Energy Use and
Efficiencies in Firing
Ceramics, Melting Glass
L
arge amounts of energy are expended
in firing ceramics and melting
glass because of the high tempera-
tures required.
Energy cost often is a significant amount,
particularly in the traditional ceramics
The energy industries such as brick and Portland
cement. Where the required product proper-
consumption of 45
ties and product values are high, as in the
kilns and furnaces and advanced ceramic industries, efficiencies
are not as important as process control.
their efficiencies were Energy costs and efficiencies have been of
compared with concern in the ceramics field for at least 90
years. In 1908, Bleininger 1 studied four
previous data. Many
coal-fired kilns, finding 5.7–12.6% of the
cases indicate total heat was used in the ware. In 1924,
several kilns were studied by the U.S.
improvements as a Bureau of Mines2 and efficiencies varied
from 13.2 to 29.7%. Nelson and Wilson3
result of furnace
studied tunnel kilns in 1942 finding ener-
design, use of gies consumed varying from 2.3 to 37.2
MJ/kg.
oxygen and new In 19744 and in 19945, surveys were made
refractories. similar to this paper and, in some cases, of
the same kilns. This 1998 survey of energy
use in nine ceramic industries shows effi-
ciency improvements over previous surveys.
Calculations
To determine efficiencies, the theoretical
energy required was divided by the energy
used. The theoretical energy is the heat
required for raising the product to the firing
temperature plus the heat of reactions.6 If
heat is recovered from the cooling of the
product and from the waste gases in a
O.J. Whittemore particular process, that amount is deducted.
Seattle, Wash. However, this was done here only for
www.ceramicbulletin.org • July 1999
Portland cement as reliable data was not
obtained in other cases.
The heats of reactions can be significant,
such as the endothermic heat of decomposi-
tion of carbonates that dominates the forma-
tion of Portland cement clinker and is
significant in the melting of glass. The
exothermic heat of the reaction of silicon
with nitrogen in reaction bonded silicon
nitride is enormous.
The energy used was submitted by the
industries and include natural gas, oil, elec-
tricity and coal fuels. The gross heating val-
ues were usually given for natural gas and
oil, and were adjusted to the net heating val-
ues. When the gross values were given, they
were multiplied by 90% for natural gas and
by 95% for oil. The difference is the heat of
condensation of water vapor, which is
impractical in these furnaces. However, that
energy is recovered in most domestic fur-
naces burning natural gas, suggesting a
challenge for ceramic kiln designers.
Many ceramic products require kiln furni-
ture for firing. For several ceramics, the
efficiencies were calculated for the product
alone and for the product with furniture.
Energies are given in international units—
MJ/kg. To convert to Btu/lb, multiply by
430. To convert to kcal/kg, multiply by 239.
Brick
Values obtained are mainly for tunnel kilns
and include drying. No compensation was
made for heat recovery, which would
reduce the theoretical energies and
efficiencies, somewhat. Values for a down-
draft kiln and a fiber-lined periodic kiln are
included to show the value of insulation.
69
ENERGY USE AND EFFICIENCIES

Energies and Efficiencies in Firing Brick Sanitaryware

For a typical direct-fired tunnel kiln fired to 1220°C, the
Energy, MJ/kg. %
theoretical energy was calculated as 1.57 MJ/kg and the
Kiln Theoretical Used Efficiency
energy used was 4.18 MJ/kg, giving an efficiency of 37.5%.
Side-fired tunnel kiln This is a considerable improvement over 15% calculated for
@22 cars/day 1.85 3.82 48 a similar kiln in 1974. 4 The improvement comes from
@30 cars/day 1.85 3.35 55 reduced refractory weight (use of thinner batts, etc.),
Top-fired tunnel kiln 1.85 2.94 63
Side-fired tunnel kiln increased ware weight from improved setting, and operating
@22 cars/day 1.85 4.44 42 at a faster schedule. The proportional mass of kiln furniture
@30 cars/day 1.85 3.57 52 is still nearly as much as the product.
@34 cars/day 1.85 3.22 57
Periodic down-draft 1.43 9.84 15
Periodic, fiber-lined 1.42 3.38 42
Container Glass
A revolutionary change in the melting of glass has been the
introduction of oxygen. Not only has this improved the
Brahmbatt7 showed considerable reduction in energy use in efficiency, but it also has substantially reduced nitrogen
firing brick tunnel kilns by injecting oxygen to 3–4% more oxides in the exit gases. Capital costs also are reduced since
than air. Theoretical energies could not be calculated. regenerators are not used at present. There have been many
articles in the recent ceramic literature on the use of oxygen
Effect of Oxygen Injection in Firing Brick in glass melting even though the practice is only 10 years
Without Oxygen With Oxygen % Energy old.
Kiln Cars/day MJ/kg. Cars/day MJ/kg. Reduction Data on container glass furnaces and one borosilicate
glass furnace are given. For all but the last case, a normal
A 14.4 6.61 18 3.88 14
B 20.0 4.09 20 3.70 10
container glass batch was used, including 4% batch water,
C 16.0 7.60 16 6.41 16 55% cullet, and a molten glass temperature of 1400°C, for
E 2.7 3.50 2.7 2.96 15 which the theoretical energy was 2.198 MJ/kg.
F 19.0 3.17 20 2.66 16 For the oxygen furnace (250 tpd), the energy used was
G 21.0 1.67 21 1.48 11 increased from 3.72 to 3.95 MJ/kg to account for the energy
of oxygen generation (about 1 KWH/2.8 m3), which lowered
Portland Cement the efficiency from 59 to 56%. For comparison, the other
The theoretical energy was given by Lea8 as 1.76 MJ/kg. furnaces using oxygen should have their efficiencies lowered
But this value gives credit for cooling clinker and gases to by 2–3%.
20°C. A national average of energy used was 4.65 MJ/kg
which results in an efficiency of 38%. A new efficient plant
uses 3.49 MJ/kg, which gives 50% efficiency. Energies and Efficiencies in Melting Glass
If more reasonable temperatures of cooling clinker and MJ/kg %
gases were 40°C or 200°C, the theoretical energies would Furnace Energy Used Efficiency
be 1.79 or 2.14 MJ/kg, respectively, giving 39 or 46% for the Electric, 56 m2 3.84 57
national average and 51 or 61% for the new plant. Air-Gas-Electric, 42 m2 4.67 47
Portland cement is the only industry in this survey that uses Oxygen-Gas-Electric, 61 m2 4.17 53
coal. In some kilns, 10–15% of the energy comes from old Oxygen-Gas-Electric, 73 m2 4.40 50
automobile tires that are inserted whole into the kiln and con- Oxygen-Gas-Recuperator, 350 tpd 3.43 64
Air-Gas, 250 tpd 5.00 44
tribute more energy per weight than obtained from coal. All is Oxygen-Gas, 250 tpd 3.95 56
consumed, even the steel wire which is oxidized and the Borosilicate
resulting iron oxide compensated for in the composition. (theoretical energy = 2.6 MJ/kg) 5.90 38

Refractories The container glass batch example given applies only to

The energies listed are all for tunnel kilns except for the last the last two container glass furnaces. Less cullet and batch
two, which are rotary kilns. No compensation was made for water would lower the theoretical energy values and the
cooling ware and gases. efficiencies but not greatly.
Since regeneration is not used in these furnaces, energy is
Energies and Efficiencies for Firing Refractories lost in the hot flue gases, and there is much interest in cap-
turing this energy. One furnace to note is the 350 tpd fur-
Temperature Energy, MJ/kg % nace where a recuperator recovers heat for steam generation.9
Product °C Theoretical Used Efficiency Thus, the calculated efficiency is 64%.
High Alumina 1200 1.62 5.44 30 The efficiencies in these furnaces are all high when the
Fireclay 1400 2.02 6.49 31 process is examined. The molten glass is partially insulated
Fireclay 1500 2.01 7.53 27
Basic MgO 1625 2.01 3.35 60 from the flame by the unmelted batch. Electric melting
Dolomite calcining 1260 3.00 6.28 48 eliminates this problem since the elements are inserted
MgO, dead burning 1800 5.57 16.4 34 directly into the molten glass.

70 The American Ceramic Society Bulletin

Abrasives
Data for both abrasive grain and for wheels are listed. Data
for grain are the same as in 1994.5 Silicon carbide grain
manufacture from the reduction of silica with carbon has a
remarkable high efficiency. Most of the heat is transferred
out through the charge, continuing the reduction. Both the
theoretical and the used energies are higher in the fusion of
brown alumina, because of reduction reactions during the
fusion of bauxite with iron borings and coke. The theoretical
energy was calculated by Findlay.10
Efficiencies in the firing of abrasive wheels are lower, in
part, as a result of the use of kiln furniture. A range of val-
ues are given. The theoretical energy was calculated from a
mixture of 80% alumina and 20% porcelain (such as in sani-
taryware). Since only two-thirds of the mass being fired is
product when kiln furniture is used, efficiency for the entire
setting should be increased by ~50%.
Energies and Efficiencies of Abrasives
Manufacture
Temperature Energy, MJ/kg%
Product °C Theoretical Used Efficiency
Grain:
SiC reduction 1980 22.1 29.4
Arc fused 2100 3.57 6.59
white Al2O3
Arc fused 2100 5.72 12.6
brown Al2O3
Wheels: 1220 1.42 13.6–41.3 10.5–3.3
Advanced Ceramics
Energies for several advanced ceramics are provided.
Because the mass of required kiln furniture is high,
calculations were made with and without the furniture, which
weighs nearly the same as the product in sintering silicon
nitride and urania nuclear fuel.
Both sintered and reaction-bonded silicon nitride require
nitrogen atmospheres. The reaction of silicon with nitrogen
is highly exothermic, so the process must be conducted over
several days, heating slowly and pulsing in the nitrogen.
Otherwise the heat of reaction would melt and agglomerate
the silicon, reducing reactivity. Efficiency of the process
cannot be calculated—it would be negative using the
method used for other materials.
The efficiency of sintering urania nuclear fuel has
improved from 2% in the 1974 survey to 10% in the 1994
survey to the present value of 16–18%. These effeciencies
are relatively high considering the high temperature and the
hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmosphere, gases that have
high thermal conductivities.
Barium titanate capacitors require zirconia setters that
weigh ~12.5 times the product weight. The efficiency for
the combined materials is 14 times that of the product alone.
Summary
Several ceramic firing processes have shown improved
efficiencies since 1974, particularly for brick, Portland
cement, sanitaryware, container glass and nuclear fuel.
Interesting items found in this survey:
• The use of oxygen in melting glass not only improves
%
efficiency but also reduces the formation of nitrogen oxide
pollutants.
• Burning old auto tires for 10–15% of the energy required
in producing Portland cement.
75
• Gross vs. net heating values of hydrogen-containing fuels. ■
54
45
Acknowledgments
Many friends contributed data for this survey including: Neil N. Ault,
Gordon L. Barna, John T. Brown, Jeff Day, Gordon Finlay, Gregg F.
Melde, Biljana Mikijelj, Kenneth J. Rone Jr., Clarence O. Taff, Ken Town,
and Russell Wood. The advice from Louis Philippe and David C. Lynch
was helpful.
Editors Note: This article is adapted from a paper presented at the 100th
Annual Meeting of The American Ceramic Society, Cincinnati.
References
1A.V. Bleininger, “A Study of the Heat Distribution in Four Industrial
Kilns,” Trans. Amer. Cer. Soc., 10, 412–20 (1908).
2W.R. Rice and R. A. Sherman, “Determination of the Distribution of

Heat in Kilns Firing Clay Products,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 7 [10] 783 (1924).
3M. S. Nelson and H. Wilson, “Commercial Firing Survey of Car Tunnel

Energies in Firing Advanced Ceramics Kilns,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 25 [5] 237–40 (1942).
4O. J. Whittemore, “Energy Consumption in Ceramic Processes,” Am.
Temperature Energy, MJ/kg% %
Ceram. Soc. Bull., 53 [5] 456–57 (1974).
Product °C Theoretical Used Efficiency 5 O. J. Whittemore, “Energy Usage in Firing Ceramics and Melting

BaTiO3 Capacitors 1140 0.62 413 0.15 Glass,” Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc. 15 [1] 180–85 (1994).
6A. Roine, “Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows,” Outokumpu
(with ZrO2 setters) 0.66 30.6 2.1
Res., Finland (1994).
Silcon nitride, sintered 1850 2.08 47.8 4.3 7 S. R. Brahmbhatt, “Oxygen: An Important Chemical for the Clay
(with SiC setters) 2.12 26.7 7.4
Industry,” Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 69 [2] 243–46 (1990).
Silicon nitride, 1400 – 469 – 8F. M. Lea, “The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd Ed.” p. 126,
reaction-bonded
Chem Pub. Co.
UO2 Nuclear Fuel 1780 0.56 3.49 16.0 9D. Portner, “Control of the Heye Oxyfuel-Melter with Waste Heat
(with Mo boats) 0.44 2.09 21.2
Recovery System,” Heye-Glas Co., Obernkirchen, Germany (1997).
UO2 Nuclear Fuel 1780 0.56 3.06 18.3 10G. R. Finlay, “Energy Requirements of Abrasives and Refractories,”
(with Mo boats) 0.55 1.84 29.8 presented at 1975 Refractories Division Fall Meeting (unpublished).

www.ceramicbulletin.org • July 1999 71