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I '
PREFACE
The p r o s p e c t s f o r o b t a i n i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of u s e f u l d a t a by remote
, s e n s i n g from space p l a t f o r m s have motivated g e o l o g i s t s , geographers, oceanog-
raphers, m e t e o r o l o g i s t s , h y d r o l o g i s t s , f o r e s t e r s , a g r i c u l t u r i s t s , and o t h e r s
t o eearch f o r p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s new technology r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r
, r e s p e c t i v e d i s c i p l i n e s . Much of t h e i r work i s being sponsored by t h e N a t i o n a l
Aeronautics and Space Administration, which h a s t h e broader purpose of devel-
oping p e a c e f u l uses of e a r t h satellites f o r t h e b e n e f i t of mankind.
iii
.
CONTENTS
PaRe
yla.S
Introduction
...............................................................
..........................................................
V
1
Conventional agricultural applications of remote sensing .............. 2
Purpose. frequency. and areal scope
Characteristics of conventional photography
..............................
......................
2
4
Method of data acquisition
Type and form of data
.......................................
............................................
5
6
Advantages of aerial photography
Agricultural remote sensing research
.................................
..................................
7
7
Experiments with panchromatic photography
Experiments with infrared photography
........................
............................
7
10
Experiments with multiband photography
Experiments with nonphotographic imagery
...........................
.........................
11
12
Major factors affecting satellite reconnaissance capabilities ......... 15
Characteristics of remote sensors ................................ 15
Image interpretation capabilities
Informational objectives
................................
.........................................
17
18
Potential agricultural applications of satellite observations ......... 19
Feasible applications ............................................
Possibly feasible applications ...................................
19
21
Infeasible applications .......................................... 22
Unclassified applications ........................................ 22
Conclusions ........................................................... 23
Bibliography .......................................................... 24
TABLES
Table 1 . Major agricultural applications of aerial photography ....... 3
Table 2 . Experiments with remote sensing in agriculture .............. 8
Table 3.
4 . Advantages and disadvantages of sensor types ................ 15
Table
.........................
Potential applications of remote sensing from space
platforms: estimated feasibility 20
iv
SUMMARY
Remote s e n s i n g from o r b i t i n g s a t e l l i t e s i s c e r t a i n t o y i e l d c o n s i d e r a b l e
q u a n t i t i e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l d a t a . E x i s t i n g photographic s e n s o r s , as w e l l as
photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques, are s u f f i c i e n t l y advanced t o perform a v a r i e t y
of a g r i c u l t u r a l survey t a s k s from space a l t i t u d e s , i n c l u d i n g reconnaissance
surveys of major l a n d uses, s o i l s , water resources, range c o n d i t i o n s , and
cropping p r a c t i c e s . S a t e l l i t e photography w i l l a l s o be s u i t a b l e f o r mapping
numerous o b j e c t s and c o n d i t i o n s on t h e ground.
V
p e s t i c i d e s , and i n d e t e c t i n g and d e l i n e a t i n g weed and d i s e a s e growth. I n
several cases, a d i s e a s e p a t t e r n appeared on i n f r a r e d photography b e f o r e i t
could be d e t e c t e d v i s u a l l y .
vi
AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING--
THE POTENTIAL FROM SPACE PLATFORMS
BY
INTRODUCTION
Thi s t u d y i n t e n d s t o i d e n t i f y low-altitude a g r i c u l t u r 1 a p p l i t i o n f
remote s e n s i n g , L/ i n c l u d i n g those emerging from c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h which appeal
t o be t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e from space a l t i t u d e s . Since o p e r a t i o n a l experience
w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l remote sensing from s p a c e c r a f t i s n e g l i g i b l e , t h e a p p r a i s a l
of t e c h n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y must necessarily.be based upon t h e evidence of e x i s t -
i n g remote s e n s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e experience and judgment of s c i e n t i s t s
f a m i l i a r w i t h l o w - a l t i t u d e remote sensing c a p a b i l i t i e s .
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The SCS a l s o made e x t e n s i v e use of a e r i a l photographs i n t h e N a t i o n a l
Inventory of Conservation Needs (NICN), an interagency survey conducted i n
1957-59 t o map U.S. land c a p a b i l i t y and use. Designations were made on sample
p l o t s on aerial photographic bases t o provide a 2-percent area sample. A
similar inventory i s c u r r e n t l y underway and scheduled f o r completion i n 1967.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Conventional Photonraphy
5
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n phase, as t h e p a t t e r n s u s u a l l y c o i n c i d e w i t h boundaries between
areas of d i f f e r e n t v e g e t a t i v e type and d e n s i t y .
I d e s c r i b e d by Henriques (23).
Investigato r Image
Type Scale Subject
~~
9
photographs taken d u r i n g t h e f i r s t survey of t h e season are observed on suc-
ceeding o p e r a t i o n a l f i l m t o determine whether o r n o t they f a l l i n areas where
grapes a r e drying on t r a y s t o form r a i s i n s . An i n d i c a t i o n of y i e l d i s obtained
by (1) t r a y counts on t h e photographs and (2) ground v i s i t s on a subsample
b a s i s t o weigh and count t h e number of t r a y s i n s p e c i f i e d areas. This unique
a p p l i c a t i o n of a e r i a l photography has c o n s i d e r a b l e economic s i g n i f i c a n c e , s i n c e
growers m u s t decide a t what p o i n t t h e a n t i c i p a t e d market demand f o r r a i s i n s h a s
been s a t i s f i e d . When t h i s c o n d i t i o n has been m e t , t h e remaining grape h a r v e s t
can be more p r o f i t a b l y d i v e r t e d t o wine production (42).
Experiments w i t h I n f r a r e d Photography
10
I n f r a r e d photography has a l s o been used on t e s t sites i n Texas t o map t h e
e x t e n t and e v a l u a t e t h e s e v e r i t y of s a l i n e c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l u c t u -
a t i n g water t a b l e s (39). I n t h i s experiment, c o t t o n s u f f e r i n g from physiolog-
i c a l drought as a r e s u l t of s a l i n e conditions i n t h e 1 t o & f o o t s o i l p r o f i l e
was found t o photograph i n tones varying with t h e s e v e r i t y of s a l i n e c o n d i t i o n s .
12
problems of i n t e r e s t t o a g r i c u l t u r i s t s . L/ These r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s are l o g i c a l
e x t e n s i o n s of photographic remote sensing i n which r e l a t i v e l y g r o s s s p e c t r a l
d i f f e r e n c e s e x h i b i t e d by n a t u r a l and c u l t u r a l phenomena have been d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
with abundant success. I n theory, minute s p e c t r a l d i f f e r e n c e s are s u s c e p t i b l e
t o d e t e c t i o n and measurement as w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s are
sensed simultaneously a t i n t e r v a l s over a broad p o r t i o n of t h e spectrum and are
analyzed e l e c t r o n i c a l l y . The hope i s t h a t unique t o n a l "signatures" r e f l e c t i n g
t h e s e s l i g h t s p e c t r a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l be discovered f o r numerous o b j e c t s and
c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l environment.
13
air, (4) wind velocity above the vegetative canopy, (5) barometric pressure,
and (6) soil moisture. These data were supplemented by conventional weather
observations and Experiment Station records.
"Studies.. .have shown that single radar images of the type expected from
orbital radar can be useful as a tool for study of some soil distributions at
the soil association level of generalization in grassland or lightly treed
environments.
...p reliminary study suggests that multiple polarization will add to the
present capability in helping to distinguish additional soils units through
variations in natural plant communities.
The report goes on to say, IIUse of several polarizations raises the number
of parameters available for differentiation and increases the probability of
correct identification. The principle in essence is the same as multiband
Spectral reconnaissance, except time varying and polarization parameters con-
stitute the information matrix."
MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING SATELLITE RECONNAISSANCE CAPABILITIES
P o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of s a t e l l i t e imagery must n e c e s s a r i l y
be i d e n t i f i e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e imagery requirements f o r i n d i v i d u a l applica-
t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o remote reconnaissance c a p a b i l i t i e s . A c t u a l l y , t h e imagery
requirements f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys cannot be s t a t e d e x a c t l y , except i n a few
i n s t a n c e s where minimum s p e c i f i c a t i o n s have been determined experimentally t o
be very rigorous. Evaluation of remote reconnaissance c a p a b i l i t i e s from space
a l t i t u d e s must be based on p a r t i c u l a r l y l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e , s i n c e r e l e v a n t
s a t e l l i t e imagery a v a i l a b l e t o d a t e does not r e p r e s e n t t h i s p o t e n t i a l . However,
t h e q u e s t i o n of t e c h n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y can be answered s a t i s f a c t o r i l y by d e t e r -
mining whether t h e minimum requirements f o r p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s are e i t h e r
r e a l i s t i c a l l y w i t h i n o r beyond t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of s e n s o r s on space platforms.
The major f a c t o r s governing remote reconnaissance c a p a b i l i t i e s w i l l be consid-
ered f i r s t .
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Remote Sensors
Day/night s e n s i t i v i t y ............ 5 10 10
Haze-fog penetration........... .. 3 6 10
Cloud penetration................ 1 2 9
Temperature discrimination....... 2 10 1
Subsurface detection............. 4 6 3
Stereo capability ................
Accurate image representation....
10 2
6
3
5
9
........
Long-range c a p a b i l i t y . . . . 7 4
7
8
5
Resolution....................... 9
C l a r i t y o r images.... ............
A v a i l a b i l i t y of equipment........
I
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Of t h e t h r e e s e n s o r types l i s t e d i n t a b l e 3, photographic cameras have
been developed t o t h e h i g h e s t s t a t e of p e r f e c t i o n . I n comparison w i t h o t h e r
s e n s o r types, photographic systems possess h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s and
s u p e r i o r m e t r i c q u a l i t i e s , and photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques are
r e l a t i v e l y w e l l developed. Nonphotographic s e n s o r s record a d d i t i o n a l r e f l e c -
t i v e and emissive q u a l i t i e s of o b j e c t s and a l s o provide a p o t e n t i a l day-night
and all-weather sensing c a p a b i l i t y . Hence, i n f o r m a t i o n a l g a i n s can be expected
from t h e j o i n t use o f two o r more s e n s o r types.
Ground Resolution
Focal Length Resultant S c a l e (40 lines/mm) (100 lines/mm)
12 inches 1/750,000 60 f e e t 24 f e e t
36 inches 1/250,000 20 f e e t 8 feet
120 inches 1/75,000 6 feet 2.4 f e e t
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h a t h i g h
r e s o l u t i o n and wide-area coverage are c o n f l i c t i n g g o a l s i n remote s e n s i n g .
When f o c a l l e n g t h i s i n c r e a s e d , a corresponding d e c r e a s e o c c u r s i n area cov-
e r a g e , s i n c e t h e f i e l d of view i s narrowed. The d e c r e a s e i n area coverage, i n
t u r n , is r e f l e c t e d i n image scale, determined as t h e r a t i o between f o c a l l e n g t h
and d i s t a n c e ( a l t i t u d e ) . Since wide-area coverage i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as a
d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e of s a t e l l i t e reconnaissance, t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t i s a restric-
t i o n on the use of huge o p t i c s t o o b t a i n h i g h r e s o l u t i o n .
16
Image I n t e r p r e t a t i o n C a p a b i l i t i e s
17
The team's d e f i n i t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s a p p l i e s
p r i m a r i l y t o photographic imagery because nonphotographic image i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
c a p a b i l i t i e s are s t i l l poorly developed. The team's statement g e n e r a l l y agrees
with t h e f i n d i n g s elsewhere i n t h i s s t u d y , except f o r one s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r -
ence. According t o t h e team, s p e c i e s of continuous cover crops a r e i d e n t i f i a b l e
w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n of two meters. I n comparison, t h e large image scales s p e c i -
f i e d by Colwell f o r cereal crop i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , as w e l l as t h e r e p o r t e d e x p e r i -
ence of o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , imply t h a t , except i n s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , r e s o l u t i o n
requirements f o r crop s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n are somewhat more r i g o r o u s than two
meters.
I n a s s e s s i n g p o t e n t i a l photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s , i t should
be remembered t h a t r e s o l u t i o n s g r e a t e r than two meters have been a v a i l a b l e a t
low a l t i t u d e s and are t h e o r e t i c a l l y a t t a i n a b l e from s a t e l l i t e a l t i t u d e s . Res-
olution g r e a t e r than two meters has p e r m i t t e d a v a r i e t y of ingenious image
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . Nevertheless, i n view of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y complex n a t u r e
of experimental i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e f f o r t s , a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s
based on high r e s o l u t i o n are n o t l i k e l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y from space a l t i t u d e s .
Informational Objectives
18
I
Obviously, t h e d e t a i l e d d a t a o b j e c t i v e s of p o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys
from space p l a t f o r m s cannot be f u l l y determined. Thus, p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s
can b e s t be i d e n t i f i e d as broad c a t e g o r i e s r e f l e c t i n g d i s t i n c t i v e b u t g e n e r a l
obj ec t i v e s .
POTENTIAL AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS
F e a s i b l e Applications
19
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g e n e r a l i z e d information, however, n e i t h e r has h i g h r e s o l u t i o n requirements since
t h e u n i t s f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are u s u a l l y l a r g e .
P o s s i b l y F e a s i b l e Avplica t i o n s
21
Infeasible Applications
Unclassified Applications
I n view of t h e d i v e r s e n a t u r e of t h e d a t a requirements, a s s i p n e n t of a
f e a s i b i l i t y rank t o c o n s e r v a t i o n s u r v e y s would appear t o have l i t t l e v a l u e .
As r e p o r t e d i n t h i s study, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s i n surveys of t h i s
type i n c l u d e d a t a on s o i l s , s l o p e s , water r e s o u r c e s , land u s e ( i n c l u d i n g spe-
c i f i c c r o p s ) , y i e l d , production, ownership c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , income, and t h e
l i k e . Moreover, t h e s e t y p e s of d a t a i n g e n e r a l must be mapped o r o t h e r w i s e
p r e c i s e l y l o c a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and o f t e n by i n d i v i d u a l farms as w e l l . Some
types of d a t a , of course, are n o t a t a l l s u s c e p t i b l e t o remote s e n s i n a .
22
CONCLUSIONS
23
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Abrams, T a l b e r t
1961. Aerial Photographs are Obsolete. Photogrammetric Engineering
27 (5) : 691-694.
(8)
1964. Uses of Aerial Photography f o r Livestock I n v e n t o r i e s . & Pro-
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Research I n s t i t u t e and Minutes of t h e Business S e s s i o n ,
pp. 31-41.
(9)
1961. Aerial Photographs Show Range Conditions. California Agriculture
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(10)
1961. Some P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s of Multiband S p e c t r a l Reconnaissance.
American S c i e n t i s t 49(1): 9-36.
(18)
1955. A Classification of General Problem Types
. _ in Photo Interpretation.
Photogrammetric Engineering 21(4): 607-610.
25
(24) Hoffer, Roger M., Holmes, Roger A , , and Shay, J . Ralph
1966. Vegetative, S o i l , and Photographic F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g Tone i n Agri-
c u l t u r a l Remote M u l t i s p e c t r a l Sensing. I n Proceedings of t h e
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(28)
1960. Observation S a t e l l i t e s : Problems and P r o s p e c t s . A s t r o n a u t i c s 5(4).
(29)
1960. Observation S a t e l l i t e s : Problems and P r o s p e c t s . Astronautics 5(6).
26
(36) Molineux, Carlton E.
1964. Aerial Reconnaissance of Surface Features with the Multiband
Spectral System. &Proceedings of the Third Symposium on
Remote Sensing of Environment. Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor,
pp. 399-421.
1
(42) Parr, Robert D.
1963. Estimating Raisin Production with the Aid of Aerial Photography.
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(45)
1962. An Approach to Automatic Photo Interpretation. Photogrammetric
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27
(47) Simonett, D. S.
1965. Pedologic and Ecologic A p p l i c a t i o n s of O r b i t a l Radar Imagery f o r
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N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space Administration by Richard
Moore and colleagues. )
(49) S t e i n e r , Dieter
1965. Use o f A i r Photographs f o r I n t e r p r e t i n g and Mapping Rural Land
Use i n t h e United S t a t e s . Photogrammetria 20: 65-80.
(50)
1963. Technical Aspects of A i r Photo I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e S o v i e t Union.
Photogrammetric Engineering 29 (6) :- 988-998.
(55)
1956. Photo I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e . U.S. Dept.
of Agt.
28
ZU. S . G O V E R N M E N T PRINTING OPb'lC'E : 1961 3 U i - b t ! ' i / l f ~
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE POSTAGE AND FEES P A I D
WASHINGTON, D . C . 20250 U . S . DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
OFFICIAL BUSINESS