1: Introduction To Air Quality

2: Basic Statistics In Air Quality

3: Meteorology And Air Quality
4: Air Quality Assessment / Monitoring Techniques
5: Operation & Maintenance Problems In Air Quality Monitoring
6: Air Quality Monitoring Objectives And Planning
7: Noise And Odour & Their Monitoring
8 : Developing strategy for management of ambient air quality of indian
cities

S.P. SINGAL
 AIR QUALITY

MONITORING GUIDELINES

S.P.SINGAL

Published By
ENVIROTECH TRUST FOR ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION
A Trust set up in the interest of protecting environment by
Envirotech Instruments Private Limited
(India’s largest producer of Air Quality
Monitoring Instruments in its 25th Year)
A-271, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase I, New Delhi-110020, India.
Tel: 91-11-26814139, 26813887; Fax: 91-11-26811833; E-mail: envirotech@vsnl.com
About the Author

Dr S.P. Singal is presently Advisor to Envirotech Instruments Private Limited, New Delhi
and Editor-in-Chief of Indian Journal of Air Pollution Control published by Indian
Association for Air Pollution Control. Besides he is member of Delhi Pollution Control
Committee.Before his retirement from the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, he was
the scientist in-charge of the Acoustical Laboratories at NPL. He has been responsible for the
development of SODAR – the Acoustic Remote Sensor, an instrument which is used for
remote sensing of the atmospheric boundary layer to determine inversion height, mixing
height, fumigation period, atmospheric stabilities, wind velocity and many other parameters.
Dr Singal had his Masters and Doctorate degrees in Science (Physics) from Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi (India). After his Ph.D. he had gone to U.S.A. as a Fulbright
Fellow to carry out Post-Doctoral work. On the Research and Development work that Dr
Singal carried out at the National Physical laboratory, three of his colleagues working under
his guidance were awarded the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Physics from Delhi
University. During the year 1987-88, Dr Singal was awarded the prestigious New Zealand
Government Fellowship to work at the New Zealand Meteorological Laboratories for one
year. During the year 1988-89 he was also invited to work in the Institute of Atmospheric
Science, Moscow under the USSR-India Science Exchange Programme.
He is a Distinguished Fellow, and past Chairman & Executive Secretary of the
International Society on Acoustic Remote Sensing. He is a Distinguished Fellow, and past
President of Acoustical society of India. He is the recipient of the prestigious Raman Award
and Bhagwantum Award of the Acoustical Society of India. He is Life Fellow of the
Ultrasonic Society of India and Metrology Society of India. He has been Hon. Member of the
National Technical Committee on Noise Pollution. He has worked as Associate Editor of
Acustica-Acta Acustica for a number of years.
Dr Singal has published more than 150 papers in various national and international
journals. In 1990 Dr Singal edited a book on Acoustic Remote Sensing published by Tata
Mcgraw-Hill, New Delhi, and in 1997 he edited another book on Acoustic Remote Sensing
Applications published simultaneously by Narosa and Springer publishers. In 2000 Dr Singal
authored another book on Noise Pollution & Control published by Narosa. A revised edition
of the same book titled Noise Pollution and Control Strategy was published in 2005
simultaneously by Narosa in India and in U.K. by Alpha Science International Ltd. Oxford.
This book was later translated in the Chinese language.
 FOREWORD

Air is an invaluable life support resource. We can live without food for a few weeks. We can
also do without water for a few days. But, we cannot survive even for a few moments without
breathing air. The adverse effects of polluted air could be disastrous not only on human
beings but also on plants, animals, properties and monuments.

The air is polluted through natural processes and human incursions of various kinds. We must
know therefore the mechanisms through which air is contaminated, dispersed and deposited
on the earth’s surface.

Envirotech Trust has brought out a monograph on Air Quality Monitoring Guidelines. This
booklet has been the result of studies carried out from time to time on different parameters of
air quality, methodologies for air quality monitoring and operation and maintenance of
monitoring systems. The booklet also provides guidelines for data collection and handling.

For the first time, an attempt has been made through this booklet to the much needed manual
for air quality professionals and public at large. I am very happy that such a manual has been
brought out by Envirotech Trust.

I express my sincere gratitude to the persons who have made their valuable contributions in
bringing out this booklet. I would like to specially acknowledge the hard work put in by Dr
S.P.Singal, Adviser, Envirotech Instruments Private Limited & Editor-in-Chief, Indian
Journal of Air pollution Control and Shri S. K. Gupta Chairman, Envirotech Instruments
Private Limited & Secretary, Indian Association for Air Pollution Control.

Dilip Biswas
13 October, 2008 President, IAAPC
Former Chairman CPCB
 PROLOGUE

As a preface to this very useful monograph “Air Quality Monitoring Guidelines”, I would
like to briefly narrate two stories, one old and the other new.

The first story is of a king who was very proud of the loyalty of his subjects. His minister
held the view that people were obedient for fear of being caught and punished. The king
insisted to the minister to prove it. The minister got it announced that the king desired that
every household should pour one pot of milk in the dry pond of the city centre. A dark night
was selected for doing so. The next morning, king saw nothing but water in the pond.

The second is named as the U-turn Story. Approaching a crossing on which U-turn was
prohibited, a motorist felt the need to return and though there were two sign-boards, one
showing the picture of a Crossed-U and the other showing the warning ‘No U-Turn’, he took
a swift turn. When he reached the kerb on the other side of the road, a policeman stopped him
and said to him that he had taken a U-turn. The motorist said nothing. The policeman said
that U-turn was forbidden on that junction. Again the motorist was speechless. “There are
two boards showing ‘NO U-TURN’ right there,” the policeman’s voice was high as he
pointed his finger towards the boards. The motorist was still mum. The policeman lost his
cool and shouted “Did you see the boards or not?” This time the motorist replied “I saw the
boards but I did not see you.”

The stories tell very clearly what monitoring means to the success of any programme.
Monitoring is needed but how to do it? Selection of parameters, stations, equipment, etc., is
very challenging and has to be tailored to suit site conditions. Development of skills and
interpretation of results are equally important and complex. This manual attempts to provide
guidance on all these matters in a simple manner.

Success of this publication will show up in the improvement of air quality of the environment
we live in. I hope that planners and implementers alike will find it useful and more
supplements and versions will follow as we move towards perfection.

16 October 2008 Paritosh C. Tyagi

Former Chairman, CPCB
 PREFACE
With our atmosphere becoming dirtier day by day, our concern to keep it clean is also
increasing. Evidently achieving and maintaining good air quality is crucial to the
maintenance of public health and economic vitality. This awakening came to India after the
promulgation of Air (Prevention and Control) Act of 1981 and Environment (Prevention and
Control) Act of 1986. Slowly and steadily this concept has also spread now in all our
neighbouring countries such as Thailand, Bangladesh, Nepal, Dubai, Malaysia, and Egypt
etc. To breathe clean air, we need to monitor it to identify the nature and extent of pollutants,
so as to devise ways and means to suppress/ eliminate/reduce these pollutants. This needs
knowledge, appropriate technology/instruments and trained manpower. To day there is no
shortage of knowledge and technology or instruments, however, we face shortage of trained
manpower.
To get trained manpower with knowledge, skill, and awareness is a huge job. It needs
right kind of persons with appropriate background since one is required to handle and operate
air monitoring instruments and to analyze and archive data for control purposes. At present
there is hardly any training or courses of study in the teaching institutes with this effect. For
the past many years, Envirotech Instruments Private Limited, New Delhi has been carrying
out this job on a somewhat small scale as a means of approaching their potential customers.
During these courses while they have been essentially training people in the use of their
instruments, they have also been coaching the trainees a little bit about air pollution and its
potential hazards. Some printed course material also used to be handed over to the
prospective trainees. The trainees used to be from the various state pollution control boards,
central pollution control board, industries, institutes, and consultancy establishments. It may
not be inappropriate here to say that Envirotech is one of the premier companies who took a
lead in the manufacture of indigenous instruments.
With the increasing demand to monitor air quality throughout the length and breadth
of the country, effort at a much bigger scale is required than the one that has been put in so
far by Envirotech. In my opinion it is high time to set up a professional institute for this
purpose. Such a work should preferably be initiated by the Central Pollution Control Board
and the Ministry of Environments and Forests, New Delhi through the formation of a
technical board for this purpose. This board may initiate this project of the development of
trained manpower with the launch of a six monthly diploma level training programme in all
big cities and towns in the country through correspondence and otherwise.
Keeping the future need of trained manpower in mind, Envirotech, a leader in the
manufacture of indigenous instruments, has taken the initiative to publish a monograph on
Air Quality Monitoring Guidelines. This monograph not only gives a brief account of the
problem of air pollution in the country, but it also gives a brief account of the various
monitoring techniques/instruments, practical use, instructions, precautions etc. At the end a
strategy for management of ambient air quality in Indian cities is also given.
The monograph has been divided into eight chapters. The first chapter is an
introduction to air quality. The second chapter gives briefly the basic statistics required to
work out certain statistical figures in air quality at a place or region. Meteorology is another
very important subject that takes care of dispersion of air pollutants at any place. The basics
of meteorology associated with air quality at a place or region are discussed in the third
chapter. The fourth chapter gives an account of air quality assessment/monitoring techniques.
Herein the basic principles of the instruments or techniques employed have been touched
upon very briefly. The schematic diagrams of the instruments have been given to understand
the various parts or components of any instrument to be used for monitoring air quality. To
this chapter, annexures have also been added to describe additional features of some of the
monitoring instruments. Chapter 5 underlines the operational and maintenance problems that
one comes across while using monitoring instruments. Monitoring objectives and planning
for air quality has been discussed in chapter 6. In this chapter one finds answers to questions
like: The need for air quality monitoring, choice of monitoring locations, monitoring
parameters, monitoring techniques/instruments, averaging times and frequencies etc. One
also finds hints about data recording, processing and interpretation of results etc. In the
seventh chapter an entirely new subject in the field of air pollution has been added. In the
Environment Act, 1986, noise was also included as one of the important air toxics. In this
chapter this topic has been described to a certain limit to associate the reader with this field
which is otherwise very vast in itself. Odour has also been included in this chapter. The last
chapter deals with the development of strategies for management of ambient air quality in
Indian cities. The new pollutants that required attention have been incorporated in this
chapter. The proposed new standards for air quality have also been given.
The author is thankful to Envirotech Instruments Private Limited, New Delhi to
assign this very important and nationally useful task to me. I am personally thankful to
Professor Dr G.D. Agrawal for overseeing my compilation and suggesting various additions
and changes. In fact at many places Dr Agrawal has carried out additions or changes with his
own pen. I have also found through this compilation that he is a very good teacher. During
the course of this compilation I have learnt many a things which I was simply ignoring
previously. I have enjoyed working with him. I am also thankful to Prof. J.M. Dave, Shri
Paritosh C. Tyagi, Prof. Dilip K. Biswas, Dr B. Sengupta and Dr R.H. Siddiqi for their
interest in this compilation and making various suggestions from time to time. Thanks are
also due to Shri S.K. Gupta, Shri Rakesh Agrawal, and Dr Rajendra Prasad for their generous
help in collecting material for this monograph. My personal thanks are also to Shri Anuj
Goel, Shri Raman Agrawal, Shri R.S. Yadav and Shri Chetan Garg for their general interest
and help rendered to me from time to time during the course of compiling this monograph. I
will fail in my duty if I do not acknowledge the secretarial support available to me from the
secretarial staff of the Envirotech Instruments establishment. During the writing of this
monograph I had the good wishes of many eminent scientists devoted to the cause of Air
Quality in India, I am thankful to all of them. Lastly, I thank my son Shri Munish Singal for
helping me in typing, compilation of diagrams, and facilitating other computer related
operations including formatting, and my wife, Dr (Mrs) Sudesh Singal, for her patience and
encouragement during the course of compiling this monograph.

19 October 2008 S.P. Singal

 AIR QUALITY MONITORING GUIDELINES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Air Quality 1
1.1: Composition of Air 1
1.2: Air Pollution 3
1.2.1: Gaseous Pollutants 3
1.2.2: Particulate Matter 4
1.2.3: Radio-active Pollution 6
1.3: Air Quality 6
1.4: Sources of Air Pollution 7
1.5: Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health, Vegetation, and Property 9
1.5.1: Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health 9
1.5.2: Impact of Air Pollution on Vegetation 13
1.5.3: Impact of Air Pollution on Buildings and Property 15
1.6: Air Quality Standards 15
1.7: Chapter Summary 16
References 16

CHAPTER 2
Basic Statistics in Air Quality 18
2.1: Data Classification & Frequency Distribution 18
2.2: Common Indices 19
2.3: Distributions 21
2.4: Errors 21

CHAPTER 3
Meteorology and Air Quality 23
3.1: Meteorology and Air Pollution Dispersion 23
3.1.1: Wind Velocity and its Role in Atmospheric Dispersion 23
3.1.2: Turbulence 26
3.1.3: Atmospheric Stability 27
3.1.4: Stability Classification 29
3.1.5: Mixing Height 31
3.2: Measurement of Air Quality Related Meteorological Parameters 32
3.2.1: Simple Manual techniques for Common Meteorological
Measurements 32
3.2.2: Data-Logging Micro-Meteorology Monitoring System 34
3.2.3: Advanced Micro-Meteorology Monitoring System – Envirotech
Wind Monitor WM 271 36
3.2.4: Monitoring Station and the Meteorological Sensors 37
3.3: Monitoring Meteorology at Heights above Ground Level 39
3.3.1: Tethered Balloon Tecniques 40
3.3.2: Remote Sensing Techniques 40
References 42
CHAPTER 4
Air Quality Assessment / Monitoring Techniques 44
4.1: Bio-indicators: Lichens / Plants 44
4.1.1: Lichens & Plants as Bio-Indicators 44
4.1.2: Selection of a Bio-Indicator Species 45
4.1.3: More about Lichens 46
4.1.4: Air Quality Surveys Using lichens & Other Indicator Plant Species 47
4.2: Passive Samplers 49
4.2.1: About Passive Samplers 49
4.2.2: Simple Passive Sampler Devices 50
4.3: Grab Sampling & Indicator Tubes 51
4.3.1: Grab sampling 51
4.3.2: Draeger Tubes or Indicator Tubes 52
4.4: Mechanical Air Samplers 53
4.4.1: Sampling for Particulates in Ambient Air 54
4.4.2: Sampling Gaseous Pollutants in Ambient Air 58
4.4.3: Measurement of Individual Exposures 62
4.4.4: Monitoring Emissions 62
4.5: Sensor Based Instruments: 67
4.6: Remote Sensing Instruments 68
4.7: On-line Systems and Networks 70
4.7.1: On-line Devices 70
4.7.2: On-line Monitoring Station 70
4.7.3: Details of AQMS 71
4.8: Air Quality Networks 72
4.8.1: Networking 72
4.8.2: Current Air Quality Related Networks in India 72
References 73
Bibliography 74
Annexure 1: Special Features of Envirotech High Volume Sampler 75
Annexure 2: Special Features of Envirotech Respirable Dust Samplers 76
Annexure 3: Gaseous Attachment APM 411 78
Annexure 4: Personal Sampler Envirotech APM 800 and APM 801 79
Annexure 5: Envirotech/ Vayu Bodhan Stack Monitoring Kit 80

CHAPTER 5
Operation & Maintenance Problems in Air Quality Monitoring 83
5.1: Operation & Maintenance of Air Quality Samplers 83
5.1.1: Operation of High Volume Samplers/Respirable Dust Samplers 83
5.1.2: Calibration of High Volume Samplers/Respirable Dust Samplers 84
5.1.3: Maintenance of High Volume Samplers/Respirable Dust samplers 86
5.2: Operation & Maintenance of Emission Samplers 87
5.2.1: Stack Samplers 87
5.2.2: Sequential Sampler APM 500 88
5.2.3: Composite Stack Sampler APM 625 88
5.3: Operation & Maintenance of Meteorological Instruments 88
5.3.1: Installation & Operation 88
5.3.2: Maintenance 89
5.4: Operation & Maintenance of On-line Air Quality Monitoring Systems 89
5.4.1: Systems Start-Up 89
5.4.2: Calibration 91
5.4.3: Common Maintenance Procedures 93
 5.4.4: Data Handling & Validation 96
5.4.5: Quality Assurance Procedures 97
5.5: Maintenance & Precautions in the Laboratory 98
5.5.1: Chemicals & Reagents 98
5.5.2: Cleaning of Glassware 98
5.5.3: Practices for Equipment Maintenance, Sample Handling & Data Recording98
5.5.4: Measurement of Mass or Weight of the Material 99

CHAPTER 6
Air Quality Monitoring Objectives and Planning 100
6.1: Need for Air Quality Monitoring 100
6.2: Choice of Monitoring Locations 100
6.3: Choice of Monitoring Parameters 101
6.4: Choice of Monitoring Techniques and Instruments 102
6.5: Choice of Averaging Times and Frequencies 102
6.6: Data Processing & Interpretation 103

CHAPTER 7
Noise and Odour & their Monitoring 104
7.1: Noise Pollution 104
7.1.1: Noise Basics 104
7.1.2: Impact of Noise on Health 105
7.1.3: Noise Pollution Standards 109
7.1.4: Noise Monitoring 110
7.1.5: Envirotech SLM 100 – A Practical Field Tool 114
7.2: Odour Pollution 118
7.2.1: Odour Basics 118
7.2.2: Impact of Odour on Health 118
7.2.3: Odour Pollution Standards 118
7.2.4: Methodology of Odour Level Monitoring 119
References 119

CHAPTER 8
Developing Strategy for Management of Ambient Air Quality of Indian Cities120
8.1: Concern on Growing Air Quality Degradation 120
8.2: Basic Steps to Develop a Strategy for Air Quality Management 122
8.3: Case Study on Recently Obtained Data/Results for two Indian Cities &
Implications There-from 123
8.3.1: Delhi Metropolitan Scenario 123
8.3.2: Bangaluru City 129
8.4: Updating Existing Standards 130
8.5: Strategy for Legal, Financial, Institutional, and Community/Social Problems 132
8.6: Conclusion 132
Bibliography 133

INDEX
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