Vegetarianism 1

Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism

Description The absence of meat, poultry, fish, and animal by-products

Origins Ancient India, Ancient Greece-6th century BCE and earlier

Varieties Ovo, lacto, ovo-lacto, veganism, raw veganism, fruitarianism, buddhist vegetarianism

Vegetarianism involves the practice of following a diet that includes fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and
seeds, with or without dairy products or eggs. A vegetarian does not eat meat, including game, poultry, fish,
crustacea and shellfish, and may also abstain from by-products of animal slaughter such as animal-derived rennet
and gelatin.[1] [2] Various foods or treats, such as cake, chocolate, chips, gum, marshmallows and gummy candies,
often contain unfamiliar animal ingredients, and may especially be a concern for vegetarians due to the likelihood of
such additions.[3] While some vegetarians are unaware of animal-derived rennet's role in the usual production of
cheese and may therefore unknowingly consume the ingredient,[4] [5] others of the diet are not bothered by its
consumption.[2] Often, however, animal-derived products, such as certain cheeses, gelatin or other animal-derived
ingredients, are scrutinized by vegetarians prior to purchase or consumption.[]
Vegetarianism can be adopted for different reasons: In addition to ethical reasons, some reasons for vegetarianism
include health, religious, political, cultural, aesthetic or economic, and there are varieties of the diet: An
ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs,
and an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products. A strict vegetarian diet or vegan diet
excludes all animal products, such as eggs, dairy, and honey.
Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods, but may include fish or poultry, or other meats on an
infrequent basis. Those with diets containing fish or poultry may define "meat" only as mammalian flesh and may
identify with vegetarianism.[6] [7] [8] A pescetarian diet, for example, includes "fish but no meat".[9] The common use
association between such diets and vegetarianism has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to state
diets containing these ingredients are not vegetarian, due to fish and birds being animals.[10]
Vegetarianism 2

Etymology
The Vegetarian Society, founded in 1847, writes that it created the word "vegetarian" from the Latin "vegetus"
meaning "lively".[11] The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and other standard dictionaries state that the word was
formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".[12] The OED writes that the word came into general use
after the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847, though it offers two examples of usage from 1839
and 1842.[13]

History
The earliest records of (lacto) vegetarianism come from ancient India and ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE.[14]
In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in
India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[15]

“
Indian emperor Ashoka asserted protection to fauna: "Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected —
parrots, mainas, aruna, ruddy geese, wild ducks, nandimukhas, gelatas, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, vedareyaka, gangapuputaka,
sankiya fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures
that are neither useful nor edible. Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so

”
are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be
burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another." —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar

Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from
Europe.[16] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic
reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[17] It re-emerged during the Renaissance,[18] becoming more widespread in
the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first vegetarian society was founded in the United Kingdom;[19] Germany,
the Netherlands, and other countries followed. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies,
was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result
of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns.

Varieties of vegetarianism
There are a number of types of vegetarianism, which exclude or
include various foods.
• Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products.
• Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs.
• Ovo-lacto vegetarianism (or lacto-ovo vegetarianism) includes
animal/dairy products such as eggs, milk, and honey.
• Veganism excludes all animal flesh and animal products, including
milk, honey, and eggs, and may also exclude any products tested on
animals, or any clothing from animals.[20]
Roadside café near Kullu, India.
• Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds,
and vegetables. Vegetables can only be cooked up to a certain temperature.[21]
• Fruitarianism permits only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the
plant.[22]
• Buddhist vegetarianism (also known as su vegetarianism) excludes all animal products as well as vegetables in
the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, or
shallots.
• Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.
Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use
animal products in their manufacturing; for example, sugars that are whitened with bone char, cheeses that use
Vegetarianism 3

animal rennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones
and connective tissue), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar) and apple juice/alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed
shellfish and sturgeon, while other vegetarians are unaware of such ingredients.[] [] [5]
Individuals may describe themselves as "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet.[23] [24] In other cases,
they may describe themselves as "flexitarian".[23] These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh
consumed as a way of transitioning to a vegetarian diet or for health, environmental, or other reasons. The term
"semi-vegetarian" is contested by most vegetarian groups, which state that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.
Semi-vegetarian diets include pescetarianism, which includes fish and sometimes other seafood; pollotarianism,
which includes poultry; and macrobiotic diets consisting mostly of whole grains and beans, but may sometimes
include fish. Yet, another title that refers to the group of people who eat fish and chicken is known as
"pollo-pescatarian". In another words, this title is used for the consumption of "white meat" only.

Health benefits and concerns

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned
vegetarian diet is "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provides health benefits in the prevention and treatment of
certain diseases". Large-scale studies have shown that mortality from ischaemic heart disease was 30% lower among
vegetarian men and 20% lower among vegetarian women than in non-vegetarians.[25] [26] [27] Necessary nutrients,
proteins, and amino acids for the body's sustenance can be found in vegetables, grains, nuts, soymilk, eggs and
dairy.[28] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of
carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and
phytochemicals.[29]
Vegetarians tend to have lower body mass index,[30] lower levels of cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and less
incidence of heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, renal disease, osteoporosis, dementias such as Alzheimer’s
disease and other disorders.[31] Non-lean red meat, in particular, has been found to be directly associated with
increased risk of cancers of the esophagus, liver, colon, and the lungs.[32] Other studies have shown no significant
differences between vegetarians and non-vegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer,
colorectal cancer, breast cancer, or prostate cancer, although the sample of vegetarians was small and included
ex-smokers who had switched their diet within the last five years.[26] A 2010 study compared a group of vegetarian
and meat-eating Seventh Day Adventists in which vegetarians scored lower on depression tests and had better mood
profiles.[33]

Nutrition
Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but
relatively low in long-chain n-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12. Vegans
can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do
not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and
tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E,
and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all
considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.[34] [35]

Protein A fruit stall in Barcelona

Protein intake in vegetarian diets is only slightly lower than in meat diets and can meet daily requirements for any
person, including athletes and bodybuilders.[36] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in
the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, confirmed
vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[37]
Vegetarianism 4

Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an
adequate intake of the essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg
products provide complete sources for lacto-ovo vegetarians, the only vegetable sources with significant amounts of
all eight types of essential amino acids are lupin, soy, hempseed, chia seed, amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa.
However, the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in
combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. brown rice and beans, or hummus and whole wheat pita,
though protein combining in the same meal is not necessary). A 1994 study found a varied intake of such sources can
be adequate.[38]

Iron
Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability
than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. Vegetarian
foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, black-eyed peas,
soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and
whole-wheat bread.[39] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy
products are low in iron.[35] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small
studies report higher rates of iron deficiency. However, the American Dietetic Association states iron deficiency is
no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia
is rare no matter the diet.[40] [41] [42]

Vitamin B12
Plants are not sources of vitamin B12. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health "natural food sources of
vitamin B12 are limited to foods that come from animals."[43] However, lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from
dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods and dietary supplements.[44] [45] Since the
human body preserves B12 and reuses it without destroying the substance, clinical evidence of B12 deficiency is
uncommon.[46] [47] The body can preserve stores of the vitamin for up to 30 years without needing its supplies to be
replenished.[48] The only reliable vegan sources of B12 are foods fortified with B12 (including some soy products and
some breakfast cereals) and B12 supplements.[49] [50] The research on vitamin B12 sources has increased in recent
years.[51]

Fatty acids
Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil, kiwifruit
and especially hempseed, chia seed, flaxseed, echium seed and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any
other known leafy green. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid but not the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and
DHA, which are found in low levels in eggs and dairy products. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower
levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is
unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.[52] Recently, some
companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Similar supplements
providing both DHA and EPA have also begun to appear.[53] Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation
because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain algae such as
spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA),
stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).[54]
[55]
Vegetarianism 5

Calcium
Calcium intake in vegetarians is similar to non-vegetarians. Some impaired bone mineralisation has been found
among vegans who do not consume enough leafy greens, which are sources of abundant calcium.[56] However, this
is not found in lacto-ovo vegetarians.[57] Some sources of calcium include collard greens, bok choy, kale, and turnip
greens.[58] Spinach, swiss chard and beet greens are high in calcium, but the calcium is bound to oxalate and
therefore it is poorly absorbed.[59]

Vitamin D
Vitamin D levels do not appear to be lower in vegetarians (although studies have shown that much of the general
population is deficient).[60] Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and
sensible UV sun exposure. Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a good
source of Vitamin D[61] and mushrooms provide over 2700 IU per serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup) of vitamin D2, if
exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested;[62] for those who do not get adequate sun exposure
and/or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

Longevity
A 1999 metastudy[63] combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported mortality
ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, occasional
meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. The study reported
the numbers of deaths in each category, and expected error ranges for each ratio, and adjustments made to the data.
However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian]
cohorts". Out of the major causes of death studied, only one difference in mortality rate was attributed to the
difference in diet, as the conclusion states: "vegetarians had a 24% lower mortality from ischaemic heart disease than
non-vegetarians, but no associations of a vegetarian diet with other major causes of death were established."[63]
In "Mortality in British vegetarians",[64] a similar conclusion is drawn: "British vegetarians have low mortality
compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians,
suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of
smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and
fish."[65]
The Adventist Health Study is an ongoing study of life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists. This is the only study
among others with similar methodology which had favourable indication for vegetarianism. The researchers found
that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the
lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1–1/2 to 2 years of life. The
researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of
any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of
California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.[66]
The Adventist health study is again incorporated into a metastudy titled "Does low meat consumption increase life
expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which concluded that low meat eating
(less than once per week) and other lifestyle choices significantly increase life expectancy, relative to a group with
high meat intake.[67] The study concluded that "The findings from one cohort of healthy adults raises the possibility
that long-term (≥ 2 decades) adherence to a vegetarian diet can further produce a significant 3.6-y increase in life
expectancy." However, the study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians
may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of
vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the
vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be
the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies
Vegetarianism 6

relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who
followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in
mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake."
Statistical studies, such as comparing life expectancy with regional areas and local diets in Europe also have found
life expectancy considerably greater in southern France, where a low meat, high plant Mediterranean diet is
common, than northern France, where a diet with high meat content is more common.[68]
A study by the Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, and Institute of Physiological Chemistry looked at a
group of 19 vegetarians (lacto-ovo) and used as a comparison a group of 19 omnivorous subjects recruited from the
same region. The study found that this group of vegetarians (lacto-ovo) have a significantly higher amount of plasma
carboxymethyllysine and advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) compared to this group of non-vegetarians.[69]
Carboxymethyllysine is a glycation product which represents "a general marker of oxidative stress and long-term
damage of proteins in aging, atherosclerosis and diabetes." "Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) may play an
important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure."
The largest study ever of diet vs longevity and a host of western diseases was the China Project, a "survey of death
rates for twelve different kinds of cancer for more than 2,400 counties and 880 million (96%) of their citizens"
combined to study the relationship between various mortality rates and several dietary, lifestyle, and environmental
characteristics in 65 mostly rural counties in China conducted jointly by Cornell University, Oxford University, and
the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine over the course of twenty years. A strong dose-response relationship
was found between the amount of animal foods in the diet, and the top causes of mortality in the West: heart disease,
diabetes, and cancer.

Food safety
Libby Sande argued in a blog for USA Today that Vegetarianism reduces E. coli infections,[70] and in a piece for The
New York Times linked E. coli contamination in food to industrial scale meat and dairy farms.[71] E. coli infections in
the US during 2006 were traced to spinach and onions.[72] [73]
Transmission of pathogenic E. coli often occurs via fecal-oral transmission.[74] [75] [76] Common routes of
transmission include unhygienic food preparation[75] and farm contamination.[77] [78] [79] Dairy and beef cattle are
primary reservoirs of the E. coli strain O157:H7,[80] and they can carry it asymptomatically and shed it in their
feces.[80] Food products associated with E. coli outbreaks include raw ground beef,[81] raw seed sprouts or
spinach,[77] raw milk, unpasteurized juice, and foods contaminated by infected food workers via fecal-oral route.[75]
In 2005, some people who had consumed triple-washed, pre-packaged lettuce were infected with E. coli.[82] In 2007,
packaged lettuce salads were recalled after they were found to be contaminated with E. coli.[83] E. coli outbreaks
have been traced to unpasteurised apples,[84] orange juice, milk, alfalfa sprouts,[85] and water.[86]
Salmonella outbreaks have been traced to peanut butter, frozen pot pies & puffed vegetable snacks.[87] BSE, also
known as mad cow disease, is linked by the World Health Organization to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans.[88]
There have been reports of fears of foot-and-mouth disease in sheep, PCBs in farmed salmon, mercury in fish, dioxin
concentrations in animal products, artificial growth hormones, antibiotics, lead and mercury,[89] pesticide
contamination of vegetables and fruits, banned chemicals being used to ripen fruits.[90] [91] [92]

Medical use
In Western medicine, patients are sometimes advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet.[93] Vegetarian diets have been
used as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, but the evidence is inconclusive whether this is effective.[94] Certain
alternative medicines, such as Ayurveda and Siddha, prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure. Maya Tiwara
notes that Ayurveda recommends small portions of meat for some people, though "the rules of hunting and killing
the animal, practiced by the native peoples, were very specific and detailed. Now that such methods of hunting and
killing are not observed, she does not recommend the use of "any animal meat as food, not even for the Vata
Vegetarianism 7

types."[95]

Physiology
Humans are omnivores, based on the human ability to digest meat as well as plant foods.[96] [97] Arguments have
been made that humans are more anatomically similar to herbivores, with long intestinal tracts and blunt teeth, unlike
other omnivores and carnivores.[98] Nutritional experts believe that early hominids evolved into eating meat as a
result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and
became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.[99] [100]

Animal-to-human disease transmissions

The consumption of meat can cause a transmission of a number of diseases from animals to humans.[101] The
connection between infected animal and human illness is well established in the case of salmonella; an estimated
one-third to one-half of all chicken meat marketed in the United States is contaminated with salmonella.[101] Only
recently, however, have scientists begun to suspect that there is a similar connection between animal meat and
human cancer, birth defects, mutations, and many other diseases in humans.[101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107] In
1975, one study found 75% of supermarket samples of cow's milk, and 75% of egg samples to contain the leukemia
(cancer) virus.[102] By 1985, nearly 100% of the eggs tested, or the hens they came from, had the cancer virus.[101]
[102]
The rate of disease among chickens is so high that the Department of Labor has ranked the poultry industry as
one of the most hazardous occupations.[101] 20% of all cows are afflicted with a variety of cancer known as bovine
leukemia virus (BLV).[101] Studies have increasingly linked BLV with HTLV-1, the first human retrovirus
discovered to cause cancer.[101] Scientists have found that a bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), the equivalent of
the AIDS virus in cows, can also infect human cells.[101] It is supposed that BIV may have a role in the development
of a number of malignant or slow viruses in humans.[101]
The proximity of animals in industrial-scale animal farming leads to an increased rate of disease transmission.[108]
Transmission of animal influenza viruses to humans has been documented, but illness from such cases is
rare compared to that caused by the now common human-adapted older influenza viruses,[109]
transferred from animals to humans in the more distant past.[110] [111] [112] [113] The first documented
case was in 1959, and in 1998, 18 new human cases of H5N1 influenza were diagnosed, in which six
people died. In 1997 more cases of H5N1 avian influenza were found in chickens in Hong Kong.[109]
Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and was then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor
infecting a different species, is currently unclear.[114] The strongest evidence for a domestic-animal origin exists for
measles and pertussis, although the data do not exclude a non-domestic origin.[115]
According to the 'Hunter Theory', the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission"
the AIDS virus was transmitted from a chimpanzee to a human when a bushmeat hunter was bitten or cut while
hunting or butchering an animal.[116]
Historian Norman Cantor suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of
anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including the fact that meat from infected cattle was
known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague.[117]
Vegetarianism 8

Eating disorders
The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with
eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders,
rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."[118] Other studies and
statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.[119] [120]

Additional reasons for a vegetarian diet

Ethics
Various ethical reasons have been suggested for choosing vegetarianism, usually predicated on the interests of
non-human animals.

Religion
Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct as do some major[121]
sects of Hinduism. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating,
while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for
developing compassion.[122] Other denominations that advocate a fully
vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari
movement, the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas.
Sikhism[123] [124] [125] does not equate spirituality with diet and does
Indian cuisine offers a wide range of vegetarian
not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.[126]
delicacies because Hinduism, practiced by
majority of India's populace, encourages
Hinduism vegetarian diet. Shown here is a vegetarian thali.

Most major paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There

are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;[127] the intention to offer
only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad;[128] and the conviction that
non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew
eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians.
However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community and according to regional traditions.
Historically and currently, those Hindus who eat meat prescribe Jhatka meat.[129]

Thirukkural – Classical Tamil Couplets

Thiruvalluvar in his Thirukkural has written 10 couplets on Avoidance Of Meat-Eating (251 to 260)(pulal
unnaamai).[130] He said that meat-eating and compassion or tenderness towards all life, ill go together. That is why
he asks in anguish, 'how can a meat-eater have compassion?' In the chapter the virtue of not killing animals and not
eating their flesh, has been held up as the crowning aspect of the ever-widening ripple of love (Anbu) expanding into
compassion (Arul). Meat-eating is 'at once the cause and consequence of butchery'.
Thannoon perukkarkuth thaanpiridhu uoonunbaan Enganam aalum arul? – Kural 251
"It is inconsistent with the way of living compassion, To fatten oneself on the flesh of a fellow-creature"[130]
Vegetarianism 9

Jainism
Followers of Jainism believe that everything from animals to inanimate objects have life in different degree and they
go to great lengths to minimise any harm to it. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians but more devout Jains do not eat root
vegetables because this would involve the killing of plants. Instead they focus on eating beans and fruits, whose
cultivation do not involve killing of plants. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed. Jains hold self
termination from starvation as the ideal state and some dedicated monks do perform this act of self annihilation. This
is for them an indispensable condition for spiritual progress.[131] [132] Some particularly dedicated individuals are
fruitarians.[133] Honey is forbidden, because its collection is seen as violence against the bees. Some Jains do not
consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because tiny animals may be killed when the
plants are pulled up.[134]

Buddhism

Theravadins in general eat meat.[135] If Buddhist monks "see, hear or

know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must
refuse it or else incur an offense.[136] However, this does not include
eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In
the Theravada canon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging
them to eat meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant,
horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh[137] ) but
he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code
when a suggestion had been made.
A vegetarian dinner at a Japanese Buddhist
In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his temple
[138] [139] [140] [141]
followers to avoid meat. However, each branch of
Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and
Japanese Buddhists, do eat meat, while most Chinese Buddhists do not.

Sikhism
The tenets of Sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,[142]
[143] [144] [145]
but leave the decision of diet to the individual.[146] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, however,
prohibited "Amritdhari" Sikhs, or those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct)[147]
from eating Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way.
This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim
hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.[142] [146]
"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari[148] and
Rarionwalay,[149] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and
encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).[150] This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times
of the British Raj, with the advent of many new Vaishnava converts.[146] In response to the varying views on diet
throughout the Sikh population, Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference
only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the
Earth's resources and thus on life.[151] [152] Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also
known as the Adi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is
related, only human life carries more importance: "Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what
is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"[146] The Sikh
langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a
meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.[145] [146]
Vegetarianism 10

Judaism

While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a

number of medieval scholars of Jewish religion (e.g., Joseph Albo)
regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal, not just because of a concern for
the welfare of animals, but because the slaughter of animals might
cause the individual who performs such acts to develop negative
character traits. Therefore, their concern was with regard to possible
harmful effects upon human character rather than with animal welfare.
Indeed, Rabbi Joseph Albo maintains that renunciation of the
consumption of meat for reasons of concern for animal welfare is not
Basket of fresh fruit and vegetables grown in
only morally erroneous but even repugnant.[153]
Israel
One modern-day scholar who is often cited as in favour of
vegetarianism is the late Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, the Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine. It is indeed the case that
in his writings, Rabbi Kook speaks of vegetarianism as an ideal, and points to the fact that Adam did not partake of
the flesh of animals. In context, however, Rabbi Kook makes those comments in his portrayal of the eschatological
(messianic) era.
According to some Kabbalists, only a mystic, who is able to sense and elevate the reincarnated human souls and
"divine sparks", is permitted to consume meat, though eating the flesh of an animal might still cause spiritual damage
to the soul. A number of Orthodox Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the
halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian
diet.[154]
Having ties with both ancient Judaism and Christianity, members of the ancient Essene religious group practiced
strict vegetarianism sharing a similar belief with the Hindus'/Jains' idea of Ahimsa or "harmlessness".[155]
Translation of the Torah's Ten Commandments state "thou shalt not murder."[156] [157] Some people argue that this
can also be taken as meaning not to kill at all, animals nor humans, or at least "that one shall not kill unnecessarily,"
in the same manner that onerous restrictions on slavery in the Bible have been interpreted by modern theologians as
to suggest banning the practice.[158] The Torah also commands people to ritually slaughter animals when killing
them, and goes into precise detail on the rituals of animal sacrifices.

Classical Greek and Roman thought

Ancient Greek philosophy has a long tradition of vegetarianism. Pythagoras was reportedly vegetarian (and studied
at Mt. Carmel, where some historians say there was a vegetarian community), as his followers were expected to be.
Socrates was reportedly vegetarian, and in his dialogue of what people, or at least Philosopher-rulers, in an ideal
republic should eat, he described only vegetarian food. He specified that if meat-eating was allowed, then society
would require more doctors.[159]
Roman writer Ovid concluded his magnum opus Metamorphoses, in part, with the impassioned argument (uttered by
the character of Pythagoras) that in order for humanity to change, or metamorphose, into a better, more harmonious
species, it must strive towards more humane tendencies. He cited vegetarianism as the crucial decision in this
metamorphosis, explaining his belief that human life and animal life are so entwined that to kill an animal is virtually
the same as killing a fellow human.

“ Everything changes; nothing dies; the soul roams to and fro, now here, now there, and takes what frame it will, passing from beast to man,

”
from our own form to beast and never dies...Therefore lest appetite and greed destroy the bonds of love and duty, heed my message! Abstain!
Never by slaughter dispossess souls that are kin and nourish blood with blood!
[160]
Vegetarianism 11

Christianity
Vegetarianism is not a common practice in current Christian culture. However, Seventh Day Adventists and
traditional monastics stress vegetarianism. As well, members of the Orthodox Church may follow a vegetarian diet
during 'fast' times.[161] The concept and practice of vegetarianism have scriptural and historical support.[162]
There is also a strong association between the Quaker tradition within Christianity and vegetarianism dating back at
least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker
concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker
tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society
in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[163]

Islam
Followers of Islam, or Muslims, have the freedom of choice to be vegetarian for medical reasons or if they do not
personally like the taste of meat. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes
be controversial. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of
vegetarian Muslims is increasing.[164]
Vegetarianism has been practiced by some influential Muslims including the Iraqi theologian, female mystic and
poet Râbi‘ah al-‘Adawîyah of Basrah, who died in the year 801, and the Sri Lankan sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.[165] The former Indian
president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam is also famously a vegetarian.[166]
In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan
Society.[167]
Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants.
However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.[164]

Bahá'í Faith
While there are no dietary restrictions in the Bahá'í Faith, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the religion's founder, noted that a
vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that
are sick.[168] He stated that there are no requirements that Bahá'ís become vegetarian, but that a future society would
gradually become vegetarian.[168] [169] [170] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to
compassion.[168] While Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith stated that a purely vegetarian diet would
be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[171] both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of
the Bahá'ís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Bahá'í practice and that Bahá'ís can choose to eat
whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs.[168]

Rastafari
Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying
degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only "Ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices
with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of
Rastafari.[172] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.[173]
Utensils made from natural material such as stone or earthenware are preferred.
Vegetarianism 12

Environmental
Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass
consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United
Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide,
and modern practices of raising animals for food contributes on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land
degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as
one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale
from local to global."[174]
In July 2009 Nike and Timberland stopped buying leather from deforested Amazon Rainforest[175] a few weeks after
Greenpeace report demonstrated the destruction caused by Amazon cattle ranchers. According to Arnold Newman
every hamburger sold results in destruction of 6.25 m² of rain forest.[176]
In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases and is responsible for 18% of the world's
greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all of the world's transportation
(including all cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and planes) emits 13.5% of the CO2. Animal farming produces 65%
of human-related nitrous oxide and 37% of all human-induced methane. Methane has about 21 times more Global
Warming Potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide has 296 times the GWP of CO2.[177]
Animals fed on grain, and those that rely on grazing, need far more water than grain crops.[178] According to the
USDA, growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply
and 80% of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90% of the soy crop, 80%
of the corn crop, and a total of 70% of its grain.[179]
When tracking food animal production from the feed through to consumption, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and
egg production range from 4:1 up to 54:1 energy input to protein output ratio. This firstly because the feed first needs
to be grown before it is eaten by the cattle, and secondly because warm-blooded vertebrates need to use a lot of
calories just to stay warm (unlike plants or insects).[180] An index which can be used as a measure is the efficiency of
conversion of ingested food to body substance, which indicates, for example, that only 10% is converted to body
substance by beef cattle, versus 19–31% by silkworms and 44% by German cockroaches.[180] Ecology professor
David Pimentel has claimed, "If all the grain currently fed to livestock in the United States were consumed directly
by people, the number of people who could be fed would be nearly 800 million."[181] To produce animal-based food
seems to be, according to these studies, typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables,
legumes, seeds and fruits. However, this would not apply to animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those
grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes. Nor would it apply to cultivation of insects for food, which
may be more environmentally sustainable than eating food coming from cattle farming.[180] Meat produced in a
laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be also more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[182]
According to the theory of trophic dynamics, it requires 10 times as many crops to feed animals being bred for meat
production as it would to feed the same number of people on a vegetarian diet. Currently, 70% of all the wheat, corn
and other grain produced is fed to farmed animals.[183] This has led many proponents of vegetarianism to believe that
it is ecologically irresponsible to consume meat.[184] Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be
beneficial, though, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: "A little bit of livestock
production is probably a good thing for the environment.[185]

“
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that direct emissions from meat production account for about 18% of the
world's total greenhouse gas emissions. So I want to highlight the fact that among options for mitigating climate change, changing diets is
something one should consider. ”
[186]
— Rajendra Pachauri, Chairman, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

In May 2009, Ghent, Belgium, was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week"
for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants
Vegetarianism 13

would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by
local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed
to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag
("vegetarian day") too.[187]

Labour conditions
Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of
workers in the contemporary meat industry.[188] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused
by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry
violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training
and debriefing.[189] [190] [191] [192] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly
non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[193] Accidents,
including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including
increased mortality.[194] In fact, according to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three
most dangerous jobs in the world.[195]

Economic
Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is
someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public
health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a
conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the Worldwatch Institute, "Massive reductions
in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining
livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to
rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining
per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically
hungry."[196]

Demographics

Gender
A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research
organisation claimed that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who
call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are
male."[197]
At least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to
Taiwanese Buddhist cuisine
have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found
that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100
girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls."[198] Catherine Collins of the British Dietetic
Association has dismissed this as a "statistical fluke".[198]
Vegetarianism 14

Notes
[1] What is a vegetarian? (http:/ / www. vegsoc. org/ page. aspx?pid=508), The Vegetarian Society, December 11, 2010.
[2] Forrest, Jamie (December 18, 2007). "Is Cheese Vegetarian?" (http:/ / www. seriouseats. com/ 2007/ 12/ is-cheese-vegetarian. html). Serious
Eats. . Retrieved July 9, 2010.
[3] Things to look out for if you are a vegetarian/vegan (http:/ / www. vegsoc. org/ page. aspx?pid=729), The Vegetarian Society, December 11,
2010.
[4] "Many vegetarians don't consider that some of the cheeses they are eating could actually contain unfamiliar animal ingredients." Keevican,
Michael. "What's in Your Cheese?" (http:/ / www. vrg. org/ nutshell/ cheese. htm). Vegetarian Resource Group. . Retrieved December 10,
2010.
[5] One of the most frequently asked questions is: Why are some cheeses labeled as "vegetarian cheese"? Why wouldn't cheese be vegetarian?
What is rennet? "Frequently Asked Questions — Food Ingredients" (http:/ / www. vrg. org/ nutshell/ faqingredients. htm). Vegetarian
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[6] Merriam-Webster, "meat": definition 2b (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ meat), Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2010.
Retrieved 5 January 2010.
[7] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2007) defines "vegetarian" (noun) as "A person who on principle abstains from animal food; esp. one
who avoids meat but will eat dairy produce and eggs and sometimes also fish (cf. VEGAN noun)."
[8] Barr, Susan I.; Gwen E. Chapman (March 2002). "Perceptions and practices of self-defined current vegetarian and nonvegetarian women".
Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102 (3): 354–360. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90083-0. PMID 11902368.
[9] Pescetarian (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ cgi-bin/ dictionary?book=Dictionary& va=pescetarian), Merriam Webster, accessed May
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[189] "Worker Health and Safety in the Meat and Poultry Industry" (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ 2005/ usa0105/ 4. htm). Hrw.org. . Retrieved
2009-08-09.
[190] "Food Safety, the Slaughterhouse, and Rights" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071223175929/ http:/ / www. ncrlc. com/
academic-SR-webpages/ food_safety. html). Ncrlc.com. 2004-03-30. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ncrlc. com/
academic-SR-webpages/ food_safety. html) on December 23, 2007. . Retrieved 2009-08-09.
Vegetarianism 20

[191] Positive Safety Culture. The key to a safer meat industry (http:/ / www. safework. sa. gov. au/ contentPages/ docs/
meatCultureLiteratureReviewV81. pdf), A literature review July 2000, safework.sa.gov.au
[192] "Factory Farming—Making People Sick" (http:/ / www. hfa. org/ factory/ ). Hfa.org. . Retrieved 2009-08-09.
[193] Working conditions in agriculture (http:/ / www. ilo. org/ public/ english/ dialogue/ sector/ sectors/ agri/ wkingcond. htm) International
Labour Organization
[194] Working conditions in agriculture (http:/ / www. evb. ch/ en/ p5785. html) Berne Declaration
[195] World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Published by World Bank Publications p. 207
[196] Worldwatch Institute, News July 2, 1998, United States Leads World Meat Stampede (https:/ / www. worldwatch. org/ press/ news/ 1998/
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[197] "The gender gap: if you're a vegetarian, odds are you're a woman. Why?" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0820/ is_n210/
ai_16019829). Vegetarian Times. 2005-02-01. . Retrieved 2007-10-27.
[198] "'More girl babies' for vegetarians" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ health/ 869696. stm). BBC News. 2000-08-07. . Retrieved 2009-08-09.

References

External links
• Vegetarian and Vegan Information (http://www.goveg.com/)
• Resources/Support for Vegetarians (http://www.happycow.net/becoming_vegetarian.html)
• Shattering The Meat Myth: Humans Are Natural Vegetarians (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kathy-freston/
shattering-the-meat-myth_b_214390.html) by Kathy Freston, The Huffington Post, June 11, 2009
• Can Sikhs Eat Meat? (http://www.dasamgranthexposed.com/Meat in Sikhism.htm)
• Sikh History on Diet (http://sikhs.tulwar.com/meat.htm)
Article Sources and Contributors 21

Article Sources and Contributors

Vegetarianism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=411303569  Contributors: 01011000, 121gbg121, 12345abcxyz20082009, 131.111.161.xxx, 17daves, 200.191.188.xxx, 2005,
21655, 3ntrepreneur, 3rdsista, 5 albert square, 7george7, A Ramachandran, AJR, ARCO, ASmartKid, AZ.spartan118, AaronSw, Abc85, Abidagus, Abie the Fish Peddler, Academic Challenger,
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Article Sources and Contributors 22

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File:Soy-whey-protein-diet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soy-whey-protein-diet.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Peggy Greb
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File:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fruit_Stall_in_Barcelona_Market.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
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File:Vegetarian Curry.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vegetarian_Curry.jpeg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: GracinhaMarco Abundo
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73
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 Contributors: Original uploader was Pratyeka at en.wikipedia

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