Tennis is a sport usually played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two

players each (doubles). Each player uses a racket that is strung to strike a hollow rubber ball
covered with felt over a net into the opponent's court.

The modern game of tennis originated in the United Kingdom in the late 19th century as "lawn
tennis" which has close connections to various field/lawn games as well as to the ancient game
of real tennis. Until then, "tennis" referred to the latter sport: for example, in Disraeli's novel
Sybil (1845), Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will "go down to Hampton Court and play
tennis. As it is the Derby [classic horse race], nobody will be there".[1] After its creation, lawn
tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population before spreading around
the world.[2] Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society at all ages. The sport
can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including people in wheelchairs.

• Tennis is enjoyed by millions of recreational players and is also a hugely

popular worldwide spectator sport, especially the four Grand Slam
tournaments (also referred to as the "Majors"): the Australian Open played on
hard courts, the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on
grass courts, and the US Open played also on hard courts.

History

Most historians believe that tennis originated in France in the 12th century, but the ball was then
struck with the palm of the hand. It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and
the game began to be called "tennis." It was popular in England and France, although the game
was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a
big fan of this game, which historians now refer to as real tennis.[3]

Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of rackets
and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham,
United Kingdom.[4][5] In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis
club in Leamington Spa.[6]

In December 1873, Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game —
which he called sphairistike (Greek: σφάίρίστική, from ancient Greek meaning "skill at playing
at ball"), and was soon known simply as "sticky" — for the amusement of his guests at a garden
party on his estate of Nantclwyd, in Llanelidan, Wales.[7] He likely based his game on the
evolving sport of outdoor tennis including real tennis. According to some tennis historians,
modern tennis terminology also derives from this period, as Wingfield borrowed both the name
and much of the French vocabulary of real tennis and applied them to his new game.[citation needed]

The first championships at Wimbledon in London were played in 1877.[8] The first
Championships culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules.

In America in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda where
she met Major Wingfield. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club in New
Brighton Staten Island, New York. The exact location of the club was under what is now the
Staten Island Ferry terminal. The first American National tournament in 1880 was played there.
An Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles match. There was also a doubles match
which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was
larger than the one normally used in NY. On May 21, 1881, the United States National Lawn
Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the
rules and organize competitions.[9] The U.S. National Men's Singles Championship, now the US
Open, was first held in 1881 at Newport, Rhode Island.[10] The U.S. National Women's Singles
Championships were first held in 1887.[11] Tennis was also popular in France, where the French
Open dates to 1891.[12] Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian
Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.[8][13]
Together these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather
than baseball).[14]

The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation, now
known as the International Tennis Federation, have remained remarkably stable in the ensuing
eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tie-break system designed by James
Van Alen.[15] That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but
returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was
credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David
Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio
Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce
tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988.

The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.[16] The
analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation
Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF also known as
International Tennis Federation.[17]

In 1926, promoter C.C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of
American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[13][18] The
most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the
Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[13][19] Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in
the major (amateur) tournaments.[13]

In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to
the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the open era, in which all players could
compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.[20] With
the beginning of the open era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit,
and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the
sport has shed its upper/middle-class English-speaking image[21] (although it is acknowledged
that this stereotype still exists).[21][22][23]

In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in
Newport, Rhode Island.[24] The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well
as a hall of fame honoring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Each
year, a grass-court tournament and an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members
are hosted on its grounds.
Equipment

Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners
need only a racquet and balls.

Racquets

The components of a tennis racquet are a handle and neck joining a roughly elliptical frame that
holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, racquets were
of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction
yielded more strength in racquets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then
composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced.
These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more
power. Meanwhile technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet
with added durability.

Under modern rules of tennis, the racquet must adhere to the following guidelines[25];

• The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.
• The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches in length and
12.5 inches in width.
• The entire racquet must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight
distribution. There may not be any energy source built into the racquet.
• The racquet must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or
advice to the player during the match.

The rules regarding racquets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have
been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches until 1997, when
it was shortened to 29 inches.[26]

Balls

Tennis balls are of hollow rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant color
was gradually changed to Optic Yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for
improved visibility.

Miscellaneous

Advanced players improve their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration

dampers may be interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket
handles may be customized with absorbent materials to improve the players' grip. Players often
use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their hands dry as well. Finally, although the game can be
played in a variety of shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a
built-up front structure to avoid excess wear.
Court

Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface, usually grass, clay, a hardcourt of concrete and/or
asphalt and occasionally carpet (indoor). The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet
(8.23 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (10.97 m) for doubles matches.[27] Additional clear
space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched
across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. The
net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (91.4 cm) high in the center.[27]

The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield who, in 1873,
patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This
template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to
Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.[28]

Lines

The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the
service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is referred to as
either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called
the doubles sidelines. These are the boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to
the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in singles
play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles
alley, which is considered playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the center of a
player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the
area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where
a player legally stands when making a serve.[29] The line dividing the service line in two is called
the center line or center service line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service
boxes; depending on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one of these when
serving.[30] A ball is out only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first
bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (51 mm) in width. The baseline
can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide if so desired.[29]

Play of a single point

Main article: Point (tennis)

The players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and
the opposing player is the receiver. Service alternates game by game between the two players (or
teams.) For each point, the server starts behind their baseline, between the center mark and the
sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the
server will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.

In a legal service, the ball travels past the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally
opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net
service, which is void, and the server gets to retake that serve. The player can serve any number
of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve
that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault",
which occurs when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark[31]
before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double faults, and the
receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.

A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal
return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or hit any
fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server's court. A player or team cannot hit
the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the net and bounce in the other players court. A
ball that hits the net during a rally is still considered a legal return. The first player or team to fail
to make a legal return loses the point.

Scoring

Main article: Tennis score

A tennis match is determined through the best of 3 or 5 sets. Typically for both men's and
women's matches, the first player to win two sets wins the match. At certain important tennis
tournaments for men, including all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup and the final of the
Olympic Games, the first player to win three sets wins the match.[32] A set consists of games, and
games, in turn, consist of points.

A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by
the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the
opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores
from zero to three points are described as "love", "fifteen", "thirty", and "forty" respectively. (See
the main article Tennis score for the origin of these words as used in tennis.) If at least three
points have been scored by each player, and the scores are equal, the score is "deuce". If at least
three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent,
the score of the game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal games,
"advantage" can also be called "ad in" or "ad out", depending on whether the serving player or
receiving player is ahead, respectively.

In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "fifteen-love") after each point.
The score of a tennis match during play is always read with the serving player's score first. After
a match, the score is always read with the winning player's score first. At the end of a game, the
chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score.

A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one
more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match
point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving
has a score of 40-love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has
three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not
part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.
A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game in the next
rally. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally advantageous. A
receiver who has two (score of 15-40) or three (score of love-40) consecutive chances to win the
game has double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win
their break point, the receiver is said to have converted their break point, but if the receiver fails
to win their break point it is called a failure to convert.

A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending
when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at
least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games
and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the
player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game, a tie-break is played. A tie-break,
played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to
give a final set score of 7–6. Only in the final sets of matches at the Australian Open, the French
Open, Wimbledon, the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, and Fed Cup are tie-breaks not played. In
these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead. A "love" set means
that the loser of the set won zero games. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the
winner of the set and the overall score.

In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well-known phrase
"Game, set, match" followed by the winning person's or team's name.

Rule variations

See also: Types of tennis match

Variations

Name Description

The first player or doubles team to win four points wins the game,
regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by two points. When the
No ad game score reaches three points each, the receiver chooses which side of
the court (advantage court or deuce court) the service is to be delivered on
the seventh and game-deciding point.

Instead of playing multiple sets, players may play one "pro set". A pro set is
first to 8 (or 10) games by a margin of two games, instead of first to 6
Pro set
games. A 12-point tie-break is usually played when the score is 8-8 (or 10-
10). These are often played with no-ad scoring.

This is sometimes played instead of a third set. This is played like a regular
Match tiebreak, but the winner must win ten points instead of seven. Match
tiebreak tiebreaks are used in the Hopman Cup for mixed doubles, on the ATP and
WTA tours for doubles and as a player's choice in USTA league play.
Another, however informal, tennis format is called Canadian doubles. This involves three
players, with one person playing a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys
normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys
when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as a regular game. This format is not sanctioned
by any official body.

"Australian doubles", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar
rules to the "Canuk" style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game. As
such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player
always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to
each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each
taking one if they break serve.

Wheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a
wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed
wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair
player and an able-bodied player (referred to as "one-up, one-down"), or for a wheelchair player
to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the
wheelchair users only.

Surface
Main article: Tennis court#Types of tennis courts

There are four types of court surface used in professional play. Each surface is different in the
speed and height of the bounce of the ball. The same surface plays faster indoors than outdoors.

Nam
Description
e

Examples are red clay (used at the French Open and many other tournaments,
especially in Europe and Latin America) and green clay (an example of which
Clay
is Har-Tru and used mainly in the U.S.). Clay courts normally have a slower
paced ball and a fairly true bounce with more spin.

Examples are acrylic (e.g. Plexicushion used at the Australian Open, DecoTurf
Hard used at the US Open), asphalt, and concrete. Hardcourts typically have a
faster-paced ball with a very true bounce.

Used at Wimbledon. Grass courts usually have a faster-paced ball, and a more
Grass
erratic bounce. Wimbledon has slowed its courts over the years.

Carp Any form of removable court covering, including carpeting and artificial turf.
et The bounce can be higher or lower than a hard court.
Match play

A tennis match is intended to be continuous.[33] Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary

delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 30 seconds
after the end of the previous point.[33] This is increased to 2 minutes when the players change
ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2 minute break is permitted between sets.[33] Other
than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as
rain, damaged footwear, damaged racquet, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player
be determined to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed
by subsequent penalties of "point", "game", and default of the match for the player who is
consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit.[34]

In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is
resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and the players at the
same end of the court when rain halted play, or at the same position (north or south) if play is
resumed on a different court.

Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA tournaments, they are
changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because
the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.[35] As a courtesy to the receiver, the
server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are
used as a reminder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the
balls are changed in a 9-11 style. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the
game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then
the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only
when play resumes.

A recent proposed rules change is to allow coaching on court during a match on a limited basis.
[36][37][38][39]
This has been instituted in women's tennis for WTA Tour events from 2009 onwards.
[40]
Grips

Main article: Grip (Tennis)

Players use various grips during play, including the continental (The "Handshake Grip"), eastern
(Can be either semi-eastern or full eastern. Usually used for backhands.), and western (semi-
western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a
match depending on what shot they are hitting for example a slice shot and serve you would have
a continental grip.[citation needed]

Forehand

Main article: Forehand

For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body,
continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body.
There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the
years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the
western. For a number of years, the small, apparently frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was
considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high
using a western grip. Few top players used the western grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part
of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, the western
forehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which
grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racquet, but there
have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the
Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to achieve a
devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Currently, France's Fabrice Santoro uses
a two-handed forehand. Some females such as Monica Seles and France's Marion Bartoli also
use a two-handed forehand.
Backhand

Main article: Backhand

For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body,
continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their
body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more
difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed
with one hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. The first notable players to use two
hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they were lonely
exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Björn Borg, Chris Evert,
Jimmy Connors, and later Mats Wilander and Marat Safin used it to great effect, and it is now
used by a large number of the world's best players, including Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams.
Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying
backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-
handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge,
had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.
Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice
backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use
two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.

Tournaments
See also: List of tennis tournaments

Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament
configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on
each side of the net. Tournaments may be arranged for specific age groups, with upper age limits
for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include the Orange Bowl and
Les Petits As. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such as wheelchair tennis
and deaf tennis.[41] In the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128
people for each gender.

Most large tournaments Seed players, but players may also be matched by their skill level.
According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is
adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, the United States Tennis
Association administers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players
between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate
3.0-4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale.

Grand Slam Tounaments

Period Tournamen Location Surface

 t

Australian Hard
January Melbourne
Open (Plexicushion)

May–June French Open Paris Clay

June–July Wimbledon London Grass

August– New York

US Open Hard (DecoTurf)
September City

Origin of volleyball

On February 9, 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts (USA), William G. Morgan, a YMCA physical

education director, created a new game called Mintonette as a pastime to be played preferably
indoors and by any number of players. The game took some of its characteristics from tennis and
handball. Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the area, having been invented just
ten miles (sixteen kilometers) away in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years
before. Mintonette was designed to be an indoor sport less rough than basketball for older
members of the YMCA, while still requiring a bit of athletic effort.

The first rules, written down by William G Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) high, a
25×50 ft (7.6×15.2 m) court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings
with three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of ball contacts for
each team before sending the ball to the opponents’ court. In case of a serving error, a second try
was allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul (with loss of the point or a side-
out)—except in the case of the first-try serve.

After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition
match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School (now called Springfield
College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as two words:
"volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training
School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs.[2][

Volleyball in the Olympics

Main article: Volleyball at the Summer Olympics

The history of Olympic volleyball traces back to the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, where
volleyball was played as part of an American sports demonstration event.[8] After the foundation
of FIVB and some continental confederations, it began to be considered for official inclusion. In
1957, a special tournament was held at the 53rd IOC session in Sofia, Bulgaria to support such
request. The competition was a success, and the sport was officially included in the program for
the 1964 Summer Olympics.[4]

The Olympic volleyball tournament was originally a simple competition: all teams played
against each other team and then were ranked by wins, set average, and point average. One
disadvantage of this round-robin system is that medal winners could be determined before the
end of the games, making the audience lose interest in the outcome of the remaining matches. To
cope with this situation, the competition was split into two phases with the addition of a "final
round" elimination tournament consisting of quarterfinals, semifinals, and finals matches in
1972. The number of teams involved in the Olympic tournament has grown steadily since 1964.
Since 1996, both men's and women's events count twelve participant nations. Each of the five
continental volleyball confederations has at least one affiliated national federation involved in
the Olympic Games.

The U.S.S.R. won men's gold in both 1964 and 1968. After taking bronze in 1964 and silver in
1968, Japan finally won the gold for men's volleyball in 1972. Women's gold went to Japan in
1964 and again in 1976. That year, the introduction of a new offensive skill, the backrow attack,
allowed Poland to win the men's competition over the Soviets in a very tight five-set match.
Since the strongest teams in men's volleyball at the time belonged to the Eastern Bloc, the
American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics did not have as great an effect on these
events as it had on the women's. The U.S.S.R. collected their third Olympic Gold Medal in men's
volleyball with a 3-1 victory over Bulgaria (the Soviet women won that year as well, their third
gold as well). With the U.S.S.R. boycotting the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, the U.S.
was able to sweep Brazil in the finals to win the men's gold medal. Italy won its first medal
(bronze in the men's competition) in 1984, foreshadowing a rise in prominence for their
volleyball teams.

At the 1988 Games, Karch Kiraly and Steve Timmons led the U.S. men's team to a second
straight gold medal. In 1992, underrated Brazil upset favourites C.I.S., Netherlands, and Italy in
the men's competition for the country's first volleyball Olympic gold medal. Runner-up
Netherlands, men's silver medalist in 1992, came back under team leaders Ron Zwerver and Olof
van der Meulen in the 1996 Games for a five-set win over Italy. A men's bronze medalist in
1996, Serbia and Montenegro (playing in 1996 and 2000 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)
beat Russia in the gold medal match in 2000, winning their first gold medal ever. In 2004, Brazil
won its second men's volleyball gold medal beating Italy in the finals. In the 2008 Games, the
USA beat Brazil in the men's volleyball final.

See also: Volleyball in the United States and Volleyball in Canada

Game play

Each team consists of six players. To get play started, a team is chosen to serve by coin toss. A
player from the serving team throws the ball into the air and attempts to hit the ball so it passes
over the net on a course such that it will land in the opposing team's court (the serve). The
opposing team must use a combination of no more than three contacts with the volleyball to
return the ball to the opponent's side of the net. These contacts usually consist first of the bump
or pass so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards the player designated as the setter; second of
the set (usually an over-hand pass using wrists to push finger-tips at the ball) by the setter so that
the ball's trajectory is aimed towards a spot where one of the players designated as an attacker
can hit it, and third by the attacker who spikes (jumping, raising one arm above the head and
hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court) to return the
ball over the net. The team with possession of the ball that is trying to attack the ball as described
is said to be on offense.

The team on defense attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into their court:
players at the net jump and reach above the top (and if possible, across the plane) of the net in
order to block the attacked ball. If the ball is hit around, above, or through the block, the
defensive players arranged in the rest of the court attempt to control the ball with a dig (usually a
fore-arm pass of a hard-driven ball). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offense.

The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth, until the ball touches the court
within the boundaries or until an error is made. The most frequent errors that are made are either
to fail to return the ball over the net within the allowed three touches, or to cause the ball to land
outside the court. A ball is "in" if any part of it touches a sideline or end-line, and a strong spike
may compress the ball enough when it lands that a ball which at first appears to be going out
may actually be in. Players may travel well outside the court to play a ball that has gone over a
sideline or end-line in the air.

Other common errors include a player touching the ball twice in succession, a player "catching"
the ball, a player touching the net while attempting to play the ball, or a player penetrating under
the net into the opponent's court. There are a large number of other errors specified in the rules,
although most of them are infrequent occurrences. These errors include back-row or libero
players spiking the ball or blocking (back-row players may spike the ball if they jump from
behind the attack line), players not being in the correct position when the ball is served, attacking
the serve in the front court and above the height of the net, using another player as a source of
support to reach the ball, stepping over the back boundary line when serving, taking more than 8
seconds to serve,[11] or playing the ball when it is above the opponent's court.

Scoring

When the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or an error is made, the team that
did not make the error is awarded a point, whether they served the ball or not. If the ball hits the
line, the ball is counted as in. The team that won the point serves for the next point. If the team
that won the point served in the previous point, the same player serves again. If the team that
won the point did not serve the previous point, the players of the team rotate their position on the
court in a clockwise manner. The game continues, with the first team to score 25 points (and be
two points ahead) awarded the set. Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set (if necessary) is
usually played to 15 points. (Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and levels; high
schools sometimes play best-of-three to 25; in the NCAA games are played best-of-five to 25 as
of the 2008 season.)[12]
Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve (side-out scoring) and all
sets went up to only 15 points. The FIVB changed the rules in 1999 (with the changes being
compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring system (formerly known as rally point system),
primarily to make the length of the match more predictable and to make the game more
spectator- and television-friendl

Skills

Competitive teams master six basic skills: serve, pass, set, attack, block and dig. Each of these
skills comprises a number of specific techniques that have been introduced over the years and are
now considered standard practice in high-level volleyball.

Serve

A player stands behind the inline and serves the ball, in an attempt to drive it into the opponent's
court. His or her main objective is to make it land inside the court; it is also desirable to set the
ball's direction, speed and acceleration so that it becomes difficult for the receiver to handle it
properly. A serve is called an "ace" when the ball lands directly onto the court or travels outside
the court after being touched by an opponent.

Set

The set is usually the second contact that a team makes with the ball. The main goal of setting is
to put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an attack into the opponent's court.
The setter coordinates the offensive movements of a team, and is the player who ultimately
decides which player will actually attack the ball.

As with passing, one may distinguish between an overhand and a bump set. Since the former
allows for more control over the speed and direction of the ball, the bump is used only when the
ball is so low it cannot be properly handled with fingertips, or in beach volleyball where rules
regulating overhand setting are more stringent. In the case of a set, one also speaks of a front or
back set, meaning whether the ball is passed in the direction the setter is facing or behind the
setter. There is also a jump set that is used when the ball is too close to the net. In this case the
setter usually jumps off his or her right foot straight up to avoid going into the net. The setter
usually stands about ⅔ of the way from the left to the right of the net and faces the left (the larger
portion of net that he or she can see).

Sometimes a setter refrains from raising the ball for a teammate to perform an attack and tries to
play it directly onto the opponent's court. This movement is called a "dump".[15] The most
common dumps are to 'throw' the ball behind the setter or in front of the setter to zones 2 and 4.
More experienced setters toss the ball into the deep corners or spike the ball on the second hit.

Pass
Also called reception, the pass is the attempt by a team to properly handle the opponent's serve,
or any form of attack. Proper handling includes not only preventing the ball from touching the
court, but also making it reach the position where the setter is standing quickly and precisely.

The skill of passing involves fundamentally two specific techniques: underarm pass, or bump,
where the ball touches the inside part of the joined forearms or platform, at waist line; and
overhand pass, where it is handled with the fingertips, like a set, above the head. Either are
acceptable in professional and beach volleyball, however there are much tighter regulations on
the overhand pass in beach volleyball.

Attack

The attack, also known as the spike, is usually the third contact a team makes with the ball. The
object of attacking is to handle the ball so that it lands on the opponent's court and cannot be
defended. A player makes a series of steps (the "approach"), jumps, and swings at the ball.

Ideally the contact with the ball is made at the apex of the hitter's jump. At the moment of
contact, the hitter's arm is fully extended above his or her head and slightly forward, making the
highest possible contact while maintaining the ability to deliver a powerful hit. The hitter uses
arm swing, wrist snap, and a rapid forward contraction of the entire body to drive the ball. A
'bounce' is a slang term for a very hard/loud spike that follows an almost straight trajectory
steeply downward into the opponent's court and bounces very high into the air. A "kill" is the

Block

Blocking refers to the actions taken by players standing at the net to stop or alter an opponent's
attack.

A block that is aimed at completely stopping an attack, thus making the ball remain in the
opponent's court, is called offensive. A well-executed offensive block is performed by jumping
and reaching to penetrate with one's arms and hands over the net and into the opponent's area. It
requires anticipating the direction the ball will go once the attack takes place. It may also require
calculating the best foot work to executing the "perfect" block.

The jump should be timed so as to intercept the ball's trajectory prior to it crossing over the net.
Palms are held deflected downward about 45-60 degrees toward the interior of the opponents
court. A "roof" is a spectacular offensive block that redirects the power and speed of the attack
straight down to the attacker's floor, as if the attacker hit the ball into the underside of a peaked
house roof.

By contrast, it is called a defensive, or "soft" block if the goal is to control and deflect the hard-
driven ball up so that it slows down and becomes more easy to be defended. A well-executed
soft-block is performed by jumping and placing one's hands above the net with no penetration
into the opponent's court and with the palms up and fingers pointing backward.
Blocking is also classified according to the number of players involved. Thus, one may speak of
single (or solo), double, or triple block.

Successful blocking does not always result in a "roof" and many times does not even touch the
ball. While it’s obvious that a block was a success when the attacker is roofed, a block that
consistently forces the attacker away from his or her 'power' or preferred attack into a more
easily controlled shot by the defense is also a highly successful block.

At the same time, the block position influences the positions where other defenders place
themselves while opponent hitters are spiking.

Dig

Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack,
particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. In many aspects, this skill is similar to
passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive
actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.

Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player may sometimes
perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to
save the ball, and land on his or her chest. When the player also slides his or her hand under a
ball that is almost touching the court, this is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequently used
in indoor volleyball.

Sometimes a player may also be forced to drop his or her body quickly to the floor in order to
save the ball. In this situation, the player makes use of a specific rolling technique to minimize
the chances of injuries
Dodgeball

Dodgeball means any game in which players try to hit other players on the opposing team with
balls and avoid being hit themselves. There are many such games; see List of dodgeball
variations. This article is about a well-known form of team sport with modified rules that is often
played in physical education classes and has been featured in a movie, Dodgeball: A True
Underdog Story. In the United States, the game is typically played among children ages 6 – 12 in
elementary school; physical education programs have stressed that as a game it develops balance,
[citation needed]
eye-hand coordination,[citation needed] and reflex skills among young children. However,
internationally, the sport is growing, and has emerged as a popular middle school, high school
and college sport as well. It is also popular in informal settings and is often played on a
playground, in a gym, or in organized recreational leagues. There are many variations of the
game, but generally the main objective of each team is to eliminate all members of the opposing
team by hitting them with thrown balls, catching a ball thrown by a member of the opposing
team, or forcing them to move outside the court boundaries when a ball is thrown at them.

Players

Rules dictate both a minimum number of players needed to start the game and a maximum
number of players allowed on the court at any one time. The maximum number of per side is
typically the same as the number starting the game. There is no universal limit on the amount of
players allowed in a team/game; the person/people organizing the game choose the amount.

After a player is eliminated, he may re-enter the match if another player on his team catches an
opponent's thrown ball on the full (provided his team does not already have the maximum
amount of players on the court). In some versions of dodgeball, where the game is played on a
basketball court, if the ball is thrown into the opponent's basket or it is thrown and it hits the
backboard on the full, everybody gets resurrected from the thrower's team. In some versions of
the game, they make the players hit something else in order to ressurect the team. Players must
re-enter the game in the order in which they were eliminated. It is not the case that the team
chooses who to resurrect.

Some leagues allow players that have been eliminated to assist their team by directing thrown
balls back to the players on the court, while other leagues confine eliminated players to a
designated area off the court and prohibit them from participating in the game until they are
allowed back on the court.

Equipment

Any number of dodgeballs may be used in a game, but between five to ten is really common.
Exceptions are usually made if a court is particularly small or if many people participate.

There is no standard worldwide measurement or material for a dodgeball.However, most

dodgeballs are roughly the size of a volleyball and composed of foam with a thin plastic
shell.Some dodgeballs are made of rubber. Some leagues allow the use of multiple sizes of
dodgeballs in a single match, while others use one standard size for all balls.

Court

A typical dodgeball game is usually played on a basketball court, netball court, gymnasium,
parking lot, a bunch of tennis courts, fenced area or even an Australian Rules Football oval or
soccer pitch. There is no fixed dodgeball court design. The game is picked on the best avaliable
surface that is usually one of the above mentioned. Unless it is a variation of dodgeball, the court
must have a center line.

Uniform

The uniform for playing dodgeball is usually physical education uniforms or short sleeve shirts,
shorts and runners. Like the court, there is no fixed uniform. The players usually play in
whatever clothing that they are wearing although they usually play in the clothing mentioned
above.
Rules of play

Dodgeball players preparing for the opening rush.

At the beginning of a dodgeball game, the balls are lined up on the central dividing line (in some
versions of the game, the balls are thrown in the air for the players to catch or divided evenly to
both the teams pre-match). The players then rush towards the center line simutaniously and try to
grab one of the dodgeballs and throw or roll it backwards to their teammates (they cannot pick
up a ball and throw it instantly). This is known as the opening rush. Once the game has
commenced, players throw balls at members of the opposing team in an attempt to eliminate
their players.

When a player has been hit by a dodgeball on the full (i.e without hitting the roof, the floor, any
of the walls or an outside object and rebounding off)below shoulder height, that player has been
eliminated and must move to his team's designated bench area (players are still out if the ball
rebounds off another dodgeball and/or player and hits them on the full). The same rules applies if
any number of people try to catch the ball but drop it. Head shots will not be counted. It only
eliminates the thrower immediately.

If a player catches a ball thrown by the opposing team on the full , then the player who threw the
ball is eliminated and the team that caught the ball can reinstate the player that has been out the
longest (some variations increase the reinstatement limit). As long as the ball has been caught in
any way and is held for two seconds, the thrower is out (i.e. even if the ball is caught between the
legs, the thrower is still out). If a dodgeball hits an opposing player but gets caught by one of the
hit player's teammates, the thrower is out, a player gets reinstated and the player who got hit
stays in. If the dodgeball game is played on a basketball court and a player throws the ball and it
goes into the opposing basket and/or it hits the basketball backboard on the full, the whole team
gets resurrected.(The ball is still counted to have hit the backboard or scored a basket on the full
if it rebounded off another dodgeball or it was deflected into the backboard by an opposing
player). If the ball hits the backboard supports and/or the ring but fails to hit the backboard or go
into the hoop, there is no effect.Players cannot be caught out if the ball hits the backboard,
backboard supports and/or the ring.

Players can pick up dead balls and throw them back at the other team. Players are allowed to
leave the confines of the court to gather balls that have rolled out of bounds, but cannot throw the
ball until they are back inside the court. A ball thrown from outside the court cannot eliminate an
opponent who is hit. It only succeeds in getting the thrower automatically eliminated. If that ball
however is caught on the full,the opposition can reinstate the player that has been out the longest
from their team. A player who moves completely out of bounds when a ball is thrown at them
and does not catch that ball is also eliminated. If a player moves into the opponent's zone or
picks up a ball from inside the opponent's zone without it fully rolling inside their zone, that
player is out. Players can also get eliminated if their throw hits an opponent on the head, displays
bad sportsmanship, or cheats. Kicking the balls are prohibited.

Depending on the rules of a particular game, a ball in the possession of a player can be used to
block incoming balls thrown by the opposing team.

Once all the players on one team are eliminated, the game ends.

Handball is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each (six outfield players and a
goalkeeper) pass a ball to throw it into the goal of the other team. The team with the most goals
after two periods of 30 minutes wins.

Modern Handball is usually played indoors, but outdoor variants exist in the forms of field
handball and czech handball (which were more common in the past) and beach handball.
American handball and Gaelic handball are completely different sports.

The game is quite fast and includes body contact as the defenders try to stop the attackers from
approaching the goal. Contact is only allowed when the defensive player is completely in front of
the offensive player, i.e. between the offensive player and the goal. This is referred to as a player
sandwich. Any contact from the side or especially from behind is considered dangerous and is
usually met with penalties. When a defender successfully stops an attacking player, the play is
stopped and restarted by the attacking team from the spot of the infraction or on the nine meter
line. Unlike in basketball where players are allowed to commit only 5 fouls in a game (6 in the
NBA), handball players are allowed an unlimited number of "faults", which are considered good
defence and disruptive to the attacking team's rhythm.

Goals are scored quite frequently; usually both teams score at least 20 goals each, and it is not
uncommon for both teams to score more than 30 goals. This was not true in the earliest history of
the game, when the scores were more akin to that of ice hockey[clarification needed]. But, as offensive
play has improved since the late 1980s, particularly the use of counterattacks (fast breaks) after a
failed attack from the other team, goal scoring has increased.

•
Origins and development

There are records of handball-like games in medieval France, and among the Inuit in Greenland,
in the Middle Ages. By the 19th century, there existed similar games of håndbold from
Denmark, házená in the Czech Republic, hádzaná in Slovakia, gandbol in Ukraine, torball in
Germany, as well as versions in Uruguay.

The team handball game of today was formed by the end of the 19th century in northern Europe,
primarily Denmark, Germany, Norway and Sweden. Holger Nielsen, a Danish gym teacher,
drew up the rules for modern handball (håndbold) in 1898 and published them in 1906, and
Rasmus Nicolai Ernst, another Danish teacher, did something similar in 1897.

Another set of team Handball rules was published on 29 October 1917 by Max Heiser, Karl
Schelenz, and Erich Konigh from Germany. After 1919 these rules were improved by Karl
Schelenz. The first international games were played under these rules, between Germany and
Belgium for men in 1925 and between Germany and Austria for women in 1930.

In 1926, the Congress of the International Amateur Athletics Federation nominated a committee
to draw up international rules for field handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation
was formed in 1928, and the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946.

Men's field handball was played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. During the next
several decades, the game of handball flourished and evolved as an indoor sport in the
Scandinavian countries. The sport re-emerged onto the world stage as team handball for the 1972
Summer Olympics in Munich. Women's team handball was added at the 1976 Summer
Olympics. Due to its popularity in the region, the Eastern European countries that refined the
event became the dominant force in the sport when it was reintroduced.

The International Handball Federation organized the men's world championship in 1938 and
every 4 (sometimes 3) years from World War II to 1995. Since the 1995 world championship in
Iceland, the competition has been every two years. The women's world championship has been
played since 1957. The IHF also organizes women's and men's junior world championships. By
July 2009, the IHF listed 166 member federations - approximately 795,000 teams and 19
million players.

Summary

The handball playing field is similar to an indoor football field. Two teams of seven players (six
field players plus one goalkeeper) take the field and attempt to score points by putting the game
ball into the opposing team's goal. In handling the ball, players are subject to the following
restrictions:

• After receiving the ball, players can only hold the ball for three seconds
before passing, dribbling (similar to a basketball dribble), or shooting.
 • After receiving the ball, players can take up to three steps without dribbling.
If players dribble, they may take an additional three steps.
• Players that stop dribbling have three seconds to pass or shoot. They may
take three additional steps during this time.
• No players other than the defending goalkeeper are allowed within the goal
line (within 6 meters of the goal). Goalkeepers are allowed outside this line.

Playing field

Handball is played on a court 40 by 20 metres (130 × 66 ft), with a goal in the center of each end.
The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular area, called the zone or the crease, defined by a
line six meters from the goal. A dashed near-semicircular line nine meters from the goal marks
the free-throw line. Each line on the court is part of the area it encompasses. This implies that the
middle line belongs to both halves at the same time.

Goals

Each goal has a rectangular clearance area of three meters in the width and two meters in the
height. It must be securely bolted either to the floor or the wall behind.

The goal posts and the crossbar must be made out of the same material (e.g. wood or aluminium)
and feature a quadratic cross section with a side of 8 cm (3 in). The three sides of the beams
visible from the playing field must be painted alternatingly in two contrasting colors which both
have to contrast against the background. The colors on both goals must be the same.

Each goal must feature a net. This must be fastened in such a way that a ball thrown into does
not leave or pass the goal under normal circumstances. If necessary, a second net may be clasped
to the back of the net on the inside.

Goal perimeter

The goals are surrounded by the crease. This area is delimited by two quarter circles with a
radius of six meters around the far corners of each goal post and a connecting line parallel to the
goal line. Only the defending goalkeeper is allowed inside this perimeter. However, the court
players may catch and touch the ball in the air within it as long as the player starts his jump
outside the zone and releases the ball before he lands.

If a player contacts the ground inside the goal perimeter he must take the most direct path out of
it. However, should a player cross the zone in an attempt to gain an advantage (e.g. better
position) his team cedes the ball. Similarly, violation of the zone by a defending player is only
penalized if he does so to gain an advantage in defending.

Substitution area

Outside of one long edge of the playing field to both sides of the middle line are the substitution
areas for each team. The areas usually contain the benches as seating opportunities. Team
officials, substitutes and suspended players must wait within this area. The area always lies to the
same side as the team's own goal. During half-time substitution areas are swapped. Any player
entering or leaving the play must cross the substitution line which is part of the side line and
extends 4.5 meters from the middle line to the team's side.

Duration

A standard match for all teams of 16 and older has two periods of 30 minutes with a 10 minute
half-time. Teams may switch sides of the field, as well as benches. For youths the game duration
is:

• 2 x 25 minutes at ages 12 to 16.

• 2 x 20 minutes at ages 8 to 12.

However, national federations of some countries may differ in their implementation from the
official guidelines.

If a decision must be reached in a particular match (e.g. in a tournament) and it ends in a draw
after regular time, there are at maximum two overtimes of 2 x 5 minutes with a 1 minute break
each. Should these not decide the game either, the winning team is determined in a penalty
shootout.

The referees may call timeout according to their sole discretion, typical reasons are injuries,
suspensions or court cleaning. Penalty throws should only trigger a timeout for lengthy delays as
a change of the goalkeeper.

Each team may call one team timeout (TTO) per period which lasts one minute. This right may
only be invoked by team in ball possession. To do so, the representative of the team lays a green
card marked by black "T" on the desk of the timekeeper. The timekeeper then immediately
interrupts the game by sounding an acoustic signal and stops the time.

Referees

A Handball match is led by two equal referees. Some national bodies allow games with only a
single referee in special cases like illness on short notice. Should the referees disagree on any
occasion, a decision is made on mutual agreement during a short timeout, or, in case of
punishments, the more severe of the two comes into effect. The referees are obliged to make
their decisions "on the basis of their observations of facts".[1] Their judgements are final and can
only be appealed against if not in compliance with the rules.

The referees position themselves in such a way that the team players are confined between them.
They stand diagonally aligned so that each can observe one side line. Depending on their
positions one is called field referee and the other goal referee. These positions automatically
switch on ball turnover. They physically exchange their positions approximately every 10
minutes (long exchange) and change sides every 5 minutes (short exchange).

The IHF defines 18 hand signals for quick visual communication with players and officials. The
signal for warning or disqualification is accompanied by a yellow or red card,[2] respectively. The
referees also use whistle blows to indicate infractions or restart the play.

The referees are supported by a scorekeeper and a timekeeper who attend to formal things like
keeping track of goals and suspensions or starting and stopping the clock, respectively. They also
have an eye on the benches and notify the referees on substitution errors. Their desk is located in
between both substitutions areas.

Team players, substitutes and officials

Each team consists of 7 players on court and up to 7 substitute players on the bench. One player
on the court must be the designated goalkeeper differing in his or her clothing from the rest of
the field players. Substitution of players can be done in any number and at any time during game
play. An exchange takes place over the substitution line. A prior notification of the referees is not
necessary.

Some national bodies as the Deutscher Handball Bund (DHB, "German Handball Federation")
allow substitution in junior teams only when in ball possession or during timeouts. This
restriction is intended to prevent early specialization of players to offense or defense.

Field players

Field players are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their bodies above the knee (knee
included). As in several other team sports, a distinction is made between catching and dribbling.
A player who is in possession of the ball may stand stationary for only three seconds and may
only take three steps. They must then either shoot, pass or dribble the ball. At any time taking
more than three steps is considered travelling and results in a turnover. A player may dribble as
many times as he wants (though since passing is faster it is the preferred method of attack) as
long as during each dribble his hand contacts only the top of the ball. Therefore basketball-style
carrying is completely prohibited, and results in a turnover. After the dribble is picked up, the
player has the right to another three seconds or three steps. The ball must then be passed or shot
as further holding or dribbling will result in a "double dribble" turnover and a free throw for the
other team. Other offensive infractions that result in a turnover include, charging, setting an
illegal screen, or carrying the ball into the six meter zone.

Goalkeeper

Only the goalkeeper is allowed move freely within the goal perimeter, although he may not cross
the goal perimeter line while carrying or dribbling the ball. Within the zone, he is allowed to
touch the ball with all parts of his body including his feet. The goalkeeper may participate in the
normal play of his team mates. As he is then considered as normal field player, he is typically
substituted for a regular field player if his team uses this scheme to outnumber the defending
players. As this player becomes the designated goalkeeper on the court, he must wear some vest
or bib to identify himself as such.

If the goalkeeper deflects the ball over the outer goal line, his team stays in possession of the ball
in contrast to other sports like soccer. The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from within
the zone ("goalkeeper throw"). Passing to your own goalkeeper results in a turnover. Throwing
the ball against the head of the goalkeeper when he is not moving is to be punished by
disqualification ("red card").

Team officials

Each team is allowed to have a maximum of four team officials seated on the benches. An
official is anybody who is neither player nor substitute. One official must be the designated
representative who is usually the team manager. The representative may call team timeout once
every period and may address scorekeeper, timekeeper and referees. Other officials typically
include physicians or managers. Neither official is allowed to enter the playing court without
permission of the referees.

] Ball

The ball is spherical and must either be made of leather or a synthetic material. It is not allowed
to have a shiny or slippery surface. As it is intended to be operated by a single hand, the official
sizes vary depending on age and gender of the participating teams.

Siz Circumference Weight

Used by
e (in cm) (in g)

III Men and male youth older than 16 58–60 425–475

Women, male youth older than 12 and female

II 54–56 325–375
youth older than 14

I Youth older than 8 50–52 290–330

Resin product used to improve ball handling.

Though not officially regulated, the ball is usually resinated. The resin improves the ability of the
players to manipulate the ball with a single hand like spinning trick shots. Some indoor arenas
prohibit the usage of resin since many products leave sticky stains on the floor.

Awarded throws

The referees may award a special throw to a team. This usually happens after certain events like
scored goals, off-court balls, turnovers, timeouts, etc. All of these special throws require the
thrower to obtain a certain position and pose restrictions on the positions of all other players.
Sometimes the execution must wait for a whistle blow by the referee.

Throw-off

A throw-off takes place from the center of the court. The thrower must touch
the middle line with one foot and all of the other players must be in the half
of their team. The defending players must keep a distance of at least three
meters to the thrower. A throw-off occurs at the begin of each period and
after the opposing team scored a goal. It must be cleared by the referees.

Modern Handball introduced the "fast throw-off" concept, i. e. the play will be
immediately restarted by the referees as soon as the executing team fulfilles
its requirements. Many teams leverage this rule to score easy goals before
the opposition has time to form a stable defense line.

Throw-in

The team which did not touch the ball last is awarded a throw-in when the
ball fully crosses the side line or touches the ceiling. If the ball crosses the
outer goal line, a throw-in is only awarded if the defending field players
touched the balls last. Execution requires the thrower to place one foot on
the nearest outer line to the cause. All defending players must keep a
distance of three meters. However, they are allowed to stand immediately
outside their own goal area even when the distance is less.

Goalkeeper-throw

If ball crosses the outer goal line without interference from the defending
team or when deflected by their goalkeeper, a goalkeeper-throw is awarded
to the defending team. This is the most common turnover. The goalkeeper
resumes the play with a throw from anywhere within his goal area.

Free-throw

A free-throw restarts the play after an interruption by the referees. It takes

places from the spot where the interruption was caused as long as this spot is
outside of the free-throw line of the opposing team. In the latter case the
throw is deferred to the nearest spot on the free-throw line. Free-throws are
the equivalent to free-kicks in association football. The thrower may take a
direct attempt for a goal which is, however, not feasible if the defending team
organized a defense.

A 7-meter throw.
7-meter throw

A 7-meter throw is awarded when a clear chance of scoring is illegally

destroyed anywhere on the court by a opposing team player, official or
spectator. It is also awarded when the referees interrupted a legitimate
scoring chance for any reason. The thrower steps with one foot behind the 7-
meter line with only the defending goalkeeper between him and the goal. The
goalkeeper must keep a distance of three meters which is marked by a short
tick on the floor. All other players must remain behind the free-throw line
until execution. The thrower must await the whistle blow of the referee. A 7-
meter throw is the equivalent to a penalty kick in association football, it is,
however, far more common and typically occurs several times in a single
game.

Netball is a ball sport played between two teams of seven players. The sport shares many
similarities with basketball, having been derived from early versions of women's basketball. It
developed as a distinct sport in the 1890s in England, from where it spread to other countries.
Netball is popular in Commonwealth nations and is predominantly played by women.

Games are played on a rectangular court divided into thirds, with a raised goal at each short end.
The object of the game is for teams to score goals, by passing a ball and shooting it into the
opposing team's goal. Players are assigned "positions" that define their role within the team and
restrict their movement on court. During general play, a player with the ball can take no more
than one step before passing it, and must pass the ball or shoot for goal within three seconds.
Goals can only be scored by the assigned shooting players. Netball games are 60 minutes long,
divided into 15-minute quarters, at the end of which the team with the most goals scored wins.

The sport is administered globally by the International Federation of Netball Associations

(IFNA), and is reportedly played by over 20 million people in more than 70 countries.[1] Local-
level participation is widespread in Commonwealth nations, particularly in schools, although
international competition and domestic leagues only receive substantial recognition in a few
countries. The highest level of international netball includes the Netball World Championships,
the netball event at the Commonwealth Games, and the World Netball Series.

Origins from basketball

Netball emerged from early versions of women's basketball, evolving with the increasing
participation of women in sport. Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith, a Canadian
physical education instructor working in Springfield, Massachusetts. His new game was played
in his school's gymnasium between two teams of nine players, using an association football that
was shot into closed-end peach baskets.[2] Senda Berenson, a teacher at a nearby women's
college, developed women's basketball the following year, with modified rules designed to
accommodate the social norms regarding appropriate conduct and attire for women, and
contemporary notions on their limited physical capacity.[3][4]
Women's basketball spread across the United States over the next few years, with many
variations arising in different parts of the country. In 1893, Clara Gregory Baer introduced her
own version of the sport to her female students in New Orleans. Two years later, she released the
first published rules for women's basketball, which she called "basquette".[5] Baer's game was
substantially different to Berenson's, but was similarly designed to facilitate women's
participation in sport.[6] The first unified rules of women's basketball was published by Berenson
in 1901, which included a number of rules from Baer's game.[7] The rules of women's basketball
eventually merged with those of the men's game, although these early versions of women's
basketball gave rise to another sport: netball.

Early development of netball

Basketball spread to England within a few years of its invention. Martina Bergman-Österberg
introduced one version of basketball in 1893 to her female students at her Physical Training
College in London (later in Dartford). Subsequent revisions were made at the college two years
later, and in 1897 rules were introduced from women's basketball in the United States. By that
time, the game had moved outdoors and the baskets were replaced by rings that had nets;
Madame Österberg's sport had also acquired the new name "net ball".[8] The first codified rules of
netball were published in 1901 by the Ling Association (later the Physical Education Association
of the United Kingdom).[6] From England, netball spread to other countries in the British Empire.
Variations of the rules and even names for the sport arose in different areas: "women's (outdoor)
basketball" arrived in Australia around the start of the 20th century and in New Zealand from
1906,[6][9] while "netball" was being played in Jamaican schools by 1909.[10]

Netball became a popular women's sport in countries where it was introduced, and spread rapidly
through school systems. School leagues and domestic competitions emerged during the first half
of the 20th century, and in 1924 the first national governing body was established. International
competition was initially hampered by a lack of funds and varying rules in different countries.
Australia and New Zealand contested the first international game of netball in Melbourne on 20
August 1938, which the host nation won 40–11.[9] Efforts began in 1957 to standardise netball
rules globally: by 1960 international playing rules had been standardised, and the International
Federation of Netball and Women's Basketball (later the International Federation of Netball
Associations) was formed to administer the sport worldwide.[2]

The global game

In 1963, the first international tournament was held in Eastbourne, England; this was originally
called the World Tournament, and eventually became known as the Netball World
Championships. It has been held every four years since, most recently in 2007. The World Youth
Netball Championships started in Canberra in 1988, and have been held roughly every four years
since. In 1995, netball became an Olympic-recognised sport, allowing its inclusion in future
games. Three years later it debuted at the Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur.[2] Other
international competitions also emerged in the late 20th century, primarily contested between
second- and third-tier netball nations: these include the Nations Cup and the Asian Netball
Championship.
School leagues and nationwide club competitions have existed in countries such as England,
Australia, New Zealand and Jamaica since the early 20th century. However, franchise-based
netball leagues only emerged in the late 1990s. The most prominent of these competitions are the
ANZ Championship in Australia and New Zealand, and the Netball Superleague in the United
Kingdom. These competitions sought to increase the profile of the sport in their respective
countries, which despite widespread local-level participation remains largely amateur. In 2008,
efforts were started to include netball in the Olympic Games from as early as 2012.[11] A new
format of the game, called fastnet, was also announced in December that year, one that featured
shorter matches with modified rules designed to make the game more appealing to spectators and
television audiences.[12]

Description and rules

Objective

The objective of a game of netball is for players to pass the ball to a teammate within the
opposition's goal circle and score goals, which the opposing team will attempt to prevent. The
team with the most goals at the end of a game is the winner.

Court and its dimensions

Like basketball, netball is played on either a hard or soft court with scoring hoops or "rings" at
both ends. The court is slightly larger than a basketball court, being 30.5 m long and 15.25 m
wide. The longer sides are called "side lines" and the shorter sides are called "goal lines"or "back
lines". Court markings are no more than 50 mm wide. The court is divided into thirds which
regulate where individuals of each position are allowed to move. A 90 cm-diameter "centre
circle" is located in the centre of the court. At each end of the court there is a 4.9 m-radius semi-
circular "shooting circle" or "goal circle" from within which all scoring shots must be taken. The
goal posts are 3.05 m high from the top of the ring to the ground and have no backboards. The
rings have an internal diameter of 380 mm and are located 150 mm forward from the post and
are made of 15 mm diameter steel. The height is the same as a basketball hoop, but in netball the
diameter of the rings is 3 inches smaller. It is possible to play netball using a basketball hoop but
if there is any contact between the ball and the backboard, the ball is considered out of play. If a
goal is scored off the backboard it does not count. Some versions of the rules allow a goal to be
scored from a backboard rebound if a player who can catch the ball throws the ball in without
touching the ground.

Ball

The ball resembles a basketball but is lighter, smaller, slightly softer in construction, and
generally white. A netball will often have patterns engraved or stitched into its design similar to
a volleyball. Gilbert is the official ball supplier of the International Federation of Netball
Associations.

Positions
There are seven players on each team, who are given nominated, named positions (some
junior/training variants have only five players per team, and the indoor short version has 6
players). Each player must wear a "bib" showing one of the abbreviations below, indicating that
player's position. Each player is only allowed in certain areas of the court: a player in a section of
court that is not part of their playing area is deemed "offside". The positions are described below:

Netball positions

Position Abbreviat
comments
Name ion

This player must get past the Goal Keeper of the other
Goal
GS team. He or she can move within the "attacking" goal third,
Shooter
including the shooting circle.

This player must stop the GOAL SHOOTER from scoring. He

Goal
GK or she can move within and across the defensive goal third
Keeper
and the shooting circle.

This player acts as the "goal attack," and can move within
Goal
GA and across the "attacking" goal third, shooting circle, and
Attack
centre third areas.

This player must protect against the GOAL ATTACK player,

Goal
GD and can move within and across the "defensive" goal third
Defence
and centre third, as well as within the shooting circle.

This player functions as the "wing attack," and can move

Wing
WA within and across the "attacking" goal third and centre
Attack
third, but not in the shooting circle.

This player"s function is to "defend" the wing areas, so he or

Wing
WD she can move within and across the "defensive" goal third
Defence
and centre third, but never in the shooting circle.

This player can move in all areas except the shooting

Centre C
circles.

Scoring goals

By the combination of the above, only the Goal Attack and Goal Shooter are able to score goals
directly, and this may only be done from the inside of the circle. The job of the Goal Defence
and Goal Keeper is to block the Goal Attack and Goal Shooter from shooting; however, they
must be three feet or more away from the landing foot of the shooter, otherwise it is called an
obstruction. In this, the Goal Keeper or Goal Defence must stand by the shooter's side for a
penalty pass or shot and are now not allowed to block. A ball that passes through the hoop, but
has been thrown either from outside the circle or by a player not the GA or GS, is deemed a "no
goal". Furthermore, a shooter (GA or GS) may not shoot for a goal if a "free pass" has been
awarded for an infringement such as stepping, offside, or using the post.

If a player misses and the ball does not touch the rim or any part of the post, the player cannot
catch it otherwise it is called replay. This results in a free pass to the other team.

Starting and restarting play

At the beginning of every quarter or after a goal is scored, play starts from the centre of the court
with a "centre pass". These passes alternate between the teams, regardless of which team scored
the last goal. A centre pass is made by a player in the "centre" position who must have one foot
grounded within the centre circle. As the game restarts, only the player in the 'Centre' position
from each team are allowed in the centre third of the court. When the umpire blows the whistle
to restart play, players in the positions "Goal Attack", "Goal Defence", "Wing Attack" and
"Wing Defence" can move into the centre third, where the centre pass must be caught.

If the ball touches the ground outside the court boundaries, then a member of the team that was
not the last to touch the ball before it went out is able to throw the ball back into the court to
restart play.

Stepping, footwork, and passing

Netball rules do not permit players to let their landing foot touch the ground again if it is lifted at
all while in possession of the ball, so players can take 1.5 steps while holding the ball. Players
are entitled to balance on the other foot if the landing foot is lifted. Consequently, the only way
to move the ball towards the goal is to throw the ball to a team-mate. The ball can be held by a
player for less than three seconds at any time. A player may tap (deflect) the ball let it bounce
and then take possession and throw it. The player cannot catch the ball (with both hands), drop it
and pick it up again; this is called a replayed ball. The duration before it is called a drop is
determined by the umpire. These rules, combined with the restrictions on where one player of a
particular position can move, ensure that everyone on the team is regularly involved in play.

Contact and obstruction

Contact is only permitted provided it does not impede with an opponent or the general play and
players must be at least three feet (90 centimetres) away from a player with the ball while
attempting to defend. If impeding contact is made, a penalty is given to the team of the player
who was contacted, and the player who contacted must stand "out of play", meaning they cannot
participate in play until the player taking the penalty has passed the ball.

Playing time

A game is played in four quarters, each one lasting fifteen minutes, with intervals of three
minutes between the first and second quarters, and between the third and fourth quarters. There
is also an interval of five minutes at half time. If a player/umpire calls time, and the time keeper
pauses the timer. When the game starts and the player has swapped places with another player, or
is healthy, play is resumed and the timer is restarted.

Badminton is a racquet sport played by either two opposing players (singles) or two opposing
pairs (doubles), who take positions on opposite halves of a rectangular court that is divided by a
net. Players score points by striking a shuttlecock (also known as a birdy) with their racquet so
that it passes over the net and lands in their opponents' half of the court. Each side may only
strike the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net. A rally ends once the shuttlecock has
struck the floor.

The shuttlecock (or shuttle) is a feathered projectile whose unique aerodynamic properties cause
it to fly differently from the balls used in most racquet sports; in particular, the feathers create
much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly than a ball. Shuttlecocks
have a much higher top speed, when compared to other racquet sports. Because shuttlecock flight
is affected by wind, competitive badminton is played indoors. Badminton is also played outdoors
as a casual recreational activity, often as a garden or beach game.

Since 1992, badminton has been an Olympic sport with five events: men's and women's singles,
men's and women's doubles, and mixed doubles, in which each pair consists of a man and a
woman. At high levels of play, the sport demands excellent fitness: players require aerobic
stamina, agility, strength, speed and precision. It is also a technical sport, requiring good motor
coordination and the development of sophisticated racquet movements.

•
History and development

The beginnings of Badminton can be traced to mid-18th century British India, where it was
created by British military officers stationed there.[2] Early photographs show Englishmen adding
a net to the traditional English game of battledore and shuttlecock. Being particularly popular in
the British garrison town Poona (now Pune), the game also came to be known as Poona.[2][3]
Initially, balls of wool referred as ball badminton were preferred by the upper classes in windy or
wet conditions, but ultimately the shuttlecock stuck. This game was taken by retired officers
back to England where it developed and rules were set out.

As early as 1860, Isaac Spratt, a London toy dealer, published a booklet, Badminton Battledore -
a new game, but unfortunately no copy has survived.[4]

The new sport was definitively launched in 1873 at the Badminton House, Gloucestershire,
owned by the Duke of Beaufort. During that time, the game was referred to as "The Game of
Badminton," and the game's official name became Badminton.[5]

Until 1887, the sport was played in England under the rules that prevailed in British India. The
Bath Badminton Club standardized the rules and made the game applicable to English ideas. The
basic regulations were drawn up in 1887.[5] In 1893, the Badminton Association of England
published the first set of rules according to these regulations, similar to today's rules, and
officially launched badminton in a house called "Dunbar" at 6 Waverley Grove, Portsmouth,
England on September 13 of that year.[6] They also started the All England Open Badminton
Championships, the first badminton competition in the world, in 1899.

The International Badminton Federation (IBF) (now known as Badminton World Federation)
was established in 1934 with Canada, Denmark, England, France, the Netherlands, Ireland, New
Zealand, Scotland, and Wales as its founding members. India joined as an affiliate in 1936. The
BWF now governs international badminton and develops the sport globally.

While set out in England, competitive men's badminton in Europe has traditionally been
dominated by Denmark. Indonesia, South Korea, China and Malaysia are among the nations that
have consistently produced world-class players in the past few decades and dominated
competitions on the international level, with China being the most dominant in recent years.

Laws

The following information is a simplified summary of the Laws, not a complete reproduction.
The definitive source of the Laws is the BWF Statutes publication,[7] although the digital
distribution of the Laws contains poor reproductions of the diagrams.

Playing court dimensions

The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked for both
singles and doubles play, although the laws permit a court to be marked for singles only. The
doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are the same length. The exception, which
often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length
dimension.

The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to
5.18 metres (17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are
marked by a centre line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of
1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch) from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the
service court is also marked by a long service line, which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the
back boundary.

The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre.
The net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played.

The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton.
Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high
serve.

Equipment laws

The Laws specify which equipment may be used. In particular, the Laws restrict the design and
size of racquets and shuttlecocks. The Laws also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct
speed:

3.1

To test a shuttlecock, use a full underhand stroke which makes contact with
the shuttlecock over the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at
an upward angle and in a direction parallel to the side lines.

3.2

A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not
more than 990 mm short of the other back boundary line.

Scoring system and service

The basics

Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally
regardless of whether they served [7] (this differs from the old system where players could only
win a point on their serve and each game was played to 15 points). A match is the best of three
games.
At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally opposite service courts (see
court dimensions). The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's service
court. This is similar to tennis, except that a badminton serve must be hit below waist height and
with the racquet shaft pointing downwards, the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce and in
badminton, the players stand inside their service courts unlike tennis.

When the serving side loses a rally, the serve immediately passes to their opponent(s) (this
differs from the old system where sometimes the serve passes to the doubles partner for what is
known as a "second serve").

In singles, the server stands in her/his right service court when her/his score is even, and in
her/his left service court when her/his score is odd.

In doubles, if the serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve, but s/he changes
service courts so that s/he serves to a different opponent each time. If the opponents win the rally
and their new score is even, the player in the right service court serves; if odd, the player in the
left service court serves. The players' service courts are determined by their positions at the start
of the previous rally, not by where they were standing at the end of the rally. A consequence of
this system is that, each time a side regains the service, the server will be the player who did not
serve last time.

[edit] Details

When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on the opponents'
court or it will count as a fault.

If the score reaches 20-all, then the game continues until one side gains a two point lead (such as
24-22), up to a maximum of 30 points (30-29 is a winning score).

At the start of a match, the shuttlecock is cast and where ever the shuttlecock is pointing that side
begins or a coin is tossed. The winners of the coin toss may choose whether to serve or receive
first, or they may choose which end of the court they wish to occupy. Their opponents make the
remaining choice. In less formal settings, the coin toss is often replaced by hitting a shuttlecock
into the air: whichever side the corked end points will be the side that serves first.

In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first. These can also be called
rubbers. If one team wins a game they play once more and if they win again they win that match,
but if they lose they play one more match to find the winning team. For the first rally of any
doubles game, the serving pair may decide who serves and the receiving pair may decide who
receives. The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the match reaches a third
game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the leading pair's score reaches 11
points.

The server and receiver must remain within their service courts, without touching the boundary
lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players may stand wherever they
wish, so long as they do not unsight the opposing server or receiver.
[edit] Lets

If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score. Lets may occur
because of some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock landing on court (having been hit
there by players on an adjacent court) or in small halls the shuttle may touch an overhead rail
which can be classed as a let.

If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called; yet, if the receiver
attempts to return the shuttlecock, he shall be judged to have been ready.

There is no let if the shuttlecock hits the tape (even on service).

[edit] Equipment

Badminton racquets

[edit] Racquets

Badminton racquets are light, with top quality racquets weighing between 70 and 95 grams (2.4
to 3.3 ounces) not including grip or strings.[8][9] They are composed of many different materials
ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may be
augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is
stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the adoption of carbon fibre composite,
racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium. Earlier still, racquets were made of wood.
Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer
manufactured for the ordinary market, because of their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays,
nanomaterials such as fullerene and carbon nanotubes are added to rackets giving them greater
durability.

There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the laws limit the racquet size and shape.
Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players. The traditional
oval head shape is still available, but an isometric head shape is increasingly common in new
racquets.

[edit] Strings

Badminton strings are thin, high performing strings in the range of about 0.62 to 0.73 mm
thickness. Thicker strings are more durable, but many players prefer the feel of thinner strings.
String tension is normally in the range of 80 to 160 N (18 to 36 lbf). Recreational players
generally string at lower tensions than professionals, typically between 18 and 25 lbf (110 N).
Professionals string between about 25 and 36 lbf (160 N). Some string manufacturers measure
the thickness of their strings under tension so they are actually thicker then than specified when
slack. Ashaway Micropower is actually 0.7mm but Yonex BG-66 is about 0.72mm.

It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string tensions increase
power.[10] The arguments for this generally rely on crude mechanical reasoning, such as claiming
that a lower tension string bed is more bouncy and therefore provides more power. This is in fact
incorrect, for a higher string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off the racquet and hence make
it harder to hit a shot accurately. An alternative view suggests that the optimum tension for
power depends on the player:[8] the faster and more accurately a player can swing their racquet,
the higher the tension for maximum power. Neither view has been subjected to a rigorous
mechanical analysis, nor is there clear evidence in favour of one or the other. The most effective
way for a player to find a good string tension is to experiment.

[edit] Grip

The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of his racquet handle and choose a
comfortable surface to hold. A player may build up the handle with one or several grips before
applying the final layer.

Players may choose between a variety of grip materials. The most common choices are PU
synthetic grips or towelling grips. Grip choice is a matter of personal preference. Players often
find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a drying agent may be applied to the grip or
hands, sweatbands may be used, the player may choose another grip material or change his grip
more frequently.

There are two main types of grip: replacement grips and overgrips. Replacement grips are
thicker, and are often used to increase the size of the handle. Overgrips are thinner (less than
1 mm), and are often used as the final layer. Many players, however, prefer to use replacement
grips as the final layer. Towelling grips are always replacement grips. Replacement grips have an
adhesive backing, whereas overgrips have only a small patch of adhesive at the start of the tape
and must be applied under tension; overgrips are more convenient for players who change grips
frequently, because they may be removed more rapidly without damaging the underlying
material.
Shuttlecocks with feathers

A shuttlecock with a plastic skirt

[edit] Shuttlecock

A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle) is a high-drag projectile, with an open conical shape:
the cone is formed from sixteen overlapping feathers embedded into a rounded cork base. The
cork is covered with thin leather or synthetic material.

Synthetic shuttles are often used by recreational players to reduce their costs as feathered shuttles
break easily. These nylon shuttles may be constructed with either natural cork or synthetic foam
base, and a plastic skirt.

Additionally, nylon shuttlecocks come in three varieties, each variety for a different range of
temperatures. These three varieties are known as green (slow speed which will give you an extra
40% hang time/shot length), blue (middle speed), and red (fast speed). The colours, and therefore
speeds, are indicated by coloured strips fastened around the cork. In colder temperatures, a faster
shuttle is used, and in hotter climates, a slower one is chosen.

[edit] Shoes

Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-marking
materials.

Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have little lateral support. High levels of lateral
support are useful for activities where lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected. Badminton,
however, requires powerful lateral movements. A highly built-up lateral support will not be able
to protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic collapse at the point
where the shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for the sudden loading, which
can cause sprains. For this reason, players should choose badminton shoes rather than general
trainers or running shoes, because proper badminton shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a
person's centre of gravity, and therefore result in fewer injuries. Players should also ensure that
they learn safe and proper footwork, with the knee and foot in alignment on all lunges. This is
not only a safety concern, as proper footwork is critical in order to move effectively around the
court.

Throwball

Throwball

Highest International Throwball

governing body Federation

First played 1940s

Characteristics

Contact Non-contact

Seven players per team on

Team members
court at once

Mixed gender No

Categorization Indoor or outdoor

Equipment Throwball

Olympic No

Throwball is a non-contact ball sport played across a net between two teams of Nine players on
a rectangular court. Throwball is popular in Asia, moreover on the Indian subcontinent and was
played as a women's sport in Chennai (formerly Madras) during the 1940s. The game's roots are
closely linked with the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) as are those of volleyball
which, while older, shares many similarities with throwball. Rules were drafted in 1955 and
India's first national level championship was played in 1980.

•
History

According to the Throwball Federation of India, throwball is thought to have been drawn from a
recreational sport popular among women in England and Australia during the 1930s. The YMCA
is believed to have brought the game to Chennai, India where it was played as a women's sport in
the 1940s. Harry Crowe Buck, who had founded the YMCA College of Physical Education in
Chennai (which became co-educational in 1940), drafted guidelines for throwball rules and
regulations in 1955. The game reached Bangalore in the 1950s.[1]

T. Ramanna, a sports enthusiast from Bangalore, organized a national level throwball

championship in 1980.[1] In 1985 the Throwball Federation of India (TFI) was formed along with
the Indian National Throwball Championship and by 1990 throwball in India had become a sport
for both men and women.[2]

[edit] Rules and play

The playing court is somewhat larger than a volleyball court at 12.20 by 18.30 metres
(40.03 × 60.04 ft) with a neutral box 1.5 metres (4 ft 11.06 in) on either side of the centre. The
height of the net is 2.2 metres (7.22 ft). The ball is similar to a volleyball but may be slightly
larger. While in volleyball the ball is hit or volleyed throughout play, in throwball the ball is
thrown over the net, where a member of the other team tries to catch the ball and quickly throw it
back across the net.

An official game is played between two teams of seven players. A maximum of five substitute
players is allowed for each team, which can make a maximum of five substitutions during a set.
A team can take two time-outs of 30 seconds each during a set. The first team to score 25 points
wins a set. A match is three sets.

Service is within five seconds after the referee whistles and is done from the service zone,
without crossing the end line. A player can jump while serving the ball. The service ball must
not touch the net. Double touch is not allowed for receiving the service ball and players stay in 2-
3-2 position during the serve.

During a rally, the ball must be caught at once with both hands, without any sound or movement
of the ball within the hands (dubs) and the player should have contact with the ground. Two
players are not allowed to catch the ball simultaneously. The ball is thrown within three seconds
after being caught, only from above the shoulder-line and only with one hand. A player can jump
when throwing the ball, which can touch the net (but not the antenna). The player should have
contact with the ground when catching the ball. However, the ball is not touched with any part of
the body other than the palm when catching or throwing (body touch). The ball can neither be
shifted (passed) to the left or right, nor deliberately pushed.

In official play, teams wear a shorts and jersey uniform with numbers only in the range of 1-12
printed front and back.[3]
Table tennis, also known as ping-pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight,
hollow ball back and forth using table tennis rackets. The game takes place on a hard table
divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, players must allow a ball played toward them only
one bounce on their side of the table and must return it so that it bounces on the opposite side.
Points are scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands
quick reactions. A skilled player can impart several varieties of spin to the ball, altering its
trajectory and limiting an opponent's options to great advantage.

Table tennis is controlled by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation
(ITTF), founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 210 member associations.[1] The table tennis
official rules are specified in the ITTF handbook.[2] Since 1988, table tennis has been an Olympic
sport,[3] with several event categories. In particular, from 1988 until 2004, these were: men's
singles, women's singles, men's doubles and women's doubles. Since 2008 the doubles have been
replaced by the team events.

History

The game originated as a sport in Britain during the 1880s, where it was played among the
upper-class as an after-dinner parlour game,[4][5] then commonly known as "wiff-waff". A row of
books were to be stood up along the center of the table as a net, two more books served as
rackets and were used to continuously hit a golf-ball from one end of the table to the other. Later,
table tennis was played with paddles made of cigar box lids and balls made of champagne corks.
The popularity of the game led game manufacturers to sell the equipment commercially. Early
rackets were often pieces of parchment stretched upon a frame, and the sound generated in play
gave the game its first nicknames of "wiff-waff" and "ping-pong". A number of sources indicate
that the game was first brought to the attention of Hamley's of Regent Street under the name
"Gossima".[6][7] The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques &
Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name "ping-pong" then came to be used for the game
played by the rather expensive Jaquesses equipment, with other manufacturers calling it table
tennis. A similar situation arose in the United States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-
pong" name to Parker Brothers.

The next major innovation was by James Gibb, a British enthusiast of table tennis, who
discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the
game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket
by fixing a sheet of pimpled, or stippled, rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was growing
in popularity by 1901 to the extent that table tennis tournaments were being organized, books on
table tennis were being written,[6] and an unofficial world championship was held in 1902.
During the early 1900s, the game was banned in Russia because the rulers at the time believed
that playing the game had an adverse effect on players' eyesight.[citation needed]

In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded in Britain, and the International Table Tennis
Federation followed in 1926.[4][8] London hosted the first official World Championships in 1926.
In 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was formed.
[9][4]

In the 1950s, rackets that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying sponge layer changed
the game dramatically,[4] introducing greater spin and speed.[10] These were introduced to Britain
by sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue increased the spin and
speed even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis
was introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.[11]

After the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the International Table Tennis Federation instituted
several rules changes aimed at making table tennis more viable as a televised spectator sport.[12]
First, the older 38 mm balls were officially replaced by 40 mm balls in 2000.[6][13] This increased
the ball's air resistance and effectively slowed down the game. By that time, players had begun
increasing the thickness of the fast sponge layer on their rackets, which made the game
excessively fast and difficult to watch on television. Second, the ITTF changed from a 21-point
to an 11-point scoring system in 2001.[6] This was intended to make games more fast-paced and
exciting. The ITTF also changed the rules on service to prevent a player from hiding the ball
during service, in order to increase the average length of rallies and to reduce the server's
advantage.

Variants of the sport have recently emerged. "Large-ball" table tennis uses a 44 mm ball, which
slows down the game significantly. This has seen some acceptance by players who have a hard
time with the extreme spins and speeds of the 40 mm game.

There is a move towards reviving the table tennis game that existed prior to the introduction of
sponge rubber. "Hardbat" table tennis players reject the speed and spin of reversed sponge
rubber, preferring the 1940–60s play style with no sponge and short-pimpled rubber. Defense is
less difficult by decreasing the speed and eliminating any meaningful magnus effect of spin.
Because hardbat killer shots are almost impossible to hit against a skilled player, hardbat
matches focus on the strategic side of table tennis, requiring skillful maneuvering of the
opponent before an attack can become successful.

Equipment

Ball

The international rules specify that the game is played with a light 2.7 gram, 40 mm diameter
ball.[14] The rules say that the ball shall bounce up 24–26 cm when dropped from a height of
30.5 cm on to a standard steel block thereby having a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92.
The 40 mm ball was introduced after the 2000 Olympic Games.[13] However, this created some
controversy as the Chinese National Team argued that this was merely to give non-Chinese
players a better chance of winning since the new type of balls has a slower speed, while at that
time most Chinese players were playing with fast attack and smashes. A 40 mm table tennis ball
is slower and spins less than the original 38 mm (1.5 inch) one. The ball is made of a high-
bouncing air-filled celluloid or similar plastics material, colored white or orange, with a matte
finish. The choice of ball color is made according to the table color and its surroundings. For
example, a white ball is easier to see on a green or blue table than it is on a gray table. Stars on
the ball indicate the quality of the ball. Three stars indicate that it is of the highest quality, and is
used in official competition.

Table

The table is 2.74 m (9 ft) long, 1.525 m (5 ft) wide, and 76 cm (30 inch) high with a Masonite (a
type of hardboard) or similarly manufactured timber, layered with a smooth, low-friction
coating.[15] The table or playing surface is divided into two halves by a 15.25 cm (6 inch) high
net. An ITTF approved table surface must be in a green or blue color.

Racket

Main article: Table tennis racket

Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on one or two sides
depending on the grip of the player. In the USA the term "paddle" is common, in Europe[where?]
the term is "bat," and the official ITTF term is "racket".

The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", features, on average,
anywhere between one and seven plies of wood, cork, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber,
or even Kevlar. There are no restrictions as to what kinds of materials may be used, just so long
as the racket consists of at least 85% natural wood.[16] Common wood types include Balsa,
Limba, Walnut, and Cypress or "Hinoki," which is popular in Japan. The average size of the
blade is about 6.5 inches (16.5 cm) long and 6 inches (15 cm) wide. Although there are no
official restrictions on the shape or size of the blade itself, these dimensions are optimal for most
play styles.

Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the racket.[17] The different types
of surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, or in some cases, nullify spin. For example, a
player may have a rubber that provides much spin on one side of his racket, and one that
provides no spin on the other side of the racket. By flipping the racket in play, different types of
returns are possible. To help a player distinguish between different types of rubber used by his
opposing player, international rules specify that one side must be red while the other side must
be black.[16] The player has the right to inspect his opponent's racket before a match to see the
type of rubber used and what color it is. Despite high speed play and rapid exchanges, a player
can see clearly what side of the racket was used to hit the ball. Current rules state that, unless
damaged in play, the racket cannot be exchanged for another racket at any time during a match.
[18]

Gameplay

Starting a game

According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot,[19] normally a coin toss.[20] It is
also common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand
(usually hidden under the table), allowing the other player to guess which hand the ball is in. The
correct or incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to choose
which side of the table to use. Another method is for one player to hit the ball to the other and he
or she returns it or by hitting it back and forth four times and then playing out the point. This is
commonly referred to as "play to serve" or "rally to serve".

Service and return

Wang Liqin; the 2001, 2005 and 2007 World Champion

In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play.[21] The server first stands with the
ball held on the open palm of the hand not carrying the racket, called the freehand, and tosses the
ball directly upward without spin, at least 16 centimeters (approximately 6 inches) high.[22] The
server strikes the ball with the racket on the ball's descent so that it touches first his court and
then touches directly the receiver's court without touching the net assembly. In casual games,
many players do not toss the ball upward; however, this is technically illegal and can give the
serving player an unfair advantage.

The ball must remain behind the endline and above the upper surface, known as the playing
surface, of the table at all times during the service. The server cannot use his body or clothing to
obstruct sight of the ball; the opponent and the umpire must have a clear view of the ball at all
times. If the umpire is doubtful of the legality of a service they may first interrupt play and give a
warning to the server. If the serve is a clear failure or is doubted again by the umpire after the
warning, receiver scores a point.

If the service is "good", then the receiver must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back
before it bounces a second time on receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and
touches the opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net assembly.[23] And thereafter
server and receiver alternately make a return until a rally is over. Returning the serve is one of
the most difficult parts of the game, as the server's first move is often the least predictable and
thus most advantageous shot due to the numerous spin and speed choices at his or her disposal.

Let

A let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following circumstances:[24]

• The ball touches the net in service, provided the service is otherwise correct
or the ball is obstructed by the player on the receiving side. Obstruction
means a player touches the ball when it is above or travelling towards the
playing surface, not having touched the player's court since last being struck
by the player.
• When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is
delivered.
• Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is
due to a disturbance outside the control of the player.
• Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.

Scoring

A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally:[25]

• Opponent fails to make a correct service or return.

• After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the
net assembly before being struck by the opponent.
• The ball passes over the player's court or beyond his end line without
touching his court, after being struck by the opponent.
• The opponent obstructs the ball.
• The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that is
holding the racket counts as part of the racket and that making a good return
off one's hand or fingers is allowed. It is not a fault if the ball accidentally hits
one's hand or fingers and then subsequently hits the racket.
• The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose surface is
not covered with rubber.
• The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.
• The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.
• As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally.[26]
• The opponent has been warned by umpire commits a second offence in the
same individual match or team match. If the third offence happens, 2 points
will be given to the player.[27] If the individual match or the team match has
not ended, any unused penalty points can be transferred to the next game of
that match.[20]

A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players score 10 points,
when the game shall be won by the first player subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. A match
shall consist of the best of any odd number of games. In competition play, matches are typically
best of five or seven games.
Alternation of services and ends

Service alternates between opponents every two points (regardless of winner of the rally) until
the end of the game, unless both players score 10 points or the expedite system is operated, when
the sequences of serving and receiving stay the same but each player serves for only 1 point in
turn.[28] Player serving first in a game shall receive first in the next game of the match.

After each game, players switch sides of the table. In the last possible game of a match, for
example the seventh game in a best of seven match, players change ends when the first player
scores 5 points, regardless of whose turn it is to serve. If the sequence of serving and receiving is
out of turn or the ends is not changed, points scored in the wrong situation are still calculated and
the game shall be resumed with the order at the score that has been reached.

Doubles game

Service zone in doubles game

In addition to games between individual players, pairs may also play table tennis. In doubles, all
the rules of single play are applied except for the following.

1. A line painted along the long axis of the table to create doubles courts bisects
the table. This line's only purpose is to facilitate the doubles service rule,
which is that service, must originate from the right hand "box" in such a way
that the first bounce of the serve bounces once in said right hand box and
then must bounce at least once in the opponent side's right hand box (far left
box for server), or the receiving pair score a point.[22]
2. Players must alternate hitting the ball. For example, if A is paired with B, X is
paired with Y, A is the server and X is the receiver. The order of play shall be
A → X → B → Y. The rally proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal
return and the other side scores.[29]
3. At each change of service, the previous receiver shall become the server and
the partner of the previous server shall become the receiver. For example, if
the previous order of play is A → X → B → Y, the order becomes X → B → Y → A
after the change of service.[28]
4. In each game of a doubles match, the pair having the right to serve first shall
choose which of them will do so. The receiving pair, however, can only
choose in the first game of the match. When the first server is chosen in the
second or the latter games of the match, the first receiver of the game is the
player who served to the first server of the game in the preceding game. For
example, if the order of play is A → X → B → Y at beginning of the first game,
the order begins with X → A → Y → B or Y → B → X → A in the second game
depending on either X or Y being chosen as the first server of the game.
5. When a pair reach 5 points in the final game, the pairs must switch ends of
the table and the team that receives the service must switch receiver. For
example, when the last order of play before a pair score 5 points in the final
 game is A → X → B → Y, the order after change shall be A → Y → B → X if A still
has the second serve. Otherwise, X is the next server and the order becomes
X → A → Y → B.

Singles and doubles are both played in international competition, including the Olympic Games
since 1988 and the Commonwealth Games since 2002.[30] In 2005, the ITTF announced that
doubles table tennis only was featured as a part of team events in the 2008 Olympics.