pressure basically equals or exceeeds intake line around the cylinder at these two engine speeds can now
pressure until tdc and after that air flows into the cylinder. be observed in the quality of the gas which resides in
However, the exhaust pressure is higher than either of these locations at various junctures during this period of
them after tdc so exhaust gas flow takes place to the engine operation.
cylinder from the exhaust pipe.
In Fig. 18, at 13500 rpm, as there is no blowback into the
Near intake valve closure, there is a higher ramming intake tract due to the well-phased intake tuning, the
pressure in the intake tract at 13500 rpm, whereas that at charge purity remains at unity throughout. The cylinder
11500 rpm arrives a little too early for perfection. Both of purity rises from zero almost as soon as the intake valve
these primary ramming waves are quite effective; it is the opens and is 95% fresh air by the time that the exhaust
weakness of the secondary ramming effect during the valve closes; the exhaust tuning has extracted fresh

Figure 17. Gas particle velocities at 13500 rpm. Figure 18. Gas particle velocities at 11500 rpm.

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Figure 19. Charge purities at 13500 rpm. Figure 20. Charge purities at 11500 rpm.

charge right through the relatively small cylinder volume; Temperature at 13500 and 11500 rpm
at +/- 60 degrees either side of tdc the cylinder volume is In Figs. 21 and 22 are plotted the charge temperature in
not much larger than the clearance volume. Naturally, this the cylinder, and in the intake and exhaust ducts near to
exhaust gas extraction and cylinder scavenging process the intake and exhaust valves, at 13500 and 11500 rpm,
comes at a price, namely the reduction of trapping respectively. The plot looks only at the critical valve
efficiency at 13500 rpm as seen in Fig. 10. overlap period.

By contrast, in Fig. 20, at 11500 rpm, the cylinder purity The upshot of the pressure, charge purity and velocity
hovers around zero until tdc, then rises to about 82% at flow effects around the cylinder at these two engine
exhaust valve closure. That amount of exhaust gas is speeds can now be observed in the temperature of the
permanently trapped in the cylinder. The intake system gas which resides in these locations at various junctures
records the exhaust blowback and falls to about 0.8 during this period of engine operation. Simplistically,
before recovering as normal intake flow resumes, the first exhaust gas is ‘hot’ and air is ‘cold’.
inflow of which is the return of that same cylinder gas. In Fig. 21, at 13500 rpm, the local gas temperature in the
The exhaust system sees very little exhaust system intake tract, due to local heat transfer and compression
tuning effect on cylinder scavenging and its fresh charge effects is about 60 °C and then drops as cooler air comes
content barely gets to 4% by exhaust valve closure. This along from the atmospheric end of the intake tract. The
explains the high trapping efficiency at 11500 rpm seen cylinder temperature drops from over 700 °C to about
in Fig. 10.

Figure 21. Temperatures at 13500 rpm. Figure 22. Temperatures at 11500 rpm.

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of empiricism was culled from an analysis of ‘4-into-1’


collector pipe systems and all of which collector tailpipes
ended in the atmosphere, this may not apply so readily to
this particular design of a three-cylinder engine where
the tail-pipe ends in a small ‘pseudo-atmosphere’ plenum
and is followed by further exit exhaust pipes and
silencers. The empirical use of a value of Ccoll of 6.0 for
this 900 cm3 three-cylinder engine yielded a collector
tailpipe diameter of 80.0 mm, as shown in Fig. 5. To
determine if the empiricism is still valid for a differing
number of cylinders and for a revised final exhaust pipe
layout, the collector tailpipe diameter is changed over a
fairly wide range from 74 to 92 mm and the VIRTUAL
4-STROKE simulation rerun at 13500 rpm in each case.
The range of collector area ratios examined is from 5.4
to 7.3.
Effect of tailpipe diameter on power
Figure 23. Performance re collector pipe diameter. The result of conducting this engine simulation process is
shown in Fig. 23. The power output varies over a narrow
20 °C by exhaust valve closure due to the rapid and range of just 0.5 bhp on 172 bhp, implying that collector
continuing inrush of cold air into the small clearance tailpipe diameter is not important. However, power
volume. The exhaust temperature drops similarly as maxima are observed around Ccoll values of 6.0 and 6.8,
much fresh air is extracted right through the chamber into thereby justifying the use of the 6.0 criterion used for the
the exhaust pipe due to the suction tuning effect of the design of this system. While the Ccoll value of 6.8 yields a
exhaust pipe, aligning itself with the previously noted marginally higher maximum power value, installing an
charge purity effects in Fig. 19 and the trapping efficiency 88 mm diameter pipe underneath the engine/gearbox
effects recorded in Fig. 10. unit would certainly pose more problems than would the
80 mm pipe designed using the 6.0 criterion.
In Fig. 22, at 11500 rpm, the reverse flow of cylinder gas,
i.e., exhaust gas, causes the temperature in the intake Unsteady flow effects at the exhaust collector
tract near to the valve to rise to about 160 °C. The Blair [2] gives a detailed explanation of the dynamic
cylinder temperature drop basically stalls until after tdc, pressure and mass flow behaviour occasioned by an
as no fresh air enters until that point and what then does exhaust collector pipe system. It will be useful and
enter is neither pure air nor is it cool. The cylinder instructive from a design standpoint to determine if there
temperature falls after tdc, but its profile is flatter as hot are behavioural differences within this system by
exhaust gas is reverse flowing into the cylinder until comparison with those examined previously in Reference
exhaust valve closure; see Fig. 18. The exhaust gas [2].
temperature in the duct remains high locally as very little
At 13500 rpm with the exhaust system design as shown
fresh air gets extracted into it that location.
in Fig. 5, the predictions of pressure and mass flow with
Conclusions re 11500 and 13500 rpm respect to crankangle are extracted from the simulation.
The analysis of these dynamic effects reveals the origins These are plotted in Figs. 24-27 for this three-cylinder
of the positive tuning at 13500 rpm, and the negative engine. They are precisely analogous to, and may be
tuning at 11500 rpm. By exhaust valve closure as the real directly compared with, those provided in the Reference
suction process gets under way, at 11500 rpm by [2, Ch.6, Figs. 6.69-6.72] for a four-cylinder engine with
comparison with 13500 rpm, the cylinder is already filled an equivalent collector exhaust system. There are two
with some 15% more exhaust gas and is 80 °C hotter. physical locations where simulation data is collected, one
This is due to poorly-phased secondary intake ramming. is just upstream of the collector in the pipe emanating
The primary ramming process is also somewhat weaker from cylinder number 1 and the other is just downstream
and also relatively poorly phased, so further cylinder air of the collector in the tailpipe.
charge is lost near intake valve closure at 11500 rpm.
In Fig. 24 is shown the superposition pressures either
The exhaust system is optimally phased at 13500 rpm
side of the collector. The superposition pressure is the
and is still quite well tuned at 11500 rpm.
‘addition’ of the leftward and rightward wave pressures
and is the pressure that one records with a pressure
6.0 THE COLLECTOR PIPE DESIGN transducer. This diagram is almost indecipherable in
terms of detailing the dynamic flow behaviour at the
General collector, as already pointed out in the Reference [2,
In the book by Blair it is attested that the design of a Fig. 6.69].
collector pipe system is best conducted with a collector
area ratio, Ccoll, of 6.0 [2, Ch.6, Sec.6.4.6]. As this piece
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Figure 24. Superposition pressures at exhaust collector.


Figure 25. Individual wave pressures in primary pipe.
In Fig. 25 are plotted the leftward and rightward wave
pressures in the exhaust pipe from cylinder number 1. In Fig. 26 are plotted the leftward and rightward wave
This picture is almost identical with that shown previously pressures in the collector tailpipe. This picture is
in the Reference [2, Fig. 6.70], indicating that the analogous, and dynamically similar, to that shown
fundamental wave reflection behaviour in this collector previously [2, Fig. 6.71]. In the three-cylinder case there
pipe system is the same. The exhaust pressure wave are six oscillations on each pressure trace, by
coming from the engine, the rightward wave, has an comparison with the four oscillations for the four-cylinder
amplitude of 2.1 atm, thereby justifying the initial design engine. It may be presumed that the extra three
selection of the exhaust manifold to port area ratio, Cm, at oscillations in Fig. 26 are generated by pressure wave
1.26. The leftward wave, so necessary for good cylinder action in the final tailpipes and silencers.
scavenging, is a suction wave of some 0.55 atm and it is
pleasing to note that it almost identical to that described In Fig. 27 are plotted the mass flow rates in the exhaust
for a four-cylinder engine where the collector tailpipe pipe from cylinder number 1 and in the collector tailpipe.
ended in the atmosphere [2, Fig. 6.70]. In short, the This graph is almost identical to that shown earlier for a
tuning action of the collector pipe system is not 4-cylinder engine [2, Fig. 6.72], apart from the fact that
diminished by the addition of the exhaust plenum and the there are now six mass flow oscillations in the tailpipe. As
further exhaust pipes and silencers. Indeed, the far as the action in cylinder number 1 is concerned it is
presence of the plenum is vital in providing the dynamic identical, which indicates that the extraction process
similarity and the tuning action of the collector system for generated by the collector tailpipe and plenum ensures
this three-cylinder engine. that exhaust gas is extracted from each primary exhaust

Figure 26. Individual wave pressures in the tailpipe. Figure 27. Mass flow rates in primary and tailpipe.

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pipe, and hence that cylinder, without sending awkward Exhaust system design
(positive) pressure wave reflections up each primary pipe From the evidence presented, it appears that the design
to interfere with the scavenging process at each cylinder. approach suggested in Reference [2] for the collector-
type exhaust system of a high performance engine has
7.0 CONCLUSIONS fairly wide applicability and can be extended to those
systems which must contain silencers.
The 900 cm3 three-cylinder motorcycle engine
The output data from the simulation indicates that this 8.0 REFERENCES
engine would produce in excess of 170 bhp at 13500 rpm
with a fairly broad power curve, in which case it would be 1. A.A. Boretti, G. Cantore, E. Mattarelli, F. Preziosi,
very competitive in World Superbike racing. The engine is “Experimental and Computational Analysis of a High
quite compact in mass and bulk terms making it an even Performance Motorcycle Engine”, SAE Motorsports
more attractive prospect in this regard. With an in-line Engineering Conference, Dearborn, MI, November
configuration, the engine mass is preferentially located to 1996, SAE 962526.
optimise the weight distribution within the motorcycle by 2. G.P. Blair, “Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke
comparison with vee-engine designs. Engines”, Society of Automotive Engineers, R186,
ISBN 0-7680-0440-3, Warrendale, PA, August 1999.
The empirical design procedures described by Blair [2]
3. G.P. Blair, “Education and Design Software for Four-
for cylinder dimensioning, valve geometry, and the intake Stroke Engines”, Society of Automotive Engineers,
and exhaust systems are shown to be relevant and to R186SW, Warrendale, PA, August 1999.
provide a well-matched initial design prior to further
4. G.P. Blair and OPTIMUM Power Technology,
optimisation with an accurate engine simulation. “VIRTUAL 4-STROKE Engine Simulation Model for
An accurate engine simulation [2, 5] provides invaluable Four-Stroke Engines”, Society of Automotive
design insights into the operational behaviour of the Engineers, R186M, Warrendale, PA, August 1999.
engine at any speed or load, be it about intake ramming, 5. OPTIMUM Power Technology, “VIRTUAL 4-STROKE,
cylinder scavenging, or exhaust collector system Professional Edition”, Internet, www.optimum-
dynamics, etc. Without such insights, the development of power.com.
an ‘unknown’ racing engine by purely experimental
means is a frustrating, time-consuming, expensive, and
potentially fruitless exercise.

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