2010 CRCT REVIEW

ELA 8th GRADE

GRAMMAR/SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION
Weighted 70%ON CRCT

Analyzing Sentences
Okay let’s start at the beginning with sentences. All sentences are made from using the eight
parts of speech (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions,
interjections) To make a sentence you must have a minimum of a subject (noun or pronoun) and
a predicate (verb).

The boy slept. This is a sentence-not a very meaningful one, but nevertheless a sentence by
definition. No matter how complicated the sentence gets, you can always find the subject by
asking what or whom the sentence is about. By the way this is a simple sentence-one subject
and verb. The way I remember a simple sentence is that it has no conjunctions (and, but,
because or + another phrase/clause after it) Mary and her mom slept through the night. This
is still a simple sentence even though there is a compound subject. You can also have a simple
sentence with a compound predicate (verb): Mom ironed and hung up the clothes.

Even though it was raining last night, I slept well. Who is the sentence about? I. What did I
do? Slept. If you ask these two questions you can always figure out the subject and
verb/predicate of a sentence. Notice that the complete subject has been underlined once and the
complete predicate has not been underlined. It’s easy to remember how to do this, because
every word before the subject is considered the complete subject and the verb and everything
after it is the complete predicate. This, by the way, is an example of a complex sentence. One
part of it can stand alone, if it is separated from the main part and the other cannot. I slept well is
the part that would still be a sentence. Even though it was raining last night would be a
sentence fragment or an incomplete thought.

I slept well last night and I enjoyed going to work the next day. Now I have made this into a
compound sentence, because if I remove the conjunction and, both the phrases can stand
alone as sentences.

Hey, what kind of sentence is this? I saw Rick last night and he said that you said that I was a fat
slob I don’t appreciate you saying that about me so just stop it. It is a run on, because it just
keeps running on and on without any punctuation. Remember punctuation tells the reader when
one thought ends and another one begins. Could you fix it? Sure you could. I saw Rick last night
and he said that you said that I was a fat slob! I don’t appreciate you saying this about me. So
just stop it.

Sometimes those old tricky CRCT people will ask you to locate a subject of a sentence. Then
they give you a stupid sentence where they have inverted the subject and place it after the verb
or they will put so many modifiers in front of the subject, that you mess up. For instance what is
the subject of this sentence? Here is the car of my grandparents. (S=car) Do these clothes interest
you? (S=clothes). Down the road, the fat, old woman traveled. (S=woman) Watch out for their
tricks!

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Parts of Speech

Think of the parts of speech like parts of your body. Different parts of your body have different
functions right? Well the eight parts of speech operate much the same way. Your head always
functions like a head. I mean your arm could never be a head right? Well unfortunately parts of
speech can function as other parts of speech depending on how they are used in a sentence.
Are you ready to scream yet?

The good thing is that on the 8th grade CRCT the emphasis is not on your recognition of the parts
of speech, but whether or not you can determine correct usage in a sentence! Okay here we
go.

Nouns are words that name people (mom), places (forest), things (desk) or ideas (liberty,
freedom, happiness).
• Common nouns (nouns that name general things-school, canyon, city).
• Proper nouns (nouns that name specific things-Kennedy Road Middle School, Grand
Canyon, Griffin) Did you notice that all proper nouns begin with capital letters? * This is
particularly important that you remember this on the test because capitalization is one of the
areas of emphasis!
• A collective noun names a group of people, animals or things (team, band, crowd, and
congregation). Collective nouns are a little bit tricky because they can be followed by a
singular or a plural verb depending on the meaning. You use the singular form of the verb if
the members in the group act as a single unit. The team shares the field with its opponent.
You use the plural form of the verb if the members of the collective noun act separately.
The team share their jokes with one another. (Yeah, I know, it still doesn’t sound
correct.)*The only reason I mention this is because of that subject-verb agreement stuff that
will be on the CRCT.

Verbs tell what the subject of a sentence is doing. .

• Action verbs-verbs that express a physical action: lift, hit, swallow
• Linking verbs- verbs that do not express an action. They tell about a state of being: is, be,
are, seems, was, looked, tasted, felt, appeared, became. Here are some examples. She became
a fine lady. He is cute. The food tasted funny. But if I say: I tasted the food-guess what-
tasted is now an action verb. (Boy do I hate all these rules and exceptions to the rules!)
• Helping verbs-are just that-they help out the main verb. (has, have, will) We have eaten here
before. By the way have eaten is called a verb phrase (any time you have more than one
verb, it’s called a phrase.

Often you will be asked to read a passage and locate the sentence with the error. What is wrong
in this sentence? The boys is going to the park. (The subject is plural and needs the plural form
of the verb is, which is are) Neither of the athletes (practices, practice) after dinner. The correct
choice is practice. It seems like it would be just the opposite. The plural form of a word ends
with an “s”, so why isn’t the correct verb choice the one that ends with an “s”? That’s our
English language-maddening. Try a few more. (Has, Have) you seen that new movie with
Denzel? (Have) The instructors (teaches, teach) the importance of friendship.

Verbs can have forms: present, past and past participle. Regular verbs are easy: Help
(present), helped (past-just added –ed), have helped (past participle) Irregular verbs are tricky:
begin (present), began (past), have begun (past participle) hit (present), hit (past-stayed the
same), have hit (past participle) or swim (present) swam (past), have swum (past participle). I
(play, played) on the field yesterday. Why is played the correct form? (Because you did the

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action in the past.) I (cut, cutted, have cutted) my finger yesterday. Cut is always the correct
form, because it is one of those irregular fellows.

Verbs also have tenses. This shows the time of an action or the time of the state of being:
present tense (play), past tense (played), future tense (shall play, will play).

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns.

• *Personal-I, she, it, you, we, they, me, us, him, her, them-- Could you use them correctly
in a sentence? (He, Him) and I went to the movies. “He” is the correct choice because it
is the nominative form of this personal pronoun. What about this sentence? He went
with (I, me) to the store. “Me” is the right choice because it is the objective form of this
personal pronoun.
• Possessive-his, her, our, their, your, its, whose, mine (notice that “its” has no apostrophe)
• Demonstrative-these, those, this, that
• Indefinite-anybody, some, everybody, each, all, somebody

Some of us are going to the pep rally. (indefinite) BUT I want some candy (some now becomes
an adjective, because it tells how much). You see how tricky the parts of speech can be. It just
depends on how they are being used in the sentence.

• Interrogative-who, what, whose, whom, which

Did you notice that whose can also a possessive pronoun? Again, the word’s function in the
sentence determines its part of speech.
Whose is this? (interrogative pronoun)
Whose car is this? (possessive pronoun)

• *Reflexive Pronoun- A reflexive pronoun ends with –self or –selves and refers to the
subject of a sentence. In a sentence with a reflexive pronoun, the action of the verb
returns to the subject. Esheka bought herself a book about dancing. Now why is this next
sentence messed up? Esheka asked Ralph and myself for help. (You never use a reflexive
pronoun in the place of a personal pronoun-that’s how those CRCT people will try and
get one over on you.) It should be Ralph and me.

Adjectives are words that describe or modify NOUNS or PRONOUNS.

• Can tell what kind-blue, silly, stupid, crazy
• Can tell how many-one, ten, some, each
Each piece of candy was delicious. (adjective describing the noun, piece). Each of us went.
(indefinite pronoun, which is the subject for this sentence)
• Can tell which one-this, that that, these, those-Wait a minute these can also be pronouns.
You’re not crazy; it just depends on how they are being used. This book is mine. (adjective,
because it describes which book) This is mine. (pronoun-functions as subject of sentence)
• Articles-the, a, an

A Conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words.

• Coordinating conjunctions- (just think about how you coordinate your clothing) connect
things that are related. The most common ones are and, but, or
• *Correlative conjunctions-are conjunctions used in pairs. The most common ones are
Either…or not only…but also both…and
Neither…nor whether….or
Both men and women can vote. (Oops both can also be an indefinite pronoun or an adjective.
Take both pieces of candy-adjective because it tells how much candy. Both of us went.
(pronoun because it functions like the subject.)
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 Neither rain nor snow will stop the mailman.
• *Subordinating Conjunctions-conjunctions that join two sentences that express
relationships of time or cause. The most common ones: because, after, before, unless, until, if
The Civil War began because the North and South had many differences in lifestyles. You can
go to lunch, if you are finished with your work.

An Interjection is a single word or short group of words that is used to express a feeling or an
emotion. It is usually followed by an exclamation point “!”, but not always.
Let’s go! We can’t rest until we get there.
Whew! I am so tired.
Oh, look at that beautiful sky.

Adverbs can describe or modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

• Can tell how-carefully, quickly, sadly, stupidly
• Can tell when-sometimes, once, now, finally
• Can tell where-inside, underground, above, here, there
• Can tell to what extent-fully, very, quite, extremely
Finally, the door opened slowly.
Both these adverbs (finally and slowly) make the meaning of the verb opened clearer.
Big, big, big hint-adverbs usually (but not always) end in –ly.

Tricks they play on CRCT. Okay the word “not” is an adverb. It is considered a negative word,
expressing the idea of “no.” When not is part of a contraction (aren’t, can’t, couldn’t, didn’t,
don’t, hasn’t, shouldn’t, isn’t, etc.) it is still an adverb. Often they will pair a contraction with
another negative word like no, nowhere, none, nobody on the test just to be mean. So what is
wrong with this sentence? I don’t have no homework. (It has a double negative. It should be I
have no homework or I don’t have any homework. Here’s another double negative It isn’t
barely seven o’clock yet. It should be it is barely seven o’clock yet or It isn’t even seven o’clock
yet.

A Preposition is a word that links another word or word group to the rest of the sentence. Most
common: to, on, in, of, by, at, out, across between. There are tons of them. I went to the store
across town. Prepositions usually have nouns or pronouns as objects.

OBJECTS-Are always nouns or pronouns

• Objects of verbs are words that complete the meaning of a sentence. Justin saw Keith
(direct object).
♦ Direct Objects-The word that receives the action of a verb is called the direct
object of a verb. In the sentence above, Keith receives the action of saw; therefore it is
the direct object. Did you know that direct objects are always nouns or pronouns?
♦ Indirect Objects-Some words tell to whom or for whom something is done.
These words are indirect objects of the verb. Mrs. Sorensen gave me a good grade.
Gave is the verb. What did I give? grade (direct object). To whom did I give it? me
(indirect object). Watch out for tricks like this: Mrs. Sorensen gave a good grade to
me. Gave is still the verb and grade is still the direct object; however, there is no
longer an indirect object. There is now an object of the preposition to. Somebody help
me!
• Object of the preposition-the noun or pronoun after the preposition is called the object of
the preposition. One of the children got lost on the trip. The word children –is the object of
the preposition of; trip is the object of the preposition on.
• Predicate Words-don’t get fooled by linking verbs! If you have a sentence like. Mike is
nice. Nice is not a direct object, or an indirect object or an object of the preposition. It is
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 simply described as a predicate word because it is in the predicate part of the sentence and
links back to the subject. (It happens to be a predicate adjective! You can also have a
predicate noun/nominative: Mike is the president of the class. President is another noun
linking back to Mike.)

VERB PHRASES
A verbal is a word that is formed from a verb but acts like another part of speech.
• An infinitive is a form of a verb that usually appears after the preposition to: to lift to spin
to launch to fix
• An infinitive phrase = to + verb + the words that relate to it: Astronauts tried to master
space. To travel into space is a dream of many people. (That’s right you have the infinitive
“to travel” + a prepositional phrase “into space” and guess what? The whole thing is called
the infinitive phrase, because all the words relate to one another!
To is the sign of the infinitive, but don’t get tricked. I went to the store. This is an example of a
prepositional phrase. (Hint: There is always a noun in a prepositional phrase.)
• A participle is a verbal that always acts like an adjective. Smiling, the batter stepped up
to the plate. (Smiling modifies or describes the batter.) The pitcher, losing control,
missed home plate (losing control describes/modifies the pitcher).
• A gerund is a verbal that is used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and all
the words that go with it. Examples:
1. A wall was used for separating. (Separating is a gerund and functions as the object of the
preposition for.)
2. The sport involved riding. (Riding is a gerund and functions as the direct object of
involved.)
3. Sleeping is a popular thing for teenagers. (Sleeping is a gerund and functions as the
subject of this sentence.)

CLAUSES
If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as in the following
example:
Independent the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are dependent
clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating conjunction
"because" added to the beginning:
Dependent when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the conjunction "because" suggests
that the clause is providing an explanation for something else. Since this dependent clause
answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or
simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the
clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following examples:
adverb The committee will meet tomorrow.
adverb clause The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.
Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for and for adjectives.

Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause
or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering
questions like "which?" or "what kind of?" Consider the following examples:

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Adjective the red coat
Adjective clause the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I bought yesterday" in the
second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what
it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase.
Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition,
answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the following examples:
noun I know Latin.
noun clause I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb "know." In the second
example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
noun Their destination is unknown.
noun clause Where they are going is unknown.
The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in word order, becomes a noun
clause when used as part of a larger unit -- like the noun "destination," the clause is the subject of
the verb "is."
Here are some more examples of noun clauses: about what you bought at the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the question "about what?"
Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers the question "who will
have to pay?"
The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question "what do the fans
hope?"
The Misplaced Modifier, AKA The Sentence Dangler
The grammar crime:
Misplaced and dangling modifiers are phrases that are not located properly in relation to
the words they modify.
Misplaced modifiers lead to illogical sentences that are difficult to follow.
Question: How do we know we know if a sentence has a misplaced modifier?
Outlaw: A small book sat on the desk that Sarah had read.
The modifier: “that Sarah had read”
This modifier is misplaced because it modifies the desk. It sounds as if Sarah
The Problem:
had read the desk.
Rehabilitated: A small book that Sarah had read sat on the desk.
Question: How do we catch misplaced modifier outlaws?
The two common types of modifier grammar errors are misplaced modifiers and dangling
modifiers.

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1. Misplaced Modifiers
The example above is a misplaced modifier.
To rehabilitate this grammar error outlaw, rewrite the sentence so that you place any
modifiers as close as possible to the words, phrases, or clauses they modify.

Outlaw: The professor posted the notes for the students covered in class.
The modifier, “covered in class,” appears to modify “the students.” Because
The Problem:
the students are not covered in class, this is a misplaced modifier.
Rehabilitated: The professor posted the notes covered in class for the students.
2. Dangling Modifiers
occur with -ing modifiers
Modifiers dangle when they are not logically connected to the main part of the sentence.
To rehabilitate these grammar outlaws, either
• State the subject right after the dangling modifier, or
• Add the subject to the dangling phrase.

Outlaw: Walking through the park, the grass tickled my feet.

“Walking through the park” seems to modify the grass. However, The grass
The Problem:
cannot walk through the park. Therefore, this is a misplaced modifier.
The grass tickled my feet as I walked through the park.
Rehabilitated:
Walking through the park, I found that the grass tickled my feet.

DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE USE OF PUNCTUATION:

• Colon (:). A colon is a punctuation mark. It is used to introduce a list and to separate the
hour and minutes when you write the time of day. It is also used after the salutation in
a business letter. Examples: 3:10/ Dear Sir: / You need to take: slippers, a change of
clothes, toothbrush, and tooth paste.
• Quotation marks (“”) are punctuation marks used to enclose the exact words of a
speaker. They can also be used for certain titles (short stories, poems, songs, articles,
single TV shows). “A spider,” said John “has eight legs.” (Notice that the quote was
split up and that when I continued with what John said, I didn’t capitalize has. Have you
read the story, “To Build a Fire”? (This makes me crazy-Place a question mark outside
the closing quotation mark if it’s just part of the sentence, but not part of the quotation.)
• Apostrophe (‘) is a punctuation mark used in possessive nouns, possessive indefinite
pronouns, and contractions. In contractions an apostrophe shows that one or more letters
have been left out. Examples: Melanie’s friends don’t always understand her. Mickey is
asking for everyone’s help.
• Comma (,) is a punctuation mark that’s used to set separate items or to set them off
from the rest of a sentence. Examples: Shoes, socks, hats, and gloves lay in the bottom of
the closet. Tessa’s great-grandmother, who is ninety, loves to travel. (Did you remember
that “who is ninety” is an appositive that is not necessary and that is why it is set off?
 Commas can also be used to set off an introductory word like: Yes, I will eat
with you this evening.
 Commas can also be used before a coordinating conjunction. Jemarcus opened
the door, and the dog ran out.
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  They can also be used to set off an adverb clause at the beginning of a sentence.
Whenever I feel afraid, I sing a happy song.
 In a date, set off the year when it is used with both the month and the day. Don’t
use a comma if only the month and the year are given. Example: The ship struck
an iceberg on April 14, 1912, and sank early the next morning. The ship sank in
April 1912 on its first voyage.
 Use a comma to set off the name of a state or a country when it’s used after the
name of a city. I live in Griffin, Georgia.
 Use a comma after salutation of a friendly letter and at the closing of a friendly
or business letter. Dear Jack, or Yours truly,
• Semi-colon (;) Use a semicolon to join the main clause of a compound sentence if they
are not joined by a conjunction such as and, but, or, nor, or for. Aja went to town; she
bought some new tennis shoes. Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a
conjunctive adverb such as consequently, furthermore, however, moreover,
nevertheless, or therefore. I started my homework immediately after school;
consequently, my mother let me stay up late.

CAPITALIZATION
No wonder they say the English language is the hardest to learn. Look at all these rules!
• Capitalize the first word of every sentence. You sure look fine today.
• Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation. (Remember when it’s split up, you do
not capitalize the second part.) “Sit down and be quiet,” said Mrs. Kellogg but if it is
written this way: “Sit down,” said Mrs. Kellogg, “and be quiet!”
• Capitalize the first word in the salutation and the closing of a letter. Dear Dr. Ford,
• Sincerely, Maggie Thatcher
• Capitalize the names of people and the initials that stand for their names: Susan B.
Anthony, A.J. Spikes
• Capitalize a title or an abbreviation of a title when it comes before the person’s name:
Dr. Martin Luther King; President Bush
• Capitalize the names and abbreviations of academic degrees that follow a name.
Capitalize Jr. and Sr.: Otis Ames, M.D. or Esheka Matthews, Ph.D., Johnny James Sr.
• Capitalize words that show family relationships when they are used as titles or as
substitutes for names: Last year Father and Aunt Beth traveled to several western states.
BUT don’t capitalize words that show family relationships when they follow possessive
nouns or pronouns: Joe’s uncle took pictures. My aunt Mary framed them. (This is
making me nutty!)
• Capitalize the names of specific places and proper nouns: Atlanta, Georgia; Mexico;
Europe;
• Capitalize bodies of water and other geographical features: Rocky Mountains, Lake
Michigan, Lake Altoona
• Capitalize the names of sections of a country: the South; the West Coast, the Northeast,
but don’t capitalize directional words used in other ways: southern California, northerly
winds, Kansas is in west Missouri.
• Capitalize the names of streets and highways: U.S. 41, Taylor Street, Route 66
• Capitalize the names of particular buildings, bridges, monuments, and structures: the
White House; the Rose Bowl; Golden Gate Bridge
• Capitalize names of languages, nationalities and ethnic groups: English, Japanese,
Native Americans
• Capitalize proper adjectives: African American voters; a Broadway musical; Mexican
art

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WORDS THAT ARE CONFUSED THE MOST OFTEN BY STUDENTS AT KRMS
• To, too, two
• Their, there, they’re
• Were, where, we’re, wear
• It’s, its
• Whose, who’s
• Your, you’re
• No, know
• Want, won’t
• Principal, principle
• a lot is two words not one word

PLURALS, POSSESSIVES, CONTRACTIONS

• Plurals for Nouns
1. For most nouns just add-s (sticks, snacks)
2. If ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z-add-es (boxes, lunches)
3. If ending in o, add-s (radios, stereos) Exceptions: potatoes; tomatoes (added –es)
4. If ending in y, change y to i and add –es (flies, candies)
5. If ending in f or fe, add –s (beliefs, chiefs, dwarfs); sometimes you have to change f to v
and add-es (wives, halves, lives)
6. Some nouns are the same for singular and plural (deer, fish, sheep, moose, salmon)
7. Some nouns form their plurals in special ways
(mouse-mice; man-men; tooth-teeth; child-children; goose-geese)
• Making Singular Nouns Show Possession (ownership)
To make a singular noun show possession, add an apostrophe and s. (What if a singular name
ends in an s? Dr. James would be Dr. James’s; however I just saw in a new book that it
would also be acceptable as Dr. James’-I hate all these rules, don’t you?)
• Making Plural Nouns Show possession (ownership)
1. If the plural noun ends in s simply add an apostrophe after the s. (workers-workers’)
2. If the plural noun does not end in s add an apostrophe and a s after the apostrophe (men-
men’s)
• Contractions-Sometimes a verb is combined with another word to make one word.
These shortened forms are called contractions. (is not-isn’t; will not-won’t; I have-I’ve)
This often tricks students on the CRCT.

RESEARCH/WRITING PROCESS
Weighted 30% on CRCT

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PARAGRAPHS, ORGANIZATION AND THE AUTHOR’S PURPOSE
Why do we write? There is always one of the following purposes behind an author’s pen for the
audience who is reading:
• Writing that gives information, directions, describes-expository genre
• Writing that tells a story-narrative genre
• Writing that persuades, argues, debates or tries to convince-persuasive genre

How does an author organize his/her writing? Well that depends on the main idea and the intent
or purpose of the writing. Organizing your writing just means how you arrange it on the paper,
but the way you arrange it needs to match the purpose. There are several ways to do this:
• Chronological order (by time)
The rodeo has developed in three major stages. Rodeos began in the Old West as
contests of skill among cowboys during cattle roundups. By 1920 rodeos had become a
popular spectator sport for the general public. Today rodeos combine traditional western
events with a circus like atmosphere and the marketing techniques of big business.

• Cause and effect (events described as a reason and a result, motive and reaction,
stimulus and response)
My brother is a natural student; I am a natural non-student. Women have a long
way to go before they have genuinely equal opportunity and recognition, but they have gone
some of the distance since my mother finished high school. Foreign small cars may have
virtues, but if we compare them carefully to their American counterparts, we'll choose the
American.
• Comparison and contrast (measuring things against one another to show similarities
and differences)
My father is a public high-school teacher. He and the other teachers face a
growing number of problems that seem to have no solutions. Having observed my father's
behavior for several years, I have concluded that high-school teachers are suffering from a
disorder formerly associated with war veterans-shell shock. Besides teaching five or six
classes a day, teachers are also expected to sponsor clubs, coach athletic teams, raise money,
head committees, chaperone dances, arrange parades, light bonfires, publish newspapers, and
sell pictures. In my father's work, paper work means more than just grading papers. It also
means filling out a never-ending stream of forms that insure racial equality in the classroom,
that provide free lunches to the needy, that reassure administrators that everything is in its
place, and that even request more forms to be filled out. Discipline has also taken on a new
meaning in public schools. Today, discipline means searching for drugs, putting out fires,
disarming students, and breaking up gang fights. Faced with these daily problems and
demands, it is no wonder that teachers like my father are becoming less like educators and
more like soldiers suffering from combat fatigue.
• Posing and answering a question (question and answer)
Why is there a higher rate of cancer among financially disadvantaged people?
One possible explanation for these statistics on cancer can be found in the high levels of
stress associated with poverty. Studies have found that stress can dampen the immune
system, the body's first line of defense against cancer, and experiments with animals have
shown that a stressful environment can enhance the growth of a variety of tumors. The
link between poverty, stress, and cancer mortality in humans has not been proven, but
studies have shown a link between stress and other illnesses.

If you read a paragraph on the CRCT, would you be able to determine how it is organized? You
need to be able to do this. Could you name the parts of a paragraph (introduction, body,
closing)? Could you pick out the topic sentence (main idea) or find the clincher sentence (closing
idea)? Could you evaluate and determine relevant details or arguments? Could you determine
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and evaluate whether details were extraneous? Could you match an outline (a very organized
pre-write) to a paragraph? If they gave you a paragraph to read could you choose a topic
sentence for it? Could you pick the best supporting detail to add? Could you pick a clincher
sentence? Could you identify point-of-view (that’s means whose perspective)? Could you
demonstrate your knowledge of research by analyzing primary and secondary sources used to
support writing? Could you tell if it was written in first person or third person?

Remember the writing process: Pre-write, rough draft, revision and edit, final draft, proof-
read? An outline is a type of pre-write you might encounter on the CRCT.

Sample Outline I
I. An outline helps you organize writing.
II. This is a main idea
A. This is a supporting detail
B. This is another supporting detail
C. And yet another supporting detail
III. This is a second main idea
A. Are you getting the idea yet?
B. What if you have a minor detail?
1. Put it here!
2. Like this
IV. Outlines can provide focus.
A. Help keep details appropriate
B. Help the writer focus on ideas
V. So you see, outlines help!

Real Example
Competitive Swimming, an Ideal Sport for Kids
I. Introduction
II. Competitive swimming provides same benefits as other sports
A. It is good exercise and builds muscular strength
B. It promotes cooperation among team members, especially in relays
III. Competitive swimming provides some additional benefits
A. Swimming is an important skill that can be used forever
B. There is a reduced risk of injury
C. Each swimmer can easily chart his or her own progress
IV. My personal experience as a competitive swimmer
A. I enjoy working with my coach
B. I've made a lot of friends on the swim team
V. Conclusion

You might be asked to figure out where an idea would be placed or what would go next as you
develop a topic. Just another way they try and trick you! For instance where would you place this
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detail: Swimming has made me a more well- rounded person. ( under IV. Because this deals
with personal experience.)

Paragraphs and Transitional Words and Expressions—Fact Sheet

Using transitional words and phrases helps papers read more smoothly. They provide logical
organization and understandability and improve the connections and transitions between
thoughts. A coherent paper allows the reader to flow from the first supporting point to the last.
Transitions indicate relations, whether within a sentence, paragraph, or paper.
This list illustrates "relationships" between ideas, followed by words and phrases that can
connect them.
Transitional words that signal Addition:
also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
similarly I have a degree in Early Childhood Education; furthermore, I have six years'
experience working with young children.
Transitional words that signal Cause and Effect:
accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose,
hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore The captain
ignored his own good judgment, and consequently, the ship was lost at sea. Or Because the
captain ignored his own good judgment, the ship was lost at sea.
Transitional words that signal Time:
after, as long as, in the past, first, second, third, afterward, now, then, as soon as, then finally,
while They will write their exams from 4-6:00 p.m., and immediately afterward, they will
proceed to the banquet.
Transitional words that signal Contrast and Comparison:
contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, on the
contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast The settlers worked
very hard; however, they did not manage to harvest sufficient food to ensure their survival. Or
Though the settlers worked very hard, they did not manage to harvest sufficient food to ensure
their survival.
The patriarch in House of Hate creates within his household an atmosphere of fear; similarly, in
The Time of Their Lives, the grandfather instills a perpetual fear in the lives of his children and
his wife. Or In the same way that the patriarch in House Of Hate creates an atmosphere of fear
in his household, the grandfather in The Time of Their Lives instills a perpetual fear in the lives
of his children and his wife.
Transitional words that signal Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being,
the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while,
earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind,
Transitional words that signal Summarizing:
after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event,
in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run,
on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally Janice had rewritten all her lecture notes,
participated in three group reviews, and reread all assigned readings; in short, she was
prepared to write the exam

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REFERENCE MATERIALS
When we do reports or research we can use many texts as resources. Here are some of the most
commonly used.
• Almanac-that resource book that tells you all sorts of interesting information-it can
provide lists, tell you when to plant your crops, how much rain fell in a certain area-all
sorts of statistics about different regions of the U.S. or the world.
• Atlas-collections of maps
• Encyclopedia (book, CD, Web site) with articles on almost every topic
• Periodicals-any type of magazine, newspaper
• Dictionary-most reliable source for learning the meaning of words. Also-syllable
divisions, spelling, pronunciations, etymology (history of word). When using a dictionary
it is very helpful if you use the key words at the top of each page (boat boy), so you want
waste your time looking at every single word to find the one you really want.
• Internet-computer based resource
• Thesaurus-like a dictionary, but it gives you lots of synonyms, so you don’t keep using
the same old words over and over.
• Magazines-also known as periodicals could have fiction or non-fiction articles
• Newspaper-another type of periodical-it is considered a primary source

EVALUATING SOURCES
When you write a report or a research paper you have to consider several things.
1. Is it a primary source (firsthand account-diaries, journals, letters, interviews, museums,
and surveys-person reporting actually there) or a secondary source (visiting a web site,
TV documentary, biography)?
2. Is it fact or opinion?
3. When you use resources you must realize that everyone has an opinion. Some opinions
are objective and some are not. Therefore, you have to determine if there is bias. Bias
means a person can only think one way and does not see both sides of the argument. Like
you might say a teacher took sides for a particular student because she was biased.
Stereotyping is another thing to look for in sources. Stereotyping is a generalization that
is usually negative. “All Jewish people are wealthy and have large noses,” is an example
of a stereotype.)
4. Often writers (this could be TV as well) try to persuade their readers or viewers. They
often use a technique known as “jump on the bandwagon.” (“You’re not cool if you
don’t wear FUBU” or “Everyone drinks Coke.”)
5. Commercials are notorious for using big athletes or famous people to promote or endorse
their products. This is a technique known as testimonial. (Michael Jordon, Shack O’Neil
to name a couple.) Be a smart consumer and reader-watch out for propaganda!

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RESEARCH STEPS
1. Choose a topic
2. Think of some questions to answer about your topic
3. Choose resource books or sources
4. Skim resources to make sure they are what you need to write an effective paper
5. Take notes (make sure to paraphrase as much as possible; you must give credit (cite) if you
quote someone directly or use their idea so you will not be guilty of plagiarizing. You give
people credit for borrowing their words in the bibliography of your research paper.)
6. Organize notes
7. Write paper (involves pre-write or outline, rough draft; feedback and edits, final draft, proof-
read)

PARTS OF A BOOK (what you find there)

• Copyright page-date the book was last published-usually the second page
• Table of Contents-chapters and topics
• Index-back of the book-where you go to find if something is even mentioned in the book
• Glossary-explains special words used in book
• Appendix-extra stuff like maps, graphs, tables-back of book
• Preface/foreword/introduction page-near the beginning of book-tells why book was
written and/or to whom it is dedicated
• Bibliography-lists books, articles, and other sources that the author used while writing
book

TEST TAKING STRATEGIES

1. Relax-easy for me to say, right?
2. You will not know nor should you know everything-so calm down!
3. Read every answer carefully, before you make your decision.
4. If you don’t know something, skip it and come back.
5. You should get a good night’s sleep the day before
6. You should eat breakfast
7. You are bright, smart students-let it show-let’s blow them away-KRMS!!
Don’t stress!
Do your best,
On the CRCT test! 

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