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Metallurgy & Materials Engineering

• Bilal Hassan
• Saad Rafique
• Javed Iqbal
• Saqib Fraz
• Amanullah
Submitted To:_______________

Signature:__________________

Dated:_____________________
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Aknowledgment 03

Introduction KSEW 04

NDT & Types 05

Radiography Testing 06

Ultrasonic Testing 11

Magnetic Particle Inspection 13

Dye Penetration Inspection 14

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Acknowledgements

All the praises are for the almighty, Allah who bestowed me with the ability and potential to complete this
Internship. We also pay our gratitude to the Almighty for enabling us to complete this Internship Report
within due course of time.

Words are very few to express enormous humble obligations to my affectionate Parents for their prayers
and strong determination to enabling me to achieve this job.

We take this opportunity to record our deep sense of gratitude and appreciation to our Internship
Advisor Mr.Abdul Waheed Bhuttoo, Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Dawood
College Of Engineering & Technology Karachi for his constant encouragement and inspiring guidance with
his Wisdom.

We also appreciate the cordial co-operation from all our concern Managers in the department of
Engineering Quality Control (EQC) especially Mr,Abdul Majeed Billoo (DGM), Mr.Ghufran Ahmad
(ASP),Mr.M.A Wadood QC (UT), Mr.Irfan (UT), Mr.Altaf (UT),Mr.Ahad (RT/DPT),Mr.Obaid
(RT),Mr.Rashid (MPI) and Admin & HR management for providing me requisite information and
knowledge for compilation of our complete Internship.
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Introduction To Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works (KSEW)

Karachi Shipyard is the oldest Heavy Engineering Works of Pakistan which is catering for its Ship
Building, Ship Repairing, Submarine/Warship Construction and Heavy/General Engineering
requirements. KSEW was established in early 1950's as a project of PIDC. It was incorporated as
a public limited company in 1957. The shipyard spread over an area of 29 hectares (71 acres).
KSEW has a large Ship Building Hall, three Ship Building Berths, two Dry Docks, three Foundries
(Iron, Steel & Non-Ferrous), Fabrication Shops, one machine shop and other supporting facilities
like Carpentry, Pipe Fitting and Light

Karachi Shipyard is strategically located on the cross roads of South Asia and Gulf region. It is
designed to carryout Shipbuilding and Shiprepair business for the local and foreign customers.
The major local customers - PN, PNSC, MSA, KPT, PQA, GPA in the public sector and vide
range of customers in the private sector have been well served over the last forty seven years.
Facilitates installed, are suited to build and repair medium size ships up to 18,000 TDW and
multipurpose cargo vessels up to 26,000TDW.

Today, KS&EW enjoys a unique status of a public limited company with its entire shares owned
by the Government of Pakistan under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence (as an
autonomous body). While, still remaining in public sector, it maintains, corporate sector outlook
and work methodology. It is the first state owned organization to have acquired ISO 9001 : 2000
certification. Till to date, it has built 434 ships, repaired 5000 vessels and built over 2000 heavy
engineering units suiting the requirements of local and foreign clients.

Steel Fabrication Shop. KSEW is working as an autonomous commercial organization under the
Ministry of Defence, Government of Pakistan.

Karachi Shipyard is the only shipbuilding company in Pakistan. It has built numerous cargo
ships,tugboats and support vessels, naval vessels and submarines.
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Non Destructive testing

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry
to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. The
terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI), and Nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not
permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly-valuable technique that can save both
money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods
includeultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection
(RVI), eddy-current testing, and low coherence interferometry. NDT is a commonly-used tool
in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems
engineering,aeronautical engineering, medicine, and art.

Training

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) training is provided for people working in the "steel" industry. It is
generally necessary that the student successfully completes a theoretical training program
(usually 40 hours of classroom training), as well as have performed several hundred hours of
practical application of the particular method they wish to be trained in. At this point, they can
apply to write a certifying exam with one of the few governing bodies. Getting certified to inspect
steels is quite a complex, and difficult process. Further, NDT Training has recently become
available online. WorldSpec.org is one of the innovative companies that helped pioneer this new
"era" in NDT Training.

Examples

Welds
In manufacturing, welds are commonly used to join two or more metal surfaces. Because these
connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, there is a chance that they
may fail if not created to proper specification. For example, the base metal must reach a certain
temperature during the welding process, must cool at a specific rate, and must be welded with
compatible materials or the joint may not be strong enough to hold the surfaces together, or
cracks may form in the weld causing it to fail. The typical welding defects, lack of fusion of the
weld to the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variations in weld density, could
cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture.
Welds may be tested using NDT techniques such asindustrial radiography using X-
rays or gamma rays,ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant testing or via eddy current. In a proper
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weld, these tests would indicate a lack of cracks in the radiograph, show clear passage of sound
through the weld and back, or indicate a clear surface without penetrant captured in cracks
elding techniques may also be actively monitored with acoustic emission techniques before
production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly join two materials.

Structural mechanics
Structures can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifetime. Some
complex structures, such as the turbomachinery in a liquid-fuel rocket, can also cost millions of
dollars. Engineers will commonly model these structures as coupled second-order systems,
approximating dynamic structure components with springs, masses, and dampers. These sets of
differential equations can be used to derive a transfer function that models the behavior of the
system.
In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic input, such as the tap of a hammer or a controlled
impulse. Key properties, such as displacement or acceleration at different points of the structure,
are measured as the corresponding output. This output is recorded and compared to the
corresponding output given by the transfer function and the known input. Differences may
indicate an inappropriate model (which may alert engineers to unpredicted instabilities or
performance outside of tolerances), failed components, or an inadequate control system

Methods
NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of
materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microscopy to examine external
surfaces in detail, although sample preparation techniques for metallography, optical
microscopy and electron microscopy are generally destructive as the surfaces must be made
smooth through polishing or the sample must be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a
sample can be examined with penetrating electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays or 3D X-
rays for volumetric inspection. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast
between a defect and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the
unaided eye by using liquids to penetratefatigue cracks. One method (liquid penetrant testing)
involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescing, in fluids for non-magnetic materials, usually
metals. Another commonly used method for magnetic materials involves using a liquid
suspension of fine iron particles applied to a part while it is in an externally applied magnetic field
(magnetic-particle testing). Thermoelectric effect (or use of theSeebeck effect) uses thermal
properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys. The chemical test, or
chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the
presence of individual alloying elements.
There are four non destructive mrthods are used.

• Radiography (RT)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• Dye penatrant testing (DPT)
• Magnetic Partical Inspection (MPI)
• Eddy Current

RADIOGRAPHY

X and gamma radiations, because of their unique ability to penetrate material and disclose
discontinuities, have been applied to the radiographic (X-ray) inspection of metal fabrications and
nonmetallic products.
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The penetrating radiation is projected through the part to be inspected and produces an invisible
or latent image in the film. When processed, the film becomes a radiograph or shadow picture of
the object. This inspection medium, in a portable unit, provides a fast and reliable means for
checking the integrity of airframe structures and engines.

Radiographic inspection techniques are used to locate defects or flaws in airframe structures or
engines with little or no disassembly. This is in marked contrast to other types of nondestructive
testing, which usually require removal, disassembly, and stripping of paint from the suspected
part before it can be inspected. Due to the nature of X-ray, extensive training is required to
become a qualified radiographer, and only qualified radiographers are allowed to operate the X-
ray units.

Three major steps in the X-ray process discussed in subsequent paragraphs are: (1) Exposure to
radiation, including preparation, (2) processing of film, and (3) interpretation of the radiograph.

Preparation and Exposure

The factors of radiographic exposure are so interdependent that it is necessary to consider all
factors for any particular radiographic exposure. These factors include, but are not limited to, the
following:

(a) Material thickness and density.

(b) Shape and size of the object.
(c) Type of defect to be detected.
(d) Characteristics of X-ray machine used.
(e) The exposure distance.
(f) The exposure angle.
(g) Film characteristics.
(h) Types of intensifying screen, if used.

Knowledge of the X-ray unit's capabilities should form a background for the other exposure
factors. In addition to the unit rating in kilovoltage, the size, portability, ease of manipulation, and
exposure particulars of the available equipment should be thoroughly understood.

Previous experience on similar objects is also very helpful in the determination of the overall
exposure techniques. A log or record of previous exposures will provide specific data as a guide
for future radiographs.

Film Processing

After exposure to X-rays, the latent image on the film is made permanently visible by processing it
successively through a developer chemical solution, an acid bath, and a fixing bath, followed by a
clear water wash.

The film consists of a radiation sensitive silver salt suspended in gelatin to form an emulsion. The
developer solution converts radiation affected elements in the emulsion to black metallic silver.

These black metallic particles form the image. The longer the film remains in the developer, the
more metallic silver is formed, causing the image to become progressively darker. Excessive time
in the developer solution results in overdevelopment.
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An acid rinse bath, sometimes referred to as a stop bath, instantly neutralizes the action of the
developer and stops further development. Due to the soft emulsion and the nonabsorbent quality
of the base of most negative materials, only a very weak acid bath is required.

The purpose of the fixing bath is to arrest the image at the desired state of development. When a
radiation sensitive material is removed from the developing solution, the emulsion still contains a
considerable amount of silver salts which have not been affected by the developing agents.
These salts are still sensitive, and if they are allowed to remain in the emulsion, ordinary light will
ultimately darken them and obscure the image. Obviously, if this occurs, the film will be useless.

The fixing bath prevents this discoloration by dissolving the salts of silver from the developed free
silver image. Therefore, to make an image permanent, it is necessary to fix the radiation sensitive
material by removing all of the unaffected silver salt from the emulsion.

After fixing, a thorough water rinse is necessary to remove the fixing agent which, if allowed to
remain, will slowly combine with the silver image to produce brownish-yellow stains of silver
sulfide, causing the image to fade.

NOTE: All processing is conducted under a subdued light of a color to which the film is not readily
sensitive.

Radiographic Interpretation

From the standpoint of quality assurance, radiographic interpretation is the most important phase
of radiography. It is during this phase that an error in judgment can produce disastrous
consequences. The efforts of the whole radiographic process are centered in this phase; the part
or structure is either accepted or rejected. Conditions of unsoundness or other defects which are
overlooked, not understood, or improperly interpreted can destroy the purpose and efforts of
radiography and can jeopardize the structural integrity of an entire aircraft. A particular danger is
the false sense of security imparted by the acceptance of a part or structure based on improper
interpretation.

As a first impression, radiographic interpretation may seem simple, but a closer analysis of the
problem soon dispels this impression. The subject of interpretation is so varied and complex that
it cannot be covered adequately in this type of document. Instead, this chapter will give only a
brief review of basic requirements for radiographic interpretation, including some descriptions of
common defects.

Experience has shown that, whenever possible, radiographic interpretation should be conducted
close to the radiographic operation. It is helpful, when viewing radiographs, to have access to the
material being tested. The radiograph can thus be compared directly with the material being
tested, and indications due to such things as surface condition or thickness variations can be
immediately determined.

The following paragraphs present several factors which must be considered when analyzing a
radiograph.

There are three basic categories of flaws: voids, inclusions, and dimensional irregularities. The
last category, dimensional irregularities, is not pertinent to these discussions because its prime
factor is one of degree, and radiography is not that exacting. Voids and inclusions may appear on
the radiograph in a variety of forms ranging from a two dimensional plane to a three dimensional
sphere. A crack, tear, or cold shut will most nearly resemble a two dimensional plane, whereas a
cavity will look like a three dimensional sphere. Other types of flaws, such as shrink, oxide
inclusions, porosity, etc., will fall somewhere between these two extremes of form.
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It is important to analyze the geometry of a flaw, especially for such things as the sharpness of
terminal points. For example, in a crack-like flaw the terminal points will appear much sharper
than they will for a sphere-like flaw, such as a gas cavity. Also, material strength may be
adversely affected by flaw shape. A flaw having sharp points could establish a source of localized
stress concentration. Spherical flaws affect material strength to a far lesser degree than do sharp
pointed flaws. Specifications and reference standards usually stipulate that sharp pointed flaws,
such as cracks, cold shuts, etc., are cause for rejection.

Material strength is also affected by flaw size. A metallic component of a given area is designed
to carry a certain load plus a safety factor. Reducing this area by including a large flaw weakens
the part and reduces the safety factor. Some flaws are often permitted in components because of
these safety factors; in this case, the interpreter must determine the degree of tolerance or
imperfection specified by the design engineer. Both flaw size and flaw shape should be
considered carefully, since small flaws with sharp points can be just as bad as large flaws with no
sharp points.

Another important consideration in flaw analysis is flaw location. Metallic components are
subjected to numerous and varied forces during their effective service life. Generally, the
distribution of these forces is not equal in the component or part, and certain critical areas may be
rather highly stressed. The interpreter must pay special attention to these areas. Another aspect
of flaw location is that certain types of discontinuities close to one another may potentially serve
as a source of stress concentrations; therefore, this type of situation should be closely
scrutinized.

An inclusion is a type of flaw which contains entrapped material. Such flaws may be either of
greater or lesser density than the item being radiographed. The foregoing discussions on flaw
shape, size, and location apply equally to inclusions and to voids. In addition, a flaw containing
foreign material could become a source of corrosion.

Radiation Hazards

Radiation from X-ray units and radioisotope sources is destructive to living tissue. It is universally
recognized that in the use of such equipment, adequate protection must be provided. Personnel
must keep outside the primary X-ray beam at all times.

Radiation produces changes in all matter through which it passes. This is also true of living
tissue. When the radiation strikes the molecules of the body, the effect may be no more than to
dislodge a few electrons, but an excess of these changes could cause irreparable harm. When a
complex organism is exposed to radiation, the degree of damage, if any, depends on which of its
body cells have been changed.

The more vital organs are in the center of the body; therefore, the more penetrating radiation is
likely to be the most harmful in these areas. The skin usually absorbs most of the radiation and,
therefore, reacts earliest to radiation.

If the whole body is exposed to a very large dose of radiation, it could result in death. In general,
the type and severity of the pathological effects of radiation depend on the amount of radiation
received at one time and the percentage of the total body exposed. The smaller doses of
radiation may cause blood and intestinal disorders in a short period of time. The more delayed
effects are leukemia and cancer. Skin damage and loss of hair are also possible results of
exposure to radiation.
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Apparatus

Radiographs
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ULTRASONIC TESTING

In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from
0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched into materials to detect internal flaws
or to characterize materials. The technique is also commonly used to determine the thickness of
the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be
used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is a form of non-destructive
testingused in many industries including aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.

PRINCIPLE

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over

the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform, reflection and attenuation. In
reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of
the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from
an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The
diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing
the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface,
and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling
through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and
receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the
couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave
energy due to separation between the surfaces.
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USES OF UT

• It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

• The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT
methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
• It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation is required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection

Limitations of UT

• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the
test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
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• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the characterization
of flaws.

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferroelectric materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and
some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be
magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric
current is passed through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect
magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic
field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the
direction of the electric current which may be either alternating current (AC) or some form
of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic flux to
leak. Ferrous iron particles are applied to the part. The particles may be dry or in a wet
suspension. If an area of flux leakage is present the particles will be attracted to this area. The
particles will build up at the area of leakage and form what is known as an indication.

MPI PROCESS:
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Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is used for the detection of surface and near-surface flaws in
ferromagnetic materials. A magnetic field is applied to the specimen, either locally or overall,
using a permanent magnet, electromagnet, flexible cables or hand-held prods. If the material is
sound, most of the magnetic flux is concentrated below the material's surface. However, if a flaw
is present, such that it interacts with the magnetic field, the flux is distorted locally and 'leaks' from
the surface of the specimen in the region of the flaw. Fine magnetic particles, applied to the
surface of the specimen, are attracted to the area of flux leakage, creating a visible indication of
the flaw. The materials commonly used for this purpose are black iron particles and red or yellow
iron oxides. In some cases, the iron particles are coated with a fluorescent material enabling them
to be viewed under a UV lamp in darkened conditions.

Magnetic particles are usually applied as a suspension in water or paraffin. This enables the
particles to flow over the surface and to migrate to any flaws. On hot surfaces, or where
contamination is a concern, dry powders may be used as an alternative to wet inks. On dark
surfaces, a thin layer of white paint is usually applied, to increase the contrast between the
background and the black magnetic particles. The most sensitive technique, however, is to use
fluorescent particles viewed under UV (black) light.

MPI is particularly sensitive to surface-breaking or near-surface cracks, even if the crack opening
is very narrow. However, if the crack runs parallel to the magnetic field, there is little disturbance
to the magnetic field and it is unlikely that the crack will be detected. For this reason it is
recommended that the inspection surface is magnetised in two directions at 90° to each other.
Alternatively, techniques using swinging or rotating magnetic fields can be used to ensure that all
orientations of crack are detectable.

The method of magnetisation depends on the geometry of the component and whether or not all
or only part of the specimen is to be magnetised. Permanent magnets are attractive for on-site
inspection, as they do not need a power supply. However, they tend only to be used to examine
relatively small areas and have to be pulled from the test surface. Despite needing their own
power supply, electromagnets (yokes) find widespread application. Their main attraction is that
they are easy to remove (once the current has been switched off) and that the strength of the
magnetic field can be varied. For example, an AC electromagnet can be used to concentrate the
field at the surface where it is needed. Hand-held electrical prods are useful in confined spaces.
However, they suffer two major disadvantages that can rule out their use altogether. Firstly, arc
strikes can occur at the prod contact points and these can damage the specimen surface.
Secondly, because the particles must be applied when the current is on, the inspection becomes
a two-man operation. Bench units are fixed installations used to test large numbers of
manufactured specimens of various sizes. The electrical components of a mobile unit (as
described above) are incorporated in the bench unit making testing more rapid, convenient and
efficient.

In some cases, MPI can leave residual fields which subsequently interfere with welding repairs.
These can be removed by slowly wiping the surface with an energised AC yoke.
USES

MPI is often used to look for cracking at welded joints and in areas identified as being susceptible
to environmental cracking (e.g. stress corrosion cracking or hydrogen induced cracking), fatigue
cracking or creep cracking. Wet fluorescent MPI finds widespread use in looking for
environmental damage on the inside of vessels.
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Dye penetrant inspection (DPI)

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or penetrant
testing(PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in allnon-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be applied
to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, but for inspection of ferrous
components magnetic-particle inspection is also preferred for its subsurface detection capability.
LPI is used to detect casting, forging and welding surface defects such as cracks,suface
porosities, and leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

Principle

DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry
surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw where a
visible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or
white light, depending upon the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

The main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

1. Pre-cleaning:

The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could
either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods
may includesolvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal
of this step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of
contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small discontinuities in the
part, and an etching bath is recommended as a post-bath treatment.

2. Application of Penetrant:

The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is allowed
time to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes)is called dwell time. The dwell time mainly
depends upon the penetrant being used, material being testing and the size of flaws sought. As
expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible nature one
must be careful not to apply solvent-based penetrant to a surface which is to be inspected with a
water-washable penetrant.
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3. Excess Penetrant Removal:

The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by the
type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable,
or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest
sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water
spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on
the test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If excess
penetrant is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may leave a background in
the developed area that can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false
indications severely hindering your ability to do a proper inspection.

4. Application of Developer:

After excess penetrant has been removed a white developer is applied to the sample. Several
developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water
suspendable, and water soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one
can't use water-soluble or suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by
inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the
sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are applied
with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray
cans, and may employ acetone,isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two.
Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.

The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed-out can indicate the location, orientation and
possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and characterizing defects from
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the indications found may require some training and/or experience [the indication size is not the
actual size of the defect]

5. Inspection:

The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical)
for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per
centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for
fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after a 10
minute development time. This time delay allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector may
observe the sample for indication formation when using visible dye. It is also good practice to
observe indications as they form because the characteristics of the bleed out are a significant part
of interpretation characterization of flaws.

6. Post Cleaning:

The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if post-
inspection coating processes are scheduled.

The End