-- -- -

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Qfi;ce, Woshiagtcn, D.C. 2 0 4 0 2
 I '

PREFACE

Man's r e c e n t l y acquired a b i l i t y t o place instrument-carrying v e h i c l e s i n

o r b i t around t h e e a r t h provides a new vantage p o i n t f o r remotely "sensing" t h e
e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and near-surface environment. Cameras mounted on a i r c r a f t
platforms have long been used t o observe a v a r i e t y of n a t u r a l and c u l t u r a l
phenomena, and a new series of r e l a t e d remote-sensing devices is now becoming
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s purpose. I f i n s t a l l e d i n e a r t h - o r b i t i n g s a t e l l i t e s , t h e s e
instruments can r e p e a t e d l y record o b j e c t s and c o n d i t i o n s w i t h s y n o p t i c q u a l i t i e s
not heretofore obtainable.

The p r o s p e c t s f o r o b t a i n i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of u s e f u l d a t a by remote
, s e n s i n g from space p l a t f o r m s have motivated g e o l o g i s t s , geographers, oceanog-
raphers, m e t e o r o l o g i s t s , h y d r o l o g i s t s , f o r e s t e r s , a g r i c u l t u r i s t s , and o t h e r s
t o eearch f o r p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s new technology r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r
, r e s p e c t i v e d i s c i p l i n e s . Much of t h e i r work i s being sponsored by t h e N a t i o n a l
Aeronautics and Space Administration, which h a s t h e broader purpose of devel-
oping p e a c e f u l uses of e a r t h satellites f o r t h e b e n e f i t of mankind.

This s t u d y i d e n t i f i e s p o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of remote sensing

from epace p l a t f o r m s . It w a s conducted as p a r t of a more comprehensive Economic
Research S e r v i c e study, now i n progress, t o estimate t h e p o t e n t i a l economic
b e n e f i t s t o a g r i c u l t u r e of remote sensing from o r b i t i n g s p a c e c r a f t . The over-
a l l s t u d y i s b e i n g conducted f o r t h e National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
t i o n under I n t e r a g e n c y Fund Transfer No. R-09-038-001.

iii
 .
CONTENTS

PaRe

yla.S
Introduction
...............................................................
..........................................................
V
1
Conventional agricultural applications of remote sensing .............. 2
Purpose. frequency. and areal scope
Characteristics of conventional photography
..............................
......................
2
4
Method of data acquisition
Type and form of data
.......................................
............................................
5
6
Advantages of aerial photography
Agricultural remote sensing research
.................................
..................................
7
7
Experiments with panchromatic photography
Experiments with infrared photography
........................
............................
7
10
Experiments with multiband photography
Experiments with nonphotographic imagery
...........................
.........................
11
12
Major factors affecting satellite reconnaissance capabilities ......... 15
Characteristics of remote sensors ................................ 15
Image interpretation capabilities
Informational objectives
................................
.........................................
17
18
Potential agricultural applications of satellite observations ......... 19
Feasible applications ............................................
Possibly feasible applications ...................................
19
21
Infeasible applications .......................................... 22
Unclassified applications ........................................ 22
Conclusions ........................................................... 23
Bibliography .......................................................... 24

TABLES
Table 1 . Major agricultural applications of aerial photography ....... 3
Table 2 . Experiments with remote sensing in agriculture .............. 8
Table 3.
4 . Advantages and disadvantages of sensor types ................ 15
Table
.........................
Potential applications of remote sensing from space
platforms: estimated feasibility 20

Washington. D.C. September 1967

iv
 SUMMARY

Remote s e n s i n g from o r b i t i n g s a t e l l i t e s i s c e r t a i n t o y i e l d c o n s i d e r a b l e
q u a n t i t i e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l d a t a . E x i s t i n g photographic s e n s o r s , as w e l l as
photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques, are s u f f i c i e n t l y advanced t o perform a v a r i e t y
of a g r i c u l t u r a l survey t a s k s from space a l t i t u d e s , i n c l u d i n g reconnaissance
surveys of major l a n d uses, s o i l s , water resources, range c o n d i t i o n s , and
cropping p r a c t i c e s . S a t e l l i t e photography w i l l a l s o be s u i t a b l e f o r mapping
numerous o b j e c t s and c o n d i t i o n s on t h e ground.

F u r t h e r development of photographic methods and, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , of

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n methods f o r nonphotographic s e n s o r s ( s e n s i t i v e i n t h e i n f r a r e d
and microwave regions of t h e electromagnetic spectrum) may l e a d t o a d d i t i o n a l
a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n of remote sensing from space a l t i t u d e s . I d e n t i f i c a -
t i o n of crop s p e c i e s , a n a l y s i s of crop vigor, and u s a b l e estimates of crop
production are p o s s i b l y f e a s i b l e . o p e r a t i o n s from space. C e r t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
data--for d e t a i l e d s o i l surveys and censuses o f livestock--appear t o be unat-
t a i n a b l e from space.

Three major f a c t o r s govern t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys from

space a l t i t u d e s : s e n s o r r e s o l u t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s , d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l -
i t i e s , and i n f o r m a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s ( t h a t i s , t h e s p e c i f i c d a t a requirements
of a p a r t i c u l a r survey). Of t h e major sensor types--camera, i n f r a r e d , radar--
t h e camera h a s been developed t o t h e h i g h e s t state of p e r f e c t i o n . I n comparison
with o t h e r t y p e s , cameras have h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s and s u p e r i o r
metric q u a l i t i e s . However, high r e s o l u t i o n and wide-area coverage are con-
f l i c t i n g g o a l s i n remote sensing. I n o r d e r t o keep wide-area coverage, one of
t h e main advantages of s a t e l l i t e reconnaissance, cameras (as w e l l as o t h e r
s e n s o r types) cannot be designed t o maximize r e s o l u t i o n .

Visual photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques are well developed. Non-

photographic image i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s are l i m i t e d a t p r e s e n t , b u t
r e s e a r c h on e l e c t r o n i c techniques f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g both photographic and non-
photographic imagery i s i n p r o g r e s s . Currently, nonphotographic s e n s o r s are
most v a l u a b l e when used, o f t e n simultaneously, t o supplement photographic
s e n s o r s ; they provide a d d i t i o n a l information on energy emissions n o t a v a i l a b l e
from photographs alone.

A g r i c u l t u r i s t s i n t h e United States have used conventional a e r i a l photog-

raphy ( e x t e n s i v e l y as a base f o r mapping and less e x t e n s i v e l y f o r i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n a l s t u d i e s ) i n surveys of land u s e and land c a p a b i l i t y . T r a d i t i o n a l
photographic techniques are being expanded w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d imagery. Experi-
ments w i t h c o l o r , c o l o r i n f r a r e d , and i n f r a r e d , as w e l l as panchromatic f i l m s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y when exposed simultaneously and used i n c o n c e r t , have r e s u l t e d i n
improved t e c h n i q u e s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g crop s p e c i e s and analyzing crop v i g o r and
h e a l t h . Experiments w i t h i n f r a r e d photography i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s method can
a i d m a t e r i a l l y i n e v a l u a t i n g crop response t o f e r t i l i z e r , i n s e c t i c i d e s , and

V
p e s t i c i d e s , and i n d e t e c t i n g and d e l i n e a t i n g weed and d i s e a s e growth. I n
several cases, a d i s e a s e p a t t e r n appeared on i n f r a r e d photography b e f o r e i t
could be d e t e c t e d v i s u a l l y .

Multispectral sensing, a remote s e n s i n g technique involving both photo-

g r a p h i c and nonphotographic s e n s o r s , is being developed t o see if d i s t i n c t i v e
s p e c t r a l "signatures" can be discovered f o r only s l i g h t l y d i s s i m i l a r o b j e c t s i n
t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l environment. No s i g n i f i c a n t breakthrough h a s occurred y e t ,
b u t r e s e a r c h e r s remain o p t i m i s t i c . Also, r e s e a r c h i s being conducted t o d e t e r -
mine and extend t h e u t i l i t y of r a d a r f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l surveying purposes.

vi
 AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING--
THE POTENTIAL FROM SPACE PLATFORMS

BY

H. Thomas Frey, Geographer

N a t u r a l Resource Economics D i v i s i o n
Economic Research S e r v i c e

INTRODUCTION

Thi s t u d y i n t e n d s t o i d e n t i f y low-altitude a g r i c u l t u r 1 a p p l i t i o n f
remote s e n s i n g , L/ i n c l u d i n g those emerging from c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h which appeal
t o be t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e from space a l t i t u d e s . Since o p e r a t i o n a l experience
w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l remote sensing from s p a c e c r a f t i s n e g l i g i b l e , t h e a p p r a i s a l
of t e c h n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y must necessarily.be based upon t h e evidence of e x i s t -
i n g remote s e n s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e experience and judgment of s c i e n t i s t s
f a m i l i a r w i t h l o w - a l t i t u d e remote sensing c a p a b i l i t i e s .

The procedure used t o i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of

s a t e l l i t e d a t a involved two b a s i c steps. F i r s t , t h e m a x i m u m range of p o t e n t i a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s , defined as those p o s s i b l e or emerging as p o s s i b l e a t low a l t i -
t u d e s , w a s e s t a b l i s h e d by a review of t h e l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h i n p r o g r e s s .
E s p e c i a l l y noted were t h e o b j e c t i v e s , methods, and r e s u l t s of d i s t i n c t i v e
a p p l i c a t i o n s and experiments.

The n e x t s t e p c o n s i s t e d of narrowing t h e range of p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s

t o t h o s e regarded as r e a l i s t i c a l l y achievable from space platforms. The tech-
n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y of conducting a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys from space a l t i t u d e s w a s
e s t i m a t e d & t h e b a s i s of t h e e v i d e n t e x t e n t t o which p h y s i c a l phenomena can
be i d e n t i f i e d and measured. Thus, p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n w a s given t o t h e
r e s o l u t i o n requirements f o r i n d i v i d u a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n r e l a t i o n
t o t h e i n d i c a t e d and t h e o r e t i c a l resolving c a p a b i l i t i e s of remote s e n s o r s and
t o e x i s t i n g and p o t e n t i a l image i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s .

1/ The term "remote sensing" as used i n t h i s r e p o r t r e f e r s t o t h e imaging

or r e c o r d i n g of p h y s i c a l phenomena a t a d i s t a n c e by d e t e c t i n g t h e r a d i a n t
energy which t h e phenomena e i t h e r r e f l e c t or e m i t . Thus, t h e very broad term
i s used i n a r e s t r i c t e d s e n s e t o i n c l u d e only t h o s e remote sensing a c t i v i t i e s
which i n v o l v e t h e d e t e c t i o n of energy c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y moving a t t h e veloc-
i t y of l i g h t .
 CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS OF RmOTE SENSING

Remote s e n s i n g i n t h e form of aerial photography is e x t e n s i v e l y used by

a g r i c u l t u r i s t s i n t h e United S t a t e s . P r i n c i p a l users i n t h e U.S. Department of
A g r i c u l t u r e are t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a b i l i z a t i o n and Conservation Service (ASCS),
S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e (SCS), F o r e s t S e r v i c e (FS), S t a t i s t i c a l Reporting
S e r v i c e (SRS), and Economic Research Service (ERS). I n a d d i t i o n , t h e Bureau of
Land Management (BLM), U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , makes e x t e n s i v e use of
photos. z/
These agencies use aerial photography p r i m a r i l y as a i d s i n v a r i o u s land
r e s o u r c e and land use surveys conducted i n connection w i t h l a r g e r program o r
r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s . A s a r u l e , t h e agencies d i f f e r i n type and form of d a t a
needed. Accordingly, t h e surveys vary i n frequency, areal scope, i n t e n s i t y ,
and methodology. I n g e n e r a l , however, t h e o b j e c t i v e has been t o c l a s s i f y , map,
and measure v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l s , o r land u s e , e i t h e r broadly o r i n d e t a i l . The
observation of s a l i e n t t e r r a i n f e a t u r e s is a p a r t of most surveys, b u t t h e s e
f e a t u r e s usually are n o t mapped o r measured p e r se. The major elements of
t h e s e surveys a r e shown i n t a b l e 1.

Purpose, Frequency, and Areal Scope

ASCS is t h e p r i n c i p a l u s e r of aerial photography, i n t h e i r production

adjustment and land use programs. I n t h e s e programs, designed t o m a i n t a i n a
crop production and land use balance between supply and demand and t o d i v e r t
land c u r r e n t l y n o t needed f o r production t o c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e s ,
t h e ASCS annually measures t h e acreage and determines t h e crop use of f i e l d s
t o t a l i n g some 200 m i l l i o n a c r e s . 3/ While n o t a l l farms, f i e l d s , o r crops are
encompassed by t h e program, w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d c r o p s such as corn, wheat, cot-
t o n , tobacco, and rice are i n c l u d e d , i n e f f e c t making t h e program nationwide
i n scope.

The SCS u t i l i z e s a e r i a l photographs i n major programs f o r t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n

and w i s e use of t h e Nation's l a n d r e s o u r c e s . These programs i n c l u d e farm con-
s e r v a t i o n planning (determining land c a p a b i l i t y , recommending conserving land
u s e s and p r a c t i c e s , and a s s i s t i n g t h e farm o p e r a t o r i n e f f e c t i n g t h e p l a n ) , t h e ,
watershed p r o t e c t i o n program (seeking t h e p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l of f l o o d s ,
e r o s i o n , and o t h e r problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r a p i d runoff of w a t e r ) and t h e
s o i l s mapping program (supporting t h e above a c t i v i t i e s and s e r v i n g general
purposes as w e l l ) . The agency maps t h e s o i l s of some 50 m i l l i o n acres a n n u a l l y
(54)

2/ Numerous Federal agencies, u n i v e r s i t y r e s e a r c h e r s , and o t h e r s have used

a e r i a i photography i n s o l v i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l survey problems. The minor a p p l i c a -
t i o n s are omitted i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , as they d i f f e r l i t t l e i n t h e i r e s s e n t i a l
n a t u r e from t h e major a p p l i c a t i o n s .
V i r t u a l l y a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of a e r i a l photography i n t h e
United S t a t e s have been i d e n t i f i e d and b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d by S t e i n e r (49).
Underscored numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s r e f e r t o t h e Bibliography, p. 2 4 .
3/ Personal communication from K. P. Harris, Deputy D i r e c t o r , Aerial Pho-
tograFhy Division, ASCS, and Coordinator of Aerial Photography f o r t h e U . S .
Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , A p r i l 28, 1965.

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 The SCS a l s o made e x t e n s i v e use of a e r i a l photographs i n t h e N a t i o n a l
Inventory of Conservation Needs (NICN), an interagency survey conducted i n
1957-59 t o map U.S. land c a p a b i l i t y and use. Designations were made on sample
p l o t s on aerial photographic bases t o provide a 2-percent area sample. A
similar inventory i s c u r r e n t l y underway and scheduled f o r completion i n 1967.

The FS and BLM are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r managing l a r g e acreages of F e d e r a l l y

owned land, mainly i n t h e n a t i o n a l f o r e s t s and t h e p u b l i c domain. I n 1964, t h e
area administered by t h e s e agencies i n t h e 48 contiguous S t a t e s t o t a l e d more
than 340 m i l l i o n acres (53). Extensive p o r t i o n s of t h i s land are u s a b l e f o r
l i v e s t o c k grazing and are made a v a i l a b l e t o p r i v a t e ranchers f o r t h i s purpose.
Both administering agencies u t i l i z e a e r i a l photography i n continuing o r p e r i -
o d i c surveys of t h e rangeland t h a t is under t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n t o o b t a i n i n f o r -
mation on i t s l i v e s t o c k - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y .

Among t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e SRS, which s e r v e s as t h e main f a c t - f i n d i n g

agency of t h e U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , are annual nationwide crop and
l i v e s t o c k surveys. Aerial photographs as s u b s t i t u t e s f o r conventional maps
p l a y an important r o l e i n t h e s e surveys, although only r e l a t i v e l y few photo-
graphs a r e required s i n c e t h e surveys are conducted on a sample b a s i s .

The ERS uses aerial photography i n s p e c i a l cases t o o b t a i n necessary i n f o r -

mation on land use f o r i t s economic r e s e a r c h program. The a r e a l scope of ERS
surveys i s normally on t h e o r d e r of a few townships o r c o u n t i e s , b u t i n one
i n s t a n c e an e x t e n s i v e survey of land use w a s conducted i n a l l 48 contiguous
States.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Conventional Photonraphy

Most aerial photography used i n U.S. a g r i c u l t u r e i s c o l l e c t e d t o t h e same

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n terms of s c a l e , f i l m , f i l t e r , camera f o c a l lenRth, and f o r -
m a t . This uniformity occurs p r i m a r i l y because a hiph p r o p o r t i o n of t h e photo-
graphs i s procured by t h e ASCS f o r t h e i r purposes and then made a v a i l a b l e t o
o t h e r u s e r s . With minor e x c e p t i o n s , ASCS photopraphs a r e taken a t a v e r t i c a l
angle (maximum d e p a r t u r e of 4 degrees) on panchromatic f i l m w i t h a minus-blue
f i l t e r a t t h e c o n t a c t s c a l e of 1:20,000. With a camera havinp a f o c a l l e n g t h
of 8 1 / 4 inches, exposures are made on 9" x 9" f i l m format and spaced t o pro-
v i d e s u f f i c i e n t overlap f o r s t e r e o s c o p i c viewing. Photopraphic surveys are
conducted without regard t o season, except t h a t t h e ground must be f r e e of
snow, standing w a t e r , e t c . , b u t surveys are l i m i t e d t o time of high sun a n g l e
on cloud-free days. The r e s o l u t i o n achieved i s approximately 20 l i n e s p e r
millimeter a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i e l d (52).

Photography procured by ASCS covers approximately 80 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l

area of the 48 contiguous States and H a w a i i and v i r t u a l l y a l l of t h e N a t i o n ' s
cropland. Most a r e a s have been photographed t h r e e or f o u r t i m e s s i n c e t h e
l a t e 1930's i n a n a c q u i s i t i o n program designed t o p e r i o d i c a l l y update areas
undergoing change. Limited q u a n t i t i e s of comparable photography are procured
by t h e SCS and FS when t h e i r needs are n o t m e t t h e ASCS procurement programs.
1
4
 Method of Data A c q u i s i t i o n

The a e r i a l photography described above provides an overview of a p o r t i o n

of t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i n which a wealth of p i c t o r i a l d e t a i l i s recorded i n
approximately c o r r e c t s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . Even i f a l l photographic d e t a i l
cannot be f u l l y i n t e r p r e t e d , t h e photographs provide o r i e n t a t i o n f o r boundary
d e l i n e a t i o n . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t photographic d e t a i l can be i n t e r p r e t e d , l a r g e
areas are f i g u r a t i v e l y brought t o t h e o f f i c e f o r study.

Three methods of d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n from commonly a v a i l a b l e aerial photog-

raphy have been developed by U.S. a g r i c u l t u r i s t s : f i e l d mapping, photo i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n , and s t e r e o s c o p i c photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The most widely used method
of d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n i s f i e l d mapping--the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and mapping of d e t a i l
on t h e ground using photography as t h e mapping base. This i s t h e p r i n c i p a l
method used by ASCS, SCS, and SRS.

I n t h e ASCS and SRS a p p l i c a t i o n s , f i e l d boundaries and crops a r e d e l i n e -

a t e d and l a b e l l e d on photographic enlargements by an o n - s i t e observer and
subsequently measured by planimeter. Photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is precluded by t h e
l a c k of t i m e l i n e s s and a l s o by t h e s c a r c i t y of crop i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s on t h e photography. Geometric o u t l i n e s on t h e photographs, i n terms of
f i e l d lines, roads, topography, n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n , e t c . , remain r e l a t i v e l y
a c c u r a t e f o r several y e a r s , however, and provide t h e framework f o r mapping and
area measurement. Changes i n t h e s e f e a t u r e s are made as necessary by applying
a p p r o p r i a t e markings and n o t a t i o n s on t h e photography during t h e course of t h e
ground survey.

S o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and mapping are performed t o varying degrees of accu-

racy and p r e c i s i o n . Reconnaissance surveys can be l a r g e l y accomplished by
photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , as g r o s s s o i l p r o p e r t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are i n d i c a t e d
by e a s i l y recognized f e a t u r e s of t h e t e r r a i n and n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n . However,
most s o i l s surveys i n t h e United States a r e q u i t e d e t a i l e d . The method used by
SCS t o map s o i l s i n d e t a i l i s based p r i m a r i l y on f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n b u t i n c l u d e s
s t e r e o s c o p i c photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e survey planning s t a g e and f o r numerous
t e n t a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s (48). After the s o i l - t y p e boundaries are l o c a t e d on
t h e ground, they are d e l i n e a t e d on photographic enlargements. The c o n s i d e r a b l e
d e t a i l recorded on t h e photographs provides o r i e n t a t i o n and r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s
f o r t h e f i e l d mapper.

The f i e l d mapping method is a l s o used by SCS t o o b t a i n d a t a on land capa-

b i l i t y and land use f o r i t s v a r i o u s conservation a c t i v i t i e s . However, s t e r e o -
s c o p i c photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may have s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n some i n s t a n c e s .
I n f l o o d c o n t r o l surveys, f o r example, t h e d e l i n e a t i o n of flood-frequency zones
i s accomplished by p l o t t i n g marks of p a s t f l o o d s as i d e n t i f i e d by f i e l d obser-
v a t i o n on t h e photographs and connecting them s t e r e o s c o p i c a l l y (48).

Methods of conducting range resources surveys vary s l i g h t l y i n d e t a i l

between and w i t h i n t h e FS and BLM. I n g e n e r a l , both agencies r e l y h e a v i l y on
a J o i n t photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n - f i e l d mapping procedure. Photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s
employed t o map major v e g e t a t i o n types, t e r r a i n f e a t u r e s forming n a t u r a l bound-
aries o r b a r r i e r s t o l i v e s t o c k movement, and water r e s o u r c e s . D i s t i n c t i v e but
u n i d e n t i f i a b l e p a t t e r n s are a l s o d e l i n e a t e d on t h e photographs i n t h e photo

5
 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n phase, as t h e p a t t e r n s u s u a l l y c o i n c i d e w i t h boundaries between
areas of d i f f e r e n t v e g e t a t i v e type and d e n s i t y .

A d d i t i o n a l information is obtained i n ground surveys. I n t e r p r e t e d d e l i n -

e a t i o n s on aerial photographs are r e v i s e d and annotated t o r e f l e c t f o r a g e type
and d e n s i t y , improvements, areas needing r e s e e d i n g , and areas s u s c e p t i b l e t o
e r o s i o n o r c o n t a i n i n g noxious weeds. Typical survey procedures have been

I d e s c r i b e d by Henriques (23).

Stereoscopic photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r no f i e l d work h a s been

used i n s e v e r a l ERS l a n d u s e s t u d i e s . This method h a s y i e l d e d u s e f u l d a t a on
cropland, p a s t u r e l a n d , f o r e s t l a n d , land c l e a r i n g and d r a i n a g e , p o t e n t i a l recre-
a t i o n s i t e s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n areas, urban areas, i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s , and water
areas. An important f e a t u r e of most of t h e s e s t u d i e s has been t h e comparisons
of photographs taken a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n t i m e t o measure changes i n land u s e .
A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e comparison method of photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w i t h r e f e r e n c e
t o ERS land u s e s t u d i e s , h a s been provided by D i l l (17).

The Bureau of A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics, predecessor t o ERS, prepared a

1:5,000,000 scale map of t h e 48 contiguous S t a t e s , based on photo i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n , showing 1 3 classes o r a s s o c i a t i o n s of l a n d u s e and n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n ,
I n t h i s case, small-scale photo mosaics were i n t e r p r e t e d on a county-by-county
b a s i s . Actually, t h e mapping problem was n o t so much one of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
(much information on t h e n a t u r e and l o c a t i o n of land u s e s w a s a v a i l a b l e ) as
one of l o c a t i n g boundaries between classes with g r e a t e r geoRraphic p r e c i s i o n
t h a n had previously been achieved w i t h o t h e r methods. The map, e n t i t l e d "Major
Land Uses i n t h e United S t a t e s ' ' (now o u t of p r i n t ) , was compiled i n 1950 by
F. J . Marschner.

I Type and Form of Data

Although a e r i a l photography g e n e r a l l y serves d i v e r s e purposes f o r conven-

t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , most such photographic d a t a r e l a t e t o e i t h e r
land use o r land c a p a b i l i t y . The ASCS and SRS c r o p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and measure-
ment a c t i v i t i e s and t h e ERS economic s t u d i e s y i e l d q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a on c r o p s ,
cropland, urban l a n d , and o t h e r land uses. I n c o n t r a s t , range r e s o u r c e s inven-
t o r i e s and s o i l surveys r e s u l t i n q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a on n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s and
c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t i n g p o t e n t i a l land use. Often, both types of d a t a are o b t a i n e d
i n t h e v a r i o u s c o n s e r v a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s of SCS.

Aerial photographic d a t a o b t a i n e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , w i t h minor

e x c e p t i o n s such as i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t c o u n t s , are i n i t i a l l y mapped on t h e photo-
graphs. The f i n a l product may be e i t h e r area d a t a i n s t a t i s t i c a l form, d i s t r i -
b u t i o n a l d a t a i n map form, o r both. The p r o d u c t i o n adjustment and land u s e
programs, crop and l i v e s t o c k s u r v e y s , and economic s t u d i e s a l l r e q u i r e area
d a t a on p a r t i c u l a r land uses. The mapping s t e p normally i s o n l y a means t o an
end. Range r e s o u r c e s i n v e n t o r i e s and s o i l s u r v e y s emphasize t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l
a s p e c t s of s o i l s and range r e s o u r c e s , b u t n o t t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of area d a t a .
The f i n a l product may be e i t h e r (1) a photo mosaic w i t h linework and.annota-
t i o n s added, as p r e s e n t e d i n a l l r e c e n t s o i l s s u r v e y r e p o r t s , o r (2) a p l a n i -
m e t r i c map. Both permit g e n e r a t i o n of area d a t a as d e s i r e d . Land c a p a b i l i t y -
use maps and area d a t a d e r i v e d therefrom o f t e n are developed and used j o i n t l y
I
i n f l o o d c o n t r o l surveys, farm c o n s e r v a t i o n p l a n n i n g , and r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s .
 Advantages of Aerial Photography

Aerial photographic methods f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l o b j e c t i v e s o f f e r advantages

over t h e alternatives--mainly ground surveys. The two e s p e c i a l l y v a l u a b l e
assets of aerial photography are t h e e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t geometry and abundant
p i c t o r i a l d e t a i l , which i n mapping a c t i v i t i e s make unnecessary much of t h e
preliminary t a s k of developing h o r i z o n t a l c o n t r o l by ground t r a v e r s e . The
d e t a i l i n aerial photography f a c i l i t a t e s t h e survey p r o c e s s by providing more
o r i e n t a t i o n points than cartographic presentations.

Consistency and r e l i a b i l i t y of d a t a a r e o f t e n improved by using photog-

raphy. The enumerative crop surveys of SRS, f o r example, a r e conducted on a
sample b a s i s i n which small e r r o r s i n crop acreages would be m u l t i p l i e d many
t i m e s i n expansion. Map coverage of t h e sample segments v a r i e s from standard
topographic maps t o county highway maps. These maps d i f f e r , of course, i n
d e t a i l depicted and geometric f i d e l i t y . Thus, a i r photographs s e r v i n e a s
segment and farm maps provide s u p e r i o r d a t a i n t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n .

Aerial photography a l s o provides a means of o b t a i n i n g t i m e l y d a t a not

a v a i l a b l e from scheduled ground surveys. The census of a g r i c u l t u r e g a t h e r s
information on crop s p e c i e s , acreage, and o t h e r d a t a a t 5-year i n t e r v a l s and
p u b l i s h e s i t by c o u n t i e s . These d a t a a r e not adequate f o r crop production
estimates and o t h e r purposes which r e q u i r e p r e c i s e l y l o c a t e d annual d a t a . The
comparative photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t u d i e s of ERS y i e l d h i s t o r i c a l land use d a t a
n o t o t h e r w i s e o b t a i n a b l e . These d a t a r e v e a l t h e n a t u r e and e x t e n t of change
by precise geographic l o c a t i o n , while t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l s t a t i s t i c s show
o n l y o v e r a l l n e t changes f o r an area.

The advantages of a e r i a l photography mentioned above are n o t e x h a u s t i v e

b u t are i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e economies i n t i m e , e f f o r t , and c o s t . Some of t h e s e
advantages, as w e l l as o t h e r s , have been discussed w i t h p a r t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t
emphasis i n an a r t i c l e by D i l l (18).

AGRICULTURAL REMOTE SENSING RESEARCH

Aerial photography i n a g r i c u l t u r e would be c o n s i d e r a b l y more veliiable if

crop s p e c i e s , crop and range c o n d i t i o n s , s o i l t y p e s , and l i v e s t o c k could be
a c c u r a t e l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d . Data of t h e s e t y p e s would have poten-
t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n surveys of a g r i c u l t u r a l production and production p o t e n t i a l
and i n t h e c o n t r o l of crop d i s e a s e s , noxious p l a n t s , and i n s e c t s . The poten-
t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l v a l u e of s p e c i a l i z e d aerial photography, as w e l l as t h e more
l i m i t e d v a l u e of conventional aerial photography, has been recognized i n sev-
e r a l c u r r e n t o r r e c e n t l y completed experiments concerned w i t h t h e development
of s e n s o r image s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques ( t a b l e 2 ) . Some
of t h e f i n d i n g s have had l i m i t e d l o c a l a p p l i c a t i o n .

Experiments w i t h Panchromatic Photomaphy

Crop s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s required f o r t h e production adjustment and

l a n d u s e programs and i n crop y i e l d p r e d i c t i o n . Accordingly, s e v e r a l research-
ers have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of using panchromatic photographs f o r
7
 Table 2.--Experiments with remote sensing in agriculture

Investigato r Image
Type Scale Subject
~~

Wright Mu1tiband 1:12,000 Identification of crops and

photography and cropping practices
larger
Clair Hill & Infrared Crop identification and
Associates &/ photography 1:24,000
mapping
Goodman Panchromatic
photography 1:5,000 Crop identification

S teiner Panchromatic Crop identification; pasture

photography 1:20,000 classification
~

Brunnschweiler Panchromatic Crop identification

photography 1:13,000

Colwell Mu1tiband 1:10,000 Crop identification; disease

photography to detection
1:2,000
Charter Infrared Plant stress analysis; yield
photography 1:5,000
p rediction

Brenchley & Dadd Infrared

photography 1:12,000 Disease detection

Manzer & Cooper Infrared

photography Large Disease detection

Crop & Livestock Panchromatic

Reporting Service photography 1:17,000 Crop,production estimation
(Calif.) I
J

Colwell Mu1tib and 1:20,000

photography to Range conditions appraisal
1: 2,000
~~ ~

Colwell Multispectral Crop and livestock

imagery Large identification
Holter & Shay Multispectral Identification of crop species
imagery and soil properties; crop
vigor analysis
Myers Multispectral Measurement of soil moisture
imagery Large and salinity
~~ ~-

Simonett, et a1 Radar Vegetation and s o i l s

Large classification
-1/ Limited operational application
8
t h i s purpose. I n a 1959 r e p o r t excerpted from h e r d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Good-
man @) described a technique f o r i d e n t i f y i n g crops on panchromatic photography.
The technique p r i m a r i l y t a k e s advantage of the p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n crop growth an
optimum s t a g e e x i s t s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g on a e r i a l photography among t h e s e v e r a l
crops i n any a g r i c u l t u r a l area.

The s t u d y area c o n s i s t e d of 13 s q u a r e miles i n n o r t h e a s t I l l i n o i s , which

w a s photographed a t t h e s c a l e of 1:5,000 on n i n e s e p a r a t e occasions over t h e
growing season. Analysis of t h e photographs i n d i c a t e d t h a t corn, soybeans,
wheat, o a t s , b a r l e y and hay are i d e n t i f i a b l e by t h e i r t o n a l and t e x t u a l qual-
i t i e s and by a s s o c i a t e d o b j e c t s such as farm implements, l a n e s , and haystacks.
The t e x t u a l q u a l i t i e s and a s s o c i a t e d o b j e c t s were evaluated w i t h a s t e r e o s c o p e
f o r crop i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c l u e s , while t o n a l q u a l i t i e s were measured w i t h a
d e n s i t o m e t e r , Other f i n d i n g s showed t h a t (1) photographs taken during t h e
second h a l f of J u l y provided optimum c r i t e r i a f o r crop d i f f e r e n t a t i o n i n t h e
s t u d y area, and (2) v a r i a t i o n s i n p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s and farm p r a c t i c e s had
l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e photographic appearance of crops.

The p i c t o r i a l v a r i a t i o n s of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l landscape over t h e seasons,

as recorded on panchromatic f i l m , a l s o have been o b j e c t s of s t u d i e s i n Switzer-
land. Brunnschweiler (5) analyzed seven sets of photographs taken d u r i n g t h e
c o u r s e of 1 y e a r a t t h e s c a l e of 1:13,000 covering a small area i n t h e v i c i n i t y
of Zurich. Units f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n included cropped f i e l d s , p a s t u r e , and
f o r e s t . The s t u d y concluded t h a t most crops and a l l land use t y p e s i n t h e
environment s t u d i e d e x h i b i t s p e c i f i c p i c t o r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which r e l a t e t o
t i m e of y e a r and which can be i d e n t i f i e d by t o n e , t e x t u r e , and s t e r e o s c o p i c
appearance on a p r o p e r l y spaced series of panchromatic photographs a t t h e scale
employed.

S t e i n e r (3, pp. 594-599) compared two series of panchromatic photographs

of an a l p i n e a r e a i n t h e canton of Grisons c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e c l a s s i c agri-
c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e of transhumance; one s e r i e s w a s taken i n e a r l y June 1941 and
t h e o t h e r i n l a t e June and August 1954. Among t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n w was
t h e s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e between improved and unimproved meadows t h a t is v i s i b l e
on photographs taken i n e a r l y June. A t t h i s t i m e , t h e advanced growth of
improved meadows, r e l a t i v e t o t h a t of unimproved meadows, i s r e f l e c t e d i n
p l a n t c o l o r and consequently i n photographic tone. Crops were i d e n t i f i e d on
photographs a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y small scale of 1:20,000. P o t a t o e s were d i s t i n -
g u i s h a b l e , as were, i n most cases, t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s of small g r a i n s .
The s t u d y concluded t h a t s e q u e n t i a l photography taken a t proper stapes of crop
growth b u t i n d i f f e r e n t y e a r s i s adequate f o r c a r r y i n g out a n e a r l y complete
land use i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n areas where t h e v e g e t a t i v e cover changes only
s l i g h t l y from y e a r t o year.

C u r r e n t l y , t h e C a l i f o r n i a Crop and Livestock Reporting Service s u c c e s s f u l l y

u s e s aerial panchromatic photography t o estimate accumulative r a i s i n production
as t h e h a r v e s t season advances. The r a i s i n area, c o n s i s t i n g of some 800 square
m i l e s c e n t e r e d n e a r Fresno, i s photographed approximately seven times a t a
1:17,000 scale with a panoramic system during t h e h a r v e s t season of about 6
weeks. Although complete photographic coverage i s obtained i n t h e s e missions,
a sampling procedure is used t o estimate the p o r t i o n harvested f o r r a i s i n s of
t h e t o t a l known grape acreage. Dots superimposed over sample p l o t s on master

9
photographs taken d u r i n g t h e f i r s t survey of t h e season are observed on suc-
ceeding o p e r a t i o n a l f i l m t o determine whether o r n o t they f a l l i n areas where
grapes a r e drying on t r a y s t o form r a i s i n s . An i n d i c a t i o n of y i e l d i s obtained
by (1) t r a y counts on t h e photographs and (2) ground v i s i t s on a subsample
b a s i s t o weigh and count t h e number of t r a y s i n s p e c i f i e d areas. This unique
a p p l i c a t i o n of a e r i a l photography has c o n s i d e r a b l e economic s i g n i f i c a n c e , s i n c e
growers m u s t decide a t what p o i n t t h e a n t i c i p a t e d market demand f o r r a i s i n s h a s
been s a t i s f i e d . When t h i s c o n d i t i o n has been m e t , t h e remaining grape h a r v e s t
can be more p r o f i t a b l y d i v e r t e d t o wine production (42).

Panchromatic aerial photographs a l s o y i e l d information on t h e f l o o d i n g of

a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . Timely photography taken as a flood t h r e a t develops may
support d e c i s i o n s on p r e c a u t i o n a r y measures. Photographs taken while an area
i s being flooded w i l l i n d i c a t e where rescue e f f o r t s should be d i r e c t e d . Photo-
graphic coverage as flood waters recede r e c o r d s damage t o c r o p s , s o i l , and
f a c i l i t i e s . I f taken p e r i o d i c a l l y d u r i n s t h e f l o o d , photos permit a c c u r a t e
estimates of t h e period t h a t c r o p s have been inundated and, consequently, can
be t h e b a s i s f o r estimates of t h e probable crop m o r t a l i t y o r y i e l d r e d u c t i o n
from t h i s cause (3, pp. 615-624). The SCS has a l s o used photos i n developing
maps of flood-prone areas and f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g f l o o d stage-area r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Experiments w i t h I n f r a r e d Photography

Imagery formed by s e n s i n g i n .the t r a n s i t i o n a l zone between t h e v i s i b l e and

i n f r a r e d r e g i o n s of t h e spectrum (photographic o r near i n f r a r e d ) has added a
new dimension t o t h e u s e of aerial photography i n a g r i c u l t u r e . Various
r e s e a r c h e r s have found i t p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n d e f i n i n g areas of v e g e t a t i o n
stress. According t o Charter e), i n f r a r e d photography of 1:20,000 scale and
l a r g e r provides information t h a t can a i d m a t e r i a l l y i n e v a l u a t i n g crop response
t o f e r t i l i z e r , i n s e c t i c i d e s , and p e s t i c i d e s , and i n d e t e c t i n g and d e l i n e a t i n g
weed and disease i n f e s t a t i o n s . Its u t i l i t y a t 1:5,000 scale w a s i l l u s t r a t e d
by a c a s e i n which a d i s e a s e d c o n d i t i o n (oak r o o t r o t fungus) was d e t e c t e d on
plum trees b e f o r e t h e c o n d i t i o n w a s v i s i b l e t o a ground observer.

The buildup of a p o t a t o b l i g h t epidemic i n t h e Fenland a r e a of England has

been recorded on s e q u e n t i a l i n f r a r e d photography by Brenchley and Dadd (4).
The n e g a t i v e s , viewed over a l i g h t t a b l e , showed t h e d i s e a s e p a t t e r n spreading
a t an i r r e g u l a r rate from one focus t o numerous daughter f o c i and f i n a l l y t o
epidemic p r o p o r t i o n s .

Detection of l a t e b l i g h t and relative measurements of p o t a t o f o l i a g e dam-

age have a l s o been accomplished on large-scale i n f r a r e d photography by Manzer
and Cooper. A/ The i n t e r p r e t e d r e s u l t s from a series of i n f r a r e d experiments
compared favorably w i t h d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y r a t i n g s made by s t a n d a r d f i e l d methods.
S i m i l a r t o o b s e r v a t i o n s c i t e d elsewhere i n t h i s r e p o r t , l a t e b l i g h t i n f e c t i o n
was d e t e c t a b l e on i n f r a r e d photography b e f o r e i t w a s r e a d i l y apparent v i s u a l l y .

4/ Personal communication from F. E. Manzer, P r o f e s s o r of P l a n t Pathology,

DeparTment of Botany and P l a n t Pathology, U n i v e r s i t y of Maine.

10
 I n f r a r e d photography has a l s o been used on t e s t sites i n Texas t o map t h e
e x t e n t and e v a l u a t e t h e s e v e r i t y of s a l i n e c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l u c t u -
a t i n g water t a b l e s (39). I n t h i s experiment, c o t t o n s u f f e r i n g from physiolog-
i c a l drought as a r e s u l t of s a l i n e conditions i n t h e 1 t o & f o o t s o i l p r o f i l e
was found t o photograph i n tones varying with t h e s e v e r i t y of s a l i n e c o n d i t i o n s .

Clair H i l l and a s s o c i a t e s , a consulting engineering f i r m , h a s employed

i n f r a r e d photography t o map t h e 160,000 a c r e Glenn-Colusa I r r i g a t i o n District
i n C a l i f o r n i a (34). The o b j e c t i v e s were t o (1) determine t h e acreage of i n d i -
v i d u a l f i e l d s and (2) i d e n t i f y by photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n some 60,000 a c r e s planted
with rice. The acreage d e t e r m i n a t i o n s were needed f o r water b i l l i n g purposes
and t o meet t h e requirements of t h e ASCS r i c e program. I n f r a r e d photography
was s e l e c t e d f o r u s e a f t e r some experimentation s i n c e i t emphasizes t h e appear-
ance of water bodies. F i e l d s flooded a t t h e t i m e of photographic coverage were
e a s i l y s p o t t e d i n t h e photographs, and t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w a s tantamount t o
i d e n t i f y i n g rice i t s e l f . A scale of 1:24,000 was s e l e c t e d as a compromise
between economy and accuracy. This photography was used i n conjunction with
s p e c i a l i z e d photogrammetric equipment t o compile l a r g e - s c a l e p l a n i m e t r i c and
photo maps on which f i e l d acreages were measured.

Experiments w i t h Multiband Photonraphy

The v a l u e of multiband photography 21 f o r i d e n t i f y i n g cereal c r o p s and

c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s a f f e c t i n g such c r o p s has been t e s t e d i n a c l a s s i c study by
Colwell (12). H i s o b j e c t i v e s were (1) t o determine t h e aerial photographic
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s necessary f o r d e t e c t i n g and i d e n t i f y i n g c e r t a i n important d i s -
eases i n wheat, o a t s , b a r l e y , and r y e , and (2) t o a s c e r t a i n t h e f e a t u r e s by
which t h e s e c r o p s and t h e i r s p e c i f i e d d i s e a s e s might be i d e n t i f i e d on photo-
graphs taken i n accordance w i t h t h e s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

S e v e r a l promising f i l m - f i l t e r combinations were s e l e c t e d f o r t h e experi-

ment on t h e b a s i s of spectrophotometric a n a l y s i s of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from leaves
of h e a l t h y and d i s e a s e d c e r e a l crops. The s e l e c t e d f i l m s , i n c l u d i n g panchro-
m a t i c , c o l o r , i n f r a r e d , and c o l o r i n f r a r e d , were exposed over open f i e l d s and
and c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d n u r s e r y p l o t s a t s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s and under v a r i o u s
c o n d i t i o n s . Analysis of t h e photographs i n d i c a t e d t h a t , by using two o r t h r e e
sets of photographs flown t o proper s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , i t i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e t o
i d e n t i f y (1) h e a l t h y wheat, o a t s , b a r l e y , and r y e , and (2) wheat and o a t s
i n f e s t e d w i t h b l a c k stem r u s t , and o a t s i n f e s t e d w i t h yellow dwarf v i r u s . I n
t h e f i n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , panchromatic and i n f r a r e d photographs a t scales as
small as 1:20,000 had v a l u e f o r d e t e c t i n g t o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Color photographs
of s e l e c t e d p o i n t s a t scales as l a r g e a s 1:500 might be r e q u i r e d f o r a c c u r a t e
estimates of d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y and r e s u l t a n t y i e l d r e d u c t i o n . Scales s p e c i f i e d
f o r most of t h e t a s k s ranged between 1:2,000 and 1:10,000.

Experimenting on range herbage, Colwell has found t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d photog-

raphy w i l l p r o v i d e information n o t normally a v a i l a b l e from t h e photography
employed by t h e FS and BLM i n range surveys (10). I n t h i s case, h e c l a s s i f i e d

5 / The term "multiband" refers t o images formed, u s u a l l y simultaneously,

i n more t h a n one p o r t i o n of t h e photographic r e g i o n of t h e electromagnetic
spectrum and analyzed j o i n t l y .
range herbage i n s e v e r a l f o o t h i l l areas of Contra Costra County, C a l i f . , i n t o
t h r e e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y classes l a r g e l y on t h e b a s i s of photographic c o l o r and
tone. Ground checks following t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n confirmed t h a t t h e c l a s s i f i -
c a t i o n w a s w e l l w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e accuracy l i m i t s f o r range surveys.

For t h e study, s e v e r a l f i l m - f i l t e r combinations were exposed a t scales

between 1:2,000 and 1:20,000 during each of t h e f o u r seasons, although l a t e
s p r i n g w a s found t o be t h e optimum t i m e f o r photographic coverage. Ektachrome
f i l m w i t h a haze-cutting f i l t e r y i e l d e d t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . As a c o s t consider-
a t i o n , a s c a l e of 1:5,000 was s p e c i f i e d , b u t s p o t coverage a t l a r g e r scales was
regarded as d e s i r a b l e .

Researchers a t Cornel1 U n i v e r s i t y , as r e p o r t e d by Wright and Schepis (571,

i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e u t i l i t y of aerial photography i n agronomic surveys. I n g e n e r a l ,
t h e r e s e a r c h e r s were motivated by t h e need f o r a rapid and economical method of
o b t a i n i n g unbiased information on t h e n a t u r e of farming p r a c t i c e s i n New York.
This s t u d y involved panchromatic photography a t t h e scale of 1:12,000 and pan-
chromatic, c o l o r , and i n f r a r e d photography a t l a r g e r scales covering a 7O-mile
s t r i p i n J e f f e r s o n County. With t h i s s e l e c t i o n of f i l m and scales, t h e agron-
o m i s t s - i n t e r p r e t e r s were a b l e (1) t o observe how c l o s e l y t h e farmers followed
e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e advice regarding t i m e l i n e s s of hay h a r v e s t , (2) t o e x p l a i n
p r e v i o u s l y observed v a r i a t i o n s i n h a r v e s t d a t e s f o r corn, and (3) t o deduce t h e
l e n g t h of crop r o t a t i o n . Other photo i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s included i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
of t h e major crops of t h e area (corn, o a t s , and hay) and one s p e c i e s of weed.

Research on t h e u s e f u l n e s s of aerial photography i n l i v e s t o c k i n v e n t o r i e s

i s c u r r e n t l y underway i n C a l i f o r n i a , where Colwell (8) i s attempting t o develop
photographic s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques f o r enumerating l i v e -
s t o c k by s p e c i e s , use, breed, sex, age, and v i g o r . The relative merits of
v a r i o u s f i l m - f i l t e r combinations f o r t h e s e purposes have been i n t e n s i v e l y eval-
uated under simulated c o n d i t i o n s . S e l e c t e d combinations have a l s o undergone
l i m i t e d t e s t i n g a t low a l t i t u d e s on r e p r e s e n t a t i v e range and p a s t u r e l a n d s . I n
most s i t u a t i o n s s t u d i e d , t h e optimum aerial photographic s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , i n
view of c o s t f a c t o r s , c a l l e d for panchromatic f i l m , a Wratten 1 2 o r 2% f i l t e r ,
and a s c a l e o f approximately 1:6,000.

Experiments w i t h Nonphotographic ImaRery

Researchers a t s e v e r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s are c u r r e n t l y engaged i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

t o determine t h e spectral d i f f e r e n c e s shown by c r o p s , s o i l s , and o t h e r elements
of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l environment when they are observed simultaneously i n v a r i o u s
p o r t i o n s of t h e nonphotographic as w e l l as photographic r e g i o n of t h e spectrum.k/
Among t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s are (1) H o l t e r , Lowe, Shay, e t a l , who are j o i n t l y
engaged i n a s t u d y involving t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan and Purdue U n i v e r s i t y ;
(2) c o l w e l l , e t a l , working on t h e Davis Campus of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
t o i d e n t i f y both c r o p s and l i v e s t o c k by m u l t i s p e c t r a l remote s e n s i n g t e c h n i q u e s ;
and ( 3 ) Myers, e t a l , working a t Weslaco, Tex., on s a l i n i t y and s o i l m o i s t u r e

- 6 / The term " m u l t i s p e c t r a l " i s used h e r e a f t e r t o d e s i g n a t e imagery formed,

u s u a l l y simultaneously, i n more than one s p e c t r a l r e g i o n and analyzed j o i n t l y .

12
problems of i n t e r e s t t o a g r i c u l t u r i s t s . L/ These r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s are l o g i c a l
e x t e n s i o n s of photographic remote sensing i n which r e l a t i v e l y g r o s s s p e c t r a l
d i f f e r e n c e s e x h i b i t e d by n a t u r a l and c u l t u r a l phenomena have been d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
with abundant success. I n theory, minute s p e c t r a l d i f f e r e n c e s are s u s c e p t i b l e
t o d e t e c t i o n and measurement as w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s are
sensed simultaneously a t i n t e r v a l s over a broad p o r t i o n of t h e spectrum and are
analyzed e l e c t r o n i c a l l y . The hope i s t h a t unique t o n a l "signatures" r e f l e c t i n g
t h e s e s l i g h t s p e c t r a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l be discovered f o r numerous o b j e c t s and
c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l environment.

The following account of m u l t i s p e c t r a l sensing r e s e a r c h a t Michigan and

Purdue U n i v e r s i t i e s i s based on t h e f i r s t progress r e p o r t by H o l t e r , Lowe, and
Shay (26) and on subsequent communications from t h e s e and o t h e r members of t h e
i n v e s t i g a t i n g team:

The a i r b o r n e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n system employed c o n s i s t s of two multichannel

optical-mechanical scanners and several photographic cameras. One of t h e scan-
n e r s i s a d j u s t e d t o d e t e c t r a d i a n t energy a t i n t e r v a l s i n t h e 1.5 t o 5.5 micron
wavelength range of t h e electromagnetic spectrum. Imagery formed by sensing i n
t h i s range r e s u l t s l a r g e l y from emitted r a t h e r than r e f l e c t e d r a d i a t i o n and t h u s
can be produced day and n i g h t . The o t h e r scanner, o p e r a t i n g i n t h e 0.32 t o 0.38
micron range ( u l t r a v i o l e t ) and i n t h e 1.5 t o 1.7 micron range ( i n f r a r e d ) , i s
used only i n d a y l i g h t s i n c e r e f l e c t e d energy predomfnates i n t h e s e ranges. The
several cameras are equipped with f i l m - f i l t e r combinations p e r m i t t i n g o p e r a t i o n
i n v a r i o u s bands of t h e v i s i b l e and near-infrared r e g i o n s of t h e spectrum. One
camera c o n t a i n s m u l t i p l e lenses and produces photographs i n e i g h t narrow bands
and one broad band throughout t h e photographic r e g i o n (0.38-.89 microns).

This system was used f o r o b s e r v a t i o n s a t i n t e r v a l s throughout t h e 1964

growing season, w i t h farms i n t h e Purdue Experiment S t a t i o n Complex a t L a f a y e t t e ,
Ind., as test sites. F i e l d s i n t h i s area contained a l l major crops and g r a i n s
of t h e Midwest, a number of c r o p s important o u t s i d e t h a t region, v a r i o u s vege-
t a b l e and tree f r u i t crops, and c o n i f e r and hardwood trees. An abundance of
t a r g e t v a r i a t i o n s e x i s t e d as t h e s e v e g e t a t i v e types represented numerous s p e c i e s
and v a r i e t i e s grown under d i v e r s e conditions. The p l a n c a l l e d f o r f i v e t o eiRht
m i s s i o n s of s i x f l i g h t s each, with t h e s i x f l i g h t s of each mission t o be spaced
throughout a 24-hour p e r i o d . The arrangement p e r m i t t e d measurement of t h e
e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d with crop growth, changes i n sun angle, and t h e d i u r n a l
h e a t i n g and cooling c y c l e . Although modified a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s , t h i s schedule
was maintained i n essence. S i m i l a r observations have now been obtained during
subsequent growing seasons and s t i l l o t h e r f l i g h t s a r e planned.

S e v e r a l environmental parameters expected t o a f f e c t t h e appearance of t h e

imagery were measured a t s e l e c t e d s i t e s on t h e ground. A p o r t a b l e system
measured and recorded micro d i f f e r e n c e s i n (1) incoming and outgoing s o l a r and
long-wave r a d i a t i o n , (2) s e n s i b l e temperatures, (3) water vapor c o n t e n t of t h e

7/ These s t u d i e s are a l l being conducted under r e s e a r c h g r a n t s from t h e

NatioGal Aeronautics and Space Administration and have s i g n i f i c a n t support from
o t h e r F e d e r a l agencies. A committee of the National Academy of Sciences'
N a t i o n a l Research Council i s s e r v i n g i n an advisory c a p a c i t y and i n d i v i d u a l
members of t h e committee are performing s e r v i c e s f o r t h e p r o j e c t .

13
air, (4) wind velocity above the vegetative canopy, (5) barometric pressure,
and (6) soil moisture. These data were supplemented by conventional weather
observations and Experiment Station records.

The imagery from the series of missions is currently being analyzed. No

significant breakthrough which will permit rapid and consistent identification
of crops has been achieved as yet, but the investigators and their advisors
remain optimistic. In support of this attitude, they point out that other
spectral bands remain to be investigated and that many possibilities exist for
modifying or improving the instrumentation. With respect to identification of
soil characteristics by spectral matching techniques, the findings to date
reportedly are discouraging.

Colwell, et a1 (13), and Myers, et a1 (x), have reported on multispectral

sensing research at Davis, Calif., and Weslaco, Tex., respectively. These
research efforts are broadly similar to the effort at Purdue, as all three seek
to determine and exploit the varied spectral responses of agricultural targets
when they are observed in portions of more than one spectral region. Techniques
for identifying livestock, as well as crops, are under development at Davis,
while experiments at Weslaco are directed toward relative measurement of sub-
surface moisture and salinity conditions. The investigators at both locations
are continuing previous work on these subjects involving visual interpretation
of aerial photographs. Their previous efforts can be described as experimen-
tally successful, but the supplemental use of nonphotographic imagery, partic-
ularly thermal infrared, has yielded additional information in both instances.

Another research team located at the University of Kansas is investigating

the potential of radar sensors for identifying soils and vegetation. For
national security reasons, the details of this work and particularly of the
instrumentation are not available. The state of present development in the
field has been summarized by Simonett E),as follows:

"Studies.. .have shown that single radar images of the type expected from
orbital radar can be useful as a tool for study of some soil distributions at
the soil association level of generalization in grassland or lightly treed
environments.

...p reliminary study suggests that multiple polarization will add to the
present capability in helping to distinguish additional soils units through
variations in natural plant communities.

...other studies...have indicated that natural and cultivated vegetation

change in their radar reflection characteristics with phenologic variations,
and the change in radar characteristics may thus serve as a tool for identiff-
cation of a plant community or crop within certain probability limits. V I

The report goes on to say, IIUse of several polarizations raises the number
of parameters available for differentiation and increases the probability of
correct identification. The principle in essence is the same as multiband
Spectral reconnaissance, except time varying and polarization parameters con-
stitute the information matrix."
 MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING SATELLITE RECONNAISSANCE CAPABILITIES

P o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of s a t e l l i t e imagery must n e c e s s a r i l y
be i d e n t i f i e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e imagery requirements f o r i n d i v i d u a l applica-
t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o remote reconnaissance c a p a b i l i t i e s . A c t u a l l y , t h e imagery
requirements f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys cannot be s t a t e d e x a c t l y , except i n a few
i n s t a n c e s where minimum s p e c i f i c a t i o n s have been determined experimentally t o
be very rigorous. Evaluation of remote reconnaissance c a p a b i l i t i e s from space
a l t i t u d e s must be based on p a r t i c u l a r l y l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e , s i n c e r e l e v a n t
s a t e l l i t e imagery a v a i l a b l e t o d a t e does not r e p r e s e n t t h i s p o t e n t i a l . However,
t h e q u e s t i o n of t e c h n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y can be answered s a t i s f a c t o r i l y by d e t e r -
mining whether t h e minimum requirements f o r p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s are e i t h e r
r e a l i s t i c a l l y w i t h i n o r beyond t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of s e n s o r s on space platforms.
The major f a c t o r s governing remote reconnaissance c a p a b i l i t i e s w i l l be consid-
ered f i r s t .

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Remote Sensors

The a r r a y and n a t u r e of s e n s o r types usable f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l reconnaissance

h a s n o t been f u l l y considered i n c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e on remote sensing. These
sensors--photographic, i n f r a r e d , and microwave systems ( i n c l u d i n g radar)--
f u n c t i o n fundamentally by recording r e f l e c t e d o r e m i t t e d energy from p h y s i c a l
o b j e c t s o r c o n d i t i o n s . They d i f f e r p r i m a r i l y i n t h a t , as t h e names imply,
each i s s e n s i t i v e t o energy of a l i m i t e d and l a r g e l y nonoverlapping wavelength
range w i t h i n t h e t o t a l e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c spectrum. Numerous v a r i e t a l d i f f e r e n c e s
have appeared as a r e s u l t of i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n design, type, and format of record-
i n g medium, e t c . ( t a b l e 3).

Sensor c a p a b i l i t y Camera Infrared Radar

Day/night s e n s i t i v i t y ............ 5 10 10
Haze-fog penetration........... .. 3 6 10
Cloud penetration................ 1 2 9
Temperature discrimination....... 2 10 1
Subsurface detection............. 4 6 3
Stereo capability ................
Accurate image representation....
10 2
6
3
5
9
........
Long-range c a p a b i l i t y . . . . 7 4
7
8
5
Resolution....................... 9
C l a r i t y o r images.... ............
A v a i l a b i l i t y of equipment........
I
9 6
4
6
4

-
1/ As summarized by Leonard0 (32).
good = 10.
~ lo
I n t h e s c a l e , poor - 0 and

15
 Of t h e t h r e e s e n s o r types l i s t e d i n t a b l e 3, photographic cameras have
been developed t o t h e h i g h e s t s t a t e of p e r f e c t i o n . I n comparison w i t h o t h e r
s e n s o r types, photographic systems possess h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s and
s u p e r i o r m e t r i c q u a l i t i e s , and photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques are
r e l a t i v e l y w e l l developed. Nonphotographic s e n s o r s record a d d i t i o n a l r e f l e c -
t i v e and emissive q u a l i t i e s of o b j e c t s and a l s o provide a p o t e n t i a l day-night
and all-weather sensing c a p a b i l i t y . Hence, i n f o r m a t i o n a l g a i n s can be expected
from t h e j o i n t use o f two o r more s e n s o r types.

The f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e a b i l i t y of remote s e n s o r s t o record t a r g e t s are

complex but r e l a t i v e l y w e l l known. For photographic s e n s o r s , t h i s c a p a b i l i t y ,
commonly termed r e s o l v i n g power, is expressed i n l i n e s p e r millimeter (ground
r e s o l u t i o n i s expressed i n f e e t ) , Resolution has been defined as " t h e a b i l i t y
of a f i l m o r a l e n s , o r a combination of both t o render b a r e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e
a standard p a t t e r n c o n s i s t i n g of b l a c k and white l i n e s (28, p . 74)." Roughly
f i v e times b e t t e r ground r e s o l u t i o n i s r e q u i r e d f o r o b j e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n than
f o r o b j e c t d e t e c t i o n (27). Among t h e v a r i a b l e s on which r e s o l v i n g power depend
(not an exhaustive l i s t ) are s e n s o r o p t i c s , d i s t a n c e from t a r g e t , t y p e and f o r -
m a t of recording medium, s t r e n g t h of energy s o u r c e , c o n t r a s t between t a r g e t and
background, atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s , and recording medium processing techniques.

The m a x i m u m t h e o r e t i c a l r e s o l v i n g power (Nm) of a photographic l e n s may be

expressed by t h e equation Nm = 1472 lines/mm, where f-number r e p r e s e n t s t h e
f-number
r a t i o between l e n s a p e r t u r e diameter and t h e f o c a l l e n g t h of t h e o p t i c a l system
(41). A t a given a l t i t u d e and w i t h i n l i m i t s imposed by o t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s ,
r e s o l u t i o n can be increased by i n c r e a s i n g t h e f o c a l l e n g t h of t h e o p t i c s , pro-
viding t h e diameter of t h e l e n s a p e r t u r e i s a l s o i n c r e a s e d s u f f i c i e n t l y t o
maintain an a p p r o p r i a t e l y low f-number. The following c a l c u l a t i o n s by Katz (2)
are approximations of t h e maximum ground r e s o l u t i o n o b t a i n a b l e w i t h s e l e c t e d
f o c a l l e n g t h s and f i l m r e s o l v i n g powers a t an a l t i t u d e of 142 miles:

Ground Resolution
Focal Length Resultant S c a l e (40 lines/mm) (100 lines/mm)

12 inches 1/750,000 60 f e e t 24 f e e t
36 inches 1/250,000 20 f e e t 8 feet
120 inches 1/75,000 6 feet 2.4 f e e t

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h a t h i g h
r e s o l u t i o n and wide-area coverage are c o n f l i c t i n g g o a l s i n remote s e n s i n g .
When f o c a l l e n g t h i s i n c r e a s e d , a corresponding d e c r e a s e o c c u r s i n area cov-
e r a g e , s i n c e t h e f i e l d of view i s narrowed. The d e c r e a s e i n area coverage, i n
t u r n , is r e f l e c t e d i n image scale, determined as t h e r a t i o between f o c a l l e n g t h
and d i s t a n c e ( a l t i t u d e ) . Since wide-area coverage i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as a
d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e of s a t e l l i t e reconnaissance, t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t i s a restric-
t i o n on the use of huge o p t i c s t o o b t a i n h i g h r e s o l u t i o n .

An adequate summary of t h e r e s o l v i n g powers of nonphotographic s e n s o r s i s

n o t a v a i l a b l e . Current s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e , however, i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s e
c a p a b i l i t i e s are somewhat less than t h o s e of photographic s e n s o r s . For example,
Leonard0 assigned r e s o l u t i o n v a l u e s of 9, 7 , and 5 t o photographic, i n f r a r e d ,
and r a d a r s e n s o r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n h i s comparison of s e n s o r s ( t a b l e 3 ) .

16
 Image I n t e r p r e t a t i o n C a p a b i l i t i e s

The s t a t e of t h e a r t of image i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is another b a s i c considera-

t i o n i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l use of s a t e l l i t e s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s a t s p e c i f i e d r e s o l u t i o n s have been summarized by t h e
team of s c i e n t i s t s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r managing NASA-sponsored r e s e a r c h on remote
sensing i n t h e U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e . E/ The summary states:

I. A t a r e s o l u t i o n of 30 meters, we can i n t e r p r e t t h e following:

Timberline
Wa t er 1i n e
Snow1i n e
Desertline
Grassland-brushland i n t e r f a c e
Brushland-timberland i n t e r f a c e
Grassland-timberland i n t e r f a c e
Bare s o i l vs. vegetated areas and i n d i v i d u a l f i e l d s 10 acres
o r more i n s i z e
Major r o a d s , r a i l r o a d s , and waterways

11. A t a r e s o l u t i o n of 1 0 meters, w e can i n t e r p r e t :

Mature orchard trees
Dominant r a i n f o r e s t trees
F i e l d s one a c r e o r more i n s i z e
Farmsteads
Fence l i n e s used t o c o n t r o l g r a z i n g
Areas g r e a t e r than 30 f e e t i n diameter i n a g r i c u l t u r a l crops
where damage h a s been done by d i s e a s e , i n s e c t s , f i r e , storm
o r o t h e r agents

111. A t a r e s o l u t i o n of 2 meters, w e can i n t e r p r e t :

Density of woody v e g e t a t i o n
I n d i v i d u a l tree counts
Tree crown d i a m e t e r s
S p e c i e s o f dominant trees
Areas i n a g r i c u l t u r a l crops g r e a t e r than 2 xeters i n d i a m t e r
t h a t have been damaged by d i s e a s e , i n s e c t s , f i r e , and n a t u r a l
disaster
S p e c i e s of continuous cover crops occupying f i e l d s g r e a t e r than
20 f e e t square and weed patches of 20 f e e t s q u a r e
Drainage p a t t e r n s
S o i l series boundaries
Major s o i l series and s o i l m o i s t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s
Areal e x t e n t of water s u r f a c e s
Mapping of p l a n i m e t r i c d e t a i l i n a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s
On s e q u e n t i a l photography ( r e p e t i t i v e cover of t h e same a r e a ) ,
rates of p l a n t growth, p l a n t succession, probable f u t u r e
p l a n t i n g p l a n s , and probable crop y i e l d s

8 / Unpublished statement dated March 8 , 1966. Members of t h e Research

Managgment Team a t t h e t i m e were H. A. Rodenhiser, R. N. Colwell, H. A. Steele,
J. R. Shay, and R. K. Arnold.

17
 The team's d e f i n i t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s a p p l i e s
p r i m a r i l y t o photographic imagery because nonphotographic image i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
c a p a b i l i t i e s are s t i l l poorly developed. The team's statement g e n e r a l l y agrees
with t h e f i n d i n g s elsewhere i n t h i s s t u d y , except f o r one s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r -
ence. According t o t h e team, s p e c i e s of continuous cover crops a r e i d e n t i f i a b l e
w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n of two meters. I n comparison, t h e large image scales s p e c i -
f i e d by Colwell f o r cereal crop i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , as w e l l as t h e r e p o r t e d e x p e r i -
ence of o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , imply t h a t , except i n s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , r e s o l u t i o n
requirements f o r crop s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n are somewhat more r i g o r o u s than two
meters.

I n a s s e s s i n g p o t e n t i a l photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s , i t should
be remembered t h a t r e s o l u t i o n s g r e a t e r than two meters have been a v a i l a b l e a t
low a l t i t u d e s and are t h e o r e t i c a l l y a t t a i n a b l e from s a t e l l i t e a l t i t u d e s . Res-
olution g r e a t e r than two meters has p e r m i t t e d a v a r i e t y of ingenious image
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . Nevertheless, i n view of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y complex n a t u r e
of experimental i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e f f o r t s , a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s
based on high r e s o l u t i o n are n o t l i k e l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y from space a l t i t u d e s .

The p o t e n t i a l f o r developing photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques based

on timely and f r e q u e n t o v e r f l i g h t s i s a p p a r e n t l y s u b s t a n t i a l . S e v e r a l of t h e
r e p o r t e d experiments have s u c c e s s f u l l y e x p l o i t e d s e a s o n a l changes i n t h e a g r i -
c u l t u r a l landscape. The r e s u l t s of t h e s e experiments i n d i c a t e t h a t p l a n t i n g ,
c u l t i v a t i o n , and h a r v e s t i n g p r a c t i c e s , changes i n t h e s u r f a c e area of water
bodies, and even crop s p e c i e s , t o name a few p o s s i b i l i t i e s , are t o some degree
i d e n t i f i a b l e and measureable by f r e q u e n t o b s e r v a t i o n a t space a l t i t u d e s .

E l e c t r o n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of photographic imagery i s another p o s s i b i l i t y .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e s t a t u s and p r o s p e c t s f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g photographic imagery
e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e f o r nonphotographic imagery (discussed
below).

Although nonphotographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a b i l i t i e s are l i m i t e d a t p r e s e n t ,

t h e p o t e n t i a l appears most promising. The supplemental u s e of s e n s o r s s e n s i -
t i v e i n nonvisual r e g i o n s of t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c spectrum i s expected t o
provide a vantage p o i n t n o t afforded by t h e v i s i b l e region a l o n e f o r recording
p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s and c o n d i t i o n s . I n f o r m a t i o n a l g a i n s may r e s u l t from e i t h e r
a d d i t i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s of p r e v i o u s l y photographed o b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r
o r i g i n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s of a d d i t i o n a l o b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
normally must be accomplished e l e c t r o n i c a l l y because of t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t y and
v a r i e t y of d a t a generated i n m u l t i s p e c t r a l s e n s i n g . Devices f o r t h i s t a s k a r e
i n t h e research and development s t a g e .

Informational Objectives

The i n f o r m a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e i s a fundamental f a c t o r governing t h e use of

remote sensors i n a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys. Some d a t a t y p e s are n o t s u s c e p t i b l e
t o remote s e n s i n g . Even i f t h e d a t a t y p e of i n t e r e s t i s i n h e r e n t l y S u s c e p t i b l e
t o remote reconnaissance, t h e n e c e s s a r y d e t a i l , form, completeness, and accu-
racy w i l l depend upon t h e purpose t o be s e r v e d . Reported e x p e r i e n c e has shown
t h a t imagery s p e c i f i c a t i o n s must be c a r e f u l l y developed f o r i n d i v i d u a l surveys
i n o r d e r t o accomplish s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s .

18
I

The v a r i e t y of d a t a o b j e c t i v e s a t t a i n e d experimentally s u g g e s t s t h a t , from

t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , most survey requirements can be s a t i s f i e d a t low a l t i -
tudes by t h e use of s p e c i a l i z e d imagery. Thus, i t i s reasonable t o expect t h a t
similar a d a p t a t i o n s of s a t e l l i t e imagery w i l l f r e q u e n t l y be p o s s i b l e ; i t does
not n e c e s s a r i l y follow, however, t h a t t h e same a d a p t a t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t
f o r imagery taken a t space a l t i t u d e s .

Obviously, t h e d e t a i l e d d a t a o b j e c t i v e s of p o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l surveys
from space p l a t f o r m s cannot be f u l l y determined. Thus, p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s
can b e s t be i d e n t i f i e d as broad c a t e g o r i e s r e f l e c t i n g d i s t i n c t i v e b u t g e n e r a l
obj ec t i v e s .
POTENTIAL AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS

Designations of (1) f e a s i b l e , (2) p o s s i b l y f e a s i b l e , and (3) i n f e a s i b l e a t

space a l t i t u d e s can now be a p p l i e d w i t h reasonable confidence t o l o w - a l t i t u d e
a p p l i c a t i o n s (defined as broad “ a p p l i c a t i o n areas”)of remote sensing. Essen-
t i a l l y , a p p l i c a t i o n areas are regarded as f e a s i b l e i f t h e r e s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e -
ments f o r u s a b l e d a t a are n o t r i g o r o u s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques are w e l l
developed. A t t h e o t h e r extreme, a p p l i c a t i o n areas are regarded as i n f e a s i b l e
i f t h e r e s o l u t i o n requirements are very r i g o r o u s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s
have n o t been developed. The remaining a p p l i c a t i o n areas, where r e s o l u t i o n
c a p a b i l i t i e s appear t o be adequate but i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s have not been
developed, are c l a s s i f i e d as p o s s i b l y f e a s i b l e . I n t h e o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t depar-
t u r e s from t h e s e r u l e s , surveys of range c o n d i t i o n s and agronomic practices are
c l a s s i f i e d as f e a s i b l e , although i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques f o r t h e s e purposes
are n o t f u l l y developed. The a p p l i c a t i o n a r e a s and t h e i r estimated f e a s i b i l i -
t i e s are shown i n t a b l e 4.

F e a s i b l e Applications

Reconnaissance surveys of major land uses, s o i l s , s u r f a c e water r e s o u r c e s

( i n c l u d i n g flooded a r e a s ) , range c o n d i t i o n s , and cropping p r a c t i c e s u t i l i z i n g
s a t e l l i t e imagery are c e r t a i n t n y i e l d c c n s i d e r a b l z q u a n t i t i e s of u s a b l e d a t a .
The f i r s t t h r e e d a t a types have been s u c e s s f u l l y mapped o r measured on low-
r e s o l u t i o n photography a t t h e scale of 1:60,000 o r smaller. These r e l a t i v e l y
low r e s o l u t i o n requirements are w e l l w i t h i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s of
photographic cameras operated from e a r t h o r b i t . Moreover, t h e l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y
of a v a i l a b l e s p a c e imagery i n d i c a t e s t h a t reconnaissance photography of reason-
a b l y high q u a l i t y i s r e a l i s t i c a l l y achievable. I n a d d i t i o n , s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s
are expected from t h e supplemental use of nonphotographic s e n s o r s .

The u s e o f remote s e n s i n g f o r t i m e l y e v a l u a t i o n of range c o n d i t i o n s and

cropping p r a c t i c e s has t o d a t e c o n s i s t e d mainly of experimentation with large-
scale s p e c i a l i z e d images. Nevertheless, i t seems c e r t a i n t h a t s e q u e n t i a l
o b s e r v a t i o n s o f rangeland w i t h photographic and o t h e r ~ e n s o r sw i l l r e v e a l tone
and t e x t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s and changes which can be meaningfully r e l a t e d t o den-
s i t y , v i g o r , and e x t e n t of range herbage. S i m i l a r l y , many shape and tone
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p l a n t i n g , c u l t i v a t i o n , and h a r v e s t i n g of
c r o p s should b e i d e n t i f i a b l e . I f maximum information is t h e g o a l , both range
and agronomic s u r v e y s would p l a c e s t r i n g e n t demands on image q u a l i t y . For

19
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20
g e n e r a l i z e d information, however, n e i t h e r has h i g h r e s o l u t i o n requirements since
t h e u n i t s f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are u s u a l l y l a r g e .

Space photography, l i k e conventional a e r i a l photography, undoubtedly w i l l

be used as a base f o r mapping a v a r i e t y of o b j e c t s and c o n d i t i o n s on t h e ground
( p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r many areas l a c k i n g adequate c a r t o g r a p h i c o r photographic bases
f o r c e r t a i n purposes). However, t h e metric q u a l i t i e s p r a c t i c a l l y and consis-
t e n t l y a t t a i n a b l e may not be e q u a l t o t h o s e of conventional photography.

P o s s i b l y F e a s i b l e Avplica t i o n s

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of crop s p e c i e s from space a l t i t u d e s can be regarded as a

d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y , although i t has been accomplished only experimentally o r
l o c a l l y a t low a l t i t u d e s . Photographic s e n s o r s are n o t l i k e l y t o prove gener-
a l l y adequate f o r t h i s purpose because of t h e complex requirements evidenced i n
v a r i o u s experiments, p a r t i c u l a r l y C o l w e l l ' s work w i t h cereal crop i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
Exceptions should occur i n s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , such as t h e use of n e a r - i n f r a r e d
photography by Clair H i l l and a s s o c i a t e s t o i d e n t i f y rice.

The real hope f o r s y s t e m a t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of crop species is t h e m u l t i -

s p e c t r a l approach under i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t t h e Universities of Michigan, Purdue,
and C a l i f o r n i a , and a t t h e A g r i c u l t u r e Experiment S t a t i o n i n Weslaco, Tex.,
which employs nonphotographic as w e l l as photographic s e n s o r s . The r e l a t i v e l y
low r e s o l u t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d t o sensors o p e r a t i n g a t i n t e r v a l s over a
broad range of t h e spectrum should n o t be a severe handicap. Ground r e s o l u t i o n
of a few t e n s o r hundreds of f e e t appears adequate since t h e o v e r a l l s p e c t r a l
response of l a r g e t a r g e t s ( f i e l d s of c r o p s r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s ) would
be emphasized. P l a n t s are n o t resolved i n d i v i d u a l l y , of c o u r s e , even i n low-
a l t i t u d e applications.

The p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n of remote sensing from space f o r crop v i g o r

a n a l y s i s must a l s o be q u a l i f i e d . V a r i a t i o n s o r l o s s e s i n crop v i g o r may be due
t o numerous f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g d i s e a s e , insects, mineral d e f i c i e n c i e s and exces-
ses, and a d v e r s e weather. I n g e n e r a l , v a r i a t i o n s i n v i g o r are r a t h e r s t r i k i n g l y
imaged as tonal. d i f f e r e n c e s on s e l e c t e d phctcgraphs taken a t low altitudes. On
s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s , i n f a c t , a d i s e a s e d c o n d i t i o n i n p l a n t s h a s been d e t e c t e d on
n e a r - i n f r a r e d photographs b e f o r e t h e condition w a s e v i d e n t t o ground observers.
A t least two f a c t o r s , however, may l i m i t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of space p l a t f o r m
s e n s o r s f o r t h i s purpose. F i r s t , crop v i g o r a n a l y s i s i s dependent t o some
e x t e n t on crop i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , which ( a s noted above) i s n o t c l e a r l y f e a s i b l e .
Second, w h i l e remote s e n s o r s a r e good i n d i c a t o r s of l o s s of p l a n t v i g o r , they
are g e n e r a l l y poor i n d i c a t o r s of t h e causal agent.

Usable estimates of crop production appear f e a s i b l e i n s p e c i a l i n s t a n c e s

where crop i d e n t i t y is known o r where c r o p s can be i d e n t i f i e d i n d i r e c t l y . Such
estimates should become g e n e r a l l y achievable i f t h e problem of crop i d e n t i f i -
c a t i o n i s s o l v e d . Many f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g y i e l d - - s i t e , agronomic p r a c t i c e s ,
c r o p v i g o r , crop d e n s i t y o r s t a n d , and c a t a s t r o p h i c events--can by i n t e r p r e t e d
a t least i n r e l a t i v e terms. Sample ground information could be used t o r e f i n e
t h e i n t e r p r e t e d r e s u l t s . A c q u i s i t i o n of t h e necessary area d a t a is n o t expected
t o be d i f f i c u l t .

21
 Infeasible Applications

D e t a i l e d s o i l s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and mapping and censuses of l i v e s t o c k and

w i l d l i f e appear i n f e a s i b l e from space a l t i t u d e s . D e t a i l e d s o i l s surveys have
never been s u c c e s s f u l l y conducted by a e r i a l photography, while p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h
i n d i c a t e s t h a t r a d a r w i l l y i e l d only reconnaissance-type information. Reports
on progress of t h e Michigan-Purdue s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m u l t i s p e c t r a l system
w i l l have l i m i t e d s o i l - d i s c r i m i n a t i n g c a p a b i l i t y .

From t h e p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t of view, i n v e n t o r i e s of l i v e s t o c k and

w i l d l i f e may sometime be p o s s i b l e . From a p r a c t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , however, t h e
e x i s t i n g o b s t a c l e s appear insurmountable. F i r s t , under t h e most optimum con-
d i t i o n s imaginable, severe r e s t r i c t i o n s on ground r e s o l u t i o n would be imposed
by scale alone. To i l l u s t r a t e , a f o c a l l e n g t h of 20 f e e t a t a d i s t a n c e of 100
miles would y i e l d a scale of 1:26,400, which is c o n s i d e r a b l y smaller t h a n t h o s e
used with only l i m i t e d success i n experiments t o d a t e . A n o p e r a t i o n a l system
would probably u t i l i z e a s h o r t e r f o c a l l e n g t h a t g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s w i t h a con-
s e q u e n t l y smaller scale. I n any case, r e s o l u t i o n could be i n c r e a s e d only a t
t h e expense of wide-area coverage, t h u s o f f s e t t i n g one of t h e main advantages
of a space p l a t f o r m and a p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e i n s u r v e y s of t h i s
type '

Another o b s t a c l e i s t h e complex i n f o r m a t i o n a l needs i n l i v e s t o c k s u r v e y s .

I t is necessary o r d e s i r a b l e t o i d e n t i f y breed, age, s e x , and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s , as w e l l as t o d i s t i n g u i s h v a r i o u s s p e c i e s , Even i f r e s o l u t i o n c a p a b i l -
i t i e s s u f f i c i e n t t o d e t e c t domestic ( o r w i l d ) animals become a v a i l a b l e , i d e n t i -
f i c a t i o n s and measurements of u s e f u l c o n s i s t e n c y most l i k e l y cannot be made
from space a l t i t u d e s .

Unclassified Applications

I n view of t h e d i v e r s e n a t u r e of t h e d a t a requirements, a s s i p n e n t of a
f e a s i b i l i t y rank t o c o n s e r v a t i o n s u r v e y s would appear t o have l i t t l e v a l u e .
As r e p o r t e d i n t h i s study, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s i n surveys of t h i s
type i n c l u d e d a t a on s o i l s , s l o p e s , water r e s o u r c e s , land u s e ( i n c l u d i n g spe-
c i f i c c r o p s ) , y i e l d , production, ownership c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , income, and t h e
l i k e . Moreover, t h e s e t y p e s of d a t a i n g e n e r a l must be mapped o r o t h e r w i s e
p r e c i s e l y l o c a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and o f t e n by i n d i v i d u a l farms as w e l l . Some
types of d a t a , of course, are n o t a t a l l s u s c e p t i b l e t o remote s e n s i n a .

C e r t a i n d a t a types of i n t e r e s t i n c o n s e r v a t i o n surveys, e.g., major vege-

t a t i o n types, cropland, and d r a i n a g e systems, have a l r e a d v been c l a s s e d as
f e a s i b l e ; t h a t i s , they are considered both i d e n t i f i a b l e and measurable from
space a l t i t u d e s . Other d a t a i n c o n s e r v a t i o n s u r v e y s have been ranked as pos-
s i b l y f e a s i b l e ; and d e t a i l e d s o i l s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s regarded
as i n f e a s i b l e .

22
 CONCLUSIONS

The review of l i t e r a t u r e and c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h on a g r i c u l t u r a l remote sensing

l e a d s t o t h e following conclusions:

(1) E x i s t i n g photographic s e n s o r s and photographic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques

are adequate t o perform a v a r i e t y of a g r i c u l t u r a l survey t a s k s from space p l a t -
forms. Dependent upon t h e s p e c i f i c form and required degree of accuracy of t h e
d a t a , reconnaissance surveys of major l a n d u s e s , s o i l s , water bodies, range con-
d i t i o n s , and cropping p r a c t i c e s appear t o be t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e .

(2) Crop species i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , crop vigor a n a l y s i s , and crop production

estimates of u s e f u l consistency and accuracy a r e not c l e a r l y f e a s i b l e . I t i s
probable, however, t h a t u s e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e s e types can be made i n
s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s u t i l i z i n g photographic methods. Moreover, developing non-
photographic s e n s i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s may r e s u l t i n s u b s t a n t i a l
i n f o r m a t i o n a l g a i n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when used i n conjunction w i t h photographic
imagery.

(3) D e t a i l e d s o i l s surveys and censuses of l i v e s t o c k appear u n a t t a i n a b l e

from space a l t i t u d e s because adequate r e s o l u t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques
are l a c k i n g .

23
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28
ZU. S . G O V E R N M E N T PRINTING OPb'lC'E : 1961 3 U i - b t ! ' i / l f ~
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WASHINGTON, D . C . 20250 U . S . DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

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