Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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A corrosion management and applications engineering magazine from Outokumpu
Lean duplex
– the first decade of
service experience page 17
www.outokumpu.com
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Jesper Gunnarsson
Editor of acom
acom@outokumpu.com
History of acom
It all started when Nyby-Uddeholm AB was formed in 1979 from two merging companies.
This was the result of an early reorganization due to an overcapacity in the stainless steel
production in the Swedish steel industry. This new company launched a new way of
communicating technical information: NUCCI – Nyby Uddeholm Corrosion Control
Information. The first issue, in 1980, see Figure 1, was mastered by Sten Nordin, who
became the first editor of NUCCI. In 1984, the major reorganization of the Swedish
stainless steel industry occurred, forming Avesta AB. The new company liked the concept
of NUCCI and continued the publishing activity, but under a new name – acom –
Avesta Corrosion Management. The first issue is seen in Figure 2. The first decade of the
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
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Superaustenitic stainless
steels in demanding
environments
Mats Liljas, Carolina Canderyd, Rachel Pettersson and Mikael Willför,
Outokumpu Stainless AB, Sweden
Abstract
As a result of their high alloy content, superaustenitic stainless steels demonstrate good
resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in chloride environments,
including seawater. The resistance to acid corrosion means that they also find use in
applications such as chemical process equipment, hydrometallurgy and flue gas cleaning.
Although mechanical properties are not the primary reason for selecting superaustenitics,
advantages can be gained from the fact that they have yield strengths up to twice that of
the standard austenitic grades. Compared to superduplex stainless steels, superaustenitics
have the advantages of a wider application temperature range and superior ductility.
This paper presents results of laboratory tests to compare the three superaustenitic
steels 254 SMO®, 4565 and 654 SMO®. Data are compared to standard austenitic grades
to give perspective, and a number of successful application examples are summarised.
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(N08367) and Cronifer 1925hMo (N08926). A common feature of this family of so-called
6Mo superaustenitic steels is a very high resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion. Therefore,
they have been used extensively in the offshore and desalination industries for seawater handling,
in chlorine and chlorine dioxide stages in bleach plants, and in flue gas desulphurization.
The concept of nitrogen alloying had been used for decades in other types of austenitic
alloys. Well-known commercial grades were for example the Nitronic series from Armco
where an improved strength was achieved with this addition. In the late 1960’s it was
shown that the nitrogen alloying retards both carbide and intermetallic phase precipitation
in austenitic steels [2]. The German grade 1.4439 (~317 LMN) with minimum 4%Mo
and 0.15%N was an example of a steel where this knowledge was used. This grade has
since been used in many applications with severe corrosion environments such as heat
exchangers, flue gas desulphurization (FGD) and pulp and paper bleach plants.
To attain higher nitrogen solubility and thereby even higher nitrogen levels, manganese
alloying was employed, higher levels of chromium and molybdenum also contributed in
this respect. An example of this strategy is Alloy 4565, developed in the 1980’s and with
close to 0.5%N [3] as listed in Table 1. Because of its high alloy content, still with a stable
austenitic structure, it shows improved corrosion resistance and strength compared to the
6Mo steels. The use of thermodynamic databases to predict the nitrogen solubility and
phase stability in high alloy austenitic steels is an important tool in this type of development
work and is illustrated in Figure 1. Important factors to consider are the nitrogen solubility
and the availability of a fully austenitic “window”, without the precipitation of intermetallic
phases or the precipitation of high temperature ferrite which easily decomposes to
austenite+sigma phase.
If the alloying levels of chromium and molybdenum are further increased, high nitrogen
contents can be reached yet with quite low manganese addition. This was utilized in the
development of 654 SMO®, with just 3%Mn but still 0.5%N [4], Table 1. 654 SMO® is
one of the most highly alloyed superaustenitic stainless steels produced to date and as a
consequence, it has a corrosion resistance at a similar level to many nickel-base alloys.
Fig. 1 Thermo-Calc modeling (TCFE5 database) of equilibria in superaustenitic grades (top row) and the same grades
without nitrogen showing how the fully austenitic “window” is achieved by nitrogen alloying and the maximum
temperature for sigma phase is decreased.
Phase fraction
Phase fraction
Austenite
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 Ferrite 0.4
Sigma Sigma
0.3 Sigma 0.3 0.3 Ferrite
Ferrite
0.2 0.2 0.2
0.1 Chi 0.1 0.1
0 0 0
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Temperature (C°) Temperature (C°) Temperature (C°)
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9 0.9
Liquid Liquid Liquid
0.8 0.8 0.8
Austenite Austenite
0.7 0.7 0.7 Austenite
Phase fraction
Phase fraction
Phase fraction
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Grade designations and typical compositions in weight percent steel grade. Table 1
Rp0.2 Rp1.0 Rm A5 KV
Steel grade EN (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (J)
316L 1.4404 220 260 520 45 60
316L 1.4539 220 260 520 35 60
254 SMO ®
1.4547 300 340 650 35 60
4565 1.4565 420 460 800 30 90
654 SMO® 1.4652 430 470 750 40 60
ASTM A240
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Fig. 2 CPT-values for ground surfaces (wet 320 grit) 3. Corrosion resistance
evaluated with ASTM G150. [5] 3.1 Pitting and crevice corrosion
The pitting corrosion resistance of a stainless steel is mainly
CPT (°C) CPT (°F)
100 212 dependent on the chemical composition, which is the reason
90 194
why the concept of the Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE,
80 176 Table 1) has found such wide acceptance as a simple predictor
70 158 of localized corrosion resistance. Good agreement is seen with
60 140
the critical pitting temperatures according to both ASTM
50 122 G150 and ASTM G 48 method E, shown in Figure 2 and
40 104 Figure 3 respectively.
30 86
A common feature for the two tests is that they both use
20 68 temperature as the critical evaluation parameter, showing at
10 50 what temperature pitting corrosion occurs in respective test
0 32 solution. However, the tests are very different: ASTM G150
316L 904L 254 SMO® 4565 654 SMO® C-276
is an electrochemical measurement in 1M NaCl, while G 48
method E involves immersion testing in FeCl3 solution, so
the CPT-values from the two methods should not be inter-
changed. ASTM G150 is the less aggressive method and does
Fig. 3 CPT-values for ground surfaces (dry 120 grit)
evaluated with ASTM G48 method E. [5]
not differentiate between 4565 and 654 SMO® since the critical
temperatures for both alloys lie above the upper attainable
CPT (°C) CPT (°F) temperature limit. However, the results from ASTM G48
100 212 method E show that pitting corrosion occur for 4565 at 90°C
90 194 but not for 654 SMO® or for the nickel-base alloy C-276.
80 176 ASTM G 48 method F is used to compare the crevice
70 158 corrosion resistance by evaluating a critical temperature for
60 140 corrosion under Teflon crevice-formers. Crevice corrosion
50 122 occurs at lower temperatures than pitting, so the method
40 104 allows even very corrosion resistant materials to be ranked.
30 86 The results in Figure 4 show that 654 SMO® has much better
20 68 resistance to crevice corrosion than the other grades, even
10 50 the nickel-base alloy C-276. 4565 has a higher CPT than
0
316L 904L 254 SMO® 4565 654 SMO® C-276
32 254 SMO® but the critical crevice corrosion temperature
of the two alloys is similar.
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654 SMO® failed in the 24 hour test period. The only difference in performance is the slightly
longer time to failure for 904L, which may be related to the lower molybdenum level in
this alloy compared to the superaustenitic grades. The test environment has long been
recognised as giving such unusual ranking effects, which disagree with practical experience
and other test environments. The test has largely fallen out of favour for this reason.
More useful are standardised tests designed to simulate stress corrosion cracking in
evaporative conditions, for example under wetted insulation or at waterlines. The ASTM C692
standard is designed for evaluation of the tendency for insulation materials to cause stress
corrosion cracking, but by using a chloride-free insulation and allowing this to soak up a
chloride solution of controlled concentration, it can instead become a test for stainless steels.
However, as shown in Table 4, this test is not severe enough to cause cracking in super-
austenitic grades, since no failure is observed for 254 SMO®.
The drop evaporation test [7, 8] simulates the situation which can occur on heat transfer
surfaces, where material is repeatedly wetted and dried, leading to a build-up of chloride.
A dilute (0.1M) sodium chloride solution is dripped onto uniaxially loaded, electrically
heated specimens and the drop rate adjusted to 6 drops per minute, which means that one
drop is evaporated just before the next one falls on the specimen. This gives a specimen
temperature which fluctuates in the range 80 –120°C (176–248°F). Specimens are
electropolished to eliminate residual stresses and the threshold stress is defined as the
maximum percentage of the 200°C (392°F) yield stress which does not cause cracking
in 500 hours. Results in Table 5 show very good differentiation between the austenitic
grades and demonstrate the superior stress corrosion cracking of the superaustenitic
grades compared to both 316L and 904L. The threshold stress for 254 SMO® is 80%
of the yield stress while no cracking occurs for 654 SMO® even at the yield stress.
The actual stresses involved are also higher for the superaustenitic grades by virtue of their
higher yield stress. The common notion that austenitic stainless steels are very susceptible
to stress corrosion cracking is clearly relevant to low alloyed standard grades but is strongly
disproved by the superaustenites.
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70 4565
654 SMO that specified in ASTM G157 and MTI-1 [13].The critical
®
Fig. 6 Iso-corrosion diagram for sulphuric acid with addition Fig. 7 Iso-corrosion diagram for hydrochloric acid
of 2000 ppm chlorides – the line represent a – the line represent a corrosion rate of 0.1 mm . y-1
corrosion rate of 0.1 mm . y-1 (~4 mpy). [5] (~4 mpy). [5]
90 90
316
80 904L 80 316
254 SMO® 904L
Temperatue (°C)
Temperatue (°C)
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Concentration (weight percent) Concentration (weight percent)
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is shown in Table 8. The detailed chemistry of the latter two environments is given in
Table 9. In the pure 85% phosphoric acid there is only a relatively small difference
between the performance of the superaustenitic grades and the standard 316L, with the
best performance being shown by 254 SMO®. However, the addition of impurities such
as chlorides, fluorides, sulfuric acid in the WPA 1 and WPA 2 environments causes a
drastic drop in the corrosion resistance of 316L. On the other hand 654 SMO® is barely
affected. In the caustic environment, 50% NaOH there is a clear differentiation between
the performance of the different alloy grades, with successively higher critical temperatures
being measured for 254 SMO®, 4565 and 654 SMO®.
4. Welding
Austenitic stainless steels are usually considered as having very good weldability. This is
in general valid also for superaustenitic steels although the high alloy contents mean that
certain precautions must be taken. High alloy contents favour precipitation of intermetallic
phase in the weld metal and heat-affected zone, but smaller amounts of precipitates do
not usually affect weldment properties, e.g. corrosion resistance. However, it is advisable
to weld with moderate heat input and the lowest possible dilution of the parent metal.
The pitting corrosion resistance of the weld metal can be reduced due to microsegregation
of mainly molybdenum during solidification. Therefore filler metals are, in most cases,
over-alloyed with chromium, nickel and molybdenum to make the weld metal richer in
elements enhancing the corrosion resistance. The most common welding consumables
are nickel-base alloys as shown in Table 10.
Another way to reduce segregation is to carry out post weld heat treatment, which
is usually done for mill-welded tubes and pipes. Very rapid solidification, such as in laser
welding, results in considerably less segregation and autogenous laser welding can be
applied with minimum loss in pitting corrosion resistance.
4565 95 65 70 120
Compositions in weight percent of the simulated wet-process phosphoric acid solution used in Table 8 [5]. Table 9
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6.4 Desalination
Saline waters include a wide range of salinity, ranging from ground water and brackish
water to seawater and brine. To be potable or usable industrial waters, salt must be
removed. There are several technologies for desalination with different demands on the
construction materials. While in the past standard austenitic grades were used, duplex
stainless steels today provide a cost-effective alternative in the stages with moderate demands
regarding corrosion resistance. Highly alloyed stainless steels are used in reverse osmosis
(RO) plants. They can also constitute a competitive alternative to copper alloys and
titanium for condenser tubing in multi-stage flash (MSF) and multiple-effect distillation
(MED) evaporators.
254 SMO® has a long record of successful installations and is probably the grade with
the best reputation in desalination. It has been used since the beginning of the 1980’s and
there are at least fifty RO plants with high-pressure piping of 254 SMO®, with no reported
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Fig. 11 SWRO desalination plant. failures. In Figure 11 an installation in Gran Canaria is shown. In thermal desalination,
HP pipes in 254 SMO®, this grade has been selected for once-through MSF plants using air-saturated feed, e.g.
Gran Canaria 1992. Methannex plants in Chile, and also for MED plants, e.g. Ras Tanura in Saudi Arabia.
For the latter case both practical experience and field tests [19] showed that 254 SMO® is
probably over-specified and lower alloyed duplex alternatives could be more cost efficient.
However, it might be justified to use 254 SMO® for creviced areas where conditions are
more aggressive.
For the MED technology there is one plant in service where 4565 has been installed
as thin-walled condenser tubes (AVR’s Demi Water Plant in the Netherlands, 1.4 million
meters of OD 30 x 0.3 mm tubes) [18].
6.5 Seawater
Besides the examples given above there are various applications (such as power plants)
where seawater or brackish water is used as a coolant. Natural seawater is aggressive to
stainless steels partly because biofouling increases the corrosion potential. Removal of the
biofilm is usually done with chlorine that also raises the potential and hence the risk of
localized corrosion. For the combination of high temperatures and full chlorination the
Fig. 12 Installation of condenser tubing
in grade 654 SMO® as replace- only resistant material choice is titanium. However, restricted chlorination and moderate
ment of titanium tubes at Forsmark temperatures allow the use of some stainless steels. For adequate corrosion performance
nuclear power station, Sweden. in seawater at ambient temperature up to +35°C at least 6Mo superaustenitic steel such
as 254 SMO® is required [20]. Tests have shown that the higher alloyed superaustenitic
steel 654 SMO® can be used up to +70°C in such environments without crevice corrosion
[21]. Grade 4565 has its limit somewhere in between the two.
Service water piping: 254 SMO® has been used for this purpose in Swedish nuclear power
plants with very good performance [22].
Condensers: Welded tubing of 254 SMO® has been used successfully in many seawater-
cooled condensers in different parts of the world. The material has been used in Finnish
nuclear power plants since the early 1980’s [22]. This material was also selected as tubesheet
material in a Swedish nuclear plant using titanium tubing rolled into the tubesheets.
654 SMO® was employed to replace titanium tubes in nuclear condensers in Sweden
and
Finland [23]. The titanium tubing suffered from erosion from condensed water droplets,
resulting in rapid reduction of wall thickness [24]. More than 200km of condenser tubing
in grade 654 SMO® was installed during 1990’s [23]. One example is shown in Figure 12.
Heat exchangers: 254 SMO® has been used extensively in shell and tube type heat exchangers
cooled with brackish and seawater in different industrial plants. Alloys 4565 and 654 SMO®
have also been used to some extent.
Being very effective thermally, plate heat exchangers (PHE) can be considered one of the
most demanding constructions for stainless steels, both in terms of corrosion and fabrication.
254 SMO® has been used for more than 25 years in different PHE applications [20]. However,
the severe crevices between the sheets restrict the use of stainless steels to quite low temperatures
to avoid crevice corrosion in chlorinated ocean water. The primary materials choice for PHE
in seawater is titanium, when it is available and as long as the process side is not too aggressive
to titanium. Nickel-base alloys can be a second alternative but some results [20, 21] also
indicate that superaustenitic steels such as 654 SMO® may be expected to out-perform
some nickel-base alloys in chlorinated seawater and even be an alternative to titanium.
The forming of PHE plates is complex, which limits the applicability of duplex steels for
this application. Instead, the high nitrogen superaustenitic steels such as 654 SMO®, with
high elongation and good formability, are eminently suitable for this application. This steel
has also been selected for various critical applications such as cooling of sulphuric acid,
FGD and in ships.
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low
< 500 904L
2205
medium
< 1000
high
Alloy 31
< 50000 654 SMO®
very high
< 100000 Alloy C-276
Alloy 59
< 500000
construction details (deposits, crevices), depending on the fossil fuel used. It may be appropriate
to use engineering diagrams summarizing laboratory data and service experience indicating
guidelines for material selection, see Figure 13.
As shown in Figure 13 superaustenitic grades can be utilized up to high severity of the
environment. The most resistant superaustenitic grade, 654 SMO®, is positioned in the most
aggressive area along with some nickel-base alloys although it does not meet the resistance
of the best nickel-base alloys. 254 SMO® and 654 SMO® are being used to some extent in
FGD systems. Due to its high corrosion resistance combined with high mechanical strength,
4565 has in recent years also been selected for numerous components for FGD plants, mainly
in Europe. Examples of equipment are absorber vessels, spray lances, demisters, piping systems
and ducts, dampers, and fans [18]. Figure 14 shows an absorber under erection in Italy.
Fig. 14 FGD absorber during erection, Flue gas from incineration of waste containing plastics may contain hydrogen chloride
La Spezia, Italy, 2001. and hydrogen fluoride, resulting in very aggressive conditions in wet cleaning stages. The high
Source: Stainless Steel World alloy grade 654 SMO® has been selected for the most critical parts in such a plant due to its
high corrosion resistance [26].
6.7 Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy is part of the field of extractive metallurgy involving the use of aqueous
chemistry for the recovery of metals from ores, concentrates, and recycled or residual materials.
Hydrometallurgy is typically divided into three general areas; leaching, solution concentration
and purification, and metal recovery. Important metals include copper, nickel and zinc.
Leaching is the most demanding stage as the solution is strong acid (predominantly
sulphuric acid) and containing chlorides. Several field tests have shown that steels resisting
sulphuric acid with chlorides also perform well in practice. 254 SMO® has been used with
good service performance in several plants [5].
7. Concluding remarks
Superaustenitic stainless steels have existed for more than thirty years and in this paper
the properties and numerous successful service records for some of the grades are given.
This family of stainless steels plays an important role in bridging the gap between standard
stainless steels and nickel-base alloys, and in some environments can even out-perform
the latter. A stable austenitic structure and high ductility are reasons for superaustenitic
steels being chosen for difficult components and for a wide range of temperatures.
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8. References
[1] Swedish Patent no SE7601070-1 (1985)
[2] H. Thier, A. Baumel, E. Schmidtmann: ”Einfluss von Stickstoff auf das
Ausscheidungsverjalten des Stahles X5 CrNiMo 17 13“. Archiv für das
Eisenhüttenwesen 40:4 (1969) 333–389
[3] German Patent no DE 3729577 C1 (1988)
[4] Swedish Patent no 9000129-8, (1992)
[5] Outokumpu Corrosion Handbook, 10th Edition, 2009
[6] R. S. Treseder: MTI Manual No 3 “Guideline information on new wrought iron
and nickel-base corrosion resistant alloys – Phase 1 Corrosion Test Methods”.
Materials Technology Institute of the Chemical Process Industries Inc, May 1980,
Appendix C, “Method MTI-3 for laboratory testing of wrought iron and nickel-base
alloys for relative resistance to stress corrosion cracking in a boiling magnesium
chloride solution.
[7] S. Henrikson, S. M. Åsberg “A new accelerated tests for studying the susceptibility of
stainless steels to chloride stress corrosion cracking “ Corrosion 35:9 (1979) 429–431
[8] As [6], Appendix E Method MTI-5 for laboratory testing of wrought iron- and
nickel base alloys for relative resistance to stress corrosion cracking in a sodium
chloride drop evaporation system.
[9] H. Andersen, P.-E. Arnvig, W. Wasielewska, L. Wegrelius: SCC of stainless steel
under evaporative conditions ACOM 3-1998
[10] NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156-3:2003 (E) Petroleum and natural gas industries
– Materials for use in H2S-containing environments in oil and gas production
– Part 3: Cracking-resistant CRAs (corrosion-resistant alloys) and other alloys
[11] C. Wolfe, P.-E. Arnvig, W. Wasielewska, R. Pettersson: “Hydrogen sulphide
resistance of highly-alloyed austenitic stainless steels”. ACOM 2-1997
[12] C. Canderyd, A. Bergquist, R. Pettersson: Uniform Corrosion of Lean Duplex
Stainless Steel Compared to Standard Austenitic Grades. Eurocorr 2009
[13] As [6] Appendix A Method MTI-1 for laboratory testing of wrought iron- and
nickel-base alloys for relative resistance to corrosion in selected media.
[14] B. Wallén et al, “Performance of a high molybdenum stainless steel in gas cleaning
systems with particular reference to pulp and paper industry” NACE Corrosion
1983, paper No. 83
[15] M. Liljas, R. Pettersson, L. Wegrelius, R.M. Davison: “UNS S31254-A bleach
plant success story”, NACE Corrosion 2010, paper No. 10083
[16] J. Olsson, H. Grützner, ”Experiences with a high alloyed stainless steel under
highly corrosive conditions”, Werkstoffe und Korrsion, 40, (1989), p. 279
[17] B. Wallén et al, ”Stainless steel for seawater piping”, 1993
[18] B. Beckers et al, “Outokumpu 4565, a High Performance Superaustenitic Stainless
Steel”, Stainless Steel World 2007, paper No. 7031
[19] M. Snis et al, “Stainless steel for LT-MED plants”, IDA World Congress,
Mas Palomas, Gran Canaria, (2007)
[20] O. Persson et al, ”The use of corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs) in compact plate
heat exchangers in seawater”, NACE Corrosion, (2007), Paper No. 07249
[21] B. Wallén et al, ”Performance of a High-alloy Stainless Steel in Sea Water Cooled
Plate Heat Exchangers”, Marine Corrosion of Stainless Steels, European Federation
of Corrosion Publications, Number 33, 2001
[22] J. Olsson, J.D. Redmond, “Application of Avesta 254 SMO® (UNS S31254) austenitic
stainless steel in power plants” NACE Corrosion 91, (1991), Paper No. 505
[23] J. Olsson, W. Wasielewska, “Applications and experience with a superaustenitic 7Mo
stainless steel in hostile environments”, Materials and Corrosion, 48, (1997), p. 791
Reproduced with permission [24] J. Tavast, “Steam side droplet erosion in titanium-tubed condensers – experiences
from Stainless Steel World. and remedies”, Joint Power Generation Conference, Houston, Tx, Oct., 1996
This paper was originally presented [25] P. Vangeli, G.M. Carcini, “FGD plants: stainless steel makes the grade”, Power
at the Stainless Steel World America Engineering, Nov. 2009, p. 78
Conference, 5–7 th October, 2010, [26] B. Wallén et al, “Corrosion testing in the flue gas cleaning and condensation systems
Houston, Texas, USA. in Swedish waste incineration plants”, NACE Corrosion 94, (1994), Paper no. 410
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Lean duplex
– the first decade of
service experience
Elisabet Alfonsson, Outokumpu Stainless AB, Sweden
Abstract
The lean duplex grade LDX 2101® was developed in order to offer the market a stainless
steel for light-weight constructions, suitable for use in environments where 2205 would
be over-specified from a corrosivity perspective. The grade has now been on the market
for almost a decade and is used in a large variety of applications. Other suppliers have
followed with lean duplex grades with a similar property profile as LDX 2101®.
A number of case stories showing how the properties of LDX 2101® can be utilized
were selected to illustrate the applicability of lean duplex grades. These include:
– Civil engineering applications such as bridges
– Pipe lines
– Flexible pipes in oil and gas industry
– Water heaters for domestic as well as industrial use
– Tanks for storage and transportation
The philosophy behind the development of the multi-purpose duplex grade LDX 2101®
is briefly discussed and future possibilities is illustrated by the recently developed grade
LDX 2404®.
Keywords: Lean duplex stainless steel, application, reinforcement bar, pipe, tank, bridge
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LDX 2101® was established on the market in time to meet the demand for grades with
a better price stability than standard austentic grades that occurred as a consequence of
the nickel price peak in 2006 – 2008. Some users switched from 304 to LDX 2101® merely
on grounds of the difference in price per kg, while many others also utilized the superior
technical properties, in particular the mechanical strength, to achieve more competitive
constructions. The market pull resulted in a fast volume growth and LDX 2101®
(EN 1.4162, UNS S32101) is today an established member of the duplex family with
a market demand of several 10,000 tonnes per year. Recently other suppliers have offered
lean duplex grades (e.g. UNS S82011 and EN1.4062/UNS S32202, see compositions
and properties in Table 1 and Table 2) with a similar profile as LDX 2101®. The grade
UNS S32001, built on a patent published in 1989 and previously marketed mainly
towards some niche-applications in automotive and oil and gas industries, has also been
more actively marketed.
In the following sections technical properties of LDX 2101® as well as a selection of
application cases will be highlighted.
Chemical composition of lean duplex, duplex and standard austenitic grades, ASTM A240 Table 1
EN UNS C Cr Ni Mo Mn Cu N
– S32001 ≤ 0.030 19.5 – 21.5 1.00 – 3.00 ≤ 0.60 4.0 – 6.0 1.00 0.05 – 0.17
1.4162 S32101 ≤ 0.040 21.0 – 22.0 1.35 – 1.70 0.10 – 0.80 4.0 – 6.0 0.10 – 0.80 0.20 – 0.25
– S82011 ≤ 0.030 20.5 – 23.5 1.0 – 2.0 0.10 – 1.00 2.0 – 3.0 ≤ 0.50 0.15 – 0.27
1.4062 S32202 ≤ 0.030 21.5 – 24.0 1.00 – 2.80 ≤ 0.45 ≤ 2.00 – 0.18 – 0.26
1.4404 S31603 ≤ 0.030 16.0 – 18.0 10.0 – 14.0 2.00 – 3.00 ≤ 2.00 – ≤ 0.10
1.4362 S32304 ≤ 0.030 21.5 – 24.5 3.0 – 5.5 0.05 – 0.60 ≤ 2.50 0.05 – 0.60 0.05 – 0.20
– S32003 ≤ 0.030 19.5 – 22.5 3.0 – 4.0 1.50 – 2.00 ≤ 2.00 – 0.14 – 0.20
1.4462 S31803 ≤ 0.030 21.0 – 23.0 4.5 – 6.5 2.5 – 3.5 ≤ 2.00 – 0.08 – 0.20
1.4462 S32205 ≤ 0.030 22.0 – 23.0 4.5 – 6.5 3.0 – 3.5 ≤ 2.00 – 0.14 – 0.20
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As shown in Table 2, all the lean duplex grades intended to substitute 304 types, as well
as UNS S82011, have a minimum yield strength in ASTM A240 which is on a par with
2205 (UNS S31803, S32205) and exceeds that of 2304 (UNS S32304). LDX 2101® as well
as S82011 both have significantly higher minimum yield strengths for gauges thinner
than 5 mm.
A low nickel content does not contribute to high impact toughness at lower temperatures
and the lean duplex grades may show lower impact strength than 2205 at sub-zero
temperatures. Minimum values for flat products are shown in Table 3. It should be
emphasised that weldments, in particular for larger gauges, typically show lower impact
strength than the base material.
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Outokumpu EN ASTM
LDX 2101 ®
1.4162 S32101 15
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3. Application cases
3.1 Hot water tanks
Most commonly, domestic hot water systems include a hot water tank. The inner shell of
these water tanks could be of carbon steel, with an internal enamel coating or copper lining
for corrosion protection, or they can be solid stainless steel, as seen in Figure 7. With
the entirely stainless solution, one single material provides the combined function of load
bearing and corrosion protection. Sacrificial anodes, as typically installed in enamelled
steel tanks, are not necessary. Stainless steel grades that have traditionally been used in
hot water tanks are 316L, 316Ti and 444.
The main corrosion risks for stainless steel used in hot water tanks are pitting, crevice
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC). The risk of SCC increases with higher
metal skin temperature. The largest SCC risk thus occurs in hot water tanks, which are
Fig. 1 Water tank inner shell
in stainless steel.
externally heated by either a heating jacket or a gas flame. LDX 2101®, as well as ferritic
grades and other duplexes, provide much higher resistance to SCC than standard austenitic
grades. When pitting and crevice corrosion is the main concern it should be noted that
the pitting resistance of LDX 2101® is not entirely on the level of 1.4404/316L. If chloride
levels are so high that 1.4404 cannot be considered over specified, 2304 and even 2205
might be the preferred duplex options.
Duplex stainless steel for domestic water heaters was introduced more than 15 years
ago. The grade 2304 came to replace 444 due to a combination of better weldability and
availability and the volume of 2304 supplied to this application has steadily increased. In
recent years many manufacturers of hot water tanks have chosen LDX 2101® as a substitute
for ferritic as well as the common austenitic grades. One advantage of stainless water tanks
in general is their lower weight compared to carbon steel tanks with corrosion protection.
Water tank inner shells are pressure vessels and due to the higher yield strength, duplex
stainless grades offer the possibility of further weight reduction compared to austenitic
and ferritic stainless steels [4,9]. Less weight to handle per tank is an advantage during
manufacturing, transport, and not the least during final assembly.
Due to differences in properties between the different groups of stainless steels, the change
from austenitic or ferritic stainless steels to duplex typically calls for some adjustment of
manufacturing equipment and procedures. Due to the higher yield strength of duplex
grades, higher forces need to be applied in forming operations. In cases when the higher
strength is utilised in terms of reduced wall thickness this effect is however less pronounced.
The duplex grades show a significantly higher spring-back during forming, which means
that a duplex tank body shell has to be roll-bended to a smaller radius in order to get the
Fig. 2 AdBlue tank in LDX 2101® on same final shape as a corresponding austenitic shell.
a truck (the middle tank on the When using automatic TIG-welding, the travel speed of the welding torch might have
photo). Photo Courtesy of
to be reduced when changing from austenitic to duplex stainless steels, while the welding
Fueltech.
of duplex is generally considered easier compared to welding ferritics.
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and duplex stainless steels as alternatives to aluminium. For stainless steels the corrosivity
of the AdBlue solution is not too severe, hence the highest alloyed grades could be excluded
for cost reasons. Among the remaining grades, 2205 was excluded due to long pickling times
after welding and ferritic EN 1.4521 due to welding difficulties. Austenitic EN1.4404
and LDX 2101® were the remaining candidates. LDX 2101® was chosen, one tank is seen in
Figure 2, with one advantage over 1.4404 being that separating/stabilising barriers inside
the tanks could be eliminated when LDX 2101® was used. LDX 2101® also passed vibration
tests at the truck manufacturer without any problems. A gauge of 2 mm is used and the
maximum tank volume is 125 litres. [4]
Fig. 3 A drawing (top) and a cut 3.3 Carcass for flexible pipe
samples of a flexible pipe Flexible pipes are used in flow lines and risers in the oil and gas industry. The pipe walls
(below) showing the non- are typically unbonded composite structures, consisting of several polymer and steel layers.
bonded composite structure. One of the inner layers is typically a so-called carcass, which is an interlocking structure
The stainless steel carcass is manufactured from metal strip. The purpose of the carcass is to ensure integrity against
the innermost interlocking layer. collapse of an inner polymer lining and to protect the lining from mechanical wear from
Picture courtesy of NKT. e.g. pigging tools and abrasive particles in the product flow. The carcass is typically made
of a corrosion resistant alloy in order to withstand the environment present in the bore hole.
The conditions during service are usually not so acidic as to induce uniform corrosion on
stainless steel. Various forms of localised corrosion are the main concern, due to potential
presence of chloride ions, hydrogen sulphide and often high temperatures. Conventional
austenitic grades such as AISI 316L and even 304L have been used in many projects and
are still used. The duplex grades 2304 and LDX 2101® offer at least the same resistance to
pitting corrosion as 316L and 304L respectively, together with a much higher resistance to
stress corrosion cracking. Other advantages of the duplex grades are their higher yield strength
and hardness. The latter is an advantage with respect to erosion/abrasion. Manufacturers
of flexible pipe work with a range of duplex grades for carcasses, e.g. LDX 2101®, 2304
or 2205, as well as standard austenitic grades. The choice of grade depends on the expected
service conditions as well as on the preference of the end-user. The stainless steel strip
formed into the interlocking structure is typically in the thickness range 1–2 mm.
Images of flexible pipes are seen in Figure 3. [4]
3.4 Bridges
Duplex stainless steel has been increasingly utilized in bridges during the last decade and that
includes LDX 2101®. The corrosion resistance of LDX 2101® is adequate for moderately
corrosive conditions and the grade was chosen for foot bridges in the city of Siena, located
in the inland of Italy and having low pollution levels, and in Gaularfjellet mountains on the
Norwegian west coast, see Figure 5. [6, 9] For the footbridge projects the main reasons to
select LDX 2101® are the corrosion resistance, which results in attractive esthetics with very
little maintenance, and the high yield strength, which could be utilized to give lighter weight
constructions than in traditional bridge design. In the Norwegian case the low weight was of
large importance since the bridge was pre-assembled and flown-in by helicopter to the site
at the creek Likholefossen. The Siena bridge was assembled on site, but of pre-manufactured
components which helped minimizing the impact of the constructions on the surroundings
– the footbridge crosses a four-lane motorway. The low weight of the lean duplex stainless
components is beneficial during transport as well as during the final assembly.
Although all-steel bridges are gaining in popularity, reinforced concrete is dominating
in bridge-building. These kinds of bridges also offer a market for lean duplex stainless
steel, namely in reinforcement bars (rebar). For concrete constructions exposed in marine
environments permeating seawater could result in corrosion and swelling of carbon steel
rebar and as a consequence cracking in the concrete. Such failures can be avoided by selective
use of stainless steel reinforcement in those areas of a construction where it is likely that high
chloride concentrations in the concrete will develop with time. One example where selective
use of stainless rebar is applied is an on-going project in Brisbane, Australia, where the six-lane
Gateway Bridge over the Brisbane River will be duplicated in order to meet the region´s future
traffic demand. The new bridge will have a design life of 300 years and to ensure such a
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Fig. 5 Footbridges in LDX 2101®, left Ruffolo bridge, Siena, Italy during construction, right the bridge over Likholefossen, Norway.
long life span the bridge design specifies stainless steel rebar in the most critical structures,
the splash zones of the two main river pylons. LDX 2101® was selected over AISI 316L due
to a favorable and stable price and after laboratory corrosion tests. Several research groups have
tested stainless and carbon steel reinforcement bar in simulated concrete-pore solutions.
These tests show that stainless reinforcement; LDX 2101® as well as 316 types, typically
tolerate about 10 times higher chloride concentrations than carbon steel [7].
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Fig. 7 Wine storage tank farm in duplex grades 2304 and LDX 2101®, Garcia Carrion, Spain.
Fig. 8 Silo in LDX 2101® for storage of 3.6 Tanks and silos
wheat flour under construction. Large storage tanks and silos have become a major application area for LDX 2101®.
Photo courtesy of Metal Applicable design codes include safety factors which mean that the high mechanical strength
Alimentaria. of duplex steels cannot be fully utilized in small tanks and in the upper part of large tanks.
However, by selecting duplex steels over standard austenitic grades, remarkably thinner gauges
can be used in the lower parts of large tanks and the total weight reduction is significant.
The benefits of using thinner gauge plate and sheet are several; easier erection because
sections become lighter, less time required for edge preparation before welding and less
consumption of filler material. LDX 2101® has substituted not only standard austentic
grades in large storage tanks but also carbon steel. The main arguments for substitution
of carbon steel is related to the fact that carbon steel normally requires coating, which
extends the lead time at the initial investment and requires maintenance during the service
life of the tank.
Storage tanks in LDX 2101® have been installed in many different industries. The reference
list includes tanks for storage and processing of such different cargos as white liquor and
marble slurry used in the pulp and paper industry, atomized clay for ceramic industry,
bioethanol, palm oil, wine and wheat flour, see Figure 7 and Figure 8. The weight saving
compared to an entire construction in grade 1.4301/304 has typically been in the range
15–30%. In some cases LDX 2101® has been a part of a multi-grade solution and used for
some sections of the construction while e.g. 1.4301 (304) or 2304 was used for other parts.
In cases like marble slurry tanks and clay silos, where the cargo contain hard particles, the
high hardness resulting in good abrasion resistance is an additional benefit of LDX 2101®.
3.7. Desalination
The demand for clean water is increasing in many areas of the world and desalination is a
growing industry, consuming significant volumes of stainless steel. The family of duplex
stainless steels is used in all the three major desalination processes, reverse osmosis (RO),
multi-stage flash (MSF) and multi effect distillation (MED). The main application area
of LDX 2101® in desalination is in the upper part of MSF flash chambers. Together with
partners in the desalination industry, Outokumpu has introduced a DualDuplexTM
concept where LDX 2101® is used in sectors of the flash chambers which mainly see
vapour and condensate while 2205 is used in the lower sectors which are exposed to the
brine. [8] At least three existing plants use a DualDuplex concept including LDX 2101®
and a fourth one will be commissioned in 2011.
3.8 Pipelines
In comparion to standard austentic grades, LDX 2101® offers a potential of significant
reduction of wall thicknesses in pressurized process pipe systems. Outokumpu Stainless
Tubular Products (OSTP) recently booked a contract for a pipeline for reception of
anhydrous ammonia and cyclohexane. By selecting LDX 2101® and changing the design a
remarkable weight reduction could be achieved and as a consequence significant reduction
of welding time and filler metal consumption. Some details of the case are presented in Table 6.
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Design Code ASME B31.3 (weld factor z=0.8) EN 13480-3 (weld factor z=1)
Dimensions ANSI 14”nb x Sch40S (OD 355.6 x 9.53 mm) ISO OD 355.6 x 4 mm
ANSI 10”nb x Sch40S (OD273 x 9.27 mm) ISO OD 273 x 4 mm
Max operating pressure with 14”nb x Sch40S: 56 bar 355.6 x 4 mm: 48 bar
dimensions specified 10”nb x Sch40S: 44 bar 273 x 4 mm: 62 bar
4. Standardisation
A general purpose stainless steel will hardly grow successfully if not listed in internation-
ally accepted standards. The dominant standards differ between countries and regions.
However, ASTM / ASME standard specifications are accepted not only in the US but also
in many other regions all over the world and EN standards are dominating in EU and
sometimes also specified in other regions. Several ISO standards are established for stainless
steels and development of ISO standards will most likely be of increasing importance in
a more global market. Standardisation work started early for LDX 2101® and the grade
is listed in several ASTM-standards for flat, long and tubular products and also covered
by the ASME code case 2418. EN standards are revised less frequently than ASTM and
ASME. Today LDX 2101® is listed in the standards EN 10088-4 and -5.
The high mechanical strength of LDX 2101® makes it a very interesting grade for
applications such as pressure vessels and large storage tanks. The European Pressure
Equipment Directive (PED) requires that materials used for pressure equipment, and
which are not listed in a harmonized standard, should either be covered by a European
Approval of Material (EAM) or undergo a Particular Material Appraisal (PMA). The PMA
requirement is in some cases a barrier that prevents use of new grades to substitute established
materials. The process to obtain an EAM for LDX 2101® is on-going but from a producer
perspective it has not been as straight-forward and predictable as would have been desirable.
This is natural since no other stainless steel grade has obtained an EAM and the process is
new to all parties involved. Guiding principles for EAM have been reviewed and clarified
along the way and future cases will most likely run more smoothly than this pioneer one.
Efficient and well defined processes for standardisation are crucial for achieving market
growth of lean duplex and other new stainless grades and this requires a strong engagement
in standardisation work from suppliers, users, notified bodies and standard organisations.
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5. Future development
LDX 2101® is today acknowledged as a general, (multi)purpose stainless steel and the grade
is well established in many different industries and continuously evaluated and selected
for new applications. Other suppliers have introduced grades with a similar profile.
Even when taking these new lean duplex grades into account, the duplex family contains
relatively few grades compared with both the austentic and ferritic families. Since duplex
is showing the fastest market growth of stainless steel families and finding use in many new
applications it is logical to expect the market to require a further development of the duplex
family. Outokumpu’s latest development is LDX 2404®, a grade that fills a gap between
2304 and 2205 with respect to pitting resistance and provides a mechanical strength which
exceeds that of 2205 [9]. The alloy chemistry is a further development of the cost effi-
cient LDX® concept including high nitrogen content and moderate levels of nickel and molyb-
denum. LDX 2404® will offer new possibilities for light weight construction when corrosion
conditions are demanding for the traditional austenitic grades. Together with the existing
members of the duplex family LDX 2404® will also make new Dual- or MultiDuplex solu-
tions possible.
N Cr Ni Mo Mn PRE*
P 480 680 25
H 550 750 25
C 550 750 25 (20)
6. Concluding remarks
After almost a decade on the market LDX 2101® is an established multipurpose stainless
construction steel. It is used in many different industries and in applications for flat as
well as tubular and long products. It offers a corrosion resistance at least on a par with 304
types in combination with high yield strength, high wear resistance and excellent resistance
to stress corrosion cracking. As other duplexes, LDX 2101® offers light-weight design
possibilities. That potential is particularly obvious in pressure vessels and large storage tanks.
The possibility of combining LDX 2101® with duplex grades with higher corrosion resistance
has enabled cost efficient DualDuplexTM and even multiduplex concepts in several industries.
The low nickel content of lean duplex grades results in lower impact toughness at
sub-zero temperatures than for 2205 and other duplex grades containing more nickel.
A thorough qualification of weldment properties should be carried out before selecting
lean duplex grades, particularly in heavy gauges, for service at sub-zero temperatures.
The new duplex grade LDX 2404®, which combines a pitting resistance well exceeding
that of 316 types with a higher minimum yield strength than for 2205, shows the potential
of further developing the concept of cost efficient use of alloying elements in duplex grades.
In order to facilitate a cost efficient use of the entire duplex family, steel manufacturers,
users, notified bodies and standardization organizations need to cooperate actively in
standardization work.
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7. References
[1] P. Johansson, M. Liljas, 4th European Stainless Steel Science and
Market Congress (2002)
[2] Outokumpu Corrosion Handbook, Uniform corrosion testing of stainless
steels using the MTI-1 procedure (2009) p.I:29 –I36
[3] E. Johansson, T. Prosek, NACE Corrosion 2007, paper no 07475
[4] M. Paijkull, E. Alfonsson, P. Johansson, Corrosion Control 007 (2007)
[5] http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/index_en.htm, Euro 5 and Euro 6
standards: reduction of pollutant emissions from light vehicles,
September 10th 2010
[6] M. Benson, Stainless Steel World, p5038 (2005)
[7] Outokumpu Corrosion Handbook, Stainless steel as reinforcement
in concrete constructions (2009) p.I:96-I99
[8] Outokumpu Corrosion Handbook, Stainless steel for the desalination
industry (2009) p I84 –I90
[9] J-O. Andersson, E. Alfonsson, C. Canderyd, H.L. Groth, Stainless Steel
World America (2010)
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Introduction
Duplex or ferritic-austenitic stainless steels have a history almost as long as stainless steels.
They attract a large interest from the industry although they constitute less than one percent
of the total volume of stainless steel. The intention with this paper is to describe the historic
development of this family of steels, show their merits and main application areas and try
to analyse why the market share is still limited.
Keywords: Duplex stainless steel, history, development, phase balance, ThermoCalc, applications
Fig. 1 Electric arc furnace for stainless steel, 1928. Fig. 2 Result of corrosion test of first duplex grades.
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Typical compositions (in weight percent) of the first generation DSS. Table 1
additions were not practiced and this element was hardly mentioned. Further, the phase
balance was not optimised to present standards. Calculations of the phase fractions for
two of the first duplex grades show great deviation from today’s DSS. This is illustrated in
Figure 3 where grade 453S has a highly ferritic composition with more than 70% ferrite
at 1050°C while grade UR50 only contains about 33% ferrite at this temperature.
Fig. 3 Equilibrium diagrams for early duplex grades using ThermoCalc TCFE5 database.
Used compositions: 453S: 0.09C, 0.4Si, 1.5Mn, 26Cr, 5Ni, 1.5Mo, 0,04N
UR50: 0.09C, 0.4Si, 2Mn, 21Cr, 6.5Ni, 2.5Mo, 0.04N.
453 S UR 50
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
Volume (fraction of phases)
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
Sigma Sigma
0.5 Austenite Austenite
0.5
Ferrite Ferrite
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
600 9000 1200 1500 600 9000 1200 1500
Temperatue (°C) Temperatue (°C)
Judging from these differences, various effects on steel performance could be expected.
Due to its high ferrite level grade 453S was sensitive to full ferritization during thermal
cycles such as in welding. UR50 tended to show limited ductility as result of improper
phase balance at hot working temperatures.
In the1950’s it was reported that DSS showed good resistance to chloride stress corrosion
cracking (SCC). One alloy specifically developed to combat SCC was 3RE60 developed by
Sandvik [4]. This was a low carbon steel with a relatively high level of Si and no nitrogen
deliberately added.
The first duplex alloy with intentional addition of nitrogen was Ferralium, which in
turn was developed from Grade 26-5-1 castings but intended for both cast and wrought
forms. It was claimed that addition of nitrogen reduced the problems both with cracking
during casting and with welding, by producing more ductile welds [5]. Having about
25%Cr and appreciable amounts of molybdenum and copper this steel exhibited a high
strength and high corrosion resistance. This steel was the forerunner to many so-called
25Cr DSS and to superduplex grades described later in this paper.
With increased use in welded constructions it became clear that many DSS could suffer
from intergranular corrosion (IGC) in the heat affected zone (HAZ) due to transformation
to more or less 100% ferritic microstructure, which is much more prone to carbide
precipitation than austenite. An alloy was developed in the 1970’s that was claimed to
be resistant to this form of corrosion [6]. This was mainly because of a more austenitic
composition able to resist full ferritization in HAZ, but also the addition of nitrogen
that improved the austenite reformation upon cooling. The steel grade in question was
1.4462, originally with quite a wide nitrogen range, 0.08-0.20%N.
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they reached the level of 40, which is often used as a definition of a superduplex steel.
An alternative way to improve corrosion resistance is to augment the Cr level further.
This was done with SAF 2906, which shows superior performance in oxidizing acids
present in the urea industry. The increasing alloying content makes the microstructure
more prone to precipitation of intermetallic phases with an adverse effect on corrosion
resistance and ductility. There has been a vivid discussion concerning the individual effect
of molybdenum and tungsten and the conclusion is that replacement of Mo by some
W has a negligible effect on phase stability as well as corrosion resistance [8]. Naturally,
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further upgrading of the alloy content will decrease the two-phase stability. However, a
recent development of a hyperduplex grade, SAF 2707HD, with a PRE of about 49 due
to very high Cr, Mo and N levels can be manufactured and welded without precipitation
of intermetallic phases [9].
It has been claimed that nitrogen delays the formation of intermetallic phases in DSS
in a similar way as in austenitic grades. However for DSS there is only a small effect of
nitrogen on the driving force for sigma-phase formation, because nitrogen does not
change the chromium activity as result of a simultaneous change in phase fraction [10].
For lower alloyed duplex steels the risk of intermetallic phase formation is naturally smaller
and lean duplex grades have received much interest in recent years. Already in the mid
1980’s Sandvik introduced SAF 2304, now an established grade. To minimize raw material
cost lean DSS alloys with low nickel contents compensated with manganese and nitrogen
have been launched. Outokumpu LDX 2101®, with high manganese and nitrogen contents
shows high strength and good corrosion performance even in the as-welded condition.
The stability to intermetallic phase formation is high and the dominating phases precipitating
after shorter times are carbides and nitrides that are less harmful to properties. With low
nickel contents the impact toughness is slightly reduced, but fracture mechanics testing
show that the material still has a low transition temperature to brittle behaviour.
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There is probably a limit in PRE value of about 50 due to the increased risk of intermetallic
phase formation when exceeding that level. Replacement of Mo with W would not offer
any increased margin in this respect. As the high levels of Cr and Mo result in high solubility
of nitrogen, superduplex grades can be made with nitrogen levels of 0.4% without problems
with pore or nitride formation in welding. Further development of superduplex and
hyperduplex grades is expected with this upper alloying level.
Naturally there is room for new DSS with tailor-made property profiles, e.g., high corrosion
resistance in certain environments and specific mechanical or fabrication properties. This
can be made with variants of existing grades or with new alloys. One example is addition
of copper to improve corrosion resistance in certain acids.
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However, superduplex grades such as Zeron 100 and SAF 2507 were developed to compete
with the superaustenitic grades with good success. Today, large quantities of superduplex
tubing are used in umbilicals for the control of sub-sea systems. Also in the offshore
industry, lean duplex steel has been used for blast walls on oil platforms based on the
high strength combined with sufficient corrosion resistance.
Other areas where DSS have partly replaced austenitic alloys are flue gas cleaning systems
and seawater desalination plants. In the latter case a combination of duplex grades is used
to meet different aggressive environments.
In more recent years lean duplex grades have emerged as an alternative to type 304 and
316 austenitic grades. This development has been very successful. The aim with these grades
is also to replace construction steels, deriving on advantages of high strength and low
maintenance costs. Increased use of such steels is now seen in bridges, storage tanks and
other construction work. Lean DSS are also used for construction of transport vehicles.
The launching of the hyperduplex steel SAF 2707HD means a further expansion of the
applications for DSS. With its high PRE this steel will resist seawater at high temperatures
and will be used in very aggressive refinery environments, competing with nickel base alloys.
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References
[1] J. Olsson, M. Liljas, NACE Corrosion/94, 1994, paper no. 395
[2] P. Soulignac, F. Dupoiron, Stainless Steel Europe, June 1990, p. 18
[3] French patent No 803361, 1936
[4] Swedish patent No 312240, 1965
[5] US patent No 3567434, 1971
[6] German patent No 2255673, 1974
[7] Swedish patent No 8504137-7, 1985
[8] S. Hertzman et al, Duplex 94, Glasgow, Nov 1994, Vol.1, paper 1
[9] P. Stenvall, M. Holmquist, DSS 2007, Grado, June 2007
[10] S. Hertzman et al, Duplex 2000, Venezia, Oct 2000, p. 347
[11] J. Hochman, Revue du Nickel, Juillet-aout-septembre, 1950, p. 53
[12] J. Charles, Duplex 2007, Grado June 2007, opening lecture
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1996 1 Corrosion testing in the flue gas cleaning and condensation systems
in Swedish waste incineration plants
B. Wallén, A. Bergqvist, J. Nordström
1 Seawater resistance of a second generation superaustenitic stainless steel
B. Wallén, E. Alfonsson
2 Machinability, corrosion resistance and weldability of an inclusion modified
2205 duplex stainless steels
P.-E. Arnvig, B. Leffler, E. Alfonsson, A. Brorson
2 The lateral homogeneity of passive films formed on the duplex stainless steel
2205 investigated with AES and XPS
C.-O. A. Olsson, S. E. Hörnström
2 60 years of duplex stainless steel applications
J. Olsson, M. Liljas
3 Determining the potential independent critical pitting temperature (CPT)
by a potentiostatic method using the Avesta cell
P.-E. Arnvig, A. D. Bisgård
3 Intergranular corrosion testing by etching at a constant potential
R. Qvarfort
3 Evaluation of HCl and Na-EDTA additions for ferric chloride testing using
auger electron spectroscopy
C.-O. A. Olsson, P.-E. Arnvig
4 Steam side droplet erosion in titanium tubed condensers
– experiences and remedies
J. O. Tavast
1995
1 UNS S32654, a new superaustenitic stainless steel for harsh environments
J. Olsson
2 Development of superaustenitic stainless steels
M. Liljas
3 Desalination of seawater by reverse osmosis – the Malta experience
M. F. Lamendola, A. Tua
3 Stainless steel for high pressure piping in SWRO plants. Are there any options?
J. Nordström, J. Olsson
4 Avesta Sheffield 353MA – a material for very high temperatures and harsh
environments
M. Segerbäck, B. Ivarsson, R. Johansson
1994
1 Design ideas and case studies utilising duplex stainless steels
H. L. Groth, M. L. Erbing, J. Olsson
2 The role of nitrogen in longitudinal welding of tubing in duplex stainless steels
O. Jonsson, M. Liljas, P. Stenvall
3 Digesters and pulp storage towers of duplex stainless steels
– saving weight and costs
J. Nordström, B. Rung
4 Welding of UNS S32654 – corrosion properties and metallurgical aspects
M. Liljas, P. Stenvall
1993 1 Fatigue performance of nine bolt materials in air and in seawater
with cathodic protection
T. Slind, T. G. Eggen, E. Bardal, P. J. Haagensen
2 Corrosion problems in low-temperature desalination units
S. Narain, S. H. Asad
3 Stress corrosion behaviour of highly alloyed stainless steels under
severe evaporative conditions
P.-E. Arnvig, W. Wasielewska
4 Corrosion in chloride dioxide bleach environments
– experiences with stainless steels and nickel-base alloys
E. Alfonsson, L. Tuveson-Carlström, B. Wallén
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1987
1 Corrosion engineering of high pressure piping in RO-plants
S. Nordin, J. Olsson
2 Galvanic corrosion of copper alloys in contact with highly alloyed
stainless steel in seawater
B. Wallén, T. Andersson
3–4 Performance of a high molybdenum stainless steel in the pulp
and paper industry
M. Liljas, R. Qvarfort, B. Wallén
3–4 Field tests with metallic materials in Finnish, Norwegian and
Swedish bleach plants
S. Henrikson
3–4 Field experience in the application of 254 SMO (UNS S31254)
in the Scandinavian pulp and paper industry
R. M. Davison, J. Olsson, D. W. Rahoi
1986 1–2 Influence of nitrogen on weldments in UNS31803
M. Liljas, R. Qvarfort
1–2 Textures and anisotropy in duplex stainless steel SS2377 (2205)
W. B. Hutchinson, U. von Schlippenbach, J. Jonson
1–2 Applications and uses of duplex stainless steels
J. Olsson, S. Nordin
3–4 Sea water handling systems: past, present and future
P. Gallagher, R. E. Malpas, E. B. Shone
3–4 An accelerated test method for crevice corrosion
J. M. Krougman
3–4 Selection of high-alloyed steels for seawater-cooled condensors
L. M. Butter, A. H. M. Keller, H. B. J. Klein Avink, W. M. M. Huijbregts
1985
1 Weight optimisation in offshore construction
T. Eriksen
2 Oxidation kinetics of heat resistant alloys part 1
G. R. Rundell
2 Oxidation kinetics of heat resistant alloys part 2
G. R. Rundell
3 Optimization of high-pressure piping in reverse osmosis plants
S. Nordin, B. Wallén, B. Eriksson
4 High temperature behaviour of the austenitic stainless steel
ASTM UNS30815 (253MA) and weldments
A. Dhooge, W. Hoek, W. Provost, M. Steen
1984
1 Electrochemical studies of crevice corrosion rates on stainless steels
D. Tromans, L. Frederick
1 Influence of copper on the resistance of 20Cr25NiMo stainless steels
to pitting and crevice corrosion
J. Pleva
2 Corrosion control in the offshore industry
S. Nordin
2 Advanced steels and metal alloys offshore – a summary
P. Løvland
3 Performance of a high molybdenum stainless steel in gas cleaning systems
B. Wallén, M. Liljas, J. Olsson
4 The use of stainless steels and related alloys in reverse osmosis
desalination plants
B. Todd, J. Oldfield
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2007:4 Stainless steels for flue gas cleaning – laboratory trials, field tests and
service experience
2005:2 Corrosion properties of UNS S32101 – a new duplex stainless steel with
a low nickel content tested for use as reinforcement in concrete
1990:2 Duplex stainless steels in chemical tankers – properties and practical experience
1990:3 Experiences with a high-alloys stainless steel under highly corrosive conditions
1981:2 A survey of some failures typical for tanks and piping systems
in austenitic stainless steel
Atmospheric corrosion
2008:1 The suitability of stainless steels for road constructions
2004:2 Release rates of chromium, nickel and iron from pure samples of
the metals and 304 and 316 stainless steel induced by atmospheric
corrosion – a combined field and laboratory study
Cathodic protection
1993:1 Fatigue performance of nine bolt materials in air and in seawater with
cathodic protection
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Corrosion fatigue
2010:3 Summary of corrosion fatigue test data for duplex suction roll shell material
Corrosive wear
1996:4 Steam side droplet erosion in titanium tubed condensers
– experiences and remedies
Crevice corrosion
2004:3 Electrochemical evaluation of pitting and crevice corrosion resistance
of stainless steels in NaCl and NaBr
Environmentally-induced cracking
2007:2 Stress corrosion cracking properties of UNS 32101
– a new duplex stainless steel with low nickel content
2006:1 The introduction of Alloy 2101 for use as zinc-clad umbilical tubing
for deepwater subsea oil and gas developments
1993:3 Stress corrosion behaviour of highly alloyed stainless steels under severe
evaporative conditions
Galvanic corrosion
1987:2 Galvanic corrosion of copper alloys in contact with highly
alloyed stainless steel in seawater
Intergranular corrosion
1996:3 Intergranular corrosion testing by etching at a constant potential
Methods/methodology
2009:2 Critical chloride threshold levels for stainless steel reinforcement
in pore solutions
1996:3 Evaluation of HCl and Na-EDTA additions for ferric chloride testing using
auger electron spectroscopy
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Pitting corrosion
2004:3 Electrochemical evaluation of pitting and crevice corrosion resistance
of stainless steels in NaCl and NaBr
High temperature
Properties
Corrosion
2010:2 Materials performance in simulated waste combustion environments
2007:4 Stainless steels for flue gas cleaning – laboratory trials, field tests
and service experience
1996:1 Corrosion testing in the flue gas cleaning and condensation systems
in Swedish waste incineration plants
Creep
1989:1 Influence of carbon and nitrogen content on the creep properties
of the austenitic stainless steel 253MA
Oxidation
Applications
Combustion
2010:2 Materials performance in simulated waste combustion environments
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2007:4 Stainless steels for flue gas cleaning – laboratory trials, field tests
and service experience
1996:1 Corrosion testing in the flue gas cleaning and condensation systems
in Swedish waste incineration plants
Mechanical properties
Design and design rules
2005:3 Utilization of the material strength for lower weight and cost with LDX 2101®
2000:1 Stainless steel design stresses in EN and ASME pressure vessel codes
2000:4 Choice of specifications and design codes for duplex stainless steels
1994:1 Design ideas and case studies utilising duplex stainless steels
Fatigue
2010:3 Fatigue properties of thin sheet stainless steel lap joints
Fracture toughness
2009:1 Fracture toughness of welded commercial lean duplex stainless steels
Machining
2006:4 LDX 2101®, a new stainless steel with excellent machining properties
Miscellaneuos
Cladding
2005:1 Why clad when there is duplex?
1981:2 A survey of some failures typical for tanks and piping systems
in austenitic stainless steel
Chronicles
2010:4 acom chronicle 1980 – 2010
2010:4 80 years with duplex steels – a historic review and prospects for the future
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Passive film/passivation
2006:2 Passive films on stainless steels – recent nano-range research
1981:2 A survey of some failures typical for tanks and piping systems
in austenitic stainless steel
Industrial segments
Architecture, building and construction (AB&C)
2009:2 Critical chloride threshold levels for stainless steel reinforcement
in pore solutions
2005:3 Utilization of the material strength for lower weight and cost with LDX 2101®
2007:1 The use of a lean duplex stainless steel UNS S32101: Thermal dimple jackets
on vessels for high purity applications
2006:1 Lean duplex grades as longitudinally welded pipes for linepipes in the oil
and gas business
2006:1 The introduction of Alloy 2101 for use as zinc-clad umbilical tubing for
deepwater subsea oil and gas developments
1990:2 Duplex stainless steels in chemical tankers – properties and practical experience
1990:3 Experiences with a high-alloys stainless steel under highly corrosive conditions
1982:2 Experience with an 18Cr-2Mo alloy in the chemical and petrochemical industries
Hydrometallurgy
2010:1 Duplex stainless steels in the hydrometallurgy industry
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Offshore
1989:3 Corrosion problems in the oil industry
Transportation
2008:1 The suitability of stainless steels for road constructions
1990:2 Duplex stainless steels in chemical tankers – properties and practical experience
Stainless steels
2010:3 Summary of corrosion fatigue test data for duplex suction roll shell material
2010:4 80 years with duplex steels – a historic review and prospects for the future
2009:1 The welding consequences of replacing austenitic with duplex stainless steel
2005:3 Utilization of the material strength for lower weight and cost with LDX 2101®
2000:4 Choice of specifications and design codes for duplex stainless steels
1994:1 Design ideas and case studies utilising duplex stainless steels
1994:2 The role of nitrogen in longitudinal welding of tubing in duplex stainless steels
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2006:1 Effect of cathodic current densities and strain rates on SSRT fracture
behaviour of lean duplex stainless steels and a 13%Cr supermartensitic
stainless steel in synthetic formation water
2006:1 The introduction of Alloy 2101 for use as zinc-clad umbilical tubing
for deepwater subsea oil and gas developments
2006:4 LDX 2101®, a new stainless steel with excellent machining properties
2005:2 Corrosion properties of UNS S32101 – a new duplex stainless steel with
a low nickel content tested for use as reinforcement in concrete
2002:3-4 HyTens creates new opportunities for high strength stainless steel applications
1994:1 Design ideas and case studies utilising duplex stainless steels
2006:1 LDX 2101® The introduction of Alloy 2101 for use as zinc-clad umbilical
tubing for deepwater subsea oil and gas developments
2006:4 LDX 2101® LDX 2101®, a new stainless steel with excellent
machining properties®
2005:2 LDX 2101® Corrosion properties of UNS S32101 – a new duplex stainless
steel with a low nickel content tested for use as reinforcement
in concrete
2005:3 LDX 2101® Utilization of the material strength for lower weight and
cost with LDX 2101®
2002:1–2 LDX 2101® A new lean duplex stainless steel for construction purposes
®
2002:3–4 HyTens HyTens creates new opportunities for high strength stainless
steel applications
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2001:1–2 254 SMO® Electrochemical studies of 254 SMO stainless steel in comparison
with 316L stainless steel and Hastelloy C276 in phosphoric acid
media in absence and presence of chloride ions
1998:2 654 SMO® Applications and experience with a superaustenitic 7Mo stainless
steel in hostile environments
1997:4 654 SMO® The seawater resistance of a superaustenitic 7Mo stainless steel
1996:2 2205 The lateral homogeneity of passive films formed on the duplex
stainless steel 2205 investigated with AES and XPS
1995:1 654 SMO® UNS S32654, a new superaustenitic stainless steel for
harsh environments
1995:4 353 MA® Avesta Sheffield 353MA – a material for very high temperatures
and harsh environments
1992:2 654 SMO® Avesta 654 SMO™ – a new high molybdenum, high nitrogen
stainless steel
1992:4 254 SMO® Application of UNS S31254 (254 SMO®) austenitic stainless steel
in power plants
1991:1–2 254 SMO® Experiences with a highly alloyed stainless steel in desalination
plants and other Arabian Gulf industrial plants
1990:3 254 SMO® Experiences with a high-alloys stainless steel under highly
corrosive conditions
1989:1 253 MA® Influence of carbon and nitrogen content on the creep properties
of the austenitic stainless steel 253MA
1987:3–4 254 SMO® Field experience in the application of 254 SMO (UNS S31254)
in the Scandinavian pulp and paper industry
1986:1–2 2205 Textures and anisotropy in duplex stainless steel SS2377 (2205)
®
1985:4 253 MA High temperature behaviour of the austenitic stainless steel
ASTM UNS30815 (253MA) and weldments
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Superaustenitics
2010:4 Superaustenitic stainless steels in demanding environments
1995:1 UNS S32654, a new superaustenitic stainless steel for harsh environments
1992:2 Avesta 654 SMO™ – a new high molybdenum, high nitrogen stainless steel
1990:3 Experiences with a high-alloys stainless steel under highly corrosive conditions
Tubing
2006:1 Effect of cathodic current densities and strain rates on SSRT fracture
behaviour of lean duplex stainless steels and a 13%Cr supermartensitic
stainless steel in synthetic formation water
2006:1 The introduction of Alloy 2101 for use as zinc-clad umbilical tubing
for deepwater subsea oil and gas developments
2003:4 Stainless steels for SWRO plants high pressure piping, properties
and experience
1982:1 A user’s view of the need for quality assurance in welded stainless
steel pipe manufacture
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1981:4 Stainless steel for saline cooling water in the fertilizer industry
1981:2 A survey of some failures typical for tanks and piping systems
in austenitic stainless steel
Desalination
2005:1 Why clad when there is duplex?
2003:4 Stainless steels for SWRO plants high pressure piping, properties
and experience
1984:4 The use of stainless steels and related alloys in reverse osmosis
desalination plants
Drinking water
2001:3-4 The influence of drinking water quality on the corrosion of stainless
steel EN 1.4401 (SS 2347, AISI 316)
Fresh water
2004:1 Service experience with high performance stainless steels in aggressive
fresh waters
Seawater
2003:4 Stainless steels for SWRO plants high pressure piping,
properties and experience
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1984:4 The use of stainless steels and related alloys in reverse osmosis
desalination plants
1981:4 Stainless steel for saline cooling water in the fertilizer industry
Wastewater
2004:1 MIC on stainless steels in wastewater treatment plants
– field tests and a risk assessment
Welding
2009:1 The welding consequences of replacing austenitic with duplex stainless steel
1994:2 The role of nitrogen in longitudinal welding of tubing in duplex stainless steels
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1982:1 A user’s view of the need for quality assurance in welded stainless
steel pipe manufacture
1981:2 A survey of some failures typical for tanks and piping systems
in austenitic stainless steel
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