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 Phases present 
L
 ferrite
 Bcc structure
Bcc structure Ferromagnetic
Paramagnetic Fairly ductile

 austenite Fe3C cementite
Fcc structure Orthorhombic
Non­magnetic Hard
Reactions ductile brittle

Peritectic L +  = 
Max. solubility of C in ferrite=0.022%
Eutectic L = + Fe3C
Max. solubility of C in austenite=2.11%
Eutectoid  =  + Fe3C
 Steel is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron.

Theoretically steel has a maximum of 2.11% carbon.

In practice, the amount of carbon rarely exceeds 0.8%

Classification/Nomenclature
Low carbon steels up to 0.2%C AISI 1020: 
Last two numbers indicate
Medium carbon steels 0.2­0.4%C Amount of carbon :0.2%C
10 indicates plain carbon steel
High carbon steels >0.4% C AISI 4340: 0.4%C
43 indicates alloy steel
 IRON-CARBON (Fe-C) PHASE DIAGRAM
• 2 important T(°C)
1600
points δ
-Eutectic (A): 1400 L
L ⇒ γ + Fe3C γ+L
γ A
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
-Eutectoid (B): (austenite) R S
γ ⇒ α + Fe3C 1000 γ γ
γ γ γ+Fe3C
α+
800
α γ B 727°C = T
eutectoid
R S
600
α+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) 0.77 4.30 C , wt% C
120µm o
C eutectoid

Result: Pearlite = Fe3C (cementite-hard)

alternating layers of
α and Fe3C phases.
(Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 9.24 from Metals Handbook, 9th
ed., Vol. 9, Metallography and
Microstructures, American Society for
Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1985.)
α (ferrite-soft)
Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister 6e. (Fig. 9.21
adapted from Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd
ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)
IRON-CARBON (Fe-C) PHASE DIAGRAM

BCC crystal structure FCC crystal structure

Note:  phase is also called  ferrite and is a BCC phase 1

 ALLOYING STEEL WITH MORE ELEMENTS

• Teutectoid changes: • Ceutectoid changes:

C eutectoid (wt%C)
0.8
T Eutectoid (°C)

1200 Ti Si
Mo W 0.6 Ni
1000 Cr
Cr 0.4
Si
800 Mn
Mn 0.2 W
Ti Mo
600 Ni
0
0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
wt. % of alloying elements wt. % of alloying elements
 Overview of cast iron
• Iron with 1.7 to 4.5% carbon and 0.5 to 3%
silicon
• Lower melting point and more fluid than steel
(better castability)
• Low cost material usually produced by sand
casting
• A wide range of properties, depending on
composition & cooling rate
– Strength
– Hardness
– Ductility
– Thermal conductivity
 Production of cast iron

• Pig iron, scrap steel, limestone and

carbon (coke)
• Cupola
• Electric arc furnace
• Electric induction furnace
• Usually sand cast, but can be
gravity die cast in reusable
graphite moulds
• Not formed, finished by machining
 Types of cast iron

• Grey cast iron - carbon as graphite

• White cast iron - carbides, often
alloyed
• Ductile cast iron
– nodular, spheroidal graphite
• Malleable cast iron
 Effect of cooling rate
• Slow cooling favours the formation of graphite
& low hardness
• Rapid cooling promotes carbides with high
hardness
• Thick sections cool slowly, while thin sections
cool quickly
• Sand moulds cool slowly, but metal chills can
be used to increase cooling rate & promote
white iron
 Effect of composition

• A CE over 4.3 (hypereutectic) leads to carbide

or graphite solidifying first & promotes grey
cast iron
• A CE less than 4.3 (hypoeutectic) leads to
austenite solidifying first & promotes white
iron
 Grey cast iron

• Flake graphite in a matrix of

pearlite, ferrite or martensite
• Wide range of applications
• Low ductility - elongation 0.6%
• Grey cast iron forms when
– Cooling is slow, as in heavy sections
– High silicon or carbon
 Typical properties
• Depend strongly on casting shape & thickness
• AS1830 & ASTM A48 specifies properties
• Low strength, A48 Class 20, Rm 120 MPa
– High carbon, 3.6 to 3.8%
– Kish graphite (hypereutectic)
– High conductivity, high damping
• High strength, A48 Class 60, Rm 410 MPa
– Low carbon, (eutectic composition)
Graphite form

• Uniform
• Rosette
• Superimposed (Kish
and normal)
• Interdendritic random
• Interdendritic preferred
orientation
 Matrix structure

• Pearlite or ferrite
• Transformation is to ferrite when
– Cooling rate is slow
– High silicon content
– High carbon equivalence
– Presence of fine undercooled graphite
Properties of grey cast iron

• Machineability is excellent
• Ductility is low (0.6%), impact
resistance low
• Damping capacity high
• Thermal conductivity high
• Dry and normal wear properties
excellent
 Applications

• Engines
– Cylinder blocks, liners,
• Brake drums, clutch plates
• Pressure pipe fittings (AS2544)
• Machinery beds
• Furnace parts, ingot and glass
moulds
 Ductile iron

• Inoculation with Ce or Mg or both

causes graphite to form as
spherulites, rather than flakes
• Also known as spheroidal graphite
(SG), and nodular graphite iron
• Far better ductility than grey cast
iron
Microstructure

• Graphite spheres
surrounded by ferrite
• Usually some
pearlite
• May be some
cementite
• Can be hardened to
martensite by heat
 Production

• Composition similar to grey cast

iron except for higher purity.
• Melt is added to inoculant in ladle.
• Magnesium as wire, ingots or
pellets is added to ladle before
adding hot iron.
• Mg vapour rises through melt,
removing sulphur.
 Properties

• Strength higher than grey cast iron

• Ductility up to 6% as cast or 20%
annealed
• Low cost
– Simple manufacturing process makes
complex shapes
• Machineability better than steel
 Applications

• Automotive industry 55% of ductile

iron in USA
– Crankshafts, front wheel spindle
supports, steering knuckles, disc
brake callipers
• Pipe and pipe fittings (joined by
welding)
 Malleable iron

• Graphite in nodular form

• Produced by heat treatment of
white cast iron
• Graphite nodules are irregular
clusters
• Similar properties to ductile iron
• See AS1832
 Microstructure

• Uniformly dispersed graphite

• Ferrite, pearlite or tempered martensite
matrix
• Ferritic castings require 2 stage anneal.
• Pearlitic castings - 1st stage only
 Annealing treatments
• Ferritic malleable iron
– Depends on C and Si
– 1st stage 2 to 36 hours at 940˚C in a controlled
atmosphere
– Cool rapidly to 750˚C & hold for 1 to 6 hours
• For pearlitic malleable iron
– Similar 1st stage above (2 - 36 h at 940˚C)
– Cool to 870˚C slowly, then air cool & temper to
specification
• Harden and temper pearlitic iron for
martensitic castings
 Properties

• Similar to ductile iron

• Good shock resistance
• Good ductility
• Good machineability
 Applications
• Similar applications to ductile iron
• Malleable iron is better for thinner castings
• Ductile iron better for thicker castings >40mm
• Vehicle components
– Power trains, frames, suspensions and wheels
– Steering components, transmission and differential
parts, connecting rods
• Railway components
• Pipe fittings AS3673
 Effects of alloy elements

• Promote graphite (Si, Ni)

• Promote carbides (Cr)
• Affect matrix microstructure
– Ferrite, pearlite, martensite or
austenite
• Corrosion resistance (Cr)
 Increasing carbon

• Increases depth of chill in chilled

iron
• Increases hardness
• Increases brittleness
• Promotes graphite during
solidification
 Increasing silicon

• Lowers carbon content of eutectic

• Promotes graphite on solidification
– Reduces depth of chill
• Negative effect on hardenability
– Promotes pearlite over martensite
• Raises Ms if martensite forms
• Can improve resistance to scaling
at high temperature
 Manganese and sulphur

• Each alone increases depth of chill

• Together reduces effect of other
(MnS)
• Mn in excess scavenges S and
stabilises austenite
• Solid solution strengthener of
ferrite / pearlite
• Sulphur lowers abrasion resistance
 Phosphorus

• Mild graphitiser
– Reduces chill depth
– Considered detrimental in alloy cast
irons
 Chromium

• Main uses:
– Forms carbides
– Gives corrosion resistance
– High temperature stability
• Up to 3% - no effect on
hardenability
• More than 10% - M7C3 carbides
stronger and tougher than M3C
 Nickel

• Promotes graphite
• Increases strength of pearlite
• Increases hardenability
– 2.5 to 4.5% Ni-Hard irons
• Stabilises austenite
– Over 6.5%