Basics of Composite Construction

About the Author, Ron Alexander

This article was written in May of 1999 by Ron Alexander of Alexander SportAir Workshops.

Ron has been flying since the age of 16; he flew for the Air Force for five years (including one year in
Vietnam) and started flying for Delta Airlines in 1969, where he now pilots the Boeing 767. He
currently owns a J-3 Cub, C-3B Stearman, and a Beech 18. Ron started restoring antique airplanes in
the early 1970's and could not find parts so he founded the Alexander Aeroplane Company which he
operated for 17 years. He sold the company to Aircraft Spruce and Specialty in 1995 so that he could
focus his efforts on providing education within the sport aviation industry.

Ron is currently president of Alexander SportAirWorkshops, a series of "hands-on" workshops on

building airplanes is presented throughout the country for education. For a schedule of locations and
dates of upcoming workshops and information (prices, curriculum, etc.), call 800-967-5746 or visit
their web site at www.sportair.com

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Basics of Composite Construction

By Ron Alexander

During the fall of 1997, I wrote a series of three articles on composite aircraft construction. These
articles provide an overview of composites as they relate to aircraft building. The articles began with
the October 1997 issue of Sport Aviation. I am going to again focus attention on this popular method
of aircraft construction by discussing in more detail each step involved in building a composite
aircraft. A certain amount of review will be necessary to achieve the goal of explaining the steps
involved in this type of building.

Once you have made the decision to build a composite aircraft, either a kit aircraft or a plans-built,
the first step is to set up your workshop space, purchase the necessary tools, and organize materials
and parts.

WORKSHOP SPACE

To begin this discussion it is important to note that you do not need a pristine laboratory to build a
composite airplane. Like most aircraft building projects, if you have a 2-car garage you have what is
needed. It has been my experience that having your workshop in or near your home solves two
problems. First of all, you will be much more likely to spend time on the project after getting home
from work versus having to drive 30 minutes to another location. This equates to more hours on the
actual project. Secondly, your family is more likely to become involved. This is very important if you
are to successfully complete the project.

If you had an ideal composite shop you would have a "clean room" for doing layups, cutting cloth,
etc. and a "dirty room" for sanding operations. Most of us do not have a partition in our garage so
we must be careful during our sanding operations not to contaminate our work. Sanding should be
accomplished after completed parts are cured and covered-not just after doing a fresh layup.

You will need a table on which to cut your reinforcement fabrics (usually fiberglass). Since most of
your fabric will be cut on a 45-degree bias, it may be handy to have a table set up just for that. You
can shape the table by cutting one end at a 45-degree angle to facilitate cutting on a bias. The table
should be wide enough to handle the fabric you will be using (60 inches should be enough). You
should be able to unroll about 4-5 feet of fabric on the table. You will want to place a hard plastic
cutting surface on the top of the table to allow you to cut the fabric with a cutting blade. (More
about cutting fiberglass later.) This material can be 1/8-inch thick high-density polyethylene or
something similar.

Another table can be constructed to do your resin mixing and basic layups. This table should be
roughly 3 feet x 8 feet depending upon the amount of space available. The length of the table
needed will also vary with the aircraft you are building. The table should be placed in an area that
will allow you to walk completely around it. In addition, some builders prefer to have another
smaller table dedicated to mixing resins. After completing a part you should remove it from the area
if at all possible or hang it from the ceiling.
A large thermometer should be placed where you can view it along with a humidity indicator. As you
will learn, temperature and humidity control is very important when mixing and working with resins.
Ideally, you should be able to control the temperature of your workshop. This, of course, is not
always practical. Place a large clock with a sweep second hand on the wall where you can see it
while working. The clock is always running on your resins after they have been mixed. You will have
only a certain amount of time with which to apply the resin before it begins to gel. Of course, you
need a first aid kit and an eye wash station. The eye wash station must be easily accessible.

Proper ventilation of the work area is necessary. When working with resins or when sanding you will
want to move the air through the workshop space. A fan can be set up to move the air outside the
workshop. If you really want to do it right mount an exhaust hood over your layup table. This is not
that difficult to do and is very effective in removing fumes created from the resins when you are
working with them.

Storage of materials, parts, etc. must be addressed. If you are building a composite kit aircraft the
pre-molded parts must be carefully stored. Wing panels, as an example, can bend and adapt to any
shape to which they are subjected. Warping can result from improper storage. The best way to store
parts is to simply leave them in the shipping crate in which they arrived. You may also want to save
the shipping materials from the crate to use as padding, etc. for completed parts.

Resins should be stored in a warm area if at all possible. When the temperature is less than about 65
degrees resins become thick. The colder the temperature the more thick the resin. That means you
will have difficulty pouring the resins from their container. Several builders have designed heated
areas within their shops to store resins if the shop itself is not maintained at a normal temperature.
If resins are stored in extremely cold temperatures they are susceptible to crystallizing. This is not a
major problem and can be corrected by placing the resin container in a pan of water and heating the
water to about 160 degrees F or so until the crystals dissolve. Resins may be stored for several years
prior to being used. This is termed their "shelf-life". However, with epoxy resins the accompanying
hardener usually has a shelf life of less than one year. Vinyl ester resins often have even less time for
shelf life especially if they have been promoted prior to shipment.

COMPOSITE TOOLS

Most of the tools you will need to build a composite airplane are readily available and somewhat
inexpensive. The following is a partial list of tools you will need:

Scales, mixing pump, or balance scales to mix resin

Sanding blocks
Saws - hacksaw, coping saw, and pad saw

Carpenter's level

Carpenter's square

Clamps

Electric hand drill

Fabric scissors

Rotary cutter

Grooved laminate rollers

Knives-including utility knife and large serrated knife

Respirator

Rubber squeegees

Straight edge

Vacuum cleaner

Hair dryer

Other tools that are nice to have consist of a Dremel tool with bits for shaping and cutting, a die
grinder, drill press, band saw, rotary or orbital sander and the list can go on. The tools I have
mentioned are specific to composite construction. You will also need basic tools and usually some
sheet metal tools for a small amount of riveting, etc. The best way to determine the exact tools you
will need is to read the kit manufacturer's assembly manual or the designer's plans. They will almost
always provide you with a list of basic tools needed to construct their airplane.

Now that we have established what kind of workshop space you will need along with several of the
tools that are required lets get down to the basics of construction. I will talk about each type of
material used in composite construction and how to work with each separate one. After we have
established a foundation, in up-coming issues I will discuss the proper methods of doing a composite
layup, methods of bonding and tape glassing, forming hardpoints, post curing, and most of the
activities you will become involved in if you decide to build a composite airplane.

If you want a complete review of basic composites I invite you to read the previous articles I
mentioned in the beginning of this article. I do want to briefly review some of the materials used in
composite construction with an emphasis on how to work with each one.
CORE MATERIALS

Let's begin with the core materials that usually consist of some type of foam. Polystyrene is the first
core material that will be discussed. Polystyrene comes in large blocks and is normally used to form
large structures such as wings, control surfaces, etc. If you are building a plans-built airplane you will
build a large portion of the airplane out of this material. Polystyrene can be cut with a knife, saw, or
it can be "hot-wired" into the shape of an airfoil. Usually the latter will be called for in the plans. You
can find plans for a "hot-wire" device in the Rutan booklet called Moldless Composite Sandwich
Homebuilt Aircraft Construction available from supply companies. This device is easily constructed
from common materials. Templates are made from the aircraft plans you receive and are used as a
guide in cutting the foam to proper shape. One thing in particular when working with all foams and
especially with polystyrene foam, the cells or voids in the foam must be filled prior to applying the
reinforcement material. This is accomplished by mixing a slurry compound or using a commercial
filler manufactured by Poly-Fiber called "SuperFil". This is the first step in the layup process that will
be discussed in detail later. It should also be noted that vinyl ester resins will dissolve polystyrene
foams therefore they are not used with this type of core material.

Most of the kit aircraft use either polyurethane (urethane) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam. These
foams come in different densities and thickness. Usually the thickness will be from about one-
quarter inch to two inches or so. With most kit aircraft the large airfoils will be partially completed
and you will simply be required to construct ribs, bulkheads, etc. and glue them in place. These
foams are easily cut with a knife or saw. DO NOT HOT-WIRE URETHANE FOAMS. They will emit
poisonous gases if hot-wired. They are also flammable. Do not burn the scraps of material left over
as the same gases are emitted. Sanding blocks are used to shape foams. Band saws and routers may
also be used to cut and shape.

Honeycomb cores are used in several kit aircraft. You will usually not be required to work with this
material, as the kit manufacturer will supply the completed parts that use a honeycomb core.

REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS

This is a term used for the fabric materials found in composite construction. We will find three
different types of materials used in most composite aircraft. They are fiberglass, Kevlar, and carbon
fiber (graphite). Fiberglass is the most commonly used material. It has the best physical
characteristics at the lowest price.

Without going in to great detail, there are a few basic things you really should know about fabrics.
Fiberglass is made up of filaments of glass that are twisted together to form a yarn. This yarn, or
fiber as it is often called, is then woven into certain styles of fiberglass. When the weaver looms
fiberglass they use terms such as "warp", "fill", and "selvage edge." See Figure 1. Warp defines the
fibers that run the length of the fabric as it comes off the roll. The warp direction is designated as 0
degrees. Fill fibers run perpendicular to the warp fibers. They are designated as 90 degrees. The fill
fibers or threads interweave with the warp fibers. Selvage edge is the woven edge produced by the
weaver to prevent the edges from fraying. Some of the new fabrics today appear to not have a
selvage edge. The edges have been stitched with a lightweight thread.

Unidirectional Fiberglass

With unidirectional fiberglass, all of the major fibers run in one direction. All of the strength of the
fabric is found in that one direction. The fill often consists of threads designed to hold together the
glass fibers. A common term for this glass is "uni". It is manufactured in both glass cloth and in tapes.
A common style number used by many composite airplanes is designated as 7715. This cloth is
typically used where the primary loads are in one direction such as a spar cap.

Bi-directional Fiberglass

In this glass, the major fibers run in two directions, both the warp and the fill. In other words,
instead of using threads as a fill, glass fibers are used. Thus we have glass fibers in both 0 degrees
and 90 degrees. In other words, the cloth has half of the fibers in one direction and half in the other
direction at right angles. This means that the cloth has the same strength in both directions. This
type of cloth is commonly called "bid". Of course, there are many different styles and weaves that
are available. 7725 and 7781 are two very common cloths used in amateur-built aircraft. In your
plans they will often be referred to as bid cloth.

Bid cloth can be stitched together in more than one layer to form what is known as biax cloth or triax
cloth depending upon the number of layers involved. The most important thing for you to
understand it that you must use the type and style of cloth called for in your plans. Do not
experiment with cloths. The designer has specified the cloth to use based upon structural analysis.
Use what they tell you to use.

Keeping it simple, I am not going to discuss all of the different weaves of cloth, etc. that are
available. You can read Andrew Marshall's book, Composite Basics, for a good discussion of this. I
want to concentrate on the basics you need to know to safely build your airplane.
Handling & Cutting Fiberglass

First of all, you must be careful when handling fiberglass. Remember to cut the glass in a clean area.
Do not drop fiberglass on the floor. It will be contaminated with dirt and debris. If your fiberglass
gets wet do not use it in the structure. Be careful when handling fiberglass as its shape can be easily
distorted. Mark the cloth using a Sharpie marker. These marks will not show through the final finish.
Your plans will usually require you to cut your cloth at a 45-degree angle. This is done to achieve
maximum strength in the final structure. So we will usually be cutting the glass on what is referred to
as a 45-degree bias. You need a sharpie marker, a straight edge, a measuring device, and a good pair
of scissors or a rotary cutter. When you make a cut, allowance for small deviations is usually built
into the dimensions. If you are within one-half inch or so that should be good. As you make a cut the
cloth may slightly distort. If so, it can be carefully pulled back into its proper shape by pulling on an
edge. Cutting can be done using a good pair of scissors or a rotary cutter or they are sometimes
referred to as a roller blade. Many people call this a pizza cutter-which is a term for the rotary
cutter-it is not a real pizza cutter. Get a rotary cutter from one of the supply companies.

After you have cut the cloth to the proper dimensions, carefully roll it into a fairly large roll. In other
words, do not roll it tight. This is the best way to transport the fabric to your structure. We will see
how to apply it later. If you pick it up by the ends it will distort and not fit the area of the part
correctly. It is also important to note that the selvage edge must be removed prior to applying it to
the structure. (Note: this will not apply when using the type of fiberglass without a selvage edge.)
Cutting on a 45-degree bias will cause a certain amount of waste. However, it is necessary that you
cut this way to achieve maximum strength. By the way, the angle is not critical. You do not have to
measure it accurately. Eyeing it will work fine. Let me emphasize that you must cut the fabric in the
orientation called for by your plans.

RESINS

To emphasize the importance of the resin matrix I would like to quote Andrew Marshall from his
book Composite Basics. "Basically, the resin matrix is the key to the whole operation of producing
composite structures. It was noted earlier that the resin matrix is the mass in which the fibers exist,
but the resin does much more than just contain the fibers. Its primary job is to carry the load from
one fiber to the next, and from the bundles of fibers or groups of reinforcements into an adjacent
structure which may either be embedded in the composite during manufacture, or adhesively
bonded to it at a later stage. The resin material thus distributes and transfers the load within the
structure so that each reinforcing fiber carries a proportional share of the load."
There are two types of resins that are most commonly used on composite aircraft. They are vinyl
ester resins and epoxy resins. I am not going to discuss polyester resins, as they should not be
applied on aircraft except for very limited non-structural use.

Vinyl Ester Resin

This type of resin is used by several of the kit manufacturers. Vinyl esters are low in viscosity making
them easy to use. The cure time can also be easily affected simply by adding more hardener thus
speeding up the cure time. Despite the cure time, hardened vinyl ester usually exhibits consistent
properties of strength and flexibility. Working time with vinyl ester resin is dependent upon the
ambient temperature and the amount of catalyst that is added. Vinyl ester resin is less expensive
than epoxy and it will withstand high temperatures without post curing.

The negative side of vinyl esters results from the mixing process. Vinyl ester resin must be
"promoted" prior to mixing the catalyst. It is promoted using a chemical called cobalt napthenate
(CONAP). This chemical must be added into the resin before catalyzing. Vinyl ester resin is catalyzed
using a chemical called methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP). CONAP and MEKP mixed together
prior to being placed in the resin can cause a fire or explosion. You will not encounter this hazard as
long as you remember to place the CONAP into the vinyl ester resin prior to adding MEKP. Extreme
care must also be taken when using MEKP. This chemical is very dangerous to the eye.

Overall, vinyl ester resins provide an easy to use, strong, high temperature, and inexpensive resin.
Skin irritation problems are also less likely to occur than with epoxy resin. Just remember to take
proper precautions when you are mixing vinyl ester resins. Be sure not to mix CONAP with MEKP and
always wear a face shield when using MEKP.

Epoxy Resin

Epoxy resin has come to dominate the aerospace industry and it is widely used on custom-built
aircraft. Epoxy resins differ from vinyl ester resins in that they harden through a process known as
"crosslinking". Epoxies are packaged in two parts: a resin and a hardener. Unlike vinyl ester resin, the
mixing ratio of resin to hardener is critical. Adding more hardener will not accelerate the cure time,
in fact, it may seriously impede the curing of the resin resulting in less strength of the final cured
part. Different types of epoxy resins are available. Again, use the type of epoxy called for by the
designer. Working time may be varied using different types of epoxies. A 5-minute epoxy is
commonly used to simply hold two pieces together for further bonding. These epoxies set up within
5 minutes and should not be used for structural purposes. Structural epoxies will have a working
time of approximately 45 minutes depending upon the type of epoxy and the ambient temperature.

Proper skin protection is a must with epoxies due to skin dermatitis that can be caused by the
chemical. In the next issue I will discuss how to properly protect your skin from this problem. How to
mix fillers and the actual process of completing a composite layup will also be presented.

COMPOSITE FILLERS

Many applications of composite construction require a filler material to thicken and/or reduce the
density of the resin mixture for various purposes. The resulting mixture of the filler plus the resin is
used to form a fillet to provide a radius where two composite pieces are joined together. Fillers are
also used to seal the cells of foam. The slurry coat is used to fill the cells with a lower density
material than that of pure resin. Fillers are also used to thicken a mixture so it can be applied
without running, to enhance the strength of resin material for structural bonding, and to fill the
weave of fabric during the composite finishing process. Mixtures may also be used to fill any gouges
or dents in the foam core. Corners are also constructed using a filler material. Several different filler
materials are used with resins. The more popular ones will be discussed.

Microspheres

Microballoons as they are often called are nothing more than very minute spheres of glass,
microscopic Christmas tree bulbs provide an accurate analogy. This material is very lightweight and
very easily suspended in the air. Care must be taken when working with microballoons not to inhale
any of these glass particles. Quartz "Q cells" is another type of microballoon called for in the plans of
several kit aircraft. When either of these forms of filler is mixed with a resin material the resulting
mixture becomes lighter in weight with less strength. This mixture is commonly referred to as
"micro". Micro is usually mixed in three different thicknesses. First is a slurry consistency. This is
usually a 1 to 1 mixture by volume of microballoons and resin. This provides a mixture that is almost
the same viscosity as resin by itself. Slurry is used to fill the cells of the foam prior to applying the
first layer of cloth. The second type of micro is usually termed "wet-micro". It is thicker than slurry
and is used to join blocks of foam together. The mix ratio is approximately 2-3 parts of microballoons
to 1 part of resin. The third type of micro is called "dry micro". This mixture requires about 5 parts of
microballoons to 1 part of resin and it is used as a filler material.
Micro must NEVER be used between plies of a layup as the final strength will be severely decreased.

Flocked Cotton Fiber

This particular filler material, usually called cotton flox, is also mixed with resin. It consists of finely
milled cotton fibers that provide an adhesive when properly mixed with a resin material. The
mixture is termed "flox". Flox is usually mixed about 2 parts of filler to 1 part of resin. A popular use
for flox is to reinforce a sharp corner to provide more strength within that area. It is used in filling
sections that require structural strength. It has much higher shear qualities than micro but is much
harder and heavier.

Milled Fiber

As the name implies, this filler material is made by milling fiberglass into a very fine consistency.
Milled fibers have a higher strength than cotton flox. The mixture of milled fiber and resin is used as
a structural filler. It is also often used to form a fillet that requires structural integrity. Milled fibers
and resin are used to form a "hardpoint" on a fiberglass structure. The hardpoint is used to attach
other structures to the fiberglass. Care must be taken when working with milled fiber due to the
very fine particles of fiberglass that can penetrate the skin.

Chopped Fiber

This material is the same as milled fibers, except it is available in different lengths. This allows its use
as a filler for very specific areas where greater strengths are needed.

Cab-O-Sil

Cab-O-Sil is fumed silica that acts as a material to thicken a resin. Small amounts should be used.
Larger amounts can act to inhibit the curing agents of some epoxies when used in concentrations
greater than 15% by weight. Using Cab-O-Sil simply keeps a resin from running when you are
applying it to a difficult area.

SuperFil
Poly-Fiber manufactures a substitute for dry micro called SuperFil. This filler material is mixed to the
exact same consistency with each batch. In addition, it has talc added that facilitates the sanding
operation. SuperFil may be used as a filler for virtually any material including metal, wood, and
fiberglass. The epoxy in SuperFil has been optimized for the filling process. Micro normally uses resin
optimized for the laminating process.

An important point-when you are mixing filler materials, always mix the resin and hardener
thoroughly prior to adding the filler substance.

SAFETY ISSUES

A review of the safety issues involving composite construction is in order. One of the most important
issues regarding safety when working with composites is skin sensitization. Many people become
sensitized to resins. This is more common with epoxy resin than with vinyl ester resin. Regardless of
the type of resin you are using you must protect your skin. Wear long sleeve shirts and protect your
hands using a form of glove. What type of glove to wear is controversial. Many people can simply
use a latex type glove found in drug stores. However, a number of people are allergic to the powder
often found inside the latex glove. Vinyl gloves are available and provide a very good alternative to
latex. Rubber gloves are used by many people who place a cotton liner inside the glove. Several
builders use barrier creams such as Invisible Gloves with success. No matter what you use change
gloves often or recoat with creams often. Never wash your hands with solvents. Use soap and water.

Have adequate ventilation so you are not breathing the fumes from resins. A small fan will assist in
moving the air out of the area. You also should wear a respirator. This is important when doing
layups and also when mixing fillers. Those tiny spheres of glass called microballoons will do a
number on your lungs if inhaled. Particles of fiberglass resulting from sanding operations should not
be inhaled.

Vinyl ester resins pose a different type of problem. They have chemicals that should not be mixed
together outside of the basic resin chemical. The catalyst used with vinyl ester, MEKP, is destructive
to the eye. A face shield is preferable to use when mixing MEKP with the vinyl ester resin. Again, skin
sensitization is not as common when working with vinyl ester as when working with epoxies.
Always acquire and read the Material Safety Data Sheet for the material you are using. These MSDS
sheets will explain the hazards of each type of resin or solvent you are using.

Finally, mixing too large a quantity of a resin can cause a problem known as exotherming. The
exotherm process is a consequence of the chemical reaction that takes place as a resin hardens or
cures. This chemical reaction causes heat to be generated which in turn speeds up the chemical
reaction causing even more heat to be generated. If you mix a large batch of resin you can create an
"out-of-control exotherm." The container holding the resin will get so hot from the chemical
reaction that you cannot hold it. The resin may actually bubble or boil and you will see smoke rise
from the substance. You can prevent this by mixing small quantities of resin (8-10 ounces by
volume). If you see that you are getting an out-of-control exotherm you should immediately pour
the resin onto a sheet of plastic. This will allow the heat to more readily dissipate into the air. The
exotherm process can actually cause a fire if the container is thrown into the wrong place.

A similar type problem can occur when putting foam blocks together if too large a micro joint is
allowed. The foam is a good insulator and the heat will build without escaping. This can melt the
foam and cause a core void.

BASIC LAYUPS

Now that we have set the stage and we understand some of the basics, let's get to the fun part-
doing an actual layup. First of all, what is a layup? It is probably more accurately defined as a
laminate. A laminate is one layer of reinforcement material impregnated with resin and usually
added to a core material or to another layer of reinforcement material. This process is commonly
referred to as a layup. If you are building a plans-built airplane you will become very proficient in
doing layups. In a plans-built composite airplane you actually build most of the parts of the airplane
and then bond them together. Building parts requires a lot of layup work. On the other hand, if you
are building a kit aircraft you usually will only be required to bond the already completed parts
together. However, you will still use the layup procedure for many activities on a kit aircraft.

The most important thing I want to recommend prior to our discussion is for you to do practice
layups before doing the real thing. Any experience you can acquire doing basic layups will enhance
the quality of your work on the actual airplane. Attend one of the EAA/SportAir composite
workshops and make all of your mistakes while learning in a classroom setting. No matter what-
practice.

Preparation
Before you actually begin the layup procedure you must be prepared. You should have everything on
hand before you begin. This means gloves, respirator, mixing cups and sticks, scales or pump,
squeegees, brushes, rollers, etc. Be sure the squeegees you are using have a smooth edge. If not,
pass the squeegee over a sanding block to smooth it. The actual part itself must be ready for the
layup. The cloth should be cut and ready to apply. The foam should be vacuumed clean of any
debris. Temperature and humidity control is important. Begin by heating the shop, if necessary, and
ensure the resin is warm (ideally 90 degrees F. or higher). The shop should be cleaned if you have
been doing a sanding operation. Control of cleanliness is essential. If you are working on a large
surface you may want to have someone to assist you. This is a good way to involve a member of
your family. They can mix resins and maintain clean hands to move parts or do other activities that
require cleanliness.

If you are bonding parts together you may encounter peel ply that was left in place by the kit
manufacturer. Peel ply on a completed part is often difficult to see. You must remove this peel ply
material prior to proceeding. The parts will not bond together if done over peel ply. The parts that
are supplied with a kit have usually been manufactured in a mold and by the time you receive the
part the resin has fully cured. This is important to the builder because the surface of a cured part
must be prepared differently for an additional layup or bonding. This type of bond is called a
secondary bond. Secondary bonding is the process of bonding together previously cured composite
parts using a wet layup process. You should prepare the part according to the instructions provided
by the kit manufacturer. This usually involves some type of sanding of the surface to remove any
glossy areas. 180 grit sandpaper is often recommended to abrade the surface. Care must be taken to
not damage any fibers.

Filling Cells of Foam

If you are doing a layup on a new piece of foam the cells of that foam must be filled to provide
enough surface area for the cloth to stay in place and to achieve a strong bond. This also prevents
excess resin from flowing into the core material and adding unnecessary weight. Polystyrene foam
must be filled prior to application of the first layer of cloth. Some of the high-density foams do not
require this filling step. Again, follow the directions of the designer. A slurry mixture of
microballoons and resin is generally used to apply this first coat of material. SuperFil may be used
very successfully to fill the cells on polystyrene foams. We will discuss the mixing procedure for
slurry later in the article.

Cutting the Cloth

This subject was discussed in the previous article. As a quick review, you should use a Sharpie pen to
mark cloth. Cut the cloth according to the directions provided by the manufacturer. Usually this will
involve cutting on a 45-degree angle. Remember to be very careful with the cloth as you are cutting
it and while applying it to the structure. It is easily damaged or distorted.

Mixing Resins

Now that we have everything ready to go we will mix the resin material. Use only non-waxed cups
usually the 8-ounce or 16-ounce size. Remember that you are only going to mix small quantities. If
you do mix any large quantities the resin should be immediately poured into smaller containers. A
large amount of resin will create an acceleration of the chemical reaction-hence an exotherm.
Exotherm temperatures can easily exceed 200 degrees F. and may actually damage the foam core
itself.

The total amount of resin to mix depends upon the weight of the cloth that you are applying. You
should try for a 1 to 1 ratio by weight of cloth to resin. In other words, weigh the cloth you are
applying and mix a corresponding amount of resin. You will usually mix somewhere between 50-100
grams of resin at a time. If the kit manufacturer states that you should use a resin pump then use
that method to mix your resins. Be aware that you should be careful of clogging or air bubbles that
sometimes can occur with a pump. Balance scales are also used to mix resins. The important fact to
remember is that you must be accurate in your mixing. This is particularly true with epoxy resins. Do
not adjust hardeners to change cure rates in epoxies. The cure rate of vinyl ester resins is easily
adjusted during the mixing phase. Again, refer to the directions for the specific resin material.

(I want to clarify a procedure mentioned in last month's article. If you encounter a resin that has
crystallized you can use the following procedure to solve the problem. Put the can of resin in a
container that will not melt. Remove the cap of the resin can and place the can in heated water to
about 160 degrees for the length of time required to dissolve the crystals. You can then safely use
the resin after it has cooled.)

Back to mixing. After you have carefully measured the resin and hardener, mix the two together for
a minimum of 2 minutes. Take a mixing stick and cut the end at a 90-degree angle so it will reach the
corners of the mixing cup. You must use a non-waxed mixing cup. Otherwise the wax from cups will
mix with the resin. Stir the mixture spending about 20% of the time scraping the sides and corners of
the cup to ensure adequate mixing. Do not mix too aggressively, as air bubbles will form. If any air
bubbles form allow the resin to sit until the bubbles dissipate. Placing resin with bubbles in
suspension on a layup can create a void of resin in the laminate. After you have completed mixing
your resin leave a small amount in a cup so it can cure. This will provide a good test to see if the
resin is curing properly. After a couple of days scratch the resin in the cup with a knife. It should
leave a white mark if it is suitably cured.

Layup Procedure

After the resin is completely mixed pour some of the resin over the surface you are working on. Use
your squeegee and spread the resin over the surface. Then place the reinforcement cloth in place at
the proper orientation called for in the plans. Be very careful not to distort the cloth. Use a squeegee
and your protected hands to ensure the cloth is in the proper place. Then, using a squeegee begin to
press gently from the center of the cloth making sure you move the squeegee in the same directions
as the fibers of the cloth. Keep the fibers straight and press the fabric into the resin while working
the resin up through the cloth. Be careful not to distort the fibers. You can use a brush and a roller to
assist in this process. After you have worked most of the resin through the cloth pour on the
remaining resin over the top of the cloth and work it into the fibers. When the layer appears to have
a nice even sheen that is flat you have a good layup. You do not want any air bubbles. Work air
bubbles to the edge of the laminate to make them disappear. You can also use a brush that has been
trimmed to stipple resin into areas that do not appear to have proper coverage or into problem
areas.

If white spots appear in the laminate the cloth has not been properly wet out. A lighter color could
also indicate an air bubble. Careful use of an ordinary hair dryer will change the viscosity of the resin
enough to allow it to flow into certain areas. Do not hold the air dryer in one place for any length of
time-keep the hair dryer moving. Otherwise, it can create a void if you leave it in one place.

When pulling the squeegee, excess resin will accumulate in front of it. Scrape this off into the mixing
cup. Pressure applied to the squeegee varies with the type of resin, temperature, etc. Also, holding
the squeegee at a 45-degree angle or less will move less resin. Holding it at 90 degrees or more will
move more resin. Remember that the clock is running all the time on the working time of the resin.
Normally, you will have 30 minutes or so to work until the resin begins to gel. This of course is
dependent upon the type of resin, temperature, etc. Practice will make this entire process easy and
understandable. Again, do several practice laminates prior to beginning on the actual structure.
After doing this you will easily perfect your own technique of doing quality layups.

Inspection of Laminate

The laminate should be thoroughly inspected for air bubbles, any trapped air, excess resin, and of
course dry areas or resin starved areas. Hold a light at different angles to observe any problems such
as resin starved areas (not enough resin indicated by lighter color) or resin rich areas (too much resin
indicated by darker or more glossy areas). When complete the laminate should have a nice even
sheen. Have someone else inspect your work. They may see something you have overlooked. Inspect
carefully for any delamination problems.

I am attempting to convey to potential builders the very basic knowledge necessary to construct a
composite airplane. Composite building is not difficult. It simply requires a fundamental knowledge
of the basics. When you undertake the building of a composite aircraft, the plans or assembly
manual will guide you through the process. The basic skills needed for this type of construction
consist of 2 primary items: knowledge of how to do a basic layup and knowledge of how to bond
pieces of material together. Building a composite airplane from a kit is similar to building a model
airplane. You glue the pieces together. Now, obviously the gluing procedure for an aircraft is much
more critical and sophisticated than with a model but the basic principles are very similar.

Peel Ply

Peel ply is a polyester or nylon cloth material applied to the completed laminate while the resin is
still wet. This cloth will not adhere to the layup thus allowing it to be peeled off at a later time,
hence the words "peel ply". The application of peel ply is suggested when you are going to complete
another laminate at a later time. If you are immediately going to apply another layer of cloth this
step is not necessary. Peel ply provides an added benefit of absorbing excess resin from the
composite skins.

Assuming you are going to apply another laminate later, or you are completing the final laminate,
you will want to place peel ply onto the completed surface. Cut the peel ply to the proper size and
lay it over the laminate while the resin is still wet. One layer of peel ply is all you will need. Use a
squeegee and a brush to work the resin up through the peel ply. You may have to add a small
amount of resin to get the peel ply to bond adequately to the laminate and to completely
impregnate the peel ply and thus fill the weave. After ensuring the peel ply is saturated onto the
layup, set the piece aside to cure. After the resin has cured you must then remove the peel ply. This
is very important! Failure to remove peel ply will result in an unsafe bond of the next layer of
reinforcement material. (Note that a number of kit manufacturers will ship pre-molded parts that
still have peel ply attached. It is imperative this be removed prior to bonding the pieces together.)

After removal of the peel ply you will see that the laminate is very smooth and requires little
preparation for the next layer of cloth or for the finishing process. The resulting surface is actually
fractured somewhat leaving it better prepared for additional bonding or painting. Small glossy areas
will be present on the peel-plied surface requiring abrading with 180 grit sandpaper or
Scotchbritepads. Without using peel ply, the composite surface will require extensive sanding or
filling to prepare it for bonding or painting.

BONDING

Definition

Bonding is not a new process in aircraft building. In fact, bonding has been used in aircraft
construction since the very beginning. The technique of gluing wood structures together has been
used for years. Many of the same gluing elements found in wood is also found in composites. The
term bonding, as applied to composites, is used to describe a common method for joining composite
structures. Bonding is the process in which previously manufactured component parts are attached
together during assembly of the airplane. Bonding composites can also be compared to welding
metal. It is designed to be a permanent joining method. Several important points must be
considered in bonding. We must know how much strength is needed in the joint, the bonding area
required, what type of material must be used to provide the adhesion, and the procedure used to
apply the bonding material. Preparing the surfaces that are to be bonded together is also crucial. As
stated earlier, the majority of composite kit aircraft require some type of bonding procedure.

The first method of bonding used in amateur-built aircraft involves a four-step process. The first step
is to cut and trim the component parts to get the proper shape and fit. The second step is to position
the two pieces together. This can be accomplished by using temporary jigs or by temporarily gluing
them together with a non-structural adhesive. Third, we must fill any gaps that may exist as a result
of butting the two pieces together. The final step consists of actually creating the structural joint
using wet (resin laden) strips of reinforcement material (usually fiberglass) bonded over the area
connecting the two components together. (See figure 1.) If we are bonding together two pieces that
are perpendicular to each other as in figure 1, then we must create a fillet.

The strength of a joint that is joined by a fillet is derived from the reinforcement material and not
the fillet itself. The fillet is needed to prevent the reinforcement fibers from making a direct 90-
degree bend without any radius. Composite materials must have a bending radius just like sheet
metal. The number of strips of reinforcement material laid down over the fillet determines the
strength of the bond.

An example of the type of construction explained is found in mating a wing rib to the wing skin.
Another example is placing a bulkhead into a fuselage. Both of these are common types of
construction techniques used when building a kit composite airplane.
The second method of composite bonding is termed "adhesive bonding". Adhesive bonding involves
assembling component parts together using a structural adhesive in place of resins and fiberglass.
Structural adhesives range from pre-formulated, two part mixtures that are in paste form to
structural laminating resins that are mixed with flocked cotton or milled fiber to provide the
necessary strength. The first method of bonding discussed uses laminating resins and reinforcement
material to create a bonding overlap. Adhesive bonding requires the bonding area to be formed into
the part when it is molded. This is usually accomplished by lowering one side of a part and raising a
side of the second part. This allows the two pieces that will be bonded to slide over each other
providing a precise fit. The joint that is formed when the pieces are joined in this manner is referred
to as a "joggle." ( See figure 2 ) With this type of overlap the builder is required to lay down the
structural adhesive and apply some clamping pressure.

Some kit manufacturers prefer to combine both bonding methods to achieve the greatest possible
strength. The key to achieving strength in any joint is to properly prepare the surfaces that will be
joined. The laminating resin or structural adhesive must bond well to the surfaces. The surfaces must
be cleaned properly and sanded.

You will often hear the term "secondary bonding" used in composite construction. This type of
bonding simply refers to the bonding together of previously cured composite parts using the
methods outlined above. Secondary bonding is commonly found in most composite kit aircraft. It
requires proper surface preparation. Prepare the surfaces according to the instructions provided by
the kit manufacturer. Usually, the surface will be abraded using 180-grit sandpaper or a Scotchbrite
pad. Each of these will provide the proper surface preparation without cutting or damaging
underlying fibers.

Steps of Bonding

When you receive your kit it will usually consist of many pre-molded parts that need to be bonded
together. Sounds relatively simple-and it is-providing you carefully follow instructions. You must first
of all remove any peel ply, prepare the surfaces, and then the pieces must be properly jigged to
maintain an accurate alignment. Then the actual process begins. So, let's take the steps one at a
time. We will use a simple "T" bond of 2 pieces of material to illustrate the steps.

Preparation
Most of the construction process of a kit aircraft involves secondary bonding. This means it is critical
to properly prepare the surface. With a plans-built airplane or a kit airplane where you have just
completed building a part, the piece is already prepared for the bonding step.

Assuming you are working with pre-molded parts, you must abrade the surface to ensure an
adequate bond. Failure to do so will result in an unsafe bond. We have discussed this process earlier.
Prepare the piece according to the instructions of the kit manufacturer. They will usually have you
use sandpaper or Scotchbrite pads to scratch up the surface. 3M Rol-loc disks also work very quickly
to prepare glass surfaces for bonding. You will want to make sure you have the proper fit between
the pieces. A certain amount of sanding may be necessary to ensure this fit. You do not want any
gaps between the pieces that are to be bonded together. The pieces must then be thoroughly
cleaned to remove any contaminants. Often, residue from a mold release compound will be present
on the piece. This must be removed. Acetone is often recommended for the initial cleaning followed
immediately by a dry rag. The part should then be cleaned with soap and water to remove any
solvents and then dried. Again, follow the directions of the kit manufacturer. I will amplify on the
cleaning process in the next article.

Tack the Parts Together

The next step in the bonding process is to mate the pieces together and glue them in place using a
non-structural glue. (Figure 3). This simply allows you to begin the bonding process. You can use 5-
minute epoxy, hot glue, or instant glue to hold the pieces together. The parts only need to be tacked
in just enough areas to hold them in place. This is not the final bonding of the pieces-it is simply a
method of holding them together while we actually complete the bonding operation. None of the
glues mentioned should be considered as structurally sound. Hold the pieces together until the glue
sets up. Figure 2 shows our 2 pieces glued together using 5-minute epoxy. Assembly instructions will
often require the use of clecos, screws, or clamps to attach the pieces together for the bonding
process.

Note: As a reminder, remember to remove any peel ply that may be present on the component parts
prior to bonding.

Create a Fillet

Once the temporary bond has hardened, a fillet needs to be made. This fillet provides a radius for
the reinforcement material that will be bonded on next. The fillet alone is not strong enough to bond
the parts together. Dry micro or SuperFil is used to make a non-structural fillet. Structural fillets, if
required, are made by substituting microballoons with cotton flox.

Creating a fillet is relatively simple. Mix the SuperFil or micro and place it in a sandwich bag or in the
middle of a piece of plastic. Close it up and snip a small hole in the bottom of the bag. (See Figure 4).
This is similar to a cake-icing dispenser. Now squeeze the mixture from the bag along the corner area
where the pieces are joined. A small amount is sufficient. An optimal fillet will have about a 3/16-
inch to 5/16-inch radius.

After placing the SuperFil along the fillet area, take a tongue depressor and smooth the mixture into
the corner area. Rounding the end of a tongue depressor with a pair of scissors will provide the exact
size fillet you desire. Use the tongue depressor holding it perpendicular to the fillet and not leaned
fore or aft. (See Figure 5). Remove any excess material that may have formed near the fillet along
the sides of the pieces. This can be done using the tongue depressor. You do not want any micro or
SuperFil where the glass will be applied except at the fillet itself. The completed piece should have
the appearance of a smooth fillet. You are now ready to bond the pieces using reinforcement
material.

Tape Glassing

In our example, we are going to use fiberglass to complete the bonding process of our two parts.
This is often referred to as "tape glassing." On your project, you will complete this process according
to the manufacturer's instructions. Usually at least 2-3 layers of cloth will be placed between the two
pieces. Once the glass tapes are in place, the load path between the two pieces will be complete.

Wet layup strips of fiberglass cut at plus/minus 45 degrees are used for bonding nearly all
components together. The most simple and clean way to make the layups is to pre-impregnate the
material with resin while it is between two sheets of plastic. Clean 1 or 2-mil plastic drop cloth
material works well for this. First, determine the total size for all pieces you will need. Obtain a piece
of fiberglass slightly larger than this total size. Next obtain two pieces of plastic and cut them 3-4
inches larger than the fiberglass both in length and in width. Draw lines, using a Sharpie marker, on
the plastic to form the necessary strips of cloth that will be the exact length and width needed. Flip
the plastic over so the resin is not placed on the marks. Mix the required amount of resin necessary
to saturate the cloth. Pour the resin over the plastic and place the fiberglass on top of the resin. Next
place the second piece of plastic over the resin.
Using a squeegee, work the resin into the fibers through the plastic. In other words, you will be
placing the squeegee on the plastic, not on the cloth. This enables you to keep everything clean and
neat. Wet out the fibers completely just like any other layup. You can now pick up the entire piece of
material and handle it without getting resin everywhere.

The next step is to use standard scissors and cut out the tapes you will need along the lines on the
plastic. (See Figure 6). As you cut the strips, draw the scissors slightly toward you. This will enable
you to make neat, easy cuts.

Next, lightly moisten the area to be laminated (on our "T") with resin using a brush. This will ensure
that the bond is not resin-starved. Remove the plastic from one side of the tape. Place the strip
down with the remaining piece of plastic facing up. Use a squeegee over the top of the plastic to
remove any air bubbles and to smooth the resin evenly. After the tape is in place you can then
remove the top piece of plastic. The process is then repeated for additional layers of cloth. (Be sure
to remove the plastic). Plans usually call for the pieces of reinforcement material to be stepped out
with succeeding layers. In other words, if the first layer is 2 inches wide the next layer would be 3
inches wide. The widest piece will be on the top.

Thoroughly inspect the piece for air bubbles and resin starved areas.

As you will see from the completed piece (Figure 7), the tape is providing the strength of the bond.
This is a very efficient and effective method of bonding two composite parts together. Again, it is a
commonly used technique for installing ribs in wings or bulkheads in a fuselage. Use of the plastic is
not necessary, but it does allow you to remain neat and clean.

The final step is to place peel ply over the material. Laminate a strip of peel ply over the surface and
allow the resin to cure. This will eliminate the sharp edges that will otherwise result from the
fiberglass material. Remember to remove the peel ply after the resin has cured.

Joggles

Joggles are simply joints that have been pre-molded to fit precisely together. They overlap each
other and are usually bonded together using a structural adhesive. This type of construction is very
common in the mating together of fuselage parts. After bonding the parts together at the joggle,
reinforcement material is usually applied for added strength.
Often, you will be required to trim excess material off a joggle prior to bonding. Usually you will
place the two pieces together and then drill holes to allow for the installation of clecos. (The same
clecos used for sheet metal construction.) Some instructions call for the use of clamps or even strips
of wood glued on the surface to hold it in place and to maintain proper alignment. This will often be
done in a jig to ensure alignment of the parts.

After the pieces are mated together, and the proper fit attained, you will then mix the structural
adhesive. Structural adhesives are usually in a thick paste form. They consist of a Part A and a Part B
mixed according to instructions. You want to be sure the ambient temperature is at least 60 degrees
+. Most of the adhesives have a working time of 1-2 hours at 77 degrees F. Be sure you are ready to
glue prior to mixing the adhesives.

Remove the clecos or other fasteners as you apply the adhesive to both parts. Instructions will often
tell you to replace the clecos with rivets after applying the adhesive. The rivets are later drilled out
after the adhesive cures. The resulting holes are then filled. Fiberglass strips are usually applied as a
final step.

This provides you with a very basic idea of how to accomplish composite bonding. The key to doing
this correctly is to practice. Cut a few pieces to form a "T" and bond them together until you perfect
the process. This will save you a lot of problems when you begin working on the real thing.

PREPARATION OF COMPOSITE PARTS

Above, I outlined a brief procedure for preparing composite parts prior to bonding. This step is most
important and needs to be amplified. The quality of a bond is directly affected by the preparation of
the two parts being joined together. If contamination exists on either part the bond may be
weakened even to the point of subsequent failure. Let me emphasize that you should follow the
directions found in the kit manufacturer's manual regarding proper cleaning techniques. However,
the preparation procedure is important enough to warrant more detailed discussion.

First of all, when bonding to an outside mold surface (such as many of the parts you receive from the
kit manufacturer) cleaning and sanding of the parts is always required. When aircraft parts are
molded a release agent is applied to the inside of the mold itself allowing the part to be removed
when cured. This mold release agent must be removed prior to any bonding activity. The agent is
barely visible. Water will usually remove this agent. After removal of the agent and any
contaminants sanding is then accomplished.
Any surface that is smooth because of being next to a mold must be sanded prior to bonding. Any
primer that may be present must also be removed. Sanding is generally the accepted way to prepare
the surface. Opinions vary on the proper grit of sandpaper to be used. Usually 80 grit to 180 grit is
recommended. Our workshop experience has shown that 180 grit sandpaper is usually satisfactory
to prepare the surface. Use of 180 grit will ensure the underlying fibers are not damaged or cut. The
surface should be thoroughly abraded (roughed) to completely remove any glossy areas.

Abaris Training, located in Reno, Nevada, instructs the military, airlines, and aerospace industry on
composite construction and repair. I consult with Mike Hoke, the President of Abaris, regularly
concerning composite construction. His company is considered to be one of the leading composite
training companies in the United States. The following quote was taken directly from their training
manual regarding surface preparation. "High surface energy is the goal, not mechanical roughness.
One must shear up the top layer of molecules on the surface, creating many broken bonds, without
damaging or breaking underlying fibers. A water break test can be used to determine surface energy.
If surface energy is high, clean distilled water will spread out in a thin uniform film on the surface,
and will not break into beads. If a water break free surface can be maintained for 30 seconds, one
has achieved a clean, high energy surface suitable for bonding. If the surface is contaminated or at
low energy, the water will break into rivulets and bead up.

Note that tap water will not work. It is dirty enough to contaminate the surface itself, and one will
never pass a water break test using it.

It is important to note that the "high energy" condition, once achieved, is short-lived. Within about
2-4 hours the effect is lost. In composites, one should therefore wait as late as possible in the
process before surface abrasion is performed, so that all else is ready and the adhesive can be
quickly applied."

Dry the water off of the laminate with a hair dryer prior to applying the adhesive. If it is wiped with a
cloth it will likely contaminate the area again. Do not use a heat gun for this process. The heat is too
intense and may damage the cured resin.

This process also applies to peel ply surfaces. Even though a peel ply surface fractures the top layer
of resin, it leaves a glossy, low energy surface in the weave pattern of woven cloth. This must be
abraded for proper bonding.
So, how should you clean parts prior to bonding? The best procedure is to simply sand the surface,
as discussed, and follow by a thorough cleaning with soap and water. If you are using solvents, use
them initially to remove contaminants and then abrade the surface. Follow by soap and water and
then immediately dry using a hair dryer. Remember to begin the bonding process within a few hours
after preparing the surface.

AMINE BLUSH

Sometimes when working with epoxy resins, you may encounter what is referred to as an amine
blush. The development of an amine blush is most visible under high humidity conditions. An amine
blush is a surface effect resulting from the curing agent reacting with Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in the
atmosphere rather than the epoxy resin. The by-product of this reaction is a compound that forms
on the surface of the curing resin and readily absorbs moisture from the air. Under high humidity
conditions, it will cause white streaks to appear on the surface of the resin and the uncured
laminate. During cure, the white streaks usually disappear, but left behind will be a greasy or oily
residue. Sometimes, this residue appears in the form of sweat like droplets. This residue is water-
soluble and will wash off with warm water. Depending on the severity of the blushing event there
may even be areas of surface tackiness. This tackiness is only on the surface, and will not effect the
overall properties of the cured laminate.

Amine blush must be removed before any additional laminates are initiated. Sanding will remove
blush but it will also quickly gum up your sandpaper. Wiping the surface with a warm wet rag prior
to sanding will reduce the gumming tendency.

The best approach is to avoid amine blush altogether. Some resin systems are inherently resistant to
developing amine blush. And for others, it may seem impossible to avoid it. But there are some
things you can do to minimize it greatly. Number one and foremost is - DO NOT use unventilated
combustion type heating sources to warm your shop. Gas or kerosene fired salamander heaters
produce copious amounts of CO2 and H2O. These are the primary ingredients needed for producing
an amine blush. So, use electric heaters or ventilated exhaust type combustion heaters to keep your
shop warm.

You should avoid mixing resins or doing any layups if the temperature is less than 65 degrees F. If
you do a layup at this temperature you should immediately move the part into a warm room for
curing. Purchase a thermometer and a humidity indicator and place them in your work area. Avoid
mixing resins and working with resins if the temperature is below 65 degrees F or if the humidity
rises above 80%. The best solution is to place an air conditioning unit in your workshop area.

You can reduce the susceptibility to blush in the following ways:

- Work in the prescribed environmental conditions.

- Use "dry" and ventilated heating sources

- Use peel ply. Amine blush usually forms on the outer-most portion of a layup. By using peel ply the
amine blush is removed when the peel ply is removed.

- Cap all resins as soon as possible. This reduces their exposure to the elements.

- Use a resin with demonstrated blush resistance. Some resins are more susceptible to blushing than
others blush.

Use of peel ply, purchasing a blush resistant resin, and working in the right temperature and
humidity will all work together to minimize amine blush.

HARDPOINTS

Often you will be required to mechanically attach another piece to a composite structure. One
method of doing this is to fabricate a "hardpoint". If you mechanically attach a piece to a fiberglass
part, the fiberglass must be reinforced in the area where it will be fitted to accept the loads imposed
by the attachment. An example of a hardpoint is found on the GlaStar airplane. A welded fuselage
frame is placed inside a pre-molded fuselage shell. The two are attached using machine screws that
are placed through hardpoints fabricated in the fiberglass shell.

The most common method of fabricating a hardpoint is to route out a small amount of foam core
material between the inner and outer laminates of the shell. See Figure 1. You must be sure not to
remove any of the reinforcement material on the outer and inner shells. A piece of piano wire bent
90 degrees and placed in a drill works well for this step. The core material may then be removed
using a shop vacuum. After the core material has been removed, a mixture of resin and milled fiber
is injected to fill the void. After the material is injected through the drilled hole, a small piece of tape
may be applied to keep the resin mixture from escaping. After curing, this material provides the
strength needed to serve as an attach point. You must ensure that the entire area is filled with
material and no air bubbles are present. After the material completely cures, a hole is drilled
through the reinforced area to receive the screw or bolt.

This is one example of a hardpoint. Various kit manufacturers use different methods. Complete
instructions on fabricating a hardpoint will be included in your assembly manual.
POST CURING

Post curing is a process used to obtain increased strength from a resin. If an epoxy resin is allowed to
cure only at room temperature, its ultimate strength is rarely achieved. Post curing will increase two
critical performance properties of an epoxy, chemical resistance and heat resistance. Fuel tanks
constructed using an epoxy will benefit considerably from post curing. Post curing the entire airplane
will increase overall resistance to the heat build-up inside the airplane resulting from the high
temperatures found on any ramp in the summer. This build-up of heat can reach the glass transition
temperature causing a weakened state of the resin itself.

To understand post curing, it is necessary to define the term glass transition temperature or Tg. The
glass transition temperature is the point where the physical properties of a resin material start to
decrease as temperatures are elevated. The temperature at which the resin "transitions" (T) from a
hard, glassy state (g) to a soft rubbery state is called its Tg. At the Tg the tensile strength, chemical
resistance, and hardness are significantly reduced while the flexibility is increased. As you might
imagine, we do not want our completed airplane to reach the Tg temperature. To prevent this from
occurring, one method is to post cure the resin. Another way is to paint our airplane a light color
(usually white) to preclude the temperature on the inside of the airplane from being excessive. On a
90 degree F day, it is not unusual for the temperature inside your airplane structure to reach 180
degrees F plus. This is why you see most composite airplanes painted white. The white color helps
reflect the heat keeping the temperature inside the airplane component parts as low as possible.

Another term often used is referred to as the Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT). The value of this
number provides us with an idea of the upper service temperature limit for a plastic. This is the
temperature at which a resin will begin to soften if placed under a load. The HDT is usually about 20-
30 degrees C lower than the Tg of a resin. The reason this is true is because the test to determine
this value is accomplished under a load. For this reason, HDT is often a better indicator of the true
upper service temperature limit for a given resin.

Regardless, it may be difficult for you to find the value of the Tg and/or the HDT of a resin. Resin
manufacturers sometimes display one or both of these values within their instructions but many do
not. You will have to seek out this information and determine the temperature and time required at
that temperature for a post curing operation.

Should you post cure? Post curing is not absolutely necessary but it certainly is advantageous for all
epoxy resins. Some resin manufactures require a post cure as standard practice. Basically, post
curing your component parts and your composite airplane will ease your mind concerning the
quality of your layups and bonds. If you are somewhat unsure about whether or not the resin
properly cured on a particular layup or bond, post curing will likely solve that problem. If you are
using epoxy to construct a fuel tank, you should definitely post cure that area. Post curing will
ensure adequate fuel resistance not only for today's fuel compositions, but tomorrow's as well.
Without post curing, you may encounter a gummy substance in your fuel tank that can plug
gascolator screens and filters.

The bottom line in discussing this issue with Gary Hunter-an acknowledged expert on resins who
works for Shell Chemical Company (a major manufacturer of epoxy resins) and EAA Technical
Counselor-Gary recommends post curing a composite airplane. In his opinion, it takes all of the
worries out of the construction process as it pertains to resins. It is a little more insurance that you
are getting the maximum performance available from your resin system.

What about vinyl ester resins-do they require post curing? It is not necessary to post cure vinyl
esters but it is helpful. Room temperature cured vinyl ester resins develop a larger portion of their
ultimate properties, than most room temperature cured epoxies, and as such, they tend to be more
resistant to chemicals overall. Therefore, the benefits of a post cure are not as significant. However,
post curing simply improves these attributes even more.

How do we post cure? Raising the temperature of a typical laminate above standard room cure
temperature performs post curing. Again, most resin systems will not reach their full strength unless
they are cured at a temperature considerably above room temperature. Usually this temperature is
about 40 degrees F below the Tg specified for the resin. The post cure temperature should never
surpass the maximum temperature of another material in the laminate such as the foam. (As an
example, polystyrene foam swells at a temperature around 165 degrees F). Without post curing the
Tg of a resin used on your airplane will only be approximately 40 degrees F above the temperature
at which the resin was cured. On a hot day the temperature of a structure can exceed the Tg. That
could result in the entire composite matrix softening. This softening can result in the matrix of the
heated portion being weakened and pulled away. The once smooth surface now exposes the weave
of the fabric. High temperatures inside structures that have not been post cured can also affect
structural integrity.

With this in mind, it is important that you follow a post curing procedure. You can do this yourself by
introducing the proper amount of heat into a fireproof tent- like structure containing a specific part
or the entire airplane. Introduce the heat gradually to raise the temperature to that specified by the
resin manufacturer. Usually this will be between 140 degrees to 180 degrees F. Let it warm up slowly
and evenly. The resin manufacturer will specify the amount of time required at this temperature. An
excellent method of post-curing is to rent a paint booth from a local car painter. These booths are
usually heated and you can place your parts or the entire airplane in the booth. Put a coupleof fans
within the booth to circulate the air for even heating rates. Another built-in area to post cure is your
attic. The temperature of most attics will reach 140 degrees F. Granted, you have little control over
the heating but small parts can be post cured in an attic area. A regular oven can be very effectively
used to post cure parts. You can purchase foil back insulation material and construct a small post
cure booth. The insulation can be taped together using duct tape. See Figure 2. You can then place a
thermostat controlled electric heater in the booth with a couple of thermometer probes placed
through the insulation to indicate the temperature.

It is important that you properly support parts to prevent any distortion. This does not mean that
you have to place a wing back in a jig. This is assuming the resin has cured for at least a week. (If you
are immediately post curing then you should leave the wings in the jig). Regardless, you must
provide adequate support. This means positioning a wing on a flat surface with the leading edge
down, as an example. Cowlings should be in place on the airplane or set on the floor with the
forward edges down.

After the part has been heated for the required amount of time, slowly cool the temperature. Do not
simply pull the part out of the heated area. Again, care must be taken to not exceed the break down
temperature of other components such as the foam.

Many kit planes are manufactured from heat cured prepregs and as such, they are essentially post
cured as delivered. However, the adhesive bond lines and tape layups the builder makes to assemble
the prefab pieces will only have a room temperature cure. It only makes sense to post cure these
bond lines and layups so the properties will better match the prefab parts from the manufacturer.
This can be accomplished by introducing heat into a closed-up fuselage or wing area for a certain
amount of time. After all, being made from foam or honeycomb cored composites, they are
naturally insulating structures.

One way to do this is to use the exhaust from a vacuum cleaner as a mild source of heat. Many
builders have used this procedure to introduce heat into a fuselage area for a period of time. All of
the bulkheads that have been bonded and other resin applications will be post cured.

When to post cure is another question. It really does not matter when you post cure. It is usually
best to wait at least 2 weeks after you have completed your layup or bonding to allow the resin to
cure as much as possible at room temperature. Even if you have completed the work 6 months ago
or longer you will still derive benefits from post curing.

Similarly, the fillers and faring compounds used to smooth and contour your airplanes painted
surfaces will benefit from a post cure. Fillers inherently shrink as they cure, and after a few months
in the hot sun a show quality finish can literally shrink away exposing the weave of the reinforcing
fabric and other unsightly discontinuities. This is commonly referred to as "Print Through". Post
curing your airplane after the filling work but prior to priming and painting will essentially pre-shrink
these fillers and allow you to see and re-fill any resultant print through prior to final painting.

As you can see, there are many ways to post cure. There is nothing absolutely critical about the
method. The slow introduction of heat up to the desired level followed by the proper time at that
temperature is important. Again, slowly lower the temperature when you are through. As Gary
Hunter states, "post curing is not absolutely necessary, but the results are always comforting on that
first encounter with clear air turbulence."

<Note: Ron is working on the final section of this article. Once completed, the article will be
appended and updated>

Information on the EAA/SportAir workshops can be obtained by calling 800-967-5746 or by

contacting the website at www.sportair.com. The author may be emailed at
ralexander@sportair.com

SportAir also has available a video on Basic Composites. This video may be obtained through the EAA
Video Sales.

This article was first published in EAA's Sport Aviation magazine as a five part series (1st article
published in May of 1999).

Composite materialFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (November 2008)
 This article's tone or style may not be appropriate for Wikipedia. Specific concerns may be found on
the talk page. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (May 2010)

It has been suggested that Spread tow fabric and Technical fabric be merged into this article or
section. (Discuss)

A cloth of woven carbon fiber filaments, a common element in composite materialsComposite

materials, often shortened to composites, are engineered or naturally occurring materials made
from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties
which remain separate and distinct at the macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished
structure.

The most visible applications is pavement in roadways in the form of either steel and aggregate
reinforced Portland cement or asphalt concrete. Those composites closest to our personal hygiene
form our shower stalls and bathtubs made of fibreglass. Imitation granite and cultured marble sinks
and countertops are widely used. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft in
demanding environments.

Contents [hide]

1 Composition

2 Moulding methods

2.1 Vacuum bag moulding

2.2 Pressure bag moulding

2.3 Autoclave moulding

2.4 Resin transfer moulding (RTM)

2.5 Other

3 Tooling

4 Properties

4.1 Mechanics

4.2 Resins

4.3 Categories of fiber-reinforced composite materials

4.4 Failure

4.5 Testing

5 Examples

5.1 Materials

5.2 Products

6 See also

7 References

8 Further reading

9 External links

[edit] Composition

Plywood is a commonly encountered composite materialWood is a natural composite of Cellulose

fibers in a matrix of lignin.[1][2] The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud
combined to form bricks for building construction. The ancient brick-making process can still be seen
on Egyptian tomb paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are two
categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is
required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining
their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties
to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the
individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows
the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum combination.

Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced to
the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto
the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is
essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in
various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.

A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The
principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement
materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be produced. Large
quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing
technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower capital expenditures but
higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate.

Most commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin solution.
There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients. There are
several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most common are known as polyester,
vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The
reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals. The various methods
described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre
content is increased. As a rule of thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40%
fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60% fibre content. The
strength of the product is greatly dependent on this ratio.

[edit] Moulding methodsIn general, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted
and processed to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set,
although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a thermoset polymeric matrix material,
the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional heat or
chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the
melding event is a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium
foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the melt point.

For many moulding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a "lower" mould and
another mould piece as an "upper" mould. Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the
moulded panel, not the mould's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a lower
mould, and sometimes an upper mould. Part construction begins by applying materials to the lower
mould. Lower mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more common and
specific terms such as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat, mandrel, etc.
Continuous manufacturing processes use a different nomenclature.

The moulded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material
combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous processes, it can be referred
to as a profile. Applied with a pressure roller, a spray device or manually. This process is generally
done at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. Two variations of open moulding are Hand
Layup and Spray-up.

[edit] Vacuum bag mouldingA process using a two-sided mould set that shapes both surfaces of the
panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane or vacuum
bag. The flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. Then,
vacuum is applied to the mould cavity. This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated
temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure acting upon the vacuum bag. Most economical way
is using a venturi vacuum and air compressor or a vacuum pump.

A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong rubber-coated fabric or a polymer film used to bond or
laminate materials. In some applications the bag encloses the entire material, or in other
applications a mold is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being single sided to seal
the outer face of the laminate to the mold. The open end is sealed and the air is drawn out of the
bag through a nipple using a vacuum pump. As a result, uniform pressure approaching one
atmosphere is applied to the surfaces of the object inside the bag, holding parts together while the
adhesive cures. The entire bag may be placed in a temperature-controlled oven, oil bath or water
bath and gently heated to accelerate curing.

In commercial woodworking facilities vacuum bags are used to laminate curved and irregular shaped
workpieces.

Vacuum bagging is widely used in the composites industry as well. Carbon fiber fabric and fiberglass,
along with resins and epoxies are common materials laminated together with a vacuum bag
operation.

Typically, polyurethane or vinyl materials are used to make the bag, which is commonly open at both
ends. This gives access to the piece, or pieces to be glued. A plastic rod is laid onto the bag, which is
then folded over the rod. A plastic sleeve with an opening in it, is then snapped over the rod. This
procedure forms a seal at both ends of the bag, when the vacuum is ready to be drawn.

A "platen" is used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lay on. The platen has a series of small
slots cut into it, to allow the air under it to be evacuated. The platen must have rounded edges and
corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag.

When a curved part is to be glued in a vacuum bag, it is important that the pieces being glued be
placed over a solidly built form, or have an air bladder placed under the form. This air bladder has
access to "free air" outside the bag. It is used to create an equal pressure under the form, preventing
it from being crushed.[3]

[edit] Pressure bag mouldingThis process is related to vacuum bag moulding in exactly the same way
as it sounds. A solid female mould is used along with a flexible male mould. The reinforcement is
placed inside the female mould with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place (wet lay
up). A measured amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the mould and the
mould is then clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible mould. The flexible male
membrane is then inflated with heated compressed air or possibly steam. The female mould can also
be heated. Excess resin is forced out along with trapped air. This process is extensively used in the
production of composite helmets due to the lower cost of unskilled labor. Cycle times for a helmet
bag moulding machine vary from 20 to 45 minutes, but the finished shells require no further curing if
the moulds are heated.

[edit] Autoclave mouldingA process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the
panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from
silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually
or robotically. They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile constructions. Most often,
they are pre-impregnated with the resin in the form of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In
some instances, a resin film is placed upon the lower mould and dry reinforcement is placed above.
The upper mould is installed and vacuum is applied to the mould cavity. The assembly is placed into
an autoclave. This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated
temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fibre volume fraction and low void
content for maximum structural efficiency.

[edit] Resin transfer moulding (RTM)A process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces
of the panel. The lower side is a rigid mould. The upper side can be a rigid or flexible mould. Flexible
moulds can be made from composite materials, silicone or extruded polymer films such as nylon.
The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer
moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is closed
prior to the introduction of matrix material. Resin transfer moulding includes numerous varieties
which differ in the mechanics of how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the mould
cavity. These variations include everything from vacuum infusion (for resin infusion see also boat
building) to vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM). This process can be performed at
either ambient or elevated temperature.

[edit] OtherOther types of moulding include press moulding, transfer moulding, pultrusion
moulding, filament winding, casting, centrifugal casting and continuous casting. There are also
forming capabilities including CNC filament winding, vacuum infusion, wet lay-up, compression
moulding, and thermoplastic moulding, to name a few. The use of curing ovens and paint booths is
also needed for some projects.[4]

[edit] ToolingSome types of tooling materials used in the manufacturing of composites structures
include invar, steel, aluminium, reinforced silicone rubber, nickel, and carbon fibre. Selection of the
tooling material is typically based on, but not limited to, the coefficient of thermal expansion,
expected number of cycles, end item tolerance, desired or required surface condition, method of
cure, glass transition temperature of the material being moulded, moulding method, matrix, cost
and a variety of other considerations.

[edit] Properties[edit] MechanicsThe physical properties of composite materials are generally not
isotropic (independent of direction of applied force) in nature, but rather are typically orthotropic
(different depending on the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a
composite panel will often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments.
Panel stiffness is also dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fibre reinforcement
and matrix used, the method of panel build, thermoset versus thermoplastic, type of weave, and
orientation of fibre axis to the primary force.

In contrast, isotropic materials (for example, aluminium or steel), in standard wrought forms,
typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional orientation of the applied forces
and/or moments.

The relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures for an isotropic material can be
described with the following material properties: Young's Modulus, the shear Modulus and the
Poisson's ratio, in relatively simple mathematical relationships. For the anisotropic material, it
requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants. For the
special case of orthogonal isotropy, there are three different material property constants for each of
Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus and Poisson's ratioͶa total of 9 constants to describe the
relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures.

Techniques that take advantage of the anisotropic properties of the materials include mortise and
tenon joints (in natural composites such as wood) and Pi Joints in synthetic composites.

[edit] ResinsTypically, most common composite materials, including fiberglass, carbon fiber, and
Kevlar, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin.

Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its
weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also
coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications.
Its hardener is a MEKP, and is mixed at 14 drops per oz. MEKP is composed of methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide, a catalyst. When MEKP is mixed with the resin, the resulting chemical reaction causes heat
to build up and cure or harden the resin.
Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower viscosity than
polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel resistant, but will
melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over time to degradation than
polyester resin, and is more flexible. It uses the same hardener as polyester resin (at the same mix
ratio) and the cost is approximately the same.

Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured. In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a
structural matrix material or as a structural glue.

Shape memory polymer (SMP) resins have varying visual characteristics depending on their
formulation. These resins may be epoxy-based, which can be used for auto body and outdoor
equipment repairs; cyanate-ester-based, which are used in space applications; and acrylate-based,
which can be used in very cold temperature applications, such as for sensors that indicate whether
perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature.[5] These resins are unique
in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their glass transition temperature
(Tg). When heated, they become flexible and elastic, allowing for easy configuration. Once they are
cooled, they will maintain their new shape. The resins will return to their original shapes when they
are reheated above their Tg.[6] The advantage of shape memory polymer resins is that they can be
shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties, and these resins can be
used in fabricating shape memory composites.[7]

[edit] Categories of fiber-reinforced composite materials

Typologies of fibre-reinforced composite materials:

a) continuous fibre-reinforced

b) discontinuous aligned fibre-reinforced

c) discontinuous random-oriented fibre-reinforced.Fiber-reinforced composite materials can be

divided into two main categories normally referred to as short fiber-reinforced materials and
continuous fiber-reinforced materials. Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a
layered or laminated structure. The woven and continuous fibre styles are typically available in a
variety of forms, being pre-impregnated with the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of
various widths, plain weave, harness satins, braided, and stitched.

The short and long fibers are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding
operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made from
a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is
achieved).

[edit] FailureShock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the
interface between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate
from the matrix e.g. fibre pull-out.

Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at both
the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fibre in compression buckling. Tension failures can
be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic scale where one
or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure the bond between the
matrix and fibres.

Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure while
others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the onset of
damage. The variations in fibres and matrices that are available and the mixtures that can be made
with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a composite structure.
The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when the carbon-carbon
composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the Space Shuttle Columbia fractured when
impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-up of the vehicle when it re-entered the
Earth's atmosphere on 1 February 2003.

Compared to metals, composites have relatively poor bearing strength.

[edit] TestingTo aid in predicting and preventing failures, composites are tested before and after
construction. Pre-construction testing may use finite element analysis (FEA) for ply-by-ply analysis of
curved surfaces and predicting wrinkling, crimping and dimpling of composites.[8] Materials may be
tested after construction through several nondestructive methods including ultrasonics,
thermography, shearography and X-ray radiography[9]

[edit] Examples[edit] MaterialsFibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include wood (comprising cellulose

fibres in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix), carbon-fibre reinforced plastic or CFRP, and glass-
reinforced plastic or GRP. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fibre
thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are
numerous thermoset composites, but advanced systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and
carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix.
Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or
fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix. Since a shape memory polymer
resin is used as the matrix, these composites have the ability to be easily manipulated into various
configurations when they are heated above their activation temperatures and will exhibit high
strength and stiffness at lower temperatures. They can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly
without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for applications such as
lightweight, rigid, deployable structures; rapid manufacturing; and dynamic reinforcement.[10]

Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites or
MMC. The benefit of magnesium is that it does not degrade in outer space. Ceramic matrix
composites include bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibres), Cermet (ceramic and
metal) and concrete. Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for toughness, not for strength.
Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt, mastic roller
hybrid, dental composite, syntactic foam and mother of pearl. Chobham armour is a special type of
composite armour used in military applications.

Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powders
resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cm³ to 11 g/cm³ (same density as lead). The
most common name for this type of material is High Gravity Compound (HGC), although Lead
Replacement is also used.[11] These materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as
aluminium, stainless steel, brass, bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing
(for example, modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis racquet), vibration dampening, and
radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically viable option when
certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or when secondary
operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating) are a factor.

Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different products such as wood fibre board, plywood,
oriented strand board, wood plastic composite (recycled wood fibre in polyethylene matrix), Pykrete
(sawdust in ice matrix), Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles, Arborite, Formica
(plastic) and Micarta. Other engineered laminate composites, such as Mallite, use a central core of
end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy or GRP. These generate low-weight, high
rigidity materials.

[edit] ProductsComposite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in
high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading
conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and scull hulls,
bicycle frames and racing car bodies.[12] Other uses include fishing rods, storage tanks, and baseball
bats. The new Boeing 787 structure including the wings and fuselage is composed largely of
composites. Composite materials are also becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic
surgery.

Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and spacecraft. It is widely used in
solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft. It is also used in payload
adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles.

In 2007, an all-composite military High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or

Hummvee) was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc, the first all-composite
military vehicle. By using composites the vehicle is lighter, allowing higher payloads. In 2008, carbon
fiber and DuPont Kevlar (five times stronger than steel) were combined with enhanced thermoset
resins to make military transit cases by ECS Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high
strength.

Many composite layup designs also include a co-curing or post-curing of the prepreg with various
other mediums, such as honeycomb or foam. This is commonly called a sandwich structure. This is a
more common layup process for the manufacture of radomes, doors, cowlings, or non-structural
parts.[13]

The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design. Many of these finishes will
include rain-erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings.

[edit] See alsoAluminium composite panel

American Composites Manufacturers Association

Chemical vapour infiltration

Epoxy granite

Fibre-reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete

[edit] References1.^ [1]

2.^ David Hon and Nobuo Shiraishi, eds. (2001) Wood and cellulose chemistry, 2nd ed. (New York:
Marcel Dekker), p. 5 ff.

3.^ http://www.prowoodworkingtips.com/Vacuum_Systems_pg_4_-_Vacuum_bags.html

4.^ PCT
5.^ Environmental Sensors

6.^ "Shape Memory Polymers: An Overview". Cornerstone Research Group.

http://www.crgrp.com/technology/overviews/smp1.shtml. Retrieved 2009-09-30.

7.^ "Shape Memory Polymer Resins". Cornerstone Research Group.

http://www.crgrp.com/technology/materialsportfolio/veriflex.shtml. Retrieved 2009-09-30.

8.^ Waterman, Pamela J.. "The Life of Composite Materials". Desktop Engineering Magazine April
2007. http://66.195.41.10/Articles/Feature/The-Life-of-Composite-Materials-200704101800.html.

9.^ Matzkanin, George A.; Yolken, H. Thomas. "Techniques for the Nondestructive Evaluation of
Polymer Matrix Composites". AMMTIAC Quarterly 2 (4).
http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/pdf/AQV2N4.pdf.

10.^ "Shape Memory Composites". Cornerstone Research Group.

http://www.crgrp.com/technology/overviews/composites.shtml. Retrieved 2009-10-02.

11.^ Material Properties Data: High Gravity Compound (HGC)

12.^ "Rubbn'Repair Composite Repair System". CRG Industries, LLC. http://www.rubbnrepair.com/.

Retrieved 2009-10-02.

13.^ Vantage Composites and Thermoforming, Inc. http://www.vantagecandt.com

[edit] Further readingAutar K. Kaw (2005). Mechanics of Composite Materials (2nd ed.). CRC. ISBN 0-
84-931343-0.

Handbook of Polymer Composites for Engineers By Leonard Hollaway Published 1994 Woodhead
Publishing

Matthews, F.L. & Rawlings, R.D. (1999). Composite Materials: Engineering and Science. Boca Raton:
CRC Press. ISBN 0-84-930621-3.

[edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Composite materials

Composite material key concepts

Distance learning course in polymers and composites

Composite Sandwich Structure of Minardi F1 Car

Teaching support materials for the University of Plymouth composites degree

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material"

Categories: Composite materials

Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2008 | All articles needing
additional references | Wikipedia articles needing style editing from May 2010 | All articles needing
style editing | Articles to be merged from June 2010 | All articles to be mergedPersonal tools

Log in / create accountNamespaces

ArticleDiscussionVariantsViews

ReadEditViewhistoryActions

Search

Navigation

Main pageContentsFeaturedcontentCurrenteventsRandomarticleDonate to
WikipediaInteractionHelpAboutWikipediaCommunityportalRecentchangesContactWikipediaToolbox
What links hereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkCite this page

Print/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable version

Languagesæ
   —
 CatalàČeskyDanskDeutschEspañolEsperanto«  Français


zzzzzzBahasaIndonesiaItaliano‘
 KreyòlayisyenMagyarʺ̡̨̡̛̖̦̭̌̔BahasaMelayuN
ederlandsÓ
Norsk (bokmål)|PolskiPortuguêsRomânăˀ̡̛̱̭̭̜Simple
EnglishSlovenščinaSuomiSvenskazzzzzzzzzzzþ
Türkçe˄̡̡̬̟̦̭̌̽̌ 
/
Uyghurche|Ti ngVi tû This page was last modiĮed on 27 January 2011 at 07:45.|

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may
apply. See Terms of Use for details.

Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Contact us

Privacy policyAboutWikipediaDisclaimers

Fiberglass hand lay-up operationResin is mixed with a catalyst or hardener if working with epoxy,
otherwise it will not cure (harden) for days/ weeks. Next, the mold is wetted out with the mixture.
The sheets of fiberglass are placed over the mold and rolled down into the mold using steel rollers.
The material must be securely attached to the mold, air must not be trapped in between the
fiberglass and the mold. Additional resin is applied and possibly additional sheets of fiberglass.
Rollers are used to make sure the resin is between all the layers, the glass is wetted throughout the
entire thickness of the laminate, and any air pockets are removed. The work must be done quickly
enough to complete the job before the resin starts to cure. Various curing times can be achieved by
altering the amount of catalyst employed.

[edit] Fiberglass spray lay-up operationThe fiberglass spray lay-up process is similar to the hand lay-
up process but the difference comes from the application of the fiber and resin material to the mold.
Spray-up is an open-molding composites fabrication process where resin and reinforcements are
sprayed onto a mold. The resin and glass may be applied separately or simultaneously "chopped" in
a combined stream from a chopper gun. Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate.
Wood, foam or other core material may then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer imbeds the
core between the laminates. The part is then cured, cooled and removed from the reusable mold.

[edit] Pultrusion operation

Diagram of the pultrusionprocess.Pultrusion is a manufacturing method used to make strong light

weight composite materials, in this case fiberglass. Fibers (the glass material) are pulled from spools
through a device that coats them with a resin. They are then typically heat treated and cut to
length.[5] Pultrusions can be made in a variety of shapes or cross-sections such as a W or S cross-
section. The word pultrusion describes the method of moving the fibers through the machinery. It is
pulled through using either a hand over hand method or a continuous roller method. This is opposed
to an extrusion which would push the material through dies.