Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Wireless
GPS
Data
Links
Notice
contents
Notice i
Table of contents ii
Table of
Introduction iii
Maximize
the performance
of your DGPS RTK system
This guide focuses on
Maintenance
the radio data link. The radio
data link passes correction Cables, connectors, and antennas are subject
to stresses that ultimately lead to failure.
information from a stationary
Preventative maintenance is important to
GPS reference station to the reduce down time. Inspect cables frequently
and replace those that show wear. It’s always
rover.
a good idea to have a spare set of cables to
In this chapter we cover for loss or failure due to normal wear
present the best of what we’ve and tear.
Surveyors doing RTK work are members of If you’re doing a local area survey on a
a greater community that share the radio construction site or other short range
spectrum. In order to maintain access to this application, limit your RF output power
vital spectrum, it’s important that we all by selecting low power setting for your
understand and follow our obligations as equipment.
part of this community.
You are legally required to license your This is common sense. Use AutoBase™ or
narrow-band radio modem system. We can monitor the available channels prior to
recommend a licensing service that will help operation and select the channel with the
you with the paper work and the application least activity.
process. (See section on Licensing and
Regulations). If you operate without a
license, you are subject to fines and Get along with
possible equipment confiscation. co-channel users
If there’s a complaint from a co-channel
Turn off your radio user, move to another frequency. If you
when not in use operate out of a fixed location, then
coordinate a frequency specifically for
Never leave your base station broadcasting your use. You will not be given an exclusive
when you are not using the signal. frequency, but you will be placed on a
Continuous operation, especially on frequency that is appropriate for your
itinerant applications, may lead to activity.
co-channel user complaints. Remember,
data is secondary to voice in the itinerant
bands. This means that if there’s a conflict,
you (the data user), are obligated to vacate
the frequency.
4 The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
Basics In this
section, the
fundamentals are
addressed in
layman’s terms, beginning with
the concepts of radio signal
propagation.
At the end of this section,
you should be familiar with some
common radio terms, and have a
basic understanding of radio
transmission theory including
data communication.
Induction
Heating
Visible
1 x 10-4 .01 1 100 10,000 1 x 106 1 x 108 1 x 1010 1 x 1012 1 x 1014 1 x 1016
Wavelength in Angstrom Units
Radio waves are part of the electromagnetic at VHF frequencies between 88 and 108
spectrum which encompasses visible light, MHz (check your radio dial). AM radios
x-rays, ultra-violet radiation and microwaves operate at a much lower frequency in the
(see Figure 1). Electromagnetic waves travel MF band from 530 to 1700 kHz. Television
at roughly the speed of light and have stations operate at various frequencies in
wavelengths which are related to the the VHF and UHF bands. Cellular phones
frequency of the wave. The table below operate in the 800 MHz region of the
shows the spectrum of frequencies which UHF band. We live in a world bathed in
are considered radio waves and their electromagnetic energy from television,
classifications: radio, cordless phones, microwaves, and
visible light.
Most
Frequency Wavelength Classification
radio frequency
bands are
10 - 30 kHz 30km - 10km Very Low Frequency (VLF)
divided into
channels, each
30 - 300 kHz 10km - 1km Low Frequency (LF)
of which may be
used to transmit
300 - 3000 kHz 1km - 100m Medium Frequency (MF)
voice, data,
or signaling
3 - 30 MHz 100m - 10m High Frequency (HF)
information.
RFDC systems
30 - 300 MHz 10m - 1m Very High Frequency (VHF)
make use of
discrete radio
300 - 3000 MHz 1m - 10cm Ultra-High Frequency (UHF)
channels where
information is
3 - 30 gHz 10cm - 1cm Super-High Frequency (SHF)
communicated
by modulation
30 - 300 gHz 1cm - .1cm Extremely-High Frequency (EHF)
of the radio
carrier. There
Table 1 – Radio spectrum classifications are other
mediums and
We’re all familiar with portions techniques used to communicate data using
of the radio spectrum that many of us use the electromagnetic spectrum, including
on a daily basis as we communicate, work, fiber-optics, infra-red, spread-spectrum,
or relax. You may have enjoyed music or and others. These are beyond the scope
listened to news on your car radio on the of this book and will only be mentioned
way to work this morning. FM radios operate in passing.
6 The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
range: The distance at which radio VLF, LF, and MF radio signal
communication is adequate for a propagation
particular task. Voice communication
is acceptable with noise or interference This portion of the spectrum does not offer
conditions which would make data channels available for data communication
communication unreliable. except in a few special cases. Signals in these
Line of sight
Antenna Antenna
Curvature of the Earth
Ionosphere
Skip
Earth
bands have exceptional range but suffer propagation from distant radio stations is
from man-made and environmental noise difficult to predict, and is often influenced
which would limit data transmission in most by the time of day and year, and the activity
circumstances to very low rates (<300 bits of sun-spots. Because of these various
per second). Some radio navigation beacons phenomena, HF data communication is
operating in the 285 to 325 kHz range limited to low baud rates and questionable
provide 200 baud data DGPS corrections reliability.
for marine based navigation. These beacon The higher the frequency the lower
transmitters provide ranges in the hundreds the influence of man-made noise and the
of miles. co-channel interference caused by sky wave
interference (also called “skip”).
Earth
Normal
Wave Range
which make them adequate for moderate propagation and may be a source of
or high speed data communication. The interference with distant radio transmissions
availability of channels in the VHF high interfering beyond their normal range of
band (150 to 174 MHz ) for non-voice radio influence.
communication provide capabilities for
transmitting data in excess of 19,200 bits
per second. UHF radio signal propagation
VHF high band and higher
frequency radio signals are considered to The UHF frequency band provides a good
travel in a line-of-sight (also called direct compromise for radio data communications
wave) mode with minimal problems from where range and data throughput are
skip and noise. Line-of-sight propagation required. Signal skip and ducting are
means that the range of the radio link is minimal, and the susceptibility to noise,
limited by the radio horizon, being the point including co-channel interference is much
at which the curvature of the earth blocks easier to control. Radio coverage is excellent
the signal between the transmitting and with penetration into buildings and over
receiving antennas. terrain better than at lower frequencies.
On rare occasions, VHF signals Propagation is direct wave limited by the
may propagate in a mode called “ducting.” radio horizon. Problems associated with
See Figure 4 above. This occurs when a man-made noise are minimal.
temperature inversion provides atmospheric At UHF and higher frequencies,
conditions such that the radio signal care must be taken to minimize system losses
becomes trapped between layers in the which increase as the frequency increases.
atmosphere. The radio waves travel in the Also, at higher UHF frequencies and
“duct” and may propagate for long distances. microwave frequencies, attenuation through
Naturally, this is not a reliable mode of foliage and caused by meteorological
conditions must be considered.
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links 9
The modulation of the radio signal Data communication over radio waves
provides the ability to communicate provides an efficient and reliable transfer
information. Modulation is adding of information. Because of the limited
information to a radio wave by modifying spectrum available for communication,
one of its fundamental characteristics. more and more digital systems are being
The fundamental characteristics of radio utilized. In comparison to voice
waves are frequency, phase, and amplitude. communication, the amount of information
Different modulation schemes transferred over a radio link via modulated
have been devised which make use of varying data is astounding. Because of this,
the frequency (frequency modulation), traditional users of voice communication
amplitude (amplitude modulation), and in the public safety sector (police, fire,
phase (phase modulation). These terms search-and-rescue) are turning to radio
should be familiar to radio listeners who data communications to provide dispatch
tune in frequency modulated (FM) or and other information.
amplitude modulated (AM) radio stations. Data communication is
Figure 5 here shows the
different modulating
waveforms of a baseband
1 0 1 0 1
signal. The baseband t
signal is the actual data
which is represented by Baseband
Things to do
Horizontal Gain
Be aware of power lines or other
obstacles that can inadvertently
come in contact with the antenna
and cause potentially lethal
conditions.
Things to do
Performance
system and
"rules-of-
thumb" as well
as specific recommendations which
will lead to good radio system
issues
performance. At each stage of the RF signal,
The order of topics in this performance should be optimized for
chapter follows the path of a the requirements of the application.
transmitted signal, beginning with An understanding of these
the transmitter, followed by the topics provides a basis for determining
antenna feed-line system and the trade-offs in setting up an RFDC
transmitting antenna. system.
14 The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
RF power
Equation 1 Equation 2
x
__
P = .001 * 10(10 )
.001 )
(_____
X = 10 log 10 P
Where:
performance parameters. The FCC places The voltage swing of a 35-watt RF signal is 42
limits on the output power which can be volts. The increased voltage with power levels
used on a particular frequency or for a with high power output radio equipment
particular application. should be respected.
Some systems make use of external
RF power amplifiers to boost the signal level
of the transmitter. RF power amplifiers work Line and system losses
by using high-speed RF power transistors
which amplify the voltage swing of the RF After the signal leaves the transmitter, the
signal. RF power transistors are designed for process of signal attenuation begins. Most
stable operation at the frequency of the RFDC systems have the radio equipment
radio signal. connected to the antenna through a length
Power is calculated as the voltage of coaxial cable of matched impedance to
squared divided by the impedance of the the antenna and radio ports. This cable can
output. be a major source of power attenuation and
should therefore be optimized for best
system performance.
Equation 3 Two types of system losses
predominate when the transmitter is
V2 connected to the antenna through a
P = ______
R feed-line. First is VSWR (frequently
pronounced as "vis-waur") which is the
Where: Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. The VSWR
is measure of the reflection of the voltage
P = power in watts (or power) as the signal passes across an
V = voltage across an impedance impedance boundary. The connection
R = impedance
e
connectors which will minimize the
nc
Hz
Hz
Hz
da
M
M
impedance mismatch which would otherwise
pe
bl
0
0
Im
Ca
15
90
45
cause part of the RF energy to be reflected
back into the transmitter.
The second type of system loss is RG-58 50 5.7 10.5 16
the attenuation of the signal as it propagates
along the cable length. The attenuation of RG-8 50 2.3 4.3 7.6
the signal is a function of the frequency and
the properties of the cable. The higher the RG-213 52 2.3 4.3 7.6
frequency, the higher the attenuation of the
cable. Attenuation is caused by the leakage Heliax® 50 .9 1.4 2.2
of RF through imperfect shielding of the 1/2-inch
cable as well as resistance in the cable
conductors. Table 2 shows some popular Table 2 –
cables and their attenuation across the Common RF cable characteristics
frequencies commonly used in RFDC.
As a rule of thumb, 3 dB of
attenuation is equivalent to approximately
halving the output power of the transmitter. Path loss
As an illustration of the losses which
commonly occur with a coaxial feed-line, Path loss is the loss in signal strength as the
consider a 35-watt power output at 460 MHz signal passes through free space between the
going through 33 feet of RG-58. The transmitter and receiver. The loss of power
effective power delivered to the antenna is is inversely proportional to the square of
only 15.7 watts! Using RG-8 cable, the power the distance between the antennas. The
delivered to the antenna is 25 watts. attenuation or weakening of the signal is
dependent on factors including antenna
height, natural obstructions to the radio
Things to do signal such as foliage or terrain, and
man-made obstructions such as buildings,
Use coaxial cable and connectors bridges, etc.
which are impedance matched with Path loss is also affected by a
the radio equipment (generally 50 phenomena known as multi-path where
ohms). reflections or refractions of the direct-path
signal combine with the original signal
Use an optimal (shortest) length of
cable required to move the signal
from the transmitter to the antenna.
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
17
Things to do
Estimating system
performance
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links 21
Free Space Gain Atm Fade Margin Antenna Gain Factor Terrain Fade Margin
(FSG)
37 + 20log(f) + 20log(d)
+ (AFM)
Estimate/Calculate
or (AGF)
149 – 40log(d) – 20log (HtHr)
+ (TFM)
Estimate/Calculate
Step 3 Equate system gain to selected path model and solve for d (miles)
Tx Pwr - dBm, Feedline Loss - dB, Ant Gain - dBi, Rec Sens - dBm @12dB SINAD
Frequency (f) - MHz, Distance (d) - Miles, Height of Antennas (Ht, Hr) - Feet
One popular method for forward error the context of a system with forward error
correction in mobile data environments is correction turned on and turned off.
a block coded shortened Hamming Code Modulation schemes for high-speed
(12,8). The (12,8) designation means that data most often allow coherent signal
12 bits are sent for each 8 bits or raw data detection. In order for the demodulator
resulting in a 50% overhead. This code circuit to know when to sample the signal
is interleaved to provide burst error to get the proper bit value, the zero-crossings
must be identified.
Transmitting and
receiving radio modem
10 -1
clocks are never
10 -2 perfectly synchronized
and therefore the
Bit-Error Rate
performance in detecting errors in the and path distance. Multi-path fading follows
received data. The following table illustrates a Rayleigh probability distribution. The
the error checking available with a 16-bit “fudge factor” is subtracted from the receiver
CRC. sensitivity in the range calculations. The
For robust and reliable operation, following table provides a rule-of-thumb
all high-speed data communication systems value for fade margin as it relates to the
should provide forward error detection, data reliability of the data link.
scrambling and 16-bit CRC error detection Note that fade conditions are more
mechanisms. severe in mobile environments. Expect
degraded performance if you are in a mobile
environment. If you are in a fixed location
Fade considerations and you are experiencing multi-path, try
adjusting the antenna position. Often, minor
It’s traditional for designers of radio data adjustments of the radio antenna can
communication systems to use a fudge factor improve performance substantially.
called the fade margin which provides a
margin for naturally occurring fade condi-
tions. Most fading problems are caused by Reliability Fade Margin (dB)
multi-path which increases with frequency 90 8
99 18
99.9 28
99.99 38
99.999 48
FCC
licensing and
entire set
of regulations
detailed explanation of the licensing
process, as well as current copies of
Parts 90 and 17. PCIA can be reached by
calling (703) 739-0300. All titles of
28
Associated Public Safety Communications application. Keep in mind that the
Officers (APCO). Business radio licensing is frequency coordinator knows how many
coordinated through the Personal people may be licensed on a given frequency
Communications Industry Association in a given area, however they do not know
(PCIA). (A complete listing of frequency the usage pattern or incidences of illegal use
coordinators as of the printing of this of that frequency.
manual is available in Appendix C.)
Frequency coordination is required
for all applications except for those where Things to do
application is being made for operation on
itinerant frequencies. Itinerant frequencies Monitor frequencies in your area prior
are set aside by the FCC for operation of to licensing.
radio stations at unspecified locations for
varying periods of time. Radio systems are Be properly licensed prior to beginning
generally licensed for operation in a specific transmissions.
geographic area. For applications where the
geographic location of the radio transmitter License and use itinerant frequencies
cannot be fixed in advance, and where the if your area of operation changes
radio transmitter will only be operating for a routinely.
short or varying period of time, then
itinerant frequencies are available.
Some restrictions apply to Technical issues
operation on itinerant frequencies.
Currently, the maximum allowed output To submit an application, a number of radio
power is 35 watts. The FCC does not provide specific technical issues need to be included.
protection from interference from other The FCC uses the technical parameters to
itinerant frequency users. Non-voice (data) determine the area of influence of your
communication are permitted only on a radio transmitter. This information allows
secondary basis to voice communication on for even loading of the radio channels in a
these frequencies. This means the voice use given area.
takes precedence such that data users may The FCC needs to know what
be forced to vacate a frequency should frequency you will be operating on, how
interference with voice operations be much power will be being delivered to the
reported. antenna, and the effective radiated power
Before licensing any frequency it is which is a function of radio transmitter
a good idea to ascertain the appropriateness power minus the line losses plus the antenna
of the frequency for a particular application. gain. You should be familiar with these terms
You are generally allowed to monitor the as these are the fundamentals used in
frequency and request another should the determining range calculations explained
frequency prove inappropriate for the in an earlier chapter.
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links 29
Point-to-point
Applications for radio frequency data Simple point-to-point RFDC links are often
used to replace wired communication links
communication are increasing in number
where the cost or difficulty of wiring makes
as the requirements for real-time it appropriate. An example of this type of
data grows. system is a remotely monitored weather
station making use of low-powered radio
Getting data from one location modems and directional antennas to meet
to another using traditional wire-line the link range requirement. See Figure 11.
This system illustrates a very
common topology, with a computer
connected to the radio modem to broadcast
Digipeater
Remote
Weather
Station Figure 12 below
illustrates the use of
a digipeater. A
RF Carrier digipeater, also called a
Modulated
with Data store-and-forward
repeater, receives a
data broadcast and
then retransmits it on
the same or a different
Directional
Antenna frequency. The
rebroadcast allows for
Base long distance radio
Station
communication and
also provides a means
Figure 11 – Point-to-point application for getting coverage in
areas which may be shadowed from the
The common terminology for the mobile direct radio broadcast.
DGPS station is the rover.
Note that in this application, it’s
common to use omni-directional antennas
for the base and rover stations. This allows Digipeater
for operation in a 360-degree pattern about
the base station. If the use of the rovers is
limited to one direction from the base High Power
Omnidirectional
station, output power can be reduced and a Antenna
unidirectional antenna such as a Yagi can be
used. DGPS operations are often itinerant,
and may make use of itinerant frequencies as
required and in accordance with the FCC Low Power
Directional
regulations. Because of the varying condi- Antenna
tions encountered in different DGPS sites, it
is difficult to provide a single configuration Base
which can be used in all situations. DGPS Station
Packet operation
Sophisticated radio data communication
makes use of packet operation to allow for
addressed, point-to-multipoint operation.
In packet operation, each node in a network
is assigned a unique address. Packets of
information are broadcast to specific notes
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links 33
carrier detect: A signal passed from the firmware: A program which controls
radio to an external device that indicates the operating characteristics of a
that a carrier of predetermined strength is microcontroller based device. Normally
present. stored in non-volatile memory such as a
PROM (programmable read-only memory).
channel: A data communication path which
may consist of a discrete frequency (FDMA), forward error correction (FEC): A
time-slot (TDMA) or spreading code technique used to improve the effective
(CSMA). data throughput in a communication link
where errors due to noise are present.
code sense multiple access (CSMA): A transmission of extra data which is
A communication channel making use of encoded with information which allows
spread-spectrum technology which uses a the receiving device to correct information
spreading code to modulate the wideband which is corrupted.
carrier.
four-level minimum shift keying (4LFSK):
coverage: A measure of the proportion of a A very efficient variant on minimum shift
given error which meets the communication keying modulation that encodes additional
channel requirements. bits per symbol by looking for zero crossings
at different levels.
decibel (dB): A relative unit of measure
often used to describe power or voltage. frequency division multiple access
(FDMA): A division of the radio spectrum
demodulator: A circuit which takes a into different frequency channels to allow
modulated signal and converts it to the concurrent simultaneous transmissions to
baseband information. occur.
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links 35
range: The distance at which radio turnaround time: The time required to
communication is adequate for a particular switch from a transmit to a receive function
task. in a half duplex data link.
Bibliography 1995
Fire
C
c/o IMSA
Post Office Box 1513
Highway maintenance
Forestry conservation
Industrial Telecommunications
Power Association Inc. (ITA)
1110 North Glebe Road
Utilities Telecommunications Council Suite 500
(UTC) Arlington, Virginia 22201
1140 Connecticut Avenue Northwest Tel 703 528 5115
Suite 1140 Fax 703 524 1074
Washington, DC 20036 Business
Tel 202 872 0030
Fax 202 872 1331 Personal Communications
Industry Association (PCIA)
Mail application to: 1501 Duke Street
UTC Alexandria, Virginia 22314
Department 79307 Tel 703 739 0300
Baltimore, Maryland 21279 Fax 703 836 1608
Petroleum Manufacturers
MHz business
Original 800-MHz trunked
Personal Communications Industry
Association (PCIA) – None –
1501 Duke Street
Alexandria, Virginia 22314
Tel 703 739 0300 Subject to change
Fax 703 836 1608
For the most current address of any certified
frequency coordinating committee, call
MHz trunked SMRs the FCC’s Consumer Assistance Branch at
1 888 CALL FCC.
– None –
42 The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
A D
amplitude modulation 9, 33 data descrambling 25
antenna 10, 33 data logger 30
attenna, directional 17 data scrambling 23, 24
attenna gain 17, 33 dBi 17
attenna gain pattern 17 dBm 14
attenna grounding 17 decibel 34
Index
F
C fade 9, 22, 25
carrier 10, 34 fade margin 19, 25
carrier detect 18, 34 FCC 26
carrier-operated relay 11 FCC forms 27
cellular phones 5 feed-line 15
channel 34 fiber-optics 5
channel offset 29 filter 34
channel primary 29 firmware 34
co-channel interference 2, 3 forward error correction (FEC) 24, 34
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 26 frequency coordinator 26, 28, 38
code sense multiple access (CSMA) 34 frequency division multiple access
computer-automated dispatch 30 (FDMA) 34
coverage 6, 34 frequency modulation 9, 35
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) 25 frequency shift keying 35
full duplex 35
The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
43
G modem 35
gain 35 modulation 5
gain factors, free space 21 multi-path 16, 17, 19
gain factors, over ground 21
gain factors, system 23
Gaussian minimum shift keying N
(GMSK) 35 noise 35
global positioning system (GPS) 35
P
H packet radio 32
half duplex 35 parity 35
hamming code 24 path loss 16
handshaking 35 phase locked loop 24
phase modulation 36
point-to-multipoint 32, 36
I point-to-point 30, 36
impedance 15 power 15
infra-red 5 propagation 6, 7, 8, 36
interference 6
ionosphere 6
ionosperic reflection 7 R
isotropic radiator 35 radio channels 2
itinerant frequencies 28 radio horizon 6
radio spectrum 5
radio waves 5
L range 2, 6, 36
LF 6 receiver sensitivity 18
line-of-sight 6, 23 remote monitoring and control 30
remote station 30
M remote terminal unit 30
MF 6 RFCALC 21
microwave 5
S
signal penetration 6
signal-to-noise (S/N) 36
signal-to-noise and distortion
(SINAD) 18, 36
44 The Guide to Wireless GPS Data Links
skip 7 W
sky-wave 7 watts 14, 36
spread-spectrum 5
synchronous modem 36
system losses 15 Y
Yagi 11
T
telemetry 36 Z
television 5 zero-crossings 24
time division multiple access
(TDMA) 36
topographic maps 29
turnaround time 36
U
UHF 8
V
VHF 7
VLF 6
voltage, function of power 15
voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) 15