Materials and Structures
DOI 10.1617/s11527-011-9711-3
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Strain sensing of carbon fiber reinforced
geopolymer concrete
Saiprasad Vaidya • Erez N. Allouche
Received: 15 August 2010 / Accepted: 28 January 2011
Ó RILEM 2011
Abstract Health monitoring of concrete structures
is performed by assessing the structure’s state of
stress. One such method involves monitoring electri-
cal resistance variations as an indirect measure of
stress variations. Carbon fibers were added to fresh
geopolymer mix to enhance its electrical conductiv-
ity. AC-impedance spectroscopy analyses were per-
formed on sample specimens to obtain their electrical
resistance. Geopolymer concrete specimens entrained
with carbon fibers were dynamically loaded in
bending and uniaxial compression to observe changes
in electrical resistance with respect to variations in
their stress state. For beam specimens electrical
resistance was found to follow a descending trend
with increasing bending stresses. A more complex
relationship was noted for cylinder specimens that
were loaded axially. Overall experimental results
suggest that conductive geopolymer could serve as a
smart material in health monitoring applications of
concrete structures.
Keywords Geopolymer concrete  Electrical
conductivity  Carbon fibers  Health monitoring 
AC-impedance spectroscopy
S. Vaidya  E. N. Allouche (&)
Trenchless Technology Center, Louisiana Tech
University, Ruston, LA, USA
e-mail: allouche@latech.edu
1 Introduction
The term ‘Geopolymer’ was coined by Davidovits
[1, 2]. It describes a cementitious binder formed by
alkali activation of aluminosilicate powder (typically
materials with high percentages of silica and alumina),
and which does not require the presence of ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). The chemical reaction in the
formation of geopolymer gel involves a polyconden-
sation reaction between silicon and aluminum in the
source material with the alkaline hydroxide forming a
three dimensional network of aluminate and silicate
tetrahedra with bridging oxygen typically known as
poly(sialate) [2–4]. The term ‘sialate’ was derived to
describe Si–O–Al linkage, where as polysialate indi-
cates polymeric chains of Si–O–Al [2].
In making geopolymer binder, materials with high
percentages of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) can
be used as source materials, and alkaline hydroxides
(such as sodium or potassium hydroxide) are used to
activate the source material [5–8], dissolving the
alumina and silica, which are then polymerized into
molecular chains that create the binder matrix. Source
materials for making geopolymer include metakaolin,
kaolinite, clays, mica, as well as industrial byproducts
such as fly ash, silica fume, slag, and rice husk ash
[6, 9]. There is considerable amount of published
information on the utilization of fly ash as a source
material for making geopolymer [5, 11–14]. Geopoly-
mers offer several attractive properties such as
high strength gain rate, high compressive strength,

low permeability, elevated resistance to chemical
attack and high fire resistance [10, 15].
Concrete structures are prone to a number of
deterioration mechanisms, either inherent or incidental.
Adverse effects due to incidental deterioration (i.e.,
deterioration due to manmade and natural loads) can be
potentially detected using health monitoring systems,
thus protecting public safety, ensuring adequate level
of service and supporting the prediction of the struc-
ture’s remaining service life [16]. The term ‘health
monitoring’ refers to the utilization of sensory systems
to monitor changes in strains with time and under
varying load conditions, which can then be compared
with baseline data (strain levels under unloaded
condition), to monitor performance over time.
Electrically conductive concrete allows to perform
resistivity measurements, which could be used to
estimate stress variations in a structure [17–24]. In
this study carbon fibers were added to geopolymer
concrete to enhance its electrical conductivity.
AC-impedance spectroscopy analyses were per-
formed on sample specimens to measure their
individual electrical resistance values. A preliminary
study conducted on both, Portland cement and
geopolymer specimens, established that with increase
in fiber percentage, electrical resistance decreased for
Portland cement and geopolymer mortar specimens
[25]. As for concrete samples, geopolymer specimens
exhibited significantly lower electrical resistance
compared with OPC specimens, for plain and fiber
entrained specimens. Results obtained from this
preliminary study are summarized in Table 1. The
superior conductance of geopolymer concrete is
attributed, at least partially, to the relatively high
concentration of metal salts (e.g., sodium hydroxide,
barium) within the geopolymer matrix, and in the
case of OPC it was concluded that free water
presence in the matrix had a significant effect on
the true impedance of the material. Based on the
preliminary results only geopolymer concrete sam-
ples were utilized in the dynamic tests reported in this
paper. Experimental setup, testing procedures and test
results are presented in the following sections.
2 Experimental design and instrumentation setup
A set of three geopolymer concrete cylinders and two
rectangular beams with carbon fiber ratio of 0.4% by
Materials and Structures
dry weight of fly ash, the minimum percentage
volume needed to reach percolation for the mix
design used [25], were prepared. The cylinders were
subjected to a monolithic uniaxial compressive load,
while the beams were simply supported and centrally
loaded. Changes in electrical resistance with increas-
ing stress levels were measured and recorded for all
specimens.
For making GPC beam specimens, 101 mm 9
101 mm 9 406 mm steel molds were used, and for
cylinder specimens 101 mm 9 203 mm plastic cylin-
der molds were used. In making geopolymer concrete
a 1:2:2 mix ratio of fly ash to sand to coarse aggregate
by mass was adopted along with an activator to source
material ratio of 0.5. The activator solution used
consisted of 2:1 weight ratio of sodium silicate to
sodium hydroxide solutions. Sodium silicate (Type N)
was obtained from PQ Inc., LA that had a weight
percentage of sodium silicate (37.5%) and water
(62.5%). Sodium hydroxide solution (10 Molar con-
centration) was prepared in the lab by dissolving 400
gm of 99.9% pure sodium hydroxide microspheres in
1 L of water. Fly ash used was obtained from a fly ash
commercializer (Flyash Direct, OH). The Particle size
distribution and chemical analysis are given in Fig. 1
and Table 2, respectively. Uniform sand was used as
the fine aggregate and pea gravel (9.5 mm average
size) was used as the coarse aggregate. Rheobuild
super plasticizer 2% and methyl cellulose 0.4% by dry
weight of fly ash were added to the mix design to
improve workability and fiber dispersion. Physical
properties and dimensions of the carbon fibers are
listed in Table 3, and were obtained from Taho Tanex,
TN. During mixing, the fly ash, sand and aggregate
were mixed first for 1 min, next carbon fibers and
methylcellulose were added and mixed for two
additional minutes. Immediately following the addi-
tion of fibers, the liquid phase material and super
plasticizer were added slowly while mixing continued.
Upon mixing, the concrete was taken out of the mixer
and was placed in the molds in three layers. Each layer
was tamped with a rod 25 times to attain even
consolidation across the specimen length. Specimens
were left in the molds to set for one day, prior to
stripping. The specimens were then cured in an oven at
60°C for 24 h. Following the curing process, speci-
mens were removed from the oven and allowed to
reach room temperature. A 24 gage thin copper wire,
which was tightly wound around the specimens at two
Materials and Structures

Table 1 Summary of electrical resistance measurements performed on OPC and GPC concrete specimens [25]
Curing period Electrical Resistance of OPC (X) Electrical Resistance of GPC (X)
a a
0% fibers by wt 0.4% fibers by wt 0% fibers by wta 0.4% fibers by wta

24 h @ 60°C – – 486.98 157.91

7 days in water 1259.37 533.15 –
14 days in water 1450.84 631.58
21 days in water 1404.82 657.75
28 days in water and 7 days in air – 2392.53
a
% of fibers by dry weight of cementitious material

locations, formed the electrodes. Separation distance
between the two electrodes was 203 and 152 mm for
the beam and cylindrical specimens, respectively.
Conductive silver paste was applied to the copper wire
wounding to improve contact with the concrete
surface. Strain gauges were used to measure changes
in strain at the outer most surface of the specimens
under the externally applied load. The gauges were
placed mid-length in the direction of the applied load
for the cylinders, and in the tensile region for the
beams. The length of the strain gauges used was
51 mm for the beams and 25 mm for the cylinders.
The strain gauges were connected to a DAQ HP
34790A data acquisition system, which recorded the
strain data. A servo-controlled MTS universal testing
machine (capable of load and displacement control),
with a capacity of 222 kN, was used to apply flexure
load to the beams and axial compressive load to the
cylinders (see Figs. 2, 3, respectively). A frequency/
arbitrary wave form generator (HP33120A) was used
as a power source. A Tektronix 2430A digital oscil-
loscope was utilized for collecting voltage and current
data. A generic voltage probe was used for measuring
the voltage data, while a Tektronix A6303 current
probe was used for measuring current variations. The
current probe was used in conjunction with a Tektronix
TM502A current amplifier.
During the test, the input voltage amplitude from
the wave form generator was set to 4 V with a
frequency of 795 kHz [25]. Leads from the strain
gauges were hooked to the data acquisition unit (DAQ
HP 3479A) to record changes in strain. For every
445 N of applied external load, the MTS machine was
paused to maintain the load while voltage, current and
strain gauge data were recorded for that particular load
step. This process was repeated until the applied load
reached 9.34 kN, a value corresponding to the
theoretical failure load of the beam specimens. The
flexural stress values recorded for the GPC beams are
in the performance range of high strength OPC
concrete, a behavior noted for geopolymer concretes
made from several fly stockpiles [26]. For the GPC
cylinders, a uniaxial compressive load was applied
using the same MTS testing machine. Voltage, current
and strain gauge data were recorded at 8.9 kN
increments. The external load was applied until failure
of the cylinder. Throughout the test care was taken to
electrically isolate the concrete specimens from the
loading frame, using strips of hardened rubber placed
under the loading and supporting points.
3 Discussion of results
3.1 Beams
Figures 4 and 5 depict the flexure stress versus strain
and electrical resistance measurements for both beam
specimens. The flexure stress was calculated from the
measured applied load and the geometry of the
specimens (Sf = 3PL/2bd2), where ‘P’ is the applied
external load, ‘L’ is the length between the supports
(305 mm), ‘b’ is the width of the specimen (101 mm),
‘d’ is its depth (101 mm). Strains were calculated
using data obtained from a strain gauge placed on the
specimen’s tensile face immediately beneath the point
of loading. From Figs. 4 and 5 it can be observed that
with increase in flexure stress and curvature, electrical
resistance decreases for the two GPC beams in a linear
fashion at a rate of approximately 6 and 7.5 X per
1 MPa of flexure stress for Beams 1 and 2, respec-
tively. Thus, an inverse linear relationship exists
between the flexural stress at the bottom of the beam
and the beam’s electrical resistance. The decrease in
 Materials and Structures

Fig. 1 Particle size Percent

Size(µm) Passing
distribution of fly ash
stockpile 10.00 43.41
20.00 64.27
30.00 76.49
40.00 82.99
45.00 85.71
50.00 88.54
60.00 93.74
70.00 97.40
80.00 99.24

Table 2 Chemical composition of fly ash stockpile (by weight percentage)

SiO2 AL2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O TiO2 MnO2 P2O5 SrO BaO SO3 LOI

55.07 28.61 6.22 1.97 1.08 0.38 2.63 1.56 0.02 0.16 0.08 0.21 0.19 1.82

Table 3 Properties and dimensions of carbon fibers

Length, mm Diameter, lm Tensile strength, MPa Tensile modulus, GPa Resistivity, X m Density, kg/m3

6 7 3447 0.2 1,670 9 10-8 1800

electrical resistance may be due to increase in
curvature at the compression face, leading to a
reduction in the separation distance between the
electrodes (i.e., physical shortening of the conduction
path). This decrease in resistance could potentially be
expressed using a concept named the ‘‘apparent
conductive length factor’’, a novel concept proposed
by the authors to capture the complex behavior of
electrical resistance in cementitious materials [25].
The conductive path through a structural cementitious
element under external load is a complex dynamic
function, which depends on factors such as void ratio,
the presence and degree of micro-cracks and the
interface between the cementitious grout and the
aggregate (gravel and sand are rendered non-conduc-
tive). The electrical resistance of a sample specimen is
calculated using the expression R = (q*L)/A, where
‘R’ is the resistance (X), ‘q’ is the bulk resistivity of the
material (X cm), ‘L’ is the physical length between the
electrodes (cm) and ‘A’ is the cross sectional area of
the specimen (cm2). The apparent conductive length
factor, DLc, can be calculated using the Eq. 1.
qLi
Ri A Li R2
DLc ¼ qL2 ¼ ð1Þ
R2 A
L2 Ri
where A = cross sectional area (A = 103.2 cm2
for beam specimens), q = bulk resistivity of the
material, Li = initial separation distance between the
electrodes, L2 = reduced separation distance with the
increase in load, obtained from strain gage readings,
Ri = initial electrical resistance under dead load
only, R2 = electrical resistance measured at each
load step.
Figure 6 displays the values of DLc versus the
flexural stress for both beam specimens. It can be
observed that DLc is inversely related to the flexural
stress in the beam specimens. An apparent conductive
length factor value of less than 1.0 suggests declining
electrical resistance, which was the case for both
beam specimens. The conductivity of a GPC matrix is
affected by several micro structural changes, such as,
the collapse of pores that changes the void ratio and
could lead to increase in fiber–fiber interactions, and
the development of micro-cracks at the matrix-
aggregate interface that can increase the conductive
path length.
3.2 Cylinderical specimens
Figures 7, 8 and 9 display the changes in electrical
resistance of the GPC cylinders versus their uniaxial
compressive stress and strain. The compressive stress
was calculated from the measured applied load and the
geometry of the specimens (Sf = P/A), where ‘P’ is
Materials and Structures

Copper electrodes
F

V I

Copper electrodes

Voltage probe

Current Probe

Fig. 2 Schematic and representational views of GPC beam under loading with current probe, voltage probe and copper electrodes

the applied external load and ‘A’ is the surface area of
the cylinders (8100 mm). The electrical resistance was
measured using electrodes mounted at the cylinders’
outer surface near each end of the specimen, and the
strain was calculated from data obtained from strain
gauges mounted at the mid-length location of the
cylindrical specimens in the direction of loading. From
Figs. 7, 8 and 9 it can be seen that overall electrical
resistance increased with compressive stress, however
this increase was moderate and did not follow a
consistent trend. On the other hand, the relation
between the applied load and measured axial com-
pressive strain is directly proportional and linear, as
expected. The increase in electrical resistance could
also be expressed using the concept of apparent
conductive length factor, and calculated using Eq. 1
for each load step.
Changes in apparent conductive length could
potentially be attributed to several factors including
increase in density of the geopolymer concrete mass
 Materials and Structures

F Copper electrodes

I
V

Current amplifier

Oscilloscope Computer to read

oscilloscope data

Strain gauge data acquisition unit

Computer to read strain gauge

Fig. 3 Schematic and representational views of GPC cylinder under loading with complete data acquisition system

under externally applied compressive load, and devel-
opment of micro-cracks that adversely affect electrical
resistance. With increase in compressive stress, micro
voids in the cementitious matrix collapse, leading to a
reduction in the conductive path, and subsequently to a
reduction in electrical resistance. Simultaneously,
with increased axial load, internal cracks develop
within the cementitious matrix resulting in a longer
conductive path that, in turn, leads to increase in
electrical resistance. A third potential contributor are
changes in the interface between the aggregates and
the cementations matrix (sand and gravel aggregates
are non-conductive, thus the electrical current must
travel around these obstacles). These processes result
in opposite effects on the electrical resistance of the
specimens with increased compressive load. The net
outcome is that instantaneous resistance readings
change in a dynamic manner as the externally applied
load increases.
Figure 10 displays the changes in DLc versus
compressive stress for the three cylindrical speci-
mens. It can be seen that behavior of the three
Materials and Structures

Fig. 4 Flexural stress versus strain and electrical resistance

Fig. 7 Compressive stress versus strain and electrical resis-
and for beam 1
tance and for cylinder 1

Fig. 5 Flexural stress versus strain and electrical resistance

and for beam 2
Fig. 8 Compressive stress versus strain and electrical resis-
tance and for cylinder 2

Fig. 6 Flexure stress versus apparent conductive length factor Fig. 9 Compressive stress versus strain and electrical resis-
for beams 1 & 2 tance and for cylinder 3

Fig. 10 Compressive stress versus apparent conductive length
factor for cylinders 1, 2 & 3
specimens follows a similar pattern, with peaks and
valleys occurring within similar ranges of applied
axial stress. The valleys represent a decrease in
resistance (i.e., shortening of the apparent conductive
length), while the peaks represent an increase in
resistance (i.e., lengthening of the apparent conductive
length). Upon loading of the specimens, the electrical
resistance tends to decrease up to a stress level of about
6 MPa, where a sudden increase in resistance is noted
for all the three specimens, potentially indicating the
onset of micro-cracks in the geopolymer matrix. The
process of densification and micro-crack propagation
continues with peak regions at stress levels of 10–12
and 14–15 MPa, representing a gradual degradation of
the specimens until failure. Thus, the history of the
conductivity values, rather than a definite trend, could
potentially be used to monitor the health status of the
structure.
4 Conclusions
The aim of this study was to explore the utilization of
conductive geopolymer for health monitoring appli-
cation of concrete structures. Geopolymer are alter-
native cementitious binders that offer mechanical
performance superior to or equivalent to OPC cement.
Electrically conductive carbon fibers were mixed with
fresh geopolymer cement to enhance the electrical
conductivity of the resulting matrix. Carbon fiber
reinforced geopolymer concrete (CFRGC) specimens
were physically loaded to examine the relationships
Materials and Structures
between changes in the specimens’ stress state and
their electrical resistance. Results from three-point
bending tests on beam specimens revealed that elec-
trical resistance followed a descending trend with
increase in bending stresses, which could be attributed
to reduction in the conduction length due to physical
shortening of the compression surface of the beam,
and/or micro-structural changes within the geopoly-
mer matrix. These contributing factors were lumped
under a parameter named ‘apparent conductive length
factor’, acknowledging that the path of least resistance
between the two electrodes is a complex one as gravel
and sand particles, which represents 75% by volume of
the geopolymer concrete mass, are essentially non-
conductive. In the case of axially loaded cylindrical
specimens it was observed that with the application
of axial compressive stresses, electrical resistance
appears to fluctuate. This behavior could be attributed
to the densification of the geopolymer paste on one
hand, and the development of micro-cracks within the
matrix on the other. These two processes occur
simultaneously with increased applied compressive
load, but have an opposite effect on the electrical
resistance of the specimen.
Monitoring the electrical resistance of CFRGC
members could provide information regarding their
serviceability criteria (i.e., vertical deflection of flexure
members) as well as permanent damage (e.g. on-set of
cracks, fractures). The research work reported herein
lays the foundation for a new cementitious composite
material, carbon fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete,
which could be used in the construction of smart and
sustainable infrastructure elements.
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