FJ668-02 M6 Book

Fundamentals
M6 Materials & Hardware
EASA Part-66 Cat. A
P66 A M6 E
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M6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE
Part -66
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M6.0 INTRODUCTION
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M6.0 M A T E R I A L S

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M6.0 INTRODUCTION
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GENERAL
Abbreviations Conversions
AA Aluminium Association of America Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
AISI American Institute of Steel and Iron S °C = (°F - 32) x 0.555

AL Aluminium Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
ALF3 Aluminium Fluoride S °F = °C x 1.8 + 32
Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide
ALCOA Aluminium Corporation of America
CAF2 Fluorspar
Clad Cladding
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CR Chromium
CRES Corrosion Resistant Steel
CU Copper
DC Direct Chill
F As fabricated
H Strain hardened
H2O Water
NA3ALF3 Cryolite
NI Nickel
MG Magnesium
MN Manganese
MO Molybdenum
O Annealed
PSI Pounds per Square Inch
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SI Silicon
T Heat treated
VA Vanadium
ZN Zinc

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
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M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
DEFINITIONS Combined Stress

When the stress on a given area is a combination of tensile and shearing
Strength of Materials stresses, or, compressive and shearing stresses, the resulting stress on the
Strength of materials deals with area is called a combined stress.
S the relations between external forces applied to an elastic body and the de- Simple Stress

formations and internal stresses resulting from those applied forces
When a tensile, compressive or shearing stress alone is considered to act, a
S the use of the principles of strength of materials to meet functional require- body is said to be subject to a simple stress.
ments.
Certain of the formulae that are used in strength of materials calculations are Unit Strain
based solely on mathematical analyses; others (empirical formulae) are the The amount of deformation of a dimension of a body resulting from the applica-
result of experiment, test and observation. Whether of the former or the latter tion of a load divided by the original dimension of the body.
type, most of these formulae make use of certain concepts and experimentally
determined physical properties of materials such as tensile strength, modulus Poisson‘s Ratio
of elasticity etc. The meaning of some of these terms is explained in the follow- The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal unit strain for a given material sub-
ing paragraphs. jected to uniform longitudinal stress within the proportional limit.
S For steel, it equals 0.30.
Elasticity
S For wrought iron, 0.28.
A body is said to be perfectly elastic if, after it has been deformed by external
forces, it returns completely to its original shape when the forces are removed. S For cast iron, 0.27.
Although there are no perfectly elastic materials, steel and some other struc- S For brass, 0.34.
tural materials may be so considered in certain ranges of loading and deforma-
tion (see elastic limit). Partially elastic materials are those that do not com- Elastic Limit
pletely resume their original shape when the external forces are released, The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and still return to its
some of the energy of deformation having been lost in the form of heat. original shape upon release of the load. The elastic limit for steel is, for all pur-
poses, the same as its proportional limit.
Unit Stress
If a load (force) is uniformly distributed over a certain area, the force per unit of Proportional Limit
area, usually expressed in pounds per square inch, is called the unit stress or That stress beyond which stress is no longer proportional to the strain.
simply the stress.
Yield Strength
S If the stress is the result of forces tending to stretch or lengthen the material
it is called a tensile stress The maximum stress that can be applied to a material without permanent de-
formation of the material.
S if to compress or shorten the material a compressive stress
S if to shear the material, a shearing stress. Ultimate Strength
Tensile and compressive stresses always act at right angles to (normal to) the The stress at which a material in tension, compression or shear will fracture.
area being considered; shearing stresses are always in the plane of the area
(at right angles to compressive or tensile stresses). Modules of Elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress to strain within the proportional limit of
a material in tension or compression.

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66

TENSION
COMPRESSION
SHEAR

Figure 1 Stresses
M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MATERIALS OVERVIEW

Hardness Metallic Materials
Enables a material to resist penetration, wear or cutting action. Having the nature of metal or containing metal.
Strength Non-Metallic Materials

Ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in any Containing no metal.
direction, or the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.
Ferrous Materials
Elasticity Iron, or any alloy containing iron.
The ability of an object or material to be stretched and recover its size and
shape after deformation. Non-Ferrous Materials
A metal which contains no iron.
Plasticity
The property of a metal which allows it to be reshaped.
Ductility
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without
breaking.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beat-
ing with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking.
Toughness
The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking.
Brittleness
The property of a metal to break when deformed or hammered. It is the
resistance to change in the relative position of the molecules within the
material.
Conductivity
The characteristic of a material which makes it possible for it to transmit heat or
electrical conduction.
Durability
The property of metal that enables it to withstand force over a period of time.

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66

Figure 2 Metallic and Non-Metallic Materials
M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
METAL GENERAL
Metal consists of basic chemical elements which have different characteristics
and properties:
S strength, heat-treatable or cold-workable
S crystal structure

S heat and electrical conductivity
S light impenetrability
S metallic gloss by light-reflection
S dissolvability in acids under formation of salts.
There are 70 metals (chemical elements) which are used in different applica-
tions in technical fields combined in several variants of alloys and unalloyed
conditions.
For airframe constructions, mainly lightweight metals are used, ie metals with a
density less than 5 Kg/ dm3.
The three most important lightweight metals in aircraft structure are:
S Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys (density 2,7 Kg/dm3)
S Titanium and Titanium Alloys (density 4,5 Kg/dm3)
S Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys (density 1,74 Kg/dm3).
On aircraft structure where high weights or higher strengths are needed,
heavyweight metals and their alloys are applicable (density between 7,85 Kg/
dm3 and 9,5 Kg/dm3).
5 kg/dm3
Mg -- Magnesium
Mg Al Ti Zn Cu Al Aluminum
-- Alumin
Ti Titan
-- Titanium
1.74 2.7 4.5 7.14 8.93
Zinc
Zn -- Zi
Cu -- Copper
Lightweight Metals Heavyweight Metals

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
METALS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
Material Elements Density kg/dm3 Melting Point Intended use

Magnesium Mg 1.74 650_ C are seldom used, mainly as al-

loy with Al,Zn,Mn
Silicon Si 2.33 1420_ C as alloy ingredient only
Aluminum Al 2.70 658_ C most commonly used Material
-as pure aluminum and alumi-
num alloy
Titanium Ti 4.50 1727_ C as pure titanium or titanium al-

loy
Zinc Zn 7.14 419_ C as alloy ingredient only
Manganese Mn 7.30 1250_ C as alloy ingredient only
Iron Fe 7.86 1539_ C not in pure Form, Steel with C
and alloy ingredient
Copper Cu 8.93 1083_ C for electrical wire and alloy in-
gredient

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
CRYSTAL AND CELLS

Structural metals in solid state form as crystals. A crystal is a rigid body in
which the constituent particles are arranged in a repeating pattern. The basic
building block of the crystal is known as a unit cell. The crystal is built from the
repetition of these identical unit cells.

The body centred cubic (BCC) has a total of nine atoms. One is at each corner
of the cube and one in the centre (see Cube 1 opposite).
The face centred cubic (FCC) unit cells consists of 14 atoms. One atom is at
each cube corner and one is in the centre of each face. Aluminium, copper,
gold, nickel, silver and iron are examples of metals that have the FCC form.
These are ductile metals (see Cube 2 opposite).
Cobalt, magnesium, titanium and zinc have the hexagonal close packed (HCP)
arrangement. There are 17 atoms in HCP unit cells (see Cube 3 opposite).

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
Cube

Cube 1 Cube 2
Cube 3

Figure 3 Crystals and Cells
M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT
GENERAL
The selection of materials should be the best compromise between the quality
of the material to fulfil the requested function and all costs (material prices,

processing time and effort, maintain and repair of structure, etc) at the time of
the aircraft development.
A change of material in existing programmes is difficult and expensive (a new
airworthiness certification is necessary, changes in all programme documenta-
tion drawings).
Nevertheless, airframe manufacturers spend time and effort finding new solu-
tions to raise the quality of the aircraft or to reduce manufacturing costs. Mate-
rial specialists do this, for all existing programmes and for new developments in
their specific field.

M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66
1990 Boeing MDC AI

Steel Steel Titan. 6%
Steel Titan. 5%
Titan. 3% 12% 8%
15% Comp. 4% Various 3%
Comp.
4% Comp. 14%
Aluminum 78% Aluminum 79% Aluminum 69%
2010 Steel 6%
Titan. 9%
Steel Steel Titan. 5%
Aluminum 15% Titan. 3% Aluminum 12% Various 4%
Aluminum
20% 23%
35%
Composites Composites Composites

62% 60% 46%

Figure 4 Material Development
M6.0 INTRODUCTION
Part -66


M6.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS-FERROUS
Part -66
M 6.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

Part -66
STEEL APPLICATIONS
General
The base material iron is a chemical element which, in its pure form, is a very
soft, malleable and ductile metal which is easy to form and shape. In practical

use pure iron is very seldom encountered, but it is mixed with various other
alloying agents.
Description
Steel is an excellent engineering material with many applications. For aircraft
use, however, it does have some significant problems. The main restrictions
are its high density (approximately 3 times the density of aluminium) and its
susceptability to corrosion. The corrosion of steel can be reduced by the addi-
tion of large quantities of certain alloying elements, but this can have significant
effects on properties and costs.
Between 9 and 16% (Airbus A320: 9% , Boeing B777: 11%) of an aircraft’s
structure is alloy steel and stainless steel. The high strength and high modulus
of elasticity are the primary advantages of the high-strength steels. This is use-
ful for designs with space limitations such as with some landing gear compo-
nents.
Alloy selection considerations include service temperature, strength, stiffness
fatigue properties and fabricability.

Part -66

INBOARD FLAP TRACKS
4340M
FLAP LINKAGE
LANDING GEAR 15--5PH AND 4330M
4340M
REAR ENGINE MOUNT

9 NI-4CO-.30C
SLAT TRACKS
4340M
HYDRAULIC LINES
ENGINE MIDSPAR
ATTACH FITTINGS
4330M
FRONT ENGINE MOUNT, STRUT LOWER
SPARS, WEB AND CHORDS, 15--5PH

Figure 5 Steel Application
Part -66
ALLOYING INGREDIENTS
General alloying elements
The main alloying agents of steel are:

S carbon (the most important element)
S sulphur
S manganese (produces a clean, tough and uniform metal)
S silicon (acts as a hardener)
S phosphorous (raises the yield strength and corrosion resistance)
S nickel (adds strength and hardness. Nickel is the major ingredient for corro-
sion resistant steel)
S chromium (increases the strength, wear and corrosion resistance)
S molybdenum (increases impact strength and elastic limit)
S vanadium (increases the tensile strength and toughness)
S titanium (reduces the brittleness of the steel).

Part -66

Figure 6 Alloying Elements
Part -66
MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS
General
Designations given to most low alloy steels are based upon an AISI (American
Iron and Steel Institute) system that refers to the chemical composition of the

alloy.
The first two digits refer to the specific primary alloying elements, the last two
digits (or the last three in a five-digit number) refer to the percentage of carbon
contained in the alloy.
S 10XX -- refers to plain carbon steels (contain only carbon and manganese)
S 41XX -- refers to chromium and molybdenum alloy steels
S 43XX -- refers to nickel, chromium and molybdenum alloy steels
S 5210 -- refers to a chromium alloy with 1% carbon
S 93XX -- refers to a nickel, chromium and molybdenum alloy steel (with a
different ratio between these elements than is contained in the 43XX alloys).
For example, 4340 refers to a nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy containing
.40% carbon.
9Ni - 4Co.30C is a specific trade name assigned to a nickel-cobalt alloy with
.30% carbon. The 9 and 4 refer to the nominal percentages of nickel and cobalt
in the alloy. The normally-used low alloy steels and their applicable strength
ranges are shown. Use of these alloys is limited to the strength ranges shown.
The European designations are slightly different. For further information refer to
the ’Metallic Material List’ in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) of the specific
aircraft manufacturer.

Part -66

Figure 7 Material Designations
Part -66
STEEL ALLOYS AND TEMPERS

General
Where tensile strengths are required that are greater than those obtainable
from titanium alloys, the high-strength steels are still the best option. A range of

high-strength nickel-chrome, precipitation-hardening stainless steels are avail-
able with strength up to 300 ksi (300M steel). These are used in critical areas
such as landing gear units and other compact but highly-loaded fittings, their
use often being dictated, not only by weight considerations, but by the lack of
space available in some areas.
Selection of high-strength alloy steel is based upon high tensile-to-yield ratios.
The best strength-weight ratios are achieved by heat treating steels at the max-
imum range that yields the desired structural reliability.
Experience shows that steels heat treated near the upper limits exhibit a ten-
dency to fracture without appreciable deformation. Therefore, selecting steel
whilst only considering only maximum tensile strength and hardness can result
in premature failure when subjected to impact loads. Such failures can occur
during attachment of fittings or rough shop handling. These loads can be either
dynamic or static in origin and, although not great, be sufficient to cause failure
in brittle steel.
Because of this, steels are tempered to lower tensile strengths, which will in-
crease impact values. The problem is to select a steel that will give the service
desired. For material selection, the toughness characteristics of steel alloys
must be determined. Toughness of a material is the ability displayed to absorb
energy by deformation.

Part -66

Good Fatigue Good Fatigue
Good Fracture Toughness
Good Resistance To Stress Corrosion And Hydrogen Embrittlement

Figure 8 Properties of Steel Alloys
Part -66
CORROSION-RESISTANT (STAINLESS) STEEL

General
Since the 1940s the term ’stainless steel’, also designated corrosion--resistant
steel (CRES), has become a household word because of its many applications

in consumer items as well as in aircraft construction.
The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the outstanding
advances in aircraft, gas--turbine engines and rockets. The most important
characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion resistance, strength, toughness
and resistance to high temperatures.
These steels do not normally use the SAE classification but they are identified
by a three- digit system. The 200 and 300 series of stainless steel are known
as ’austenitic’ and the 400 series is known as ’martensitic’.
The most widely-used stainless steels for general use are those in the 300 se-
ries, called 18--8 because they contain approximately 18% chromium and 8%
nickel. Stainless steels can be divided into three general groups based on their
structures: austenitic, ferritic and martensitic.

Part -66
RETRACTION LINK RETRACTION LEVER
FORWARD PINTLE--PIN
FITTING

GEAR SUPPORT RIB 6 CARDAN PIN
WING REAR SPAR
300M Alloy is equvalent to AMS 6417 or 6419
SHORTENING
LINKAGE FITTING 6417 -- 1.6Si 0.82Cr 1.8Ni 0.4Mo 0.08V (0.38--0.43C)
6419 -- wie 6417, aber 0.4--0.45C
REAR PINTLE--PIN
FITTING
4330 -- 0.88Cr 1.8Ni 0.42Mo 0.08V (0.28--0.33C)
SHORTENING MECHANISM
RETRACTION ACTUATOR
4330U
DOWNLOCK
ACTUATOR
SIDE STAY FITTING Ti 6Al V4
7049-- T73 LOCKING ARM
SIDE STAY ASSEMBLY 300M
MLG LEG
300M DOWNLOCKING JACK S99/4340
PITCH TRIMMER ARTICULATING LINKS4330U
SLIDING TUBE 300M

TORQUE LINKS
300M
BOOGIE BEAM ASSY 300M
BRAKE ROD

Figure 9 Steel Components (Landing Gear)
Part -66
PRECIPITATION-HARDENED STAINLESS STEELS

PH- Steels
Contain very little carbon, 15-17% chromium, 4-7% nickel and other minor al-
loying elements. These alloys are solution heat-treated and can be hardened to

very high strengths.
Typical usage in the aircraft industry for airframe applications where high
strength and excellent corrosion resistance are required. Also used in elevated
temperature locations.
Very good corrosion resistance in marine environment.
HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

HHT- Steels
Principally iron base alloys, which can be hardened to very high strengths. The
common steel alloy for use in the 180-200 ksi range is the 4130 alloy.
4340 steel has a strength range of 200 ksi up to 280 ksi and is commonly used
in the 260-280 ksi range.
An even higher strength alloy is 300M, most commonly used for aircraft landing
gear components. It can be hardened to the 240-290 ksi range.

Part -66
LOW ALLOY STEELS AND THEIR APPLICABLE STRENGTH RANGES

STRENGTH RANGE (KSI)
ALLOY
125 - 145 150 - 170 160 - 180 180 - 200 220 MIN 275 - 300
4340 X X X X
4330M X X X
9Ni-4Co-.30C X
4340M X

Part -66
PRIMARY STEELS USED IN MODERN AIRPLANES

4330M and 4340M
The most widely-used high-strength steels are 4330M heat-treated to 220--240
KSI and 4340M heat-treated to 275 -- 300 KSI. These modified steels are also

known as vacuum remelt steels because of the manufacturing process used to
obtain their superior properties.
This process results in increased ductility, fatigue and fracture toughness prop-
erties.
9Ni-4Co-0,30C
For elevated temperature applications up to 900_F, such as aft engine mounts,
9Ni - 4Co - 0.30C steel heat treated to 220-240 KSI is used. The successful
use of high-strength steel is attributed to careful design and stringent material
and process controls.
15--5PH
For bar and forging applications at strength levels of 200 KSI or lower, 15-5PH
precipitation hardened stainless steel is currently being used in place of alloy
steel. Manufacturing costs are reduced and improved corrosion resistance is
obtained by using 15-5PH steel.
300 Series
The 300 series austenitic stainless steel sheet materials are used for lower
strength applications where corrosion or hygiene concerns dictate material
needs.

Part -66

Figure 10 Primary Steels Used in Modern Airplanes
Part -66
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT POTENTIAL

Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is a phenomenon that occurs in various metal sys-
tems, particularly ferrous and titanium alloys, under sustained loads at stresses

far below the actual ultimate tensile strength.
Aluminium, 300 series stainless steels and precipitation hardenable steels
(15-5 PH etc) are not affected.
In ferrous alloys, hydrogen embrittlement occurs when an alloy steel or a 400--
series stainless component containing small amounts of hydrogen is subjected
to a sustained load.
CAUTION: FRACTURE OF THE PART CAN OCCUR UNDER LOADS AS
LOW AS 30% OF THE YIELD STRENGTH AFTER ONLY A
FEW THOUSAND SERVICE HOURS.
The hydrogen will migrate to an area of triaxial stresses (such as occur at
notches, corrosion pits or other stress raisers) once it is present in the metal
surface.The resulting hydrogen concentration then causes the initiation and
propagation of a brittle crack.
The hydrogen can be introduced into the component during processing. Certain
solvents and plating processes can introduce hydrogen into the surface of the
part.
The susceptibility of steel parts to hydrogen embrittlement increases as the
hardness and strength increase.

Part -66

Highly susceptibleto embrittlement
Susceptible to embrittlement
190 - 230_ C for not

less than 18 hours
EMBRITTLEMENT SUSCEPTIBILITY
190 - 230_ C for not
less than 4 hours
1000 MPa 1400 MPa

140 KSI 200 KSI
TENSILE STRENGTH

Figure 11 Hydrogen Embrittlement
Part -66


TABLE OF CONTENTS
M 6.2 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS -NON-FERROUS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITANIUM
General
Titanium and its alloys are used widely in the aerospace industry because of its
high strength, light weight, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance.
The weight of titanium is approximately 56% of the weight of steel, but its

strength is equal to that of steel.
ALUMINIUM CRES 18 - 8 TITANIUM
DENSITY 2.7 7.75 4.5
CORROSION-
RESISTANT low good very good
HEAT
very good low very low
CONDUCTIVITY
HEAT RESISTANT low good good
Use in Aircraft Construction

The strength of titanium is maintained to temperatures of more than 800°F
(427°C); hence it is useful in the cooler sections of gas--turbine engines, for
cowlings and baffles around engines and for the skin parts of aircraft which
may be subjected to elevated temperatures that would be damaging to alumin-
ium alloys.
Supersonic transport airplanes utilize titanium extensively for the skin because
of the atmospheric heating which occurs at high supersonic speeds. Titanium is
also used for the manufacture of supersonic military aircraft.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Figure 12 Application of Titanium Alloy
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PROPERTIES - TITANIUM
Corrosion
One of the most outstanding properties of titanium is its resistance to corrosive
substances, including some of the most troublesome industrial chemicals. It is

uniquely resistant to inorganic chloride solutions, chlorinated organic com-
pounds, chlorine solutions and moist chlorine gas. It also has excellent resist-
ance to oxidizing acids such as nitric or chromic acids. Strong reducing acids,
however, will attack titanium.
The resistance of titanium to corrosion by natural environmental substances is
unequaled by other structural metals. It is completely inert when exposed to
stagnant water, urban atmosphere, marine atmosphere, salt--water spray and
sea--water.
Extreme Heat
When titanium is exposed to high temperatures (1000°F (583°C) and above), it
must be protected from the atmosphere, because at these temperatures it
combines rapidly with oxygen. The usual method of protection is to heat the
metal in an atmosphere of argon or helium gas. One of the most satisfactory
methods for welding titanium is inert--gas welding.
Titanium has excellent properties in its pure form and also with the addition of
various alloying elements. The pure form may have small amounts of carbon
and nitrogen with maximums of 0.10 and 0.05% respectively. These maximums
are also a requirement for alloyed types.
The pure material may have a tensile strength of 50,000 to 90,000 PSI, and the
addition of manganese brings this up to as high as 139,000 PSI . Aluminium in
amounts of 3--7% is commonly used as an alloying element. Other alloying ele-
ments include molybdenum, tin, iron, chromium and vanadium. Alloying and
heat treating have made it possible to develop titanium products with more than
180,000 PSI tensile strength.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Outboard Flap
Support Link
APU Firewall
Inboard Flap
Support Link Elevator Actuator
Fittings
Main Landing Gear Beams

and Associated Structure
Inboard Auxiliary
Slat Tracks
Inboard Flap Rib
Window Sill
and Posts Thrust Reverser Fittings
Hydraulic Lines
Springs
MLG Actuator Support Fittings Fittings (Structural and Non-Structural)
Forward Landing Gear Trunnion Fasteners
Bearing Housing

Figure 13 Application Of Titanium Alloy
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
General
Titanium may be worked by many of the methods employed for steel and stain- The basic machining properties of titanium metal cannot be altered. However,
less (corrosion--resistant) steel. It can be sheared, drawn, pressed, machined, their affects can be greatly minimized by decreasing temperatures generated at
routed, sawed and nibbled. The operator handling titanium must be familiar the tool face and cutting edge.
with its peculiarities and special characteristics in order to obtain good results. Economical production techniques have been developed through application of
The cutting dies and shear blades used in cutting titanium must be of good

these basic rules in machining titanium:
quality steel and must be kept very sharp.
S Use low cutting speeds. Tool-tip temperatures are affected more by cutting
When titanium is being cut or ground in any appreciable quantity, it is neces- speed than by any other single variable. A change from 20 surface feet per
sary to have fire--extinguishing equipment to hand. Hot sparks from a grinding minute to 150 surface feet per minute with carbide tools will result in a tem-
wheel can ignite an accumulation of titanium dust and swarf to produce an ex- perature change from 800°F to 1,700°F.
tremely hot fire. It is recommended that liquid coolant of the correct type be
S Maintain high feed rates. Temperature is not affected by feed rate so much
used during grinding to avoid the possibility of such a fire.
as by speed, and the highest feed rates consistent with good machining
Hints for Machining Titanium practice should be used.
Titanium is sometimes classified as difficult to machine. In part, this can be ex- S Use plenty of cutting fluid. Coolant carries away heat, washes away swarf
plained by the physical properties of titanium metal. and reduces cutting forces.
S Titanium is a poor conductor of heat. Heat, generated by the cutting action, S Use sharp tools and replace them at the first sign of wear. Tool wear not
does not dissipate quickly. Therefore most of the heat is concentrated on linear when cutting titanium and complete tool failure occurs rather quickly
the cutting edge and the tool face. after a small initial amount of wear takes place.
S Titanium has a strong alloying tendency or chemical reactivity with materials S Never stop feeding while tool and work are In moving contact. Allowing a
in cutting tools at tool-operating temperatures. This causes galling, welding tool to dwell in moving action causes work hardening and promotes smear-
and smearing and rapid destruction of the cutting tool. ing, galling, seizing and total tool breakdown.
S Titanium has a relatively low modulus. Work will have a tendency to move Precautions for Working Titanium
away from the cutting tool unless heavy cuts are maintained or proper
back--up is employed. CAUTION: TWO PRECAUTIONS MUST BE OBSERVED WHILE WORK-
ING WITH TITANIUM. BOTH OF THESE ARE NECESSARY
Two other factors influence machining operations.
BECAUSE OF THE STRONG AFFINITY WHICH TITANIUM
S Because of the lack of a stationary mass of metal (built--up edge) ahead of HAS FOR OXYGEN AND OTHER ELEMENTS AT HIGH TEM-
the cutting tool, a high shearing angle is formed. This causes a thin chip to PERATURES.
contact a relatively small area on the cutting tool face and results in high 1. AT ABOUT 1,950°F(1,065°C), TITANIUM WILL IGNITE IN
bearing loads per unit area. THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN AND BURN WITH AN INCAN-
The high bearing force, combined with the friction developed by the chip as DESCENT FLAME.
it rushes over the bearing area, results in a great increase in heat on a very 2. ITS AFFINITY FOR NITROGEN IS EVEN MORE PRO-
localized portion of the cutting tool. NOUNCED, BECAUSE IT WILL IGNITE AT ABOUT 1,500°F
S Further, the combination of high bearing forces and heat produces cratering (815°C) WITH NITROGEN.
action close to the cutting edge, resulting in rapid tool breakdown.

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ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
General
Pure (99.0%) cast aluminium is unsuitable for aircraft structures because it is
too soft. However, because of its light weight (one--third the weight of steel), it

is, when alloyed with other metals or elements, an ideal structural material.
Alloyed aluminium is produced in cast or wrought form. Cast aluminium has a
grain structure that is very coarse, thus the metal is brittle. Cast aluminium is
used in construction of aircraft wheels and engine crankcases.
When aluminium is wrought, its grain structure is compressed and tightened as
it is forced into shapes of plates, rods, extrusions or skins. Wrought aluminium
(used extensively in aircraft construction) is either non--heat--treated or heat--
treated. Most structural aircraft parts are made of heat--treated aluminium al-
loys.
Alloying Designators
Alloying is mixing aluminium with other metals to make it stronger. Wrought and
cast aluminium alloys are identified by a four--digit number, designated by the
Aluminium Association of America (AA--Number), the first digit of which gener-
ally identifies the major alloying element.
The second digit indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indi-
cates the original alloy; digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively,
indicate alloy modifications.
The last two digits have no special significance, serving only to identify the dif-
ferent alloys in the group. For casting alloys, the fourth digit is separated from
the first three digits by a decimal point, and indicates the form, that is to say
casting or ingot.

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Figure 14 Aluminium Base Materials
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PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM
General
Aluminium is three times lighter than steel but, when alloyed, can attain steel’s
high strength characteristics. It is also corrosion-resistant, making it hygienic

and long--lasting.
One pound of aluminium has more than twice the electrical conductivity of an
equal weight of copper.
Polished aluminium is highly reflective and is utilized for light and heat reflec-
tors.
Since the chemical composition of aluminium remains unchanged during re-
melting, it is easily and efficiently recycled. Remelting of aluminium scrap re-
quires only five per cent of the energy needed to produce primary aluminium.

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Melting Point 660_C
Density 2.7 Kg/dm3
Tensile Strength 80 N/mm Alloyed up to 540 N/mm
Corrosion Resisting
Heat Conducting Cooking Pot
Forming Property Extrusions

Electrical Conductance Electrical Wire

Figure 15 Properties of Aluminium
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SURFACE PROTECTION/CLADDING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Primary Protection of Aluminium Alloys
Several aluminium alloys (for example 2024 and 7075) are very susceptible to
corrosion. Sheets of such material are clad with a thin layer of pure aluminium
with 1% zinc on both sides as a means of corrosion protection.

These layers are permanently welded to the base material in a rolling process
at high temperature. Other than electroplated stock, clad material can be
formed.
The thickness of the clad layers is about 3-5% of the material thickness. An ink
print on US sheet metal that reads ALclad, Clad or ALC indicates that such
sheet is clad.

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2024
Cladding
T Aluminium
Cladding
Thickness of Cladding
3--5% of T
Cladding Material
(Pure Aluminium)
ALclad = Cladded Material
Rubber Stamp
on Sheet
Material Thickness
in Inches

Figure 16 Cladding of Aluminium Alloys
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ALUMINIUM ALLOY DESIGNATIONS
Digit Index System Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminium alloys (AA--Numbering
The aluminium industry uses a four--digit index system for the designation of its System)
wrought and cast aluminium alloys.
Wrought Alloys
As outlined below, the first digit indicates the alloy group according to the major

Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
alloying elements.
1XXX 99.00% minimum aluminium
The second digit indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indi-
cates the original alloy; digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively, 2XXX Copper
indicate alloy modifications. The last two digits have no special significance, 3XXX Manganese
serving only to identify the different alloys in the group. 4XXX Silicon
Experimental Alloys 5XXX Magnesium
Experimental alloys are designated according to the four--digit system, but they 6XXX Magnesium and Silicon
are prefixed by the letter X. The prefix is dropped when the alloy becomes 7XXX Zinc
standard. During development, and before they are designated as experimen- 8XXX Other elements
tal, new alloys are identified by serial numbers assigned by their originators.
9XXX Unused series
Use of the serial number is discontinued when the X number is assigned.
Cast Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
1XXX 99.00 % minimum aluminium
2XXX Copper
3XXX Silicon with added copper and/or magnesium
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Unused series
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Tin
9XXX Other elements

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Figure 17 Aluminium Alloying Ingredients
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Figure 18 Aluminium Association Numbering System
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Figure 19 Hardening of Aluminium Alloys
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NON HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
1100 ALUMINIUM 2011 ALUMINIUM
This grade is commercially pure aluminium. It is soft and ductile and has excel- 2011 is the most free--machining of the common aluminium alloys. It also has
lent workability. It is ideal for applications involving intricate forming because it excellent mechanical properties. Thus, it is widely used for automatic screw

work--hardens more slowly than other alloys. It is the most weldable of alumin- machine products in parts requiring extensive machining.
ium alloys, by any method. It is non--heat treatable. It may be machined at high speeds with relatively heavy feeds. It may be re-
It has excellent resistance to corrosion, and is widely used in the chemical and sistance welded. Its corrosion resistance is good, and hardness and strength
food processing industries. It responds well to decorative finishes, which makes excellent.
it suitable for giftware and applications where eye appeal is a factor.
It has the highest thermal conductivity of any aluminium alloy.
2017 ALUMINIUM
3003 ALUMINIUM 2017 combines excellent machinability and high strength with the result that is
This is the most widely used of aluminium alloys. It is essentially commercially one of the most widely used alloys for automatic screw machine work. Its
pure aluminium with the addition of manganese, which increases the strength strength is slightly less than that of 2014. It is a tough, ductile alloy suitable for
some 20% over 1100. Thus, it has all the excellent characteristics of 1100 with heavy--duty structural parts.
higher strength. It has excellent corrosion resistance and workability, and it may It has good formability, and may be joined by arc or resistance welding. Brazing
be deep drawn or spun, welded, or brazed. This alloy is non--heat treatable. or gas welding is not recommended. Its corrosion resistance is fair.
5052 ALUMINIUM
This is the highest strength alloy of the more common non--heat treatable 2024 ALUMINIUM
grades. Fatigue strength is higher than most aluminium alloys. In addition, this
This is one of the best known of high strength aluminium alloys. With its high
grade has particularly good resistance to marine atmosphere and salt water
strength and excellent fatigue resistance, it is used to advantage on aircraft
corrosion.
structure and parts where a good strength--to--weight ratio is desired. It is
It has excellent workability. It may be drawn or formed into intricate shapes, readily machined to a high finish. 2024 in the annealed condition is easily
and its slightly greater strength in the annealed condition minimizes tearing that formed and may be subsequently heat--treated. Arc or gas welding is generally
occurs in 1100 or 3003. The resistance welding characteristics are equal to not recommended, although this alloy may be spot, seam, or flash welded. The
those of 1100 or 3003.. It has excellent finishing characteristics, and anodic corrosion resistance is relatively low. 2024 is commonly used with an anodized
coatings are bright and clear. finish or in clad form (“ALclad”), with a thin surface layer of high purity alumin-
ium.

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Figure 20 Alloying Elements of Aluminium
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HEAT TREATMENT PROCEDURE
Steps of Heat--Treatment
The heat--treatment takes place in three steps.
S Step 1: Solution heat treat, that is heating of the material to a specified tem-

perature and holding it there for a specified time.
S Step 2: Quenching
S Step 3: Age hardening (precipitation) at room temperature or elevated tem-
perature
The quenching must occur rapidly. After quenching the material initially is soft
and ductile.
NOTE: BECAUSE OF THE SOFT CONDITION THE MATERIAL HAS
ONLY LITTLE STRENGTH. PARTS MAY BE INSTALLED INTO
THE AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE ONLY AFTER THEY HAVE
REACHED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH.

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Figure 21 Methods of Heat-- treatment
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NATURAL AGING ARTIFICIAL AGING
General General
The heat--treated aluminium alloys are extensively used in aircraft structures. Aluminium alloys containing zinc, magnesium, silicon, or copper are given a
Commonly used heat--treatable alloys naturally age hardened are 2117, 2017 precipitation heat--treatment after natural heat--treatment is completed. For ex-

and 2024. ample, the alloy 7075 is given a normal heat--treatment at 495)C (870°F) and
For example, the aluminium alloy 2024--F is heated to a temperature of 495°C quenched in cold water. After it is precipitation heat--treated at 120°C (250°F)
(920°F) and held at that temperature until all parts are equally heated. After for 24 hours, it becomes 7075--T6. Alloys are precipitation heat--treated by
being heated, the metal is quickly transferred to a quenching tank. The quench- heating them in an oven; time and temperatures vary (see table).
ing operation must be performed as quickly as possible in order to reduce the This treatment has effect of locking together particles in the grain of the metal,
possibility of intergranular corrosion. After quenching, the aluminium alloy is thus increasing strength, stability, and resistance to corrosion. Natural heat--
kept at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours to ensure that the metal has age treatment begins the grain--binding process; precipitation heat--treatment com-
hardened. Age hardening, the final step in the heat--treatment process, makes pletes it. In addition, artificially aged alloys are generally over--aged to increase
the metal naturally hard. their resistance to corrosion, especially if, like 2024, they are subject to inter-
The designation of metal so treated changes from -F, as fabricated, to -T4, granular corrosion.
heat--treated and age hardened. If the metal is further hardened by cold--work- Metals which are given precipitation heat--treatment usually lose some mallea-
ing (that is, mechanically) its designation is -T3. bility and ductility, and their mechanical properties are so changed as to reduce
Heat treatable aluminium alloys commonly used in the construction of modern their ability to be reshaped cold without cracking. The most commonly used
aircraft are 2117--T4, 2017--T4 and 2024--T4 or T3. The alloy 2117--T4 is precipitation heat--treated alloys are those containing zinc. The alloy 7075-- T6
manufactured only as rivet stock. It is the most widely used rivet alloy in the has high impact resistance and therefore is used where great strength is re-
aviation industry. The 2117--T4 rivet is driven in the condition received from the quired. The 7079--T6 aluminium alloys are excellent for making forgings for
manufacturer without any further treatment. heavy channels that carry landing gears or flaps of large aircraft. The alloy
7178 is used where compression loads are the greatest, for example in the su-
ALCOA, a big aluminium manufacturer, reworked the alloy 2017--T4 by slightly
perstructure of wide--body jets.
reducing the amount of magnesium and adding small amount of iron and sili-
con. The crack--free 2017--T4 rivet material can be driven in the condition re- The alloy 7075--T73 is the newest aluminium alloy. It was developed in 1979 by
ceived. It is used in the construction of the Boeing 757 and 737 series aircraft. ALCOA and the US Air Force. A combination of aluminium, zinc, and magne-
sium, it is primarily used as a solid--shank rivet. The 7050--T73 is the strongest
The alloy 2024--T3 is widely used for skin covering and internal parts of all
of any rivet alloy in use today. It has a high resistance to stress corrosion and is
types of aircraft. It has exceptional resistance to fatigue loads, it is highly resist-
much stronger than the alloy 2024--T31, which it has replaced on some modern
ant to cracks, it can withstand heavy load limits, and it retains high strength
jetliners.
after damage.

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Figure 22 Temperature Schedule of Heat--treatment
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SYSTEM FOR HEAT TREATABLE ALLOYS
Temper Designators
The temper designation system for wrought and cast products that are
strengthened by heat--treatment employs the W and T designation described in

the section on basic temper designations. The W designation denoted an un-
stable temper, whereas the T designation denotes a stable temper other than
F, O or H. The T is followed by a number from 1 to 10; each number indicates
a specific sequence of basic treatments, as follows:
Basic Temper Designation
F As fabricated
O Annealed
H Strain hardened (Non heat treatable products only)
W Solution heat--treated
T heat--treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H

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TEMPER DESIGNATION FOR HEAT--TREATMENT
Designation Indicators
T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and na-
turally aged to a substantially stable condition

T2 Annealed
T3 Solution heat--treated and cold worked.
T4 Solution heat--treated and naturally aged.
T42 Solution heat--treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response
to heat--treatment by the user, and naturally aged to a substan-
tially stable condition
T5 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and arti-
ficially aged
T6 Solution heat--treated and artificially aged.
T62 Solution heat--treated from 0 F temper to demonstrate
response to heat--treatment by the user, and artificially aged
T7 Solution heat--treated and stabilized
T8 Solution heat--treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
T9 Solution heat--treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
T10 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold
worked, and artificially aged
Additional digits are used to designate stress relieving.

TX51 Stress relieved by stretching
TX510 For extrusions, products that receive no further straightening
after stress-- relieving by stretching.
TX511 For extrusions, products that receive minor straightening after
stress-- relieving by stretching.
TX52 Stress relieving by compressing

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GLARE (FIBRE METAL LAMINATES)
Glare (GLAss REinforced Laminate) is a member of a family of materials called
Fibre Metal Laminates (FMLs). FMLs are materials consisting of thin layers of
metal sheet and unidirectional fibre layers embedded in an adhesive system.
Glare is an optimised FML for aircraft and consists of alternating layers of alu-

minium and glass fibre pregreg layers.
A laminate is produced in an autoclave curing cycle. The different layers of the
laminate are stacked before curing by hand lay--up, or by automated machines.
Because of the layered structure of the material it is possible to tailor the mate-
rial for a particular application. Both the number of layers as well as the direc-
tion of the fibre layers can be varied depending on the application of the struc-
tural part.
Up to now six standard Glare grades have been developed. The number of
prepreg layers and their orientation determines the Glare grade. All grades are
based on uni--directional glass fibres embedded in Cytec FM 94 structural
adhesive. The thickness of the aluminium layers in the Glare laminates ranges
from 0.2 to 0.5 mm.
The most important applications of Glare are: fuselage skin structures of the
Airbus A380, aircraft cargo bay floors and liners, aircraft cargo explosive resist-
ant containers.

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2024--T3 or 7475--T76 sheets
0.2--0.4mm

Epoxy Adhesive Film
Glass Fibre Prepreg Unidirec-

tional or Fabric
40
Aluminium 2024--T3
30 GLARE 3--3/2
20
GLARE 2--3/2
10
CRACK LENGTH (mm)

0 105 106 107 108 109
NUMBER OF FATIGUE CYCLES

Figure 23 GLARE (GLAss REinforced Laminate)
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M6.3.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS-
COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC Part -66
M 6.3.1 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC

ABBREVIATIONS
Composite Abbreviations
AFRP Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic

GFRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
HOBE Honeycomb before Expansion
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
NDT Non Destructive Testing
NTM Non Destructive Testing Manual
Prepeg Pre impregnated Fabric
SRM Structural Repair Manual
CONVERSIONS
Fahrenheit / Centigrade
Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
S °C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
S °F = °C x 1.8 + 32



COMPOSITES GENERAL
Introduction
The term composite is used to describe two or more materials that are com-
bined to form a much stronger structure than either material by itself.

The most simple composite is composed of two elements: a matrix (fabric)
which serves as a bonding substance (adhesives or resins), and a reinforcing
material. Prior to combination, the matrix is generally in liquid form and the rein-
forcing material is a solid. When the substances are combined and cured, the
part is stronger than the fabric is by itself, and stronger than the resin is by it-
self. Many times a third component is added in the form of a core material. All
of these materials are combined to make a part that is stronger than each was
originally.
Modern composites are advanced to the point that they are strong enough to
be used in primary airframe components like rudders and floor beams. In
some cases the whole airframe is designed of advanced composite materials.
ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
Composite materials are used mainly to reduce weight. If weight can be saved,
more cargo, fuel or passengers can be carried.
More advantages are:
S high strength-to-weight ratio
S reduction of parts and fasteners
S reduction of wear
S corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages are:
S general expensive
S not easy to repair; you need well-trained staff, tools, equipment and facilities
to repair composite components.


Figure 24 Composite Advantages
USAGE OF COMPOSITES ON AIRCRAFT

Airbus
Airbus first introduced composites on the A300 in 1972, using glass--fiber rein-
forced polymers (GFRP) for the radome and vertical fin’s leading and trailing

edges. In the 1980s, Airbus began using long--carbon fiber reinforced polymer
matrix (CFRP) materials for moving surfaces (spoilers, airbrakes, rudders,
flaps) and as primary structures for vertical fins on various models.
In 2002, the trend continued, with fuel tanks, rear pressure bulkheads and keel
beams for the A340--600 and A318; and, most recently, a carbon fiber center
wing box and CFRP rear fuselage for the A380.
Boeing
When complete, Boeing’s B787 will become the leader in the use of composite
material in commercial aircraft structure design. Around half of the B787 will be
made of composites (by weight), similar to the ratio applied in the F--35 Joint
Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon military aircraft, with grahite epoxy
being the dominant material.
The fuselage will be made with fiber placement stringers, frames and skins
manufactured as one piece in addition to stringers, spars and skins of the air-
craft’s wings and cargo doors. Also, the possibility of using composite wing ribs
is investigated.


Figure 25 Composite Application on A320
REINFORCING MATERIALS
General
When combined with a matrix, the reinforcing material (fibres) are what give
the major strength to the composite component. There are several types of

reinforcing fibres; the most commonly-used are outlined below. These fibre ma-
terials can be used in combination with one another (e.g. Kevlar/ Graphite),
woven in a specific pattern, in combination with other materials (e.g. foams or
core materials) or simply in combination with various matrix materials.
Fibreglass
Fibreglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass and than spun to-
gether and woven into cloth. There are many different weaves of fibreglass
available, depending on the application. The wide range of application of the
material and its low cost make it one of the most popular used. Fibreglass
weighs more and has less strength than most other fibre material.
Aramid
Aramid fibres are general characterized by its yellow colour, light weight and its
excellent tensile strength. Aramid is a registered tradename of the Du Pont
Company and is an ideal material for aircraft parts that are subject to high
stress and vibration (e.g. rotor blades). It is also used in bullet-proof vests.
Damage to Aramid structural components will, in general, be repaired with fi-
breglass.
Graphite
Black graphite/carbon fibre is very strong and stiff and is used for its rigid,
strong properties. This material is used to manufacture primary structural com-
ponents like ribs and floor beams. Graphite is stronger in compressive strength
than Kevlar, however it is more brittle than Kevlar. It has the problem of being
corrosive when bonded to aluminium.


Figure 26 Reinforcement Materials
MATRIX MATERIALS
General
The matrix is the bonding material the completely surrounds the fibre to give
strength and transfer the stress to the fibre. The newer matrix materials have

good stress-distribution, heat-resistant, chemical-resistant and durability prop-
erties. Most of these newer matrix materials are epoxy resins.
Resin matrix are two-part systems consisting of a resin and a hardener or cata-
lyst, which acts as a curing agent.
Resins are a type of plastic and are broken down into two categories:
S Thermoplastics
S Thermoset.
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic resins use heat to form the part into a specified shape, and this
shape is not permanent. That means, if we add heat again it will flow again to
another shape. So thermoplastics can only be used in areas were the tempera-
tures do not exceed 750°F.
One example of thermoplastic is Plexiglass/Acrylic.
Thermosets
Thermoset use heat to form and set the shape permanently. The plastic, once
formed, cannot be reformed even if it is heated. Most composite structural
components are made from thermoset resins.
Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are one type of thermosetting plastic resin. They have good ad-
hesion, strength and resistance to moisture and chemical properties. They are
used to bond non-porous and dissimilar materials, like metal to composite com-
ponents.
Prepreg
Prepreg is the abbreviation of pre-impregnated fabrics, and they are fabrics
that have the resin already impregnated into them.


Epoxy Resin (Matrix)
Thermoplastics

Figure 27 Matrix Materials and Thermoplastics
CORE MATERIAL
General
Core material is the central member of the assembly. When the core is bonded
between two thin-face sheets, it provides a rigid, lightweight component. This

type of construction is known as sandwich construction.
Foams
There are a lot of different types of foam materials available, depending on the
application.
Honeycomb
This type of core material has the shape of natural honeycomb and has a ex-
cellent strength-to-weight ratio.
Honeycomb materials can be constructed of aluminium, Kevlar, carbon, fibre-
glass, Nomex (trade name of Du Pont) or steel. Nomex is a paper-impregnated
material and is very often used on so-called advanced composites.
Other Core Materials
Styrofoam, urethane, wood and several other materials are also used as core
materials.

Wood (Balsa Timber)

Longitudinal Cut
Toughened Foam
Cross-Cut Wood (Balsa)

with Weight-Reducing Holes
Cross-Cut Wood (Balsa)
Wood (Balsa Timber) Corrugated Sheet Metal

Longerons
Honeycomb Core
Cross Direction
Honeycomb Core
Longitudinal Direction

Figure 28 Different Core Materials
HOW PLASTICS ARE CREATED

General
In the image opposite are sets of twins, representing a model for the synthesis
of polymers.

Each pair of Mickey Mouses in the row represents a molecule of one of the
most important gaseous hydro--carbons in the manufacture of plastic: ethylene.
In the second row they have let go of one pair of hands and joined up with their
neighbours to produce a long chain.
In a chemical reaction the Mickey Mouses are monomers and the chain would
be a polymer.
POLYMERISATION
Polymerisation
The polymerisation process has been generally understood since about 1930.
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction, generally carried out in the presence of a
catalyst, which combines small molecules (monomers), containing a double
bond, into long chain molecules.
The double bond is ”opened up”, thereby making valency bonds available for
linking with its neighbouring monomer molecule.
No by--products are produced.
The monomer molecules may be:
S ethylene polymerising to polyethylene (PE)
S styrene polymerising to polystyrene (PS), or
S vinylchloride polymerising to polyvinyl--chloride (PVC).


Figure 29 Plastic Creation: The Polymerisation Process
POLYCONDENSATION
Polycondensation
Polycondensation was used and partly understood even earlier than 1930.
The most famous product was Bakelite, so named by Baekeland, the Belgian

chemist, who made it commercially soon after 1910.
Polycondensation is a chemical reaction between two similar or dissimilar basic
units which have at least two functional groups. It gives rise to the elimination
of small, low-molecular-weight by-products such as water, hydrochloric acid,
etc.
The most important commercial polymers are made in this way, for example:
S phenol--formaldehyde (Bakelite) resins (typical thermosets)
S polyamides (nylon) and
S polyester.
POLYADDITION
Polyaddition
Polyaddition has been used since 1937. Polyaddition is a reaction of two differ-
ent types of molecules when reactive groups are brought together. No by--prod-
ucts are produced, but hydrogen atoms migrate from their positions in the func-
tional group leaving combinable free valencies.
Two important types of plastics are made this way:
S polyurethanes and
S epoxies.


Polyamide
Thermoplastic Good mechanical

properties
PEEK (External Structures)
MATRIX
(resin)
Epoxy
Interior
Thermosetting
furnishing
Phenolic
(Not suitable for

Polyester structural parts)
BMI Can be blended

with epoxy
Compatibility with
reinforcement
Mechanical Properties
Resin Choice Main
Criteria
Toxicity/Flammability Density
Moisture Absorbtion Price Ageing Impact Resistance

Figure 30 Resin Applications
ADHESIVES
General Elastomeric Adhesives
Adhesive is a substance used to bond two or more surfaces together. Most Elastomeric adhesives, such as synthetic or natural rubber cements, are also
adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute pits and fissures normally pres- used. They
ent even in very smooth surfaces. Adhesive bonds are economical; they dis- S join dissimilar metals without the hazard of producing galvanic corrosion

tribute the stress at the bonding point, are moisture- and corrosion-resistant
S are the ideal joining material, and often the only one, that can be used for
and eliminate the need for rivets and bolts.
metal to plastic or metal to GFRP joints
The effectiveness of an adhesive depends on several factors, including
S can provide noise reduction as well as some temperature barrier functions.
S resistance to slippage and shrinkage
S distribute stresses uniformly over the entire bonded area. In contrast to
S malleability bolts and rivets, there is a minimal stress concentration.
S cohesive strength and S are designed to make joints that can bear both a static or dynamic load.
S surface tension, which determines how far the adhesive penetrates the tiny All other adhesives may be classified as non-structural. Non-structural adhe-
depressions in the bonding surfaces. sives include most household glues, hot--meld adhesives, rubber and other
Adhesives vary with the purpose for which they are intended. Such purposes thermoplastics.
now include the increasing use of adhesives in surgery.
Contact Adhesives
Synthetic Adhesives Atmospheric pressure will press two solids together if there is no air between
Synthetic adhesives, used either alone or as modifiers of natural adhesives, the two plane parallel surfaces. The barometric pressure is 1 bar = 10N/cm@.
perform better and have a greater range of application than the natural prod- For a contact area of 100cm@ a tensile force of 1000N is needed to pull the two
ucts. Most of them form polymers, which are huge molecules incorporating surfaces apart. Contact adhesives work the same way by using atmospheric
large numbers of simple molecules to form strong chains and nets that link sur- pressure.
faces in a firm bond.
Solvent Adhesives
Thermosetting Adhesives Solvent adhesives contain plastics or resins dissolved in a solvent. The solvent
Thermosetting adhesives (which are transformed into tough, heat-resistant sol- has to evaporate to cure the adhesive.
ids by the addition of a catalyst or the application of heat) are used in such
structural functions as bonding metallic parts of aircraft and space vehicles. Dispersion Adhesives
Thermoplastic resins, which can be softened by heating, are used for bonding Dispersion adhesives contain resins dissolved in a water solution, such as
wood, glass, rubber, metal and paper products. wood glue or wood paste.
Resin Adhesives
Resin adhesives cure by chemical reaction. They contain two or more compo-
nents.


Foaming Adhesive and Film
FM377S.08PSF36“ (FILM BMS5--137T2C1G10 36” 500SF)

Figure 31 Adhesives (Structural)
FILM ADHESIVES
General Thixotropic Agents
Film adhesives are similar to prepregs. They are used for bonding metal to Some plastic resins are extremely sensitive to temperature changes. At 15oC
metal, sandwich core to skin and GFRP, AFRP and CFRP. they may be as thick as molasses, while at 30oC they will run like water. Since
Adhesives are available as unsupported and supported films. Supported films heat is used as a curing agent, these resins may tend to run off of any vertical

contain a woven nylon carrier. or near-vertical surface before they have a chance to cure. In order to eliminate
this problem, we can add a thixotropic (thickening) agent such as micro--bal-
Film adhesives are supplied on a release paper backing, in rolls with polythene
loons.
interleaving to protect the adhesive in storage and when being handled. These
coverings must be removed before the adhesive can be used. Micro Balloons
The film adhesive has to be cured under a curing cycle, in accordance with the Micro-balloons are made of hollow phenolic balls with a range of diameter from
Structural Repair Manual. about 10 to 300 microns. Under the microscope, each micro--balloon is seen to
The film adhesive has to be stored under refrigeration at --18oC. be a perfect sphere.
In applying this agent, epoxy or polyester resins are mixed as directed, and the
Foaming Adhesive Film
micro--balloons are gently folded in, using care not to beat or crush them. A
A foaming adhesive film is an adhesive in sheet form which expands during the paste of light consistency is made up and trowelled onto the surface where it
curing cycle to fill gaps and adhere strongly to all parts of the structure with cures into a hard, light--weight filler. This can be filed or sanded to the required
which it comes into contact. It is mainly used for the repair of honeycomb sand- contour.
wich panels as a honeycomb core splice and as an edge--filling.
The foaming adhesive is designed for use in conjunction with structural adhe-
sive films and prepregs. Therefore it has to be cured under a curing cycle, in
accordance with the Structural Repair Manual .
Foaming adhesive films have a limited shelf life at room temperature, therefore
they should be kept under refrigeration at --18oC.
Plastic Foams
Plastic foams are produced with either ”closed” or ”open” (interconnected)
pores and as either preformed rigid sheets or as fluids for injection into cavities.
Most thermoplastics and some thermoset resins can be foamed but the materi-
als commonly used for aircraft components are polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polymethacrylimide. Polystyrene was used for some experimental aircraft and
polyurethane is also available.
Consideration of its performance in a fire (in terms of fire resistance and toxicity
of the smoke) will determine the choice of foam.


Microballoons and Resin
Microballoon
Foam Adhesive
Skin
Core
Skin

Figure 32 Adhesive Application Example
RESIN ADHESIVES POLYMER RESINS

Resin ensures the cohesion of the composite material. The mechanical properties of plastics (polymers) can be improved drastically
Thermosetting and thermoplastic are the two main types of resin used as a ma- by adding fibres, but for a composite to perform well the fibres must be bonded
trix. together so that they act as a team. The choice of polymer is important.
The selection of the applicable type of resin to be used for element build--up or The main features of a good polymer are

repair execution is based on various parameters. Nevertheless, it must be re- S It must have the correct mechanical properties
membered that most of the mechanical performances of a composite are given S It must coat every single fibre and bond well to them
by the fibres and their orientation.
S It must be fairly easy to use.
THERMOSETTING RESINS Polymers are combined with the fibres by melting or by using a liquid polymer
(resin) that can be hardened (cured).
When mixed with the specified hardener and cured, the thermosetting resin
sets in a given form. Hardening is irreversible. Melting is used to produce injection-moulded articles such as bodies for electri-
cal equipment or mass-produced components, but expensive machinery and
Epoxy and phenolic resin are the two main types of resin used for composite moulds are required.
structures.
Fibre-reinforced components can be fabricated by using a liquid polymer, usu-
Epoxy resins are used for external components due to their good mechanical ally referred to as a resin. They are cured by the addition of a hardener or cata-
properties. lyst, by the application of heat or by a combination of both.
Phenolic resins are used for cabin furnishing due to their fire resistance and The four most commonly-used resins in fibre reinforced composites are
low toxicity.
S Polyester resin
THERMOPLASTIC RESINS S Epoxy resin
When heated, thermoplastic resin becomes a plastic. After cooling, the resin S Vinyl ester
sets and hardens in a given form. Hardening is reversible. Thermoplastic res- S Phenolic resin.
ins are not currently used on composite structures. Epoxy resin accounts for the majority of aircraft repairs.


Delamination
.060“ diameter Syringe

hole
Syringe with resin mix
Delamination Area

Figure 33 Resin Injection Repairs
EPOXY RESINS (EPOXIDE RESINS) RESIN/HARDENER RATIOS

Epoxy resins are used in high-tech composites because their mechanical prop- Manufacturers normally state how many grams of hardener have to be added
erties are superior to those of polyesters. They are, however, much more ex- to 100g of resin. This figure is often referred to as phr, or parts per hundred of
pensive. They, too, are viscous liquids but cure by a different process which resin.
requires more accurate mixing. For instance, the data sheet might say:

RESINS AND HARDENERS Recommended resin/hardener ratio = 100 : 60 by weight
This means that 100g of epoxy resin requires 60g of hardener for complete
The amount of hardener added is critical, because using the wrong amount cure. If, however, you are measuring out the resin and hardener by volume, the
would result in one of the following: ratio may change because of the different densities of the two materials. In this
S Unreacted resin in the final cured resin case the ratio may be 100 : 65 by volume.
S Unreacted hardener in the final cured resin. Resin/hardener ratios vary immensely from as low as 10 phr to as high as 150
Both of these conditions would result in a weak product, and in extreme cases phr for normal use. 100 phr means that you mix equal proportions of resin and
the epoxy would remain sticky. hardener, just like the epoxy adhesives that you buy as a household adhesive.
RESIN/HARDENER RATIOS DISADVANTAGES OF EPOXIES

There are hundreds of epoxy resin systems on the market and each requires a Toxicity
different resin hardener ratio. Some are as low as 10:1 and others as high as
Some epoxies and dilutents are known to cause dermatitis. Some amina curing
1:1 (eg Araldite adhesive).
agents are toxic. Good housekeeping is the best preventive measure. Cured
The manufacturer will supply exact details of mixing ratios. epoxies are not deleterious to health.
COLD AND HOT CURE Low Pot and Shelf--Life
Many epoxy resins will cure at room temperature, but some require a high tem- Most two-component adhesive formulations must be mixed shortly before use.
perature to cure properly. Even room-temperature resins can be heated to Some film and tape adhesives must be stored at low temperature for extended
speed up the curing time and to improve the properties of the cured resin. life, partially offsetting their advantages of convenience and reliability.
EPOXY HARDENERS Moderate to High Cost

Epoxies are not cheap; however, their cost in a thin bond line is hardly a factor
Polyesters are cured by a chain reaction. This means that only a small amount in the overall cost of the assembled product in most industrial applications.
of catalyst is needed to start the reaction and it will then continue by itself.
Therefore the amount of catalyst needed to cure the resin is not critical. The term ”epoxy resin” usually refers to an intermediate molecule which con-
tains at least two reactive epoxy groups.
Epoxides are cured by linking together the resin molecules and hardener mole-
cules. This means that exactly the right number of hardener molecules must be The most common epoxies used in adhesives are derived from bisphenol A
present to get the best properties from the cured resin. and epichlorohydrin (”bis--epi” resins) and are usually cured with reactive har-
dener containing primary and/or secondary amine groups.
The manufacturers always state the correct resin/hardener ratio on the data
sheet for each resin.


Delaminations
Phenolic or
Metal Block
(Calking Plate)
Clamp

Figure 34 Typical Edge Delamination Repair
EPOXY RESINS CHARACTERISTICS

Adhesion Low Shrinkage
Epoxies have high adhesion to metals, glass, and ceramics. They can be for- Epoxies cure with only a fraction of the shrinkage of vinyl--type adhesives such
mulated to give mixes of low viscosity with improved wetting, spreading and as polyesters and acrylics; consequently, less strain is build into the glue line
penetrating action. The variety of functional groups also provides good affinity and the bond is stronger. Also, epoxy does not pull away from the glass fibres

between metals and plastics. For example, epoxies are in use for bonding of as polyesters do. The shrinkage can be reduced to a fraction of 1% by incorpo-
copper to phenolic laminate in printed circuits. rating silica, aluminium or other inorganic fillers.
Cohesion Resistance to Moisture and Solvents
When the resin is properly cured, the cohesive strength within the glue line is Epoxies are insensitive to moisture. Their resistance to solvents is also out-
so great (and adhesion of the epoxy to other materials so good) that failure un- standing and accounts for their rapid advance in the coatings field. They are
der stress often occurs in one of the adherents rather than in the epoxy or at effective barriers to heat and electric current.
the interface. This happens with glass and aluminium as well as with weaker
adherents such as concrete or wood. Can Be Modified
The properties of an epoxy adhesive can be changed by
100% Solids
S the selection of a base resin and a curing agent
Unlike phenolics and some other resinous adhesives, epoxies cure without re-
S alloying the epoxy with another resin, or
leasing water or other condensation by--products. This makes it possible to
bond epoxies at contact pressure only, or with no pressure at all. S by compounding with fillers.
Also, since there is no water to remove and no volatile solvents, epoxies are Can Be Cured at Ambient Temperatures
convenient for assembly--line bonding of impervious surfaces such as metal or
glass. Adhesives curing within 5 min at room temperature or lower temperatures can
be formulated by the selection of special curing agents.
Resistance to Wide Temperature Range

Epoxies can be formulated for continuous service in high-temperature environ-
ments (in excess of 500oF).



SURFACE WETTING AND ABSORBTION PRE-TREATMENT FOR BONDING

Probably the most important factor for bonding is surface wetting. Whenever bonding is to be carried out, the condition of the bond surfaces must
Factors with positive effect on surface wetting are: be considered. They are likely to be contaminated with material which could
S removal of surface contamination affect the performance of the joint. Surface preparation is essential.
S viscosity reduction through application of heat Surfaces are prepared by one of the following pre-treatment procedures listed

below:
S viscosity reduction by solvent or diluent addition
S degrease only
S time
S degrease, abrade and remove loose particles
S pressure.
S degrease and chemically pre-treat.
Factors with negative effect on surface wetting are:
Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after pre-
S fingerprints left on adherent surfaces
treatment. Contamination may be caused by:
S residues not removed from the adherent surfaces
S fingerprints
S glue lines incorrectly aligned
S cloth which are not perfectly clean
S working at temperatures that are too low
S contaminated abrasives
S incorrect surface pre-treatment.
S sub-standard degreasing
Two important aspects for a durable adhesive joint are:
S chemical solutions
S Mechanical hooking and
S other work processes taking place in the bonding area.
S surface wetting.
In particular, oil vapours from machinery, paint and mould-release agents from
Mechanical hooking (as illustrated opposite) takes into account that the adhe- spraying operations should be excluded. When pre-treatment has been carried
sive must penetrate into cavities before curing, otherwise trapped air will re- out, it is good practice to bond the surfaces as soon as possible.
duce the strength of the adhesive joint.
Should the bonding operation be delayed, the surface properties may be pre-
The phenomenon of surface wetting is frequently expressed with the contact served by priming the bond surfaces immediately after pre-treatment. For nor-
angle that is formed between a droplet of a liquid (adhesive) and a solid (sub- mal work, the removal of all traces of oil and grease from the surfaces to be
strate). bonded is essential.
The smaller the contact angle the more the liquid spreads over the surface,
and vice versa.

Mechanical Hooking

Adhesive
Liquid
Surface Solid
Fair Wetting
Good Wetting Poor Wetting

Liquid
Solid

Figure 35 Surface Wetting
DAMAGE TO COMPOSITE STRUCTURE

General
When damage is discovered on a composite structural part, and before any
further repair work is performed, a complete investigation of the affected area

is to be carried out.
The investigation of damage is done using the related chapters and pages of
the SRM (Structural Repair Manual) in order to determine whether the damage
is repairable or not, and if so, the applicable type of repair.
Damage Detection
Damage may be discovered during scheduled inspections required by the
maintenance program, or in unscheduled inspections when the part has been
subjected to accidental damage.
Damage Evaluation
A complete inspection of the damaged area or component will give the required
information concerning the extent and the type of damage. Depending on the
type, extent and importance of the affected zone, the damage acceptance level
may be determined.
Acceptance Level
In order to define the applicable repair type and its associated limits (time and
size), it is necessary to initially determine whether the damage is
S allowable
S repairable or
S not repairable.
The acceptance level of damage is determined using the graphics and instruc-
tions contained in the affected component-related SRM chapter (52 to 57) and
allowable damage section of the Structural Repair Manual.


Scheduled Unscheduled
Checks Checks
Damage
Discovered
MPD
Damage SRM
Evaluation
Damage
Acceptance
Level

Figure 36 Composite Damage Evaluation
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION
General Allowable Damage
For composite surfaces (as per the Structural Repair Manual), damage is di- For each of the defined zones, a graphic is to be used to determine allowable
vided into two main categories: damage limits, recommended repair types and repair associated limitations.
S skin not-perforated damage Damage type and dimensions, as well as initial thickness, have to be known in

order to select and work with these graphics.
S skin perforated damage.
Visual inspection is the principal method for damage detection. Delamination or
Skin not-perforated damage includes:
debonding can be caused by impact, abnormal loading or an undetected
S abrasion manufacturing defect.
S scratches
NOTE: SUCH DAMAGE IS NOT ALWAYS VISIBLE ON THE SURFACE.
S gouges THE COMPRESSION STRENGTH OF THE COMPONENT IS AF-
S nicks FECTED AND WATER OR FLUID INGRESS IS VERY LIKELY TO
S debonding OCCUR.
S delamination Scratches / Gouges
S dents. A scratch is the result of contact with a sharp object and only surface fibres are
Skin perforated damage includes: affected. While a gouge is wider and deeper than a scratch, several plies are
S lightning strike affected, but the edges of a gouge are generally smooth. For scratches in gen-
eral, only surface restoration is necessary to prevent any fluid ingress.
S holes
Gouges affect structural strength and have to be repaired by removing the
S impact by foreign object, requiring investigation for delamination moisture
damaged plies and performing a hand lay-up.
contamination.
Abrasion
Extent of Damage
Abrasion is damage to a surface caused by scuffing, rubbing or scraping of the
Close visual and non-destructive testing methods such as tap--testing, ultra-
component. Fibres are not damaged and mechanical performance is not af-
sonic and X--rays are used to determine the amount of damage.
fected. Abrasion damage is repaired by restoration of the surface protection, in
For delaminated/debonded area determination, a minimum inspection area is order to avoid any fluid ingress.
defined. In case of indication, the inspection area must be extended until the
limits of the affected zone are located. Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion may occur when an aluminium alloy part is in direct contact
Surface Zones
with a carbon fibre surface in the presence of a corrosive environment. In this
As damage is not of the same significance in each area of the component, case it is the aluminium alloy part (eg fitting, lightning strike protection straps)
each composite surface of the aircraft is divided into zones of different struc- which corrodes and which needs replacing or repaired if possible.
tural importance. For each component the corresponding zones are given in
the related SRM chapter (eg spoiler SRM chapter 57) section ‘allowable dam-
age’.


Figure 37 Damage Classification
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION (CONT.)

Lightning Strike Damage
Carbon fibre is a conductive material while glass or Aramid fibres are non--con-
ductive materials. The effect of a lightning strike will not be the same. For non-
conductive materials (glass, Aramid) a large part of the component, if not com-

pletely protected, may be blown out because both skins are affected and the
core generally vapourised due to the extreme heat.
Damage on carbon fibre structures will be less significant (spots, small holes,
or charring).
Erosion
Erosion could affect all the leading edge surfaces, especially when the initial
surface protection system has been damaged. Erosion, when undetected or
unrepaired, may generate composite deterioration. The component may be
completely perforated and fluid ingress likely to occur. Restore the protection of
the area and install additional protection if necessary.
Water Absorption
Any detected moisture has to be removed to avoid further damage.
During any repair procedure, ensure that repair parts are completely dry, in or-
der to avoid any material delamination during heat application. Water ingress in
sandwich structures is due to porosity of the skin. It reduces performance and
increases the weight of the affected structure. Water absorption is a phenome-
non of resin properties. The absorption stops once the resin is saturated.
Chemical Degradation
Chemical degradation principally affects the resin and is generally due to acci-
dental contact with aggressive chemical liquids or products. In case of chemical
degradation detection, the whole contaminated area must be repaired.
Dent / Depression
A depression or a dent is a deformity in the thickness of an area. It may be
caused by impact. This type of defect requires further NDT investigation to de-
tect delamination or debonding. On sandwich structure, the honeycomb is gen-
erally damaged and requires a repair.


Figure 38 Damage Classification
COMPOSITE REPAIR TECHNIQUES

General Paint Removal
Preparation for all repairs must begin with thorough cleaning of the part to be For repair work, hand sanding using a suitable grade of silicon carbide paper
repaired. The entire part must be carefully cleaned. This is necessary to ensure gives the best results.
that the work area, the clean room and lay--up area, and the repair area of the Grade 320 is often recommended, but slightly coarser grades may sometimes

part itself are not contaminated by oil, dirt, or grease from other parts of the be needed. The Structural Repair Manual (SRM) suggests Grade 150.
item under repair.
NOTE: SANDING SHOULD BE PERFORMED CAREFULLY TO AVOID
Cleaning Agents DAMAGING THE FIRST FIBER LAYER. PAINT REMOVAL AND
Following Cleaning agents may be used, some of them have a limited use be- SANDING TO GIVE A GOOD BONDING SURFACE SHOULD NOT
cause of the material to be cleaned. In all cases you have to refer to the SRM PENETRATE THE OUTER RESIN LAYER.
first to obtain the applicable procedures.
Solvents
S Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK):
-- This common wipe solvent is also used as a diluent in some sprayable
epoxy adhesives and primers and in some Thiokol--type sealants. Efforts
are being made to replace MEK as a cleaner because of its rating of se-
rious flammability, with a flash point of --7∞C (20∞F) and some evidence
of toxicity to animals
S Acetone:
-- Acetone is a commonly used wipe solvent. Efforts are being made to
replace it as a cleaner because of its rating of serious flammability, with a
flash point of --20∞C (--4∞F) and its high evaporation rate.
S Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA) or Isopropanol:
-- IPA is a wipe solvent used as a less hazardous replacement for MEK,
acetone, or 1,1,1 trichloroethane. Rated as flammable with a flash point
of 11.7∞C (53∞F), it is toxic by inhalation and ingestion


Figure 39 Repair Preparation
TYPICAL REPAIRS
Edge band
Edges are regularly subjected to damages. Therefore these repairs may be
needed for several reasons:

S Worn or damaged bolt holes
S Edge damage
S Edge delamination
S Edge erosion
S Lightning strike damage
These repairs can be found in several sections of the SRM and are available
for room temperature as well as for elevated temperatures.


Figure 40 Edge Band Repair (Airbus typical)
Damage to Core and one Skin
This is the simplest and most common type of repair to a honeycomb panel.
It is identical to the case for both skins, except that only one side must be re-
paired. The repair is relatively easy, especially when the damage size is small,
because no tooling or profile support is needed unless repairs are done at or

near the original cure temperature.
Two types of repairs are available for damage to sandwich structures:
S Skin repair when damage affects one skin and part of the honeycomb core
S Skin and core repair for a full perforating damage going through the com-
plete sandwich panel (top, bottom and honeycomb core).


Figure 41 Sandwich Repair (Boeing typical)
„Blind“ Repair
This type of repair is usually described in the SRM as, ”Repair of damage to
external and internal skins with access limited to one side.”
Attention should be paid of the effects of single-sided heating on sandwich
structures.


Figure 42 Blind Repair I



Figure 43 Blind Repair II
Injected Repair
Injected repair is sometimes permitted but is not recommended unless there is
reason to believe that the cause of disbond is not some form of contamination.
Where contamination exists, the process is unlikely to be effective.
Two forms are possible:

S . Injection to repair delamination near the center of a solid laminate. This
may be effec tive because, if the surface is undamaged, no contaminant is
likely to have reached the surfaces that require bonding. In this case, two
holes can be drilled at the edges of the mapped delamination and adhesive
or resin can be injected into one hole until it flows out from the other. The
method can be tried for edge delamination; however, in this case, the faces
to be bonded are likely to be contaminated, and it is impossible to gain ac-
cess to clean them except with a fine solvent spray.
S Some OEMs allow a similar repair to disbonded honeycomb panels for
small areas. The repair may be successful if the disbond is not a result of
moisture ingress or sur face breaking damage that may have allowed water
or other contamination to enter. The process is not recommended if contam-
ination is suspected. The method should be used for radomes (only if per-
mitted by the OEM) or if the disbond is outside the scanning area because it
will affect the strength of the radar signal by increasing signal transmission
losses.
Potted Repair
Potted repairs are generally recommended only for small areas of core dam-
age. The SRM calls for damage in excess of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) diameter to be
repaired with new core material.
Potting compound may be used for very small areas of core damage and when
permitted by the SRM because climbing drum peel tests have shown that fully
potted honeycomb core results in a lower peel strength than a direct bond be-
tween the skin and honeycomb.


Figure 44 Potted Repairs
Damage to Core and Both Skins
The normal method used when access is available to both sides is shown be-
low. An alternative method is available when access is possible from only one
side as we have seen before.
This type of repair to 120 and 180∞C (250 and 350∞F) cured graphite/aramid/

fibergiass reinforced epoxy laminates and nonmetallic honeycomb structure
using the 93 to 110∞C (200 to 230∞F) wet lay--up repair method is covered here
for example from the Boeing SRM
Similar repairs using higher--temperature curing systems are covered in other
sections of the SRM


Figure 45 Repair to Both Skins (Boeing)


M6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURES
Part -66
M 6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURES

Part -66
WOODEN WING CONSTRUCTION

Truss-Type Wing Construction
Fabric-covered aircraft wings have a truss-type structure that has changed very
little throughout the evolution of aircraft.

Spars
The main lengthwise members in a wing are the spars. Wood spars are usually
made from Sitka spruce and may be either solid or laminated.
Because of the difficulty in getting a single piece of near-perfect wood of the
size needed for wing spars, many manufacturers use laminated spars, in which
strips of wood are glued together with their grain running in the same direction.
A properly laminated spar has essentially the same strength as that of a solid
spar, yet it is considerably less expensive.
Compression Members
The spars are separated by compression members (or compression joints) that
may be either steel tubing or heavy-wall aluminium alloy tubing. Compression
ribs are sometimes used - ribs that have been specially strengthened to take
compressive loads.
Wires
The truss is held together with high-strength solid steel wires that cross the
bays formed by the compression struts. The wires that extend from the front
spar inboard to the rear spar outboard oppose the forces that tend to drag
against the wing and pull it backwards; these are called drag wires.
The wires that attach to the rear spar inboard and go to the front spar outboard
are called anti-drag wires, since they oppose any force that tends to move the
tip of the wing forward.
A wing truss consisting of spars, compression members and drag and anti-drag
wires, when correctly assembled and rigged, provides the lightweight and
strong foundation needed for a wing.

Part -66

Anti-Drag Wire Sheet Metal
Leading Edge
Drag Wire Compression Strut

Front Spar
Tip Bow
Rear Spar

Figure 46 Truss-type wing
Part -66
BOX SPAR
An adaptation of the truss-type wing is one using a box spar. This was pio-
neered in World War 1 on some of the all-metal Junkers aircraft and the wood
and fabric Fokker triplane.
A box structure built between the spars stiffens the spars so they can carry all

of the bending and torsional loads to which the wing is subjected in flight.
The former ribs in the wing attach to the spars to give the wing the aerody-
namic shape it needs to produce lift when air flows over its fabric covering.
Before the cost of labour became too high, some wing ribs wire built up of
strips of Sitka spruce. The strips that form the top and bottom of the rib are
called cap strips, and those between the cap strips are called cross members.
Since end grain glue joints have very little strength, each intersection of a cap
strip and a cross member has a gusset of thin mahogany plywood glued to the
strips of wood to carry the stresses from one strip to the other.
A built-up box spar accepts torsional as well as bending loads.
A built-up wing rib constructed from wood.

Part -66

Solid Wood Rec- Routed I- Built-Up Box Built-Up I- Internally Routed
tangular Beam Beam Box

Figure 47 Spars for fabric-covered truss-type wings
Part -66


Part -66
Frame

Flange (Fuselage)
Lattice or Truss Rib
Spar
Bracket
Web
Skin
Flange (Wing)

Figure 48 Wood Construction Methods
Part -66
PRESERVATION
General Survey of Structure - Single Skin
Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional un-
weather--proofing qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally. dulation or panting between panels may be permissible provided the timber and
If fabric--covered ply structures are neglected under these conditions the sur- glue is sound. However, where such conditions exist, a careful check must be

face finish will crack, allowing moisture to penetrate to the wooden structure made of the attachment of the ply to its supporting structure and moderate
and resulting in considerable deterioration through water soakage. pressure with the hand, to push the ply from the structure, should be used.
Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces of
Survey of Structure
wings or tailplane, care is necessary to ensure that water has not entered at
Before commencing a detailed examination of an aircraft structure, the aircraft these points where it can remain trapped to attack the surrounding structure.
should be inspected externally for signs of gross deformation, such as warped
Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be investi-
wing structures, tail surfaces out of alignment or evidence of obvious structural
gated by removing the defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply
failure. In some cases of advanced deterioration this assessment may be suffi-
skin beneath is serviceable. It is common for a split in the ply skin to be the
cient to pronounce the aircraft beyond economical repair and thus avoid further
cause of a similar defect in the protective fabric covering.
work.
Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated dopings, may indicate that
Whenever possible the aircraft should be housed in a dry, well ventilated han-
the structure underneath has not been critically examined for a considerable
gar and all inspection panels, covers and hatches removed before continuing
time. Insertion patches in the fabric could also indicate that structural repairs
with the survey. The aircraft should be thoroughly dried out before examining
have been made at that point.
glued joints or carrying out repairs.
Whilst a preliminary survey of the external structure may be useful in roughly
Immediately after opening the inspection panels, etc., each component should
assessing the general condition of the aircraft, it should be noted that timber
be checked for smell. A musty smell indicates fungoid growth or dampness
and glue deterioration often takes place inside a structure without any external
and, if present, necessitates further examination to establish which areas are
indications. Where moisture can enter a structure, it will tend to find the lowest
affected.
point, where it will stagnate and promote rapid deterioration.
Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed as integral stressed struc-
tures, such as inner and outer ply skins glued and screwed to structural mem-
bers (figure opposite) no appreciable departure from the original contour or
shape is acceptable.

Part -66

Single Skin
Ply
skins
Double Skin

Figure 49 Plywood Skin Structure
Part -66
Inspection of Timber and Glued Joints
Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents con-
siderable difficulties since there is no positive non--destructive method of ex-
amination which will give a clear indication of the condition of the glue and tim-
ber inside a joint. The position is made more difficult by the lack of accessibility
for visual inspection.

The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will necessi-
tate checks on remote parts of the structure which may be known, or sus-
pected trouble spots and, in many instances, are boxed in or otherwise inac-
cessible. In such instances, considerable dismantling is required and it may be
necessary to cut access holes in ply structures to facilitate the inspection; such
work must be done only in accordance with approved drawings or the repair
manual for the aircraft concerned and, after the inspection has been com-
pleted, the structure must be made good and protected in an approved man-
ner.
Access Holes
In general, access holes are circular in shape and should be cut with a sharp
trepanning tool to avoid jagged edges. It is essential to avoid applying undue
pressure to the tool, especially towards the end of the cut, otherwise damage
may be caused to the inner face of the panel by stripping off the edge fibres or
the ply laminations.
Where rectangular access holes are prescribed care is necessary to ensure
that they are correctly located and that corner radii are in accordance with
drawing requirements.
The edges of all access holes must be smoothed with fine glasspaper, prefer-
ably before inspection is commenced, since contact with the rough edges may
cause wood fibres to be pulled away.
Glue Line
When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint) for condition, all pro-
tective coatings of paint should be removed by careful scraping; it is important
to ensure that the wood is not damaged during the scraping operation and
scraping should cease immediately the wood is revealed in its natural state and
the glue line is clearly discernible.

Part -66

Metal Fitting
Reinforcing
Members
Laminated
Boom
Web Frame
Access Hole
Longeron
Bush
Ply Skin
Solid Boom
Spars Fuselage
Arrows indicate positions to check with feeler gauge

Figure 50 Inspection of Gluelines
Part -66
Timber Condition
Dry rot and wood decay are not usually difficult to detect. Dry rot is indicated by
small patches of crumbling wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood sur-
face or grey streaks of stain running along the grain are indicative of water pen-
etration. Where such discolouration cannot be removed by light scraping the
part should be rejected, but local staining of the wood by the dye from a syn-

thetic adhesive hardener can, of course, be disregarded.
Water Penetration of Top Surfaces
As indicated previously, the condition of the proofed--fabric covering on ply sur-
faces is of great importance. If any doubt exists regarding its proofing qualities
or if there are any signs of poor adhesion, cracks, or other damage, it should
be peeled back to reveal the ply skin.

Part -66

Fuselage Inner and
Outer Ply Skins
Fuselage Member
Screw Hole
Bulkhead Frame Member
Woodscrew
Bulkhead Ply Web
Corrosion indicating failure of bulkhead

glued joint to fuselage side

Figure 51 Check for Water Penetration
Part -66
TYPE OF DEFECTS
General
During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other
defects of a more mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given in the
following paragraphs.

S Shrinkage. Shrinkage of timber, as well as inducing stresses in glued joints,
can cause looseness of metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are
present, can result in damage to the wood fibres at the edges of the fittings
or around the bolt holes. Shrinkage can be detected by removing any paint
or varnish and attempting to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber
and the fitting or bolt head.
S Elongated Bolt Holes. Where bolts secure fittings which take load--carry-
ing members, or where the bolts are subject to landing or shear loads, the
bolt holes should be examined for elongation or surface crushing of the
wood fibres. The bolts should be removed to facilitate the examination and,
in some cases, the bolt itself may be found to be strained. Rectification of
elongated bolt holes must be carried out in accordance with the approved
Repair Manual, the usual method being to open out the holes and fit steel
bushes.
S Bruising and Crushing. A check should be made for evidence of damage
such as bruises or crushing of structural members, which can be caused,
for example, by overtightening bolts. Repair schemes for such damage are
governed by the extent and depth of the defect.
S Compression Failures. Compression failures, sometimes referred to as
compression ’shakes’, are due to rupture across the wood fibres. This is a
serious defect which at times is difficult to detect and special care is neces-
sary when inspecting any wooden member which has been subjected to the
abnormal bending or compression loads which may occur during a heavy
landing. In the case of a member having been subjected to an excessive
bending load, the failure will appear on the surface which has been com-
pressed, usually at a position of concentrated stress such as at the end of a
hardwood packing block; the surface subjected to tension will normally show
no defects. In the case of a member taking an excessive direct compression
load, the failure will usually be apparent on all surfaces. Where a compres-
sion failure is suspected, a hand torch shone along the member, with the
beam of light running parallel to the grain, will assist in revealing this type of
failure.

Part -66


Part -66
REPAIR OF WOODEN STRUCTURES

Aircraft Repairs
Where repairs are to be carried out on old aircraft in which the wooden struc-
ture is joined with a casein glue, all traces of the casein should be removed

from the joint, since this material is alkaline and is liable to affect the setting of
a synthetic resin adhesive; local staining of the wood by the casein can how-
ever be disregarded.
Where urea formaldehyde (UF) glues are to be used, the surface should be
wiped with a solution of 10 w/w acetic acid in water, and allowed to dry before
applying.
This process must only be used with urea formaldehyde (UF) glues. If used
prior to the application of, for example, resorcinol formaldehyde (RF) glues, the
joint strength could be seriously impaired.
General
With certain exceptions, adhesives are used in the mixed form and the recom-
mendations given in this paragraph apply only to the use of such adhesives.
S It is generally desirable to apply adhesive to both surfaces of a joint. This
applies particularly where plywood is to be glued to a fairly robust member,
where the glue line is likely to be variable or when it is not possible to apply
uniform pressure to the joint after gluing.
S Ordinary glue spreaders are satisfactory for the application of synthetic
resin adhesives, but those having slightly grooved rubber rollers give the
best results. Brushes may also be used provided they are perfectly clean.
S The amount of adhesive required depends largely on the type of timber and
the accuracy of machining; dense timbers require less adhesive than soft or
porous types. Side--grained surfaces may be satisfactorily glued with thin
spreads, and while end--grain joints have virtually no structural value, gener-
ous spreads may be applied for gap filling and sealing purposes. The gen-
eral rule is that the adhesive should completely cover the surfaces to be
glued and should be tacky when pressure is applied to the joint.
S Difficult gluing conditions may sometimes occur when a soft timber is to be
glued to one which is much denser, because the adhesive tends to flow into
the more porous timber. In such instances, unless otherwise specified by
the manufacturer of the adhesive, pre--coating and partial drying of the
softer surface, prior to normal spreading, is recommended.

Part -66

A 10A - 12A
C
3A 5A C 3A B
A D
A 3A 10A - 12A E
E
Face grain
B D of plywood
Direction of face
grain of plywood
A Face grain of plywood
side plates A, B, C and E are original dimensions.
Splice plate
Spruce block
A, B, C and E are original dimensions.

Rib cap strip splice. Reinforcement plates shall be plywood
glued and nailed.
Rib cap strip splice over an up- Rib cap strip splice over
right member. a spar.

Figure 52 Wing Rib Repairs (Typical)
Part -66


Part -66

Plywood
Spruce or A
basswood Damaged
area
4A
Original
gusset B
5 B
A
A and B are original dimensions.

Reinforcement plates shall be plywood glued and nailed.
The direction of the face grain must be the same as the
original gusset.

Figure 53 Repair to the Trailing Edge of a Wood Wing Rib
Part -66
Assembly Setting Times and Temperatures
Care should be taken before the adhesive is applied to ensure that the sur- The setting time depends on the temperature at which the jointing operation is
faces make good contact and that the joint will be correctly positioned, since carried out; an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the setting time.
once contact is made after the adhesive is applied, the joint will be below Conversely, a decrease in temperature causes a considerable increase in the
strength if further movement is necessary. The interval between the application setting time and with some adhesives a temperature below 15˚C (60˚F) is not
of the adhesive and assembly of the joint under pressure should, unless other- recommended. It is, therefore, generally advantageous to apply heat during

wise permitted, be kept as short as possible. Pressure should be applied pressing whenever possible so as to effect reasonably quick and strong adhe-
quickly and should be even. All devices used to bring the glued surfaces to- sion.
gether should be checked (this applies particularly to clamps) to ensure that the Heat may be applied by means of an electrically- or steam-heated platen such
pressure is uniformly applied over the entire area; uneven pressure may cause as would be used for special presswork. Local warmth may be applied with
uneven contact and a gaping joint. electrically heated blankets, electric fires, a battery of electric bulbs, or drying
NOTE: Some adhesives contain solvents which should be allowed to evaporate kilns. The temperature may generally be raised to approximately 80˚C (176˚F)
before the joint is made. If this is not done, bubbles may be created and a for very rapid setting; intense surface heating should be avoided as this may
weakness caused. For adhesives of this type the manufacturer will specify a scorch the timber and cause the glue to bubble, the latter resulting in the pro-
time interval which should elapse before the joint is closed. duction of a very weak joint.
S High clamping pressures are neither essential nor desirable provided that It must be remembered that it is the temperature of the glue line which deter-
good contact between surfaces being joined is obtained. For parts which are mines cure rate and not the surface or ambient temperature. The warming of a
flat and unstressed it is not always necessary to maintain the pressure until cold assembly may cause the exuded glue to harden quickly, giving a false im-
the full joint strength is developed, but for work which is shaped by pres- pression that the complete joint has cured.
sure, longer times may be required to guard against opening stresses. The
S Full joint strength and resistance to moisture will only develop after condi-
tightness of clamps should be checked approximately 10 minutes after as-
tioning for a period of at least 2 days, depending on the temperature and the
sembly.
type of hardener used. However, when repairs are made on aircraft, the
S If the parts are thin and the pressure is uniformly distributed, only a slight joint should be of sufficient strength after one day. When it is necessary to
pressure is required and small pins or screws will generally provide this; ensure maximum resistance to moisture it is generally recommended that
care should be taken not to pump the adhesive out of the joint when ham- the assembled structures should be kept at room temperature of 21˚-24˚C
mering pins through closing strips. (70˚-75˚F) for 2 to 3 weeks so that complete chemical reaction can take
S When pressure is applied, a small even quantity of glue should be ex- place.
pressed from the joint and this should be wiped off before it dries. The pres- S Further assembly work can be carried out immediately the clamps have
sure should be maintained and the joint should not be disturbed during the been removed provided the joint is not subjected to additional stress, other-
full setting time; this is important as the adhesive will not re--unite if dis- wise the conditioning period recommended by the manufacturer is neces-
turbed before it is fully set. sary. The degree of setting of the adhesive which has squeezed from the
S When large ’glue--face’ areas are to be joined, e.g. when joining two ply sur- glue line is not necessarily an indication of the strength of the joint, and pre-
faces, the drawing usually specifies the drilling of small vent holes at regular cautions should be taken to ensure that the joints are handled with due care
intervals to prevent air being trapped between the two surfaces. After the until they have attained full strength.
joint has been made, these holes should be checked to ensure that adhe- S After the joint has been conditioned and all work completed, all unprotected
sive has exuded from them. parts should be treated in accordance with drawing requirements.

Part -66

1/8“
No fittings within these limits

5:1 slope
3A Longitudinal crack 3A
A
A/4
Direction of grain of spruce

or face grain of plywood

Figure 54 Repair of a longitudinal split in a wood wing spar
Part -66
Testing
Frequent tests should be made to ensure that joining techniques are satisfac-
tory. Wherever possible, tests should be carried out on off--cuts of actual com-
ponents from each batch. Where off--cuts are not available tests should be car-
ried out on representative test pieces glued up with each batch of mixed
adhesive. In addition, the glue strength of component rejected for faults other

than gluing should be checked periodically.
S Test Samples. The test samples should be cut from the timber used for the
component and should not be less than 50 mm (2 in) long and 25 mm (1 in)
wide with one member over--hanging the other by 12 to 18 mm 1/2 to 3/4
in). The glued test sample should, when conditioned, be put in a vice and
the joint should be broken by leverage exerted on the overhanging member.
The fractured glue faces should show at least 75 of wood fibres, evenly dis-
tributed over the fractured glue surfaces.
S Wet Tests. When specified, wet tests should be made for the purpose of
testing the efficiency of the adhesive after immersing the test samples in
water at different temperatures and for different times. Such tests are pre-
scribed in British Standard 1204, but the results are only valid if BS 1204
test pieces are used. However, testing joints after immersion in cold water
(15˚-25˚C (60˚-77˚F)) for 24 hours, will give a good indication of whether
they are cured. Such tests should only be carried out on joints which have
been conditioned for 2 to 3 weeks.
Broken test-
piece.

M6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING
Part -66
M 6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING

Part -66
INTRODUCTION
This section will provide guidance and advice on the covering of aircraft com- S Eyeleted Fuselage Webbing. On a number of older types of aircraft, cot-
ponents with fabric and on the methods employed for repairing and testing ton webbing braid with hooks, or lacing eyelets and kite cord, are used for
such coverings. securing the fuselage fabric.
Guidance on the application of dope to fabric is given towards the end of this S Storage. All materials used for fabric covering should be stored at a tem-

section. perature of about 20˚C (68˚F) in dry, clean conditions and away from direct
sunlight.
General
Before the covering of any component is commenced, the structure must be
inspected, all foreign matter removed and protective treatments (as prescribed
in the relevant drawings) must be applied. Often it is necessary to install flying
control cables, electric cables, fuel tanks and other systems before covering
large components and these should be inspected as necessary and checked
for security.
The most suitable conditions for the application of fabric are a room tempera-
ture of 16˚C - 21˚C (61˚F - 70˚F) and a relative humidity of not more than 70. 75mm Covering Strip
Materials
S Fabrics. Aircraft fabrics are woven from spun threads or ’yarns’; those run-
ning lengthwise are termed the ’warp’; and those running crosswise are
termed the ’weft’. The number of yarns per centimetre (inch) varies with dif-
ferent weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both warp and 9mm
weft. The non--fraying edge of the fabric is termed the ’selvedge’.
9mm
S Tapes. Linen tapes complying with BS Fl and cotton tapes complying with 31mm
BS F8 are available in various widths for covering leading edges, trailing
edges and ribs, and for repair work. The materials are supplied with ser-
rated edges, as illustrated in the figure opposite. Cotton tape complying with Lap Seam
BS F47 (referred to as ’Egyptian tape’) is generally used on those members
where chafing may occur between the structure and the fabric and is also
used externally to protect the fabric against damage by the stringing cord.
S Thread. Linen thread complying with BS F34 is normally used. For hand
sewing. No. 40 thread (minimum breaking strength 3 kg (7 lb)) used double,
or No. 18 thread (minimum breaking strength 7.25 kg (16 lb)) used single,
are suitable. For machine sewing. No. 30 thread (minimum breaking
strength 4.5 kg (10 lb)) or No. 40 thread is used.
S Stringing. Flax cordage complying with BS F35 or braided nylon cord
(coreless) complying with DTD 5620 is normally used.

Part -66

1/4“ or 3/8“
1/16“ 1/16“
French Fell Seam Folded Fell Seam
1/16“ 1/16“
1/2“
Stitching
1/16“
3/4“ 1/16“
Plain Overlap Seam

Figure 55 Types of Machine-Sewn Seams
Part -66
PREPARATION OF STRUCTURE
The structure to be covered should be inspected as outlined in the previous S Mainplanes. The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked
paragraphs. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw down over the mainplane, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with
heads likely to chafe the fabric must be covered with tape. Where serious chaf- the trailing edge. When the cover is located it is secured (by stitching, ce-
ing may occur and a strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather menting, or retaining strip) to the inboard end of the mainplane, any neces-

patch may be sewn to a fabric patch, then doped into position. sary openings for cables, struts, tank caps, etc., are cut and stringing is ap-
S In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to plied as necessary.
prevent fabric from adhering to wooden structure, all aerofoil members S Fuselage. The fin and fuselage envelopes are often supplied separately
which will be in contact with the fabric are normally covered with adhesive and in some cases the fuselage envelope is open, or partially open, at the
cellulose or aluminium tape, or painted with dope--resistant white paint. bottom, to simplify fitting. The fin envelope is usually fitted first, then the fu-
S On some aircraft, which have a tubular metal fuselage frame, the fuselage selage envelope is stretched forwards over the fuselage and secured in the
shape is made up with wooden formers attached directly to the main frame- same way as the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented or doped to
work and to these wooden formers are secured light longitudinal members the fuselage formers.
onto which the fabric covering is doped. This secondary structure must be S Control Surfaces. Control surface envelopes are usually left open at the
inspected for security and any sharp edges removed with fine glass paper. hinge line, where they are secured by cementing, doping or stitching.
S Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection S ”Blanket” Method of Covering. With this method a bolt of fabric is used
should be provided by wrapping such parts with cotton tape. Before the tape and covers are made--up on the site. Lengths of fabric, or a number of
is applied the structure should be treated with varnish to protect it from cor- lengths joined side--by--side, being used to cover the aircraft structure.
rosion should the tape become wet. S Mainplanes and Tailplanes. The cover is normally made--up from lengths
S Internal controls and cables should be tightened to assume their normal of fabric machine--stitched together side--by--side. This is laid round the sur-
positions and secured at the root rib. Their location should be noted so that face, starting and finishing at the trailing edge and joined by hand stitching
stringing pitch can be selected to avoid chafing. as shown in the figure opposite. On some aircraft with light alloy structure,
hand stitching is dispensed with, the cover edges being wrapped round the
Covering Methods tip and trailing edge and doped into position. The cover is then attached to
An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running at 45˚ to the slip-- the ribs by stringing.
stream, or in line with the slip--stream. The former (bias) method is generally S Fuselage. A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the
considered to be stronger and more resistant to tearing, but the latter method is fuselage. The fabric is not normally attached in one piece, but usually con-
used on most light aircraft. The two methods used to re--cover an aircraft are sists of several pieces (e.g. sides, top and bottom, which are doped sepa-
outlined below, but the method used in a particular instance should follow that rately onto the frame, or sewn together at their edges. Joins or seams are
of the original manufacture unless otherwise approved. covered with doped--on tape. Since the air loads on the fuselage are not as
S Prefabricated Envelopes. A number of manufacturers produce fabric en- great as on the mainplanes, it is not usual to employ stringing, although it
velopes for re--covering various models of aircraft. Separate envelopes are may be specified in some instances.
made up from patterns for the mainplanes, fuselage, tailplane, fin and flying S Control Surfaces. These are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes
control surfaces and greatly simplify the task of re--covering. The envelopes and usually require stringing. The fabric is normally folded round the hinge
are made loose enough to facilitate slipping them over the structure and to line, since this is usually straight and sewn together round the remaining
achieve the proper tautness after doping. contour of the surface.

Part -66

1/2in fabric
turned under
Wire Clip
1/2in Fabric
patch
turned un- Herring-bone Wing Rib
der stitch
Wire Clip
Sewn-In Patch
Sheet Metal Screw
Plastic Washer
Reinforcing Tape
Fabric
Wing Rib
Attachment of Fabric with Martin

Clips and Sheet Metal Screws
Attachment of Fabric in a
Control Surface Well

Figure 56 Fabric Attachment
Part -66
SEAMS, STITCHES AND STRINGING

Seams Hand Sewing
The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore--and--aft Apart from the herring--bone (or ’baseball’) stitch and the boot stitch, which are
line of the aircraft or on a bias, depending on the covering method used. With used for repair work, the only other stitches used are the overhand stitch
the exception of trailing edge or leading edge joints (where such action cannot (sometimes referred to as the ’trailing--edge’ stitch) and the lock stitch. The

be avoided) seams should never be made at right angles to the direction of air- overhand stitch is used for trailing edges, wing tips, wing root ends and wher-
flow. Two types of machined seams are employed, the balloon seam and the ever a sudden change of section occurs.
lap seam. S Overhand Stitch. Sufficient excess fabric should be allowed for turning un-
S The Balloon Seam. The balloon seam, sometimes referred to as the der before sewing is commenced; a 12 mm (0.5 in) turn--under is usually
’French Fell’, is normally specified for all fabric joints. To make the seam, sufficient. An even gap of about 6 mm (0.25 in) (usually) should be allowed
the edges of the fabric are folded back 16 mm (0.625 in) and are then fitted for pulling up the two edges to obtain the correct fabric tension, but this fig-
into each other as shown, tacked together and then machine sewn with four ure can only be determined finally by experience of the work in hand. The
stitches per centimetre (nine stitches per inch) in two parallel lines 9 mm sewing should follow the contour of the component evenly to ensure a good
(0.375 in) apart and 3 mm (0.125 in) from either edge. After completion, the finish after doping. The number of stitches should be three per centimetre
seam should be examined over a strong electric light (preferably a light-- (eight per inch), a lock stitch being included approximately every 50 mm (2
box) to ensure that the inside edges of the fabric have not been missed dur- in).
ing sewing.
S The Lap Seam. The lap seam (illustrated previously) should only be used
when specified by the manufacturer. Unless the selvedges are present, the
edges of the fabric should be serrated with ’pinking’ shears. The edges
should overlap each other by 31 mm (1.25 in) and should be machine-sewn
with four stitches per centimetre (nine stitches per inch), the stitch lines be-
ing 12 mm (0.5 in) apart and 9 mm (0.375 in) from the edges. After stitch-
ing, a 75 mm (3 in) wide serrated--edge fabric strip should be doped in posi- Overhand
tion. Stitches
Trailing-Edge
Member
Lock Stitch
Stitching
Overhand Stitch
3mm 9mm 3mm Balloon Seam

Part -66
Half hitch
Pull No 4

A - First Step
Completed Knot
Edge of capstrip
Pull No 4 - 10lb to
completed knot
B - Second Step
Edge of capstrip
After Pull No 1, hold stitch

Pull No 3 - pull snug tension by pressing here
during Pull No 2
Direction of lacing Operation No 2

Pull No 1 - 10lb
to tighten stitch
Pull No 2 - 5lb to
tighten stitch Pull No 2 - 10lb
to tighten knot
C - Third Step
Pull No 1 - 10lb
to tighten loops
Operation No 1
Modified Seine Knot for Rib Stitching

D - Completed Knot
Modified Seine Knot for Locking Baseball Stitches

Figure 57 Seine Knots
Part -66
Use of Beeswax
All threads used for hand sewing and all cord used for stringing (when not pre-- S Stringing Tension. Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is main-
waxed), should be given a liberal coating of beeswax. This protects the thread, tained at a satisfactory tension and that it is not so tight as to cause distor-
facilitates sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the fabric or enlarging tion of the ribs.
the stitch holes.
Half
S Slip--stream Area. For stringing purposes, the slip--stream area is consid-
hitch

ered to be the diameter of the propeller plus one rib on either side. In the
Stringing
case of multi--engined aircraft, the entire gap between the slip--streams, re-
Flax cord complying with BS F35 is normally used for stringing purposes and is gardless of its width, is also considered to be slip--stream area.
generally applied in single strands as shown opposite. As an alternative, but
S
only when approved by the manufacturer, doubled No. 18 thread may be used
during repair work. S
S When the fabric covering of the component has been completed, cotton S
tape to BS F47 should be stretched centrally over each rib, top and bottom
and stitched into position at the trailing edge. Pull to tighten Pull to tighten
-- Using a stringing needle and commencing at the top surface, the string-
ing cord should be passed through the tape and fabric as close to the rib
as possible, out through the bottom fabric and tape, round the lower rib
boom and back up through both surfaces again. A double knot should be
used to secure the first and last stringing loops and after each 450 mm Knot formed but not tightened
(18 in). In between, single knots may be used.
-- The stringing pitch is normally 75 mm (3 in) but in the slip--stream area,
or on aircraft of more than 910 kg (2000 lb) weight, the pitch is often re- Load
Load
duced to 37 mm (1.5 in). Variations from these pitches will be stipulated
in the relevant aircraft manuals and it may be necessary to vary the pitch Knot completed
in order to avoid internal structure or control runs.
-- When the stringing has been completed a strip of serrated tape, 37 mm Splice Knot
(1.5 in) wide, should be doped over the stringing line on both surfaces,
care being taken to ensure that no air is trapped under the tape and that
the tape is securely attached to the main cover.
NOTE: The knots depicted in the figure opposite are typical but a different type
of knot may be specified by the manufacturer.
S Boom Stringing. This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections.
The procedure is similar to that described above, except that the cord is
passed round the rib boom instead of round the entire rib. Top and bottom
surfaces are therefore attached separately and the inside of each boom D - Completed
must be taped to prevent chafing of the stringing cord. Knot
Alternate rib and boom stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium
depth, ie 150 - 300 mm (6 -12 in).

Part -66

Serrated
Tape
Top
Fabric
Double
Knot
Anti-Chafing Tape
Single Knot
Upper
Rib Bottom Fabric
Boom
Lower Stringing Cord

Rib
Boom

Figure 58 Typical Stringing
Part -66
REPAIRS TO FABRIC COVERINGS

If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and uneco- S Repairs with Woods Frames. On some aircraft, repairs to cuts and tears
nomical to make satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and with jagged edges, which cannot be stitched as described in the previous
location of damage to the fabric that may be repaired will be detailed in the re- paragraphs, can be repaired by using the Woods frame method described
pair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but extensive damage is often for inspection panels previously. Repairs of up to 50 mm (2 in) square may

made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the replacement of be made, provided they are clear of seams or attachments by a distance of
large fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to distor- not less than 50 mm (2 in). The affected area should be cleaned with thin-
tion of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re--cover the compo- ners or acetone and repaired in the following manner--
nent. -- The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the dam-
Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage aged fabric and, if the frame is of the square type, the edges should be
should be ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose ob- parallel to the weft and warp of the covering. When the dope has dried,
jects such as stones, remains of birds, insects, etc, and any structural damage the damaged portion of the fabric should be cut out and the aperture
made good. Using thinners, all dope should be removed from the fabric sur- covered by a fabric patch.
rounding the damaged area before any stitching is carried out, since doped -- If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellu-
fabric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches. lose sheet 0.8 mm (0.030 in) thick with minimum frame width of 25 mm
Repair of Cuts and Tears. Cuts and tears in fabric are sometimes caused by (1 in); in the case of the square type of frame the minimum comer radii
stones thrown up by the slip--stream or wheels, but more generally result from should be 12 mm (0.5 in). In some special cases, aircraft manufacturers
accidental damage during ground movement or servicing. Damage may also be use 2 mm plywood complying with British Standard V3 for the manufac-
caused by bird strikes. Any damaged structure should be made good and fabric ture of the frames, in which case it is important to chamfer the outer
repairs carried out according to the type of damage, as detailed in the following edges of the frame to blend with the aerofoil contour.
paragraphs.
S Herring--Bone Stitch. The herring--bone stitch (also known as the ’ladder’
or ’baseball’ stitch) should be used for repairing straight cuts or tears which
have sound edges. The stitches should be made as shown opposite, with a
lock knot every 150 mm (6 in).
-- There should be a minimum of two stitches to the centimetre (four
stitches to the inch) and the stitches should be 6 mm (0.25 in) from the
edge of the cut or tear.
-- After the stitching has been completed, 25 mm (1 in) wide serrated tape
should be doped over the stitching. A square or rectangular fabric patch
should then be doped over the whole repair, ensuring that the edges of
the patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering and that
they overlap the repair by 37 mm (1.5 in). The original doping scheme Herring-bone (Baseball) Stitch
should then be restored.

Part -66

3 in Dull knife
Tack corner of tear before sewing
1. Sew up the tear. 2. Apply dope to sewn area. 3. Scrape off old dope.
Pre-doped
pinked tape
2 1/4 in
Dope lap area
4. Apply new dope. 5. Press down patching tapes. 6. Dope entire patch.

Figure 59 Repair of L-Shaped Tear
Part -66
Repair of Cuts and Tears (Continued).
S Repair by Darning. Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be re-
paired by darning provided the hole is not more than 50 mm (2 in) wide at
any point. The stitches should follow the lines of the warp and weft and
should be closely spaced as shown in the adjacent figure. The whole repair
should be covered with a serrated fabric patch in the usual way, with an

overlap of 37 mm (1.5 in) from the start of the dam.
S Repair by Insertion. For damage over 100 nun (4 in) square, insertion re-
pairs are generally used, either of the two methods described below being
suitable.
-- Normal Insertion Repair. The damaged area of the fabric should be cut
out to form a square or rectangular hole with the edges parallel to the
weft and warp. The comers of the hole should then be cut diagonally, to Fabric Patch
Doped Over Repair
allow a 12 mm (0.5 in) wide edge to be folded under the fabric and this
should be held in position with tacking or hemming stitches.
-- The patch should be made 25 mm (1 in) larger than the cut--out area and
its edges should be folded under for 12 mm (0.5 in) and tacked in posi-
tion in a manner similar to that described in the previous paragraph. In
this condition the size of the insertion patch should be similar to, or
slightly smaller than, that of the cut--out area.
Repair By Darning
-- The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut--out area
with a few tacking stitches and then sewn in position using a herring--
bone stitch of not less than two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches
to the inch), as shown in the figure opposite. A 25 mm (1 in) wide tape
should then be doped over the seams.
-- For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or ser-
rated edges, should be doped in position ensuring that the patch over-
laps the edge of the tape by 31 mm (1.25 in). Where the size of the in-
sertion patch is more than 225 mm (9 in) square, a 75 mm (3 in) wide
fabric serrated tape is often used; the tape should be mitred at the cor-
ners and doped in position. The original finish should then be restored.

Part -66

25mm Covering Strip Cover Patch Position
12mm Folded Under

Figure 60 Normal Insertion Repair
Part -66
INSPECTION OF FABRIC
General
The fabric covering of an aircraft will deteriorate in service, the rate of deterio-
ration depending, to a large extent, on the type of operation, climate, storage
conditions and the maintenance of a satisfactory surface finish.

In addition, as a result of water soakage, chafing against structure and local
wear, the covering will not deteriorate uniformly. In the case of fabric covered
components on large aircraft, an arbitrary life may be placed on the fabric, but
with light--aircraft coverings the fabric should be checked at the periods speci-
fied in the approved Maintenance Schedule and prior to renewal of the Certifi-
cate of Airworthiness.
Visual Inspection
A visual examination in which particular attention is given to places where wa-
ter soakage, local wear, fretting or oil contamination are likely to occur, or are
known to occur on that particular aircraft type, supplemented by a knowledge
of the aircraft history, will often be sufficient to justify acceptance of the cover-
ing as a whole, or replacement of some local areas which have deteriorated. In
cases of doubt as to the strength of the fabric, further tests will be necessary.
Portable Tester Inspection
This consists of a penetrating cone and plunger housed within a sleeve assem-
bly. When pressed against a surface the cone is forced up through the sleeve
against spring pressure and the plunger projects through the top of the sleeve
in the same way as a tyre pressure gauge. When inspecting fabric, the tester
should be held at 90˚ to the surface and pressure applied towards the fabric in
a rotary motion, until the sleeve flange touches the surface (see figure oppo-
site). The degree to which the cone has penetrated the fabric is indicated by
the length of plunger showing above the sleeve and this is marked either by
coloured bands or a graduated scale.

Part -66

Coloured Band Indicator
Sleeve
Fabric
Penetrating Cone

Figure 61 Fabric Tester
Part -66


M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
M 6.4 CORROSION

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
GENERAL EFFECTS OF CORROSION

Corrosion is a natural phenomenon whereby metal is converted (by chemical or Most metals are subject to corrosion, but corrosion can be minimized by the
electrochemical action) into a metallic compound such as an oxide, hydroxide use of corrosion-resistant metals and finishes. The principal material used in
or sulphate. airframe structure is high-strength aluminium alloy sheet coated (clad) with a
Corrosion should be distinguished from erosion, which is primarily destruction pure aluminium coating (ALclad) which is highly resistant to corrosion attack.

by mechanical action. Corrosion occurs because of the tendency for metals to However, with an accumulation of airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants to-
return to their natural state. Noble metals, such as gold and platinum, do not gether with an electrolyte (moisture), pitting of the ALclad will occur.
corrode since they are chemically pure in their natural state. Once the ALclad surface is broken, rapid deterioration of the high-strength alu-
All corrosive attacks begin on the metal surface. The corrosion process in- minium alloy beneath occurs.
volves two chemical changes. The metal that is attacked or oxidized undergoes Other metals commonly used in airframe structure (such as non-clad high-
an anodic change, whilst the corrosive agent is being reduced and undergoing strength aluminium alloys, steel and magnesium alloys) require special preven-
a cathodic change. tive measures to guard against corrosion.
The tendency of most metals to corrode creates one of the major problems in S Aluminium alloys are usually anodized (a chemical coating), or aluminium
the maintenance of aircraft, particularly in areas where adverse environmental applied plating, then primed and possibly top-coated with paint.
or weather conditions exist. Some metals (such as stainless steel and tita-
S Steel (except most stainless steels) and other metals, such as brass and
nium), under the right conditions, produce corrosion products that are so tightly
bronze, require cadmium plating, zinc plating and aluminium coating etc.
bound to the corroding metal that they form an invisible oxide film (called a pas-
sive film), which prevents further corrosion. S Magnesium alloys are highly susceptible to corrosion attack, especially
where airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present and require
When the film of corrosion products is loose and porous (such as those of alu-
special chemical and electro-chemical treatments and paint finishes.
minium and magnesium), an electrolyte can easily penetrate and continue the
corrosion process, producing more extensive damage than surface appearance
would suggest.
Most pure metals are not suitable for aircraft construction and are used only in
combination with other metals to form alloys.
Most alloys are made up entirely of small crystalline regions, called grains. Cor-
rosion can occur on the surface of those regions which are less resistant, and
also at boundaries between regions, resulting in the formation of pits and inter-
granular corrosion. Metals have a wide range of corrosion resistance.
The most active metals (those which tend to lose electrons easily, such as
magnesium and aluminium), corrode easily. The most noble metals (those
which do not lose electrons easily, such as gold and silver), do not corrode eas-
ily.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66


M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
EFFECTS OF CORROSION ON METALS INFLUENCE FACTORS OF CORROSION

Some factors which influence metal corrosion and the rate of corrosion are the:
Steel
S Type of metal
Corrosion of steel is easily recognized because the corrosion product is red
rust. When iron-based alloys corrode, dark corrosion products usually form first S Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal (galvanic corrosion)

on the surface of the metal. These products are protective. However, if mois- S Anode and cathode surface areas (in galvanic corrosion)
ture is present, this ferrous oxide coating is converted to hydrated ferric oxide, S Temperature
which is red rust. This material will promote further attack by absorbing mois-
S Heat treatment and grain direction
ture from the air. The most practical means of controlling corrosion of steel is
complete removal of the corrosion products by mechanical means and by S Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water, battery fluids etc)
maintaining the protective coating system (usually a plating, often combined S Availability of oxygen
with a paint system). S Presence of different concentrations of the same electrolyte
Aluminium S Presence of biological organisms
Aluminium and its alloys exhibit a wide range of corrosion such as crevice, S Mechanical stress on the corroding metal
stress and fretting corrosion. Both bare and clad aluminium alloys resist corro- S Time of exposure to a corrosive environment.
sion in non--marine areas. Where airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are
present, all aluminium alloys require protection. The corrosion product of alu-
minium is a white-grey powdery material which can be removed by mechanical
polishing or brushing with materials softer than the metal. General surface at-
tack of aluminium penetrates slowly but is accentuated with the presence of
dissolved salts. Considerable attack can usually take place before serious loss
of structural strength.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Molecular Oxygen
Atomic Oxygen
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Alloy
OXIDATION
Amorphic Oxidisation
(rust)
Metal or Metal-Alloy
CHEMICAL CORROSION

Figure 62 Chemical Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
FILIFORM CORROSION
Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen-concentration cell corrosion or
crevice corrosion which occurs on metal surfaces having an organic coating
system.
It is identified by its characteristic worm--like trace of corrosion products be-

neath the paint film. Filiform occurs when the relative humidity of the air is
78-90% and the surface is slightly acid.
If filiform corrosion is not removed, the corrosion can lead to intergranular cor-
rosion, especially around fasteners and at seams. Filiform corrosion can be
removed by using glass bead-blasting material with portable abrasive equip-
ment and/or sanding.
Causes for Filiform Corrosion
This particular type of corrosion evidences itself in the form of fine molelike
trenches under the paint that spread out from the Fastener, Butt Joint or Coat-
ing Break in Filiform or threadlike manner.
Most instances of filiform corrosion involve mild surface corrosion with no struc-
tural damage. Since it presents an undesirable appearance, steps must be
taken to prevent further development.
The proper treatment involves removal of paint blisters and inspection of the
area with a magnifying glass to determine extent of corrosion. All corrosive
products must be removed and the area must be resealed with protective coat-
ings.
If corrosion exists under a fastener head, the affected fastener must be re-
moved, the area cleaned and a new fastener must be installed after application
of alodine and corrosion inhibitive primer.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
Hydrogen Bubble pH1

Paint Film

Corroded Track
Al(OH)3
Acid Solution
Aluminium Surface

Figure 63 Filiform Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
STRESS CORROSION
Stress corrosion is an intergranular cracking of the metal which is caused by a
combination of stress and corrosion.
Stress may be caused by internal or external loading. Internal stresses are pro-
duced by non-uniform deformation during cold working, by unequal cooling

from high temperatures and by internal structural rearrangement involving vol-
ume changes.
Internal stresses are induced when a piece of structure is deformed during an
assembly operation (ie during pressing in bushings, shrinking a part for press-
fit, installing interference bolts, installing rivets, etc).
Concealed stress is more important than design stress corrosion as it is difficult
to identify before it has overcome the design safety factor. The level of stress
varies from point to point within the metal.
Stresses near the yield strength are generally necessary to promote stress cor-
rosion cracking, but failures may occur at lower stresses.
Environments
Specific environments have been identified which cause stress corrosion crack-
ing of certain alloys.
S Salt solutions and sea-water may cause stress corrosion cracking of high
strength heat-treated steel and aluminium alloys. Methyl alcohol-hydrochlo-
ric acid solutions will cause stress corrosion cracking of some titanium al-
loys.
S Magnesium alloys may stress-corrode in moist air. Stress corrosion may be
reduced by applying protective coatings, stress relief heat treatment, using
corrosion inhibitors or controlling the environment.
S Shot-peening a metal surface increases resistance to stress corrosion
cracking by creating compressive stresses on the surface which should be
overcome by applied tensile stress before the surface sees any tension
load. Thus the threshold stress level is increased.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
Tensile load

Stress Corrosion
Crack

Figure 64 Stress Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION
In the figure opposite we have a piece of aluminium alloy (such as alloy 2024,
of which most aircraft structure is made). In this material, copper is alloyed with
aluminium and the microscopic grains of the copper and the aluminium serve
as the cathode and the anode for our explanation.

Aluminium is more negative than copper and will act as the anode in the gal-
vanic action that takes place. Within the metal itself, the forces are such that
there will be no flow of electrons between the two alloying agents until an exter-
nal path is provided to form a complete circuit. This path is provided by the
electrolyte, which may be a surface film of moisture containing such pollutants
as acids, salts or other industrial contaminations.
In our illustration we will stick with a little hydrochloric acid in the atmosphere.
The electrode potential difference between the aluminium and the copper
grains causes positive ions to exist within the aluminium.
When the electrolyte film covers the surface, the aluminium ions attract chlo-
rine ions from the hydrochloric acid and form aluminium chloride, the corrosive
salt. Hydrogen ions will be attracted to the copper by the electrons from the
aluminium. These hydrogen ions will become neutralized and form molecules
(H2) which leave the surface as a free gas.
Corrosion has formed on the anodic aluminium but no corrosion products are
evident on the copper, the cathode.
This type of electrochemical attack produces pits filled with the corrosive salts,
and is usually rather localized. However, if the entire surface is covered with a
strong electrolyte, there will be so much more corrosion that it will produce a
more-or-less uniformly-damaged area. This type of corrosion is called a direct
chemical attack.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Electrical
Flow
Magnesium
or Aluminium Aluminium Alloy
Alloy or Carbon
Electron
Direc-
tion
Electrolyte (ie
seawater)

Figure 65 Electrochemical Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
ELECTRO-- CHEMICAL SERIES FOR METAL

One of the basic characteristics of metals is their electrode potential. This sim-
ply means that when two dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte, there
will exist between these two metals an electrical potential or voltage. This force
will cause the electrons in the more negative material to flow to the less nega-

tive material - the cathode - if a conductive path is provided.
ARRANGED IN ORDER OF ELECTRODE POTENTIAL (NOBILITY)
(MOST ANODIC -- WILL GIVE UP ELECTRONS MOST EASILY)
S MAGNESIUM
S ZINC
S CLAD 7075 ALUMINIUM ALLOY
S COMMERCIALLY PURE ALUMINIUM (1100)
S CLAD 2024 ALUMINIUM ALLOY
S CADMIUM
S 7075--T6 ALUMINIUM ALLOY
S 2024--T3 ALUMINIUM ALLOY
S MILD STEEL
S LEAD
S TIN
S COPPER
S STAINLESS STEEL
S SILVER
S NICKEL
S CHROMIUM
S GOLD
(MOST CATHODIC -- LEAST CORROSIVE)
NOTE: ANY METAL APPEARING BEFORE ANOTHER IN THIS SERIES IS
ANODIC TO ANY METAL WHICH FOLLOWS IT, AND WILL BE THE
ONE CORRODED WHEN THEY ARE SUBJECT TO GALVANIC AC-
TION.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Carbon
Gold
Inconel
Nickel
Silver
Monel
Titan
Cres
Copper
Bronze
Chromium
Lead
Ferric
Steel
2024
ALCLAD 2024
5056
ALCLAD 7075 Electro-chemical potentials
Zinc of some metals in relation to
Magnesium Alloy
Al-Clad 2024
Pure Magnesium

Figure 66 Electrochemical Reaction
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
PITTING CORROSION
The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnesium is pitting.
Pitting first appears as a white, powdery deposit. It starts on the surface of a
material and then extends vertically into the material.
This type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which

decrease the material strength. You do not get a large indication of this type of
corrosion on the material surface.
This corrosion can be the starting point for intergranular corrosion. Contamina-
tion during the alloying process, swarf or electrolyte liquids can cause pitting.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Figure 67 Pitting Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
General
Intergranular corrosion is an attack on the grain boundaries of a metal.
Each of these tiny grains has a clearly defined boundary, which from a chemi-

cal point of view, differs from the metal within the grain center.
The grain boundary and grain center can react with each other as anode and
cathode when in contact with an electrolyte or conductive medium.
Causes for Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular Corrosion will appear in areas were the cladding is damaged due
to scratches or other damages. Another point of interest might be a wrong
heat-treatment procedure of the alloy.
This wrong manufacturing processes will produce small cavities between the
boundarys. When the metal is subjected to changes in temperature a accu-
mulation of condensated water will be the result and the corrosion will occur
rapidly.
Intergranular corrosion may also result from change in the original heat-treat-
ment condition caused by exposure to high temperature produced during grind-
ing or machining during overhaul.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Grain boundary
Grain Electrolyte and
-- -- corrosion products
+
+ + +
+
+ +

Figure 68 Intergranular Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
EXFOLIATION CORROSION
General
Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced form of intergranular corrosion which ex-
hibits itselfs by lifting up the surface of a metal by the force of expanding corro-

sion products accumulating at the grain boundaries just below the surface.
Causes of Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation Corrosion is mostly seen on extruded sections where the grain
thickness is usually less than in rolled form, exfoliation also occurs in sheet
stock.
The corrosion rate is usually accelerated by the presence of a dissimilar metal
such as steel fastener and a corrosive electrolyte such as salt water.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Figure 69 Exfoliation Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
FRETTING CORROSION
General
Fretting corrosion is the result of rubbing contact between two heavily loaded
surfaces, one of which must be metallic.

Causes for Fretting Corrosion
The rubbing movement, which may be very minute (in some cases elastic
movement only), destroys any natural protective film and also removes par-
ticles of metal from the surface.
The removed particles form an abrasive which aggravates the effect of rubbing
action, thus the surface is being continually removed to expose fresh metal to
corrosive attack.
This form of corrosion can eventually cause cracking fatigue.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Electrolyte and metal dust
Step 1
Corrosion products
Step 2

Figure 70 Fretting Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
MICROBIAL CORROSION
General
Microbial corrosion in integral fuel tanks is caused by bacteria, fungi or yeast in
unclean kerosene-type jet engine fuel.

Causes for Microbial Corrosion
Organisms commonly existing in the soil are carried by the air and ground wa-
ter and may be found growing in the water layer that may exist in a fuel tank. A
slimy mat of sludge-like deposit is formed, which may exclude oxygen and per-
mit the existence of other organisms.
The corrosion mechanism is not fully understood yet, although several organ-
isms are known to be capable of penetrating the top coating in a tank, permit-
ting other bacteria and their metabolic products to attack the aluminum directly
Microbial formations can be prevented by providing for complete water drain-
age of tanks by periodic monitoring of the fuel distribution system and by filter-
ing and dewatering fuel during final transfer.
In addition it is recommended that contaminated fuel tanks be steam cleaned
every 5000FH. A magnifying glass should be used to determine the existence
of any microbial corrosion.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Figure 71 Microbial Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
GALVANIC CORROSION
General
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical contact
in the presence of an electrolyte. Metals of one group corrode when they are

held in contact with those in another group. The further apart the groups, the
more active the corrosion.
Causes for galvanic corrosion
For example, magnesium would corrode very quickly when coupled with gold in
a humid atmosphere, but aluminium would corrode very slowly in contact with
cadmium. The rate of galvanic corrosion also depends on the size of the parts
in contact. If the surface area of the corroding metal (the anode) is smaller than
the surface area of the less active metal (the cathode), corrosion will be rapid
and severe.
When the corroding metal is larger than the less-active metal, corrosion will be
slow and superficial. For example, an aluminium fastener in contact with a rela-
tively inert monel structure may corrode severely, whilst a monel bracket se-
cured to a large aluminium member would result in a relatively superficial at-
tack on the aluminium sheet.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Figure 72 Galvanic Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66
CREVICE CORROSION
General
Crevice corrosion occurs between two materials that come into contact. The
metals may be similar or dissimilar or in some cases one of the parts may be

nonmetallic.
Causes for Crevice Corrosion
The crevice provides an entrapment area for high concentrations of corrosive
substances which aid the corrosive action.
Crevice corrosion can be prevented by completely sealing the faying surfaces
from corrosive materials and using correct fastener-spacings.

M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66

Electro- Metal
lyte
Oxy-
gen
Oxy-
gen
Expanding Corrosion
Products

Figure 73 Crevice Corrosion
M6.4 CORROSION
Part -66


M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66
M 6.5 FASTENERS

M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66
LIST OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF CONVERSIONS

ABS Airbus Standard
Inch to Millimetre Conversion
AFRP Aramide Fibre Reinforced Plastic
One inch equals 25,4 mm
AN Airforce Navy (USA)
Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion

AMM Aircraft Maintenance Manual
BAC Boeing Aircraft Corporation °C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
CRES Corrosion Resistant Steel °F = °C x 1.8 + 32
FWD Forward
DAN Deutsche Airbus Norm
GFRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
HL Hi-Lok
in (IN) Inch
KSI Kilopound per Square Inch
L/H (LH) Left Hand
m (M) Meter
mm Millimetre
MS Military Standard (USA)
NAS National Aerospace Standard (USA)
NSA Normalisation Sud Aviation (French)
R/H (RH) Right Hand
rpm (RPM) Revolutions Per Minute
SRM Structural Repair Manual
TL Taper-Lok

M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66


M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66
GENERAL
The installation of fasteners is one of the usual procedures used to attach com-
ponents or assemblies to aircraft structures.
Aluminium solid rivets are mainly used with high-strength, aluminium alloy com-
ponents and assemblies.

Steel, titanium or monel fasteners are used for joints in high-temperature
areas.
Differences are made between fastener types according to their application:
S Rivets (solid)
S Special Fasteners:
-- -Threaded Pin Fastener (Hi-Lok, Hi-Lite, Bullnose)
-- -Swaged Pin Fastener (Lockbolt)
-- -Taper-Lok
-- -Bolts
S Blind Fasteners:
-- -Pull-Through Fastener (blind rivets)
-- Huck, Avdel
-- Cherrymax, Chobert
-- Blind Bolts
For each type, further difference is made with reference to type of manufac-
tured head, for example:
S universal-
S hexagonal-
S 12 points-
S countersink head.
Data in this section is based on applicable standards and specifications of re-
lated vendors.

M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66


M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66
SPECIAL FASTENERS
General Taper--Lok Fasteners
These fasteners have a close-tolerance shank or pin and a collar or nut which The Taper--Lok is a two--part fastener. These two parts are:
forms the closing tail. 1. a tapered bolt with a threaded end

NOTE: When using these fasteners in CFRP structure, special nuts or collars 2. self--locking nut with an integral washer.
must be used. These will be specified in the applicable repair procedure. Taper--Lok fasteners are available with a protruding or countersunk head in tita-
Special fasteners are divided into two groups because of their different nium or steel alloy.
strengths:
Bolts
S fasteners for shear application
The bolt is a two--part fastener consisting of:
S fasteners for tension application.
1. a headed bolt with a threaded end
Threaded Pin Fasteners (Hi--Lok, Hi--Lite, Bullnose) 2. a corresponding locking nut.
The threaded pin is a two--part fastener. These two parts are: Bolts are available with the following head-styles:
1. a pin with a head at one end and a threaded part at the other end, and S protruding
2. a threaded collar or nut with a hexagonal drive. S hexagonal
Pins are available with a protruding or countersunk head in the following mate- S 8 points
rials:
S 12 points or
S pin of steel alloy or titanium
S countersunk.
S collar or nut of aluminium alloy, corrosion--resistant steel or steel alloy.
They are available in the following materials:
Swaged Pin Fasteners (Lockbolt) S bolt of corrosion--resistant steel, steel alloy or titanium
Swaged Pins are two--part fasteners. These two parts are: S nut of corrosion--resistant steel, steel alloy or titanium.
1. a headed pin with locking grooves, a break--off groove and pull grooves,
2. a collar.
Pins are available for shear or tensile strength applications.
These fasteners are available with a protruding or countersunk head in the fol-
lowing materials:
S pin of steel alloy, titanium or aluminium alloy
S collar of aluminium alloy.

M6.5 FASTENERS
Part -66


M6.5.1 SCREW THREADS
Part -66
M 6.5.1 SCREW THREADS

Part -66
THREAD FORMS
Introduction Single and Multiple Threads
A screw thread is the ridge left when a groove is cut into a cylindrical or conical When formed by one continuous groove, a thread is said to be single or single
surface. If the groove is formed on the external surface, the ridge is called an start. The majority of threads used for adjustment and fastening are single
external or male thread, whereas the thread formed inside a cylinder or cone is start, and the lead is equal to the pitch (P) of the thread.

said to be an internal or female thread. Multiple start threads consist of two or more ridges left by grooves cut side by
A thread formed on a cylinder is known as a straight or parallel thread, whilst side. In this way the axial travel or lead of the thread is increased without
that cut onto a conical part is called a taper thread. When cut in a clockwise changing the pitch. For example, a nut engaged with a double--start thread will
direction the thread is said to be right hand; when cut in an anti--clockwise di- travel twice as far in one complete turn as one engaged with a single start
rection the thread is left hand. Most screws are right hand. thread of the same pitch.
In multiple start threads, the lead is equal to the pitch of the thread multiplied
Features
by the number of starts.
Screw threads play an important part in all equipment maintenance and an ap-
preciation of the principal terms and features associated with threads is essen-
tial when making screw threads and when using threaded parts.
S Form. The form of a screw thread is the shape of one complete contour of P Px2 Px4
the thread between corresponding points on the thread crest.
S Crest. This is the prominent point of the thread; whether an external or in-
ternal thread, it is the top of the thread.
S Root. The root is the bottom point of the thread groove, whether the thread
is external or internal (male or female).
S Flank. The flank is the slope of the thread between root and crest.
S Thread Angle. This is the angle between two adjacent flanks.
S Major Diameter. The major diameter of a parallel screw thread is the diam-
eter of the crest for male threads and the root diameter for female threads. Single 2 Start 4 Start
When applied to male threads the major diameter may be referred to as the (lead=pitch) (lead=2xpitch) (lead=4xpitch)
crest or normal diameter.
S Minor Diameter. This is the root diameter of a male thread and the crest Single and Multiple Threads
diameter of an internal or female thread.
S Depth. This is the radial distance between root and crest.
S Pitch. The pitch of a screw thread is the distance, measured parallel to the
screw axis, between corresponding points on adjacent thread forms in the
same axial plane.
S Lead. The lead of a screw thread is the distance that the moving member of
a mating pair advances axially when turned one complete revolution. The
lead of a single start thread is the same as the pitch.

Part -66

Flank
Angle
Depth Root Crest
Minor Di-
ameter
Pitch
Crest Root
Internal (Female) Thread External (Male) Thread

Figure 74 Features of a Screw Thread
Part -66
STANDARD SCREW SYSTEM

Screw--threaded parts have become essential in machine assembly and are S BSP. This is another fine--pitch adaptation of the Whitworth thread form. It is
used universally as fastening and securing devices. used for pipeline couplings where the fine pitch ensures that sufficient uncut
Originally, firms making screwed parts used their own screw thread and no two metal remains on the wall of a pipe to guarantee a strong connection. The
firms made the same. This led to difficulty in matching screwed parts, or in- thread may be tapered to assist in making a pressure--tight joint. The taper

deed, being at all sure that a correct screw was being used and, because there is based upon the internal diameter of the pipe and is 1 in 16, based on di-
was no interchangeability of screwed components, the result was damage to ameter.
screws, frustration, and delay. S BA (British Association). This fine--pitch thread is used for sizes below 1/4in
Obviously, some sort of standardization was needed, even though it was ac- diameter only; it is widely used for smaller mechanical and electrical parts in
cepted that a single screw thread, with a fixed pitch for a given diameter, would aircraft and mechanical transport.
not be satisfactory in all circumstances. A further objection to a single screw Unlike other standard threads, BA sizes are expressed numerically. The
form arose from the use of both imperial and metric system of measurements. popular size range is from 0 to 10; the larger the number, the smaller is the
thread.
Screw Systems The BA differs from BSW and BSF in that it has a thread angle of 47.5o,
For many years the principal British systems have been British Standard (BS) although the feature of equal rounding for root and crest is retained. The
and British Association (BA), whilst in Canada and the United States the Ameri- largest size (0 BA) has a major diameter of 0.236 in.
can National (AN) has been the main screw thread used. The BA thread is metric.
The individual national threads have now been largely replaced by a common S ANC and ANF (American National Coarse and Fine). These two American
screw thread designed to simplify the interchange of threaded parts; this is the standard threads approximate to the BSW and BSF threads respectively.
Unified thread. They perform a similar function in American engineering and may be en-
countered in machines of American origin.
A metric version of the Unified thread is being developed by the International
The thread form is quite different from the British thread and in some ways
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
is more like a metric thread. The flattening of the crest and root in the ANC
British Standard Thread Forms is not equal; modern manufacturing methods also produce thread crests
which are, to some extent, rounded rather than flat.
There are three British Standard thread forms in general use: British Standard
Whitworth (BSW), British Standard Fine (BSF), and British Standard Pipe S Unified. The basic thread form of the unified series incorporates features
(BSP). from both American and British national threads. Although the American
S BSW. This is the British Standard coarse thread which is recommended for and British specifications for the unified thread differ slightly, the differences
all general purpose work in a wide range of metals and plastics. The large do not cause a lack of interchangeability of threaded parts. The series has
Whitworth thread form makes it particularly suitable for rapid dismantling three versions of the basic thread form which are designed to cover all engi-
neering requirements; these are:
and assembly of parts. It has a symmetrical ’Vee’--type thread with an angle
of 55o and is rounded equally at the root and crest. -- UNC -- Coarse thread
S BSF. This is basically a finer version of the Whitworth thread form. The -- UNF -- Fine thread
smaller thread provides a finer form of adjustment and greater resistance to -- UNEF -- Extra Fine Thread.
vibration in all fastening devices. For a given diameter, a BSF screw will al- Components having unified threads are identified by a symbol or machine
ways have more turns per inch (TPI) than a BSW screw and, because of its marking; the markings vary with the part and method of manufacture.
resistance to vibration, it has been much used on British aircraft, mechani-
cal transport and mobile equipment.

Part -66
British Unified
55o
BSW Nut

47.5o
BA
American
60o
60o
ANC
60o
Bolt
ANF
Principal Standard Thread Systems
Examples of Unified Marking

Figure 75 Screw Threads
Part -66
THREAD PITCH THREAD PROFILE

The shape (or profile) of a screw thread depends mainly upon the job it is in-
Coarse and Fine Pitch
tended to do.
Two screw threads may have similar major diameters and thread forms, yet
The symmetrical ’Vee’ thread is the most common thread form and is a shape
have different depths of thread. The screw which has a deeper thread cut into
designed to combine strength with ease of engagement. The angle of the ’Vee’,

its surface will have fewer threads per inch (of its axial length) and is said to
and minor characteristics of the thread form, vary according to the system to
have a coarser pitch than the shallow thread. A coarse pitch thread has a
which the thread belongs.
greater lead than a fine pitch thread of the same major diameter.
The Square, Buttress and Acme threads, which are primarily transmission
In a coarse pitch pair (eg nut and bolt), the axial movement for each revolution
threads, are widely used in lifting tackle, screw--jacks and parts of heavy indus-
is greater than that produced by a fine pitch pair of the same major diameter.
trial machinery.
The increased axial movement is obtained at the expense of the minor diame-
ter of the male screw which is smaller in the coarse pitch pair and, therefore,
weaker than its fine--pitch counterpart. P P P
In general, a fine--pitch screw has a stronger root portion, tighter grip, finer ad- 45o 29o
justment and is more resistant to shaking loose when subjected to vibration
than a coarse--pitch screw of a similar major diameter.
Same Square Buttress Acme

Smaller Larger
Transmission Threads
Coarse Types of Fine Pitch

Pitch Pitch
Screw Pitch Gauges

Screw pitch gauges are used to determine the pitch of a thread quickly and
exactly.
S Select a screw pitch gauge of the correct thread form.
S keep the leaf parallel to the thread axis.
S Check that the gauge leaf fits the thread accurately.
S Read the required pitch directly from the leaf that accurately matches the
thread.

Part -66

External
Screw Pitch Gauge
Internal

Figure 76 Screw Pitch Gauge
M6.5.2 BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS
Part -66
M 6.5.2 BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS

Part -66
BOLTS, SCREWS AND NUTS

Introduction
Power and/or hand tools may be used to install and remove bolts, screws and
nuts. If a specific type of tool is required this will be given in this topic where

relevant.
Install bolts and screws, where practical, with the head either uppermost or
foremost where appropriate. In this position there is less risk of the bolt/ screw
falling out if it becomes loose.
If not specified in a repair procedure, or by the original position of the fastener,
install nuts so that not less than1/32 in(0.8 mm) of the bolt or screw extends
through the nut. If the bolts or screws are chamfered, the full chamfer must
extend through the nut.
The torque values for fasteners are given in SRM Chapter 51.

Part -66

Figure 77 Types of Fastener Heads and Recesses
Part -66
IDENTIFICATION
Aircraft bolts can be identified by the code marking on the bolt head.
The markings according to US standards denote the bolt manufacturer, the ma-
terial from which the bolt is made and whether the bolt is a standard type or a

special purpose bolt.
Raised cross
(Steel)
Double raised dash

(Aluminium alloy)
Raised dash
(CRES)

Part -66

X = 1/64“ Oversize
Y = 1/32“ Oversize
Grip Length In 1/16“ = 8/16 = 1/2“
X = 1/64“ Oversize
H = Drilled Head
Y = 1/32“ Oversize
Grip Length In 1/16“ = 6/16 = 3/8“ D = Drilled Shank
Nominal Diameter In 1/16“ = 5/16“
U = Unplated
Basic Part No
– = Plated
NE = Long Threaded
D = Drilled Shank NF = Short Threaded
H = Drilled Head
Example
Basic Part No

Figure 78 Screw Identification
Part -66
INSTALLATION OF BOLTS
In materials with a thickness greater than 2.4mm it is acceptable to have 2
pitches of screw-thread contained within the hole.
If the material thickness is less than 2.4mm then no threads may be contained
within the hole.

A maximum of three washers may be used to adjust grip length.

Part -66

T > 2.4mm T < 2.4mm
Max 2 thread pitches Max 3 washers No thread pitches Max 3 washers

Figure 79 Bolt Installation
Part -66
STUDS
Introduction Stud Box
A stud is a piece of rod, threaded at each end with a plain portion in the middle. This is simply a piece of hexagonal metal bar, drilled and tapped through its
It should be a tight fit in the thread tapped to receive it. axial centre-line.
1. The stud is screwed into one end and a standard set screw into the other.

Unlike a bolt, a stud has no head. Therefore, its fitting (and removal) requires
special tools or techniques. 2. The end of the screw is brought firmly into contact with the end of the stud
to lock the items into one unit.
3. The stud can now be screwed tightly into its housing by using a spanner on
the hexagon.
Parts being Once fitted, the stud box is removed by undoing the locking set screw to free
joined
Standard
the box, which can then be unscrewed from the stud.
Stud Insertion/Removal Tool
The stud is started into its thread by hand and then the inserting tool is placed
over the protruding end until the plain shank of the stud enters the tool. A locat-
Waisted ing screw on the outer end of the tool is adjusted to position the tool correctly,
and a cage and cam arrangement grips the shank of the stud when the tool is
turned. The stud and tool can now turn together.
Stepped Lock Nuts

Two nuts are screwed onto the outer thread of the stud and locked firmly to-
gether by using two spanners. The stud is then screwed firmly into its housing
by using a single spanner on the outer nut. A spanner used on the lower nut
Shouldered will remove the stud.
Examples of Studs and Their Use
Fitting
Various methods are employed to fit studs. Amongst these methods are
S stud box
S stud insertion tool, and
S lock nuts.

Part -66

Screw
To Insert
Hexagon
To Insert To Remove
Copper
Disc
Stud
Stud
To Remove
Stud Insertion/Re-
Stud Box moval Tool
Lock Nuts

Figure 80 Stud Insertion/Removal
Part -66
Stud Removal
The state of the stud dictates the method of removal. If it is undamaged, the
stud can be removed as described previously. However, if the stud is damaged,
removal should be carried out using one of the following methods.
Filed Flats

Providing there is sufficient stud protruding, flats are filed and a spanner or tap-
wrench used to unscrew the stud (see opposite left).
Ezi-Out
If the stud is broken level with or below the surface, drill as large a hole in the
stud as possible (without encroaching on the stud threads) and remove the
stud using an Ezi-Out screw-extractor.

Part -66

Filed
Flats
Ezi-Out
Broken
Stud

Figure 81 Stud Removal
Part -66
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
These are used extensively to secure thin-gauge sheet-metal parts where nuts
and bolts are either impractical or too expensive.
When screwed into a hole of the correct diameter they form their own thread.
The screw head may be slotted or cruciform.

Part -66


Part -66
NUTS
General Castle Nut
Nuts for aircraft bolts and screws are manufactured in many sizes and shapes. These nuts are designed to fit on standard airframe bolts and may be used
S non--self--locking nuts when the bolt is subjected to either shear or tensile loads. They are made from
the same material as the shear castle nut.

S locking nuts
S high--temperature self--locking nuts
S low--temperature self--locking nuts.
NON--SELF--LOCKING NUTS
These are used with drilled--shank hex--head bolts, clevis bolts, eye bolts or
struts and is designed to accommodate a cotter pin or wirelocking as a means
of safetying.
Castle Nut
Shear Castle Nut
Used only for shear load on clevis bolts. Slotted Engine Nut
These nuts are available in cadmium--plated nickel steel, corrosion--resistant This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine and is not approved for air-
steel and in 2024 aluminium alloy. frame use. It is made of heat--treated steel.
Slotted Engine Nut

Shear Castle Nut
Wing Nut
Wing nuts are intended for use on hose clamps and battery connections, etc,
where the desired tightness is ordinarily obtained by the use of fingers. They
are made of either cadmium-plated steel or brass.
Wing Nut

Part -66
LOCKING NUTS
Lock Nut Oddie Stiffnuts
A lock nut is a thin, plain nut which is tightened down firmly onto the main, plain Oddie stiffnuts have six tongues at their outer end which are bent inwards to
nut. This friction wedges the threads to prevent them both slackening. form a circle slightly less in diameter than the root of the bolt thread. As the bolt
passes through the nut the tongues are pushed upwards, applying a locking

load onto the bolt thread.
Clinch Nuts
Lock Nut
Nyloc Stiffnuts
This nut has an unthreaded nylon insert permanently housed at the outer end.
As the bolt threads engage the insert, the nylon is compressed into them, set- Anchor Nut
ting up a friction which prevents the nut unscrewing.
Oddie Stiffnuts
Cap Nut
Aerotight and Philidas Stiffnuts
These nuts have slotted locking extensions which are closed during manufac-
ture to put the screw-thread out of alignment. As the bolt engages and realigns
the extension thread, a grip is produced which provides a friction lock.
Nyloc Nut
Aerotight
Philidas
Anchor Nut
Aerotight and Philidas Stiffnuts
Nyloc Stiffnuts

Part -66
Anchor Nuts
A floating type anchor nut is used when a slight range of movement is neces-
sary to ensure the bolt can locate.
A strip nut is used when a row of anchor stiffnuts is required. In this arrange-
ment the stiffnuts are fitted at equal intervals along a channel strip which itself

is riveted to the blind side of the structure.
Floating type Anchor nut
Oddie type
Strip

Part -66


Part -66
HIGH--TEMPERATURE SELF-- LOCKING NUTS

General
In applications where temperatures exceed 120˚C (25O˚F), all-metal locknuts
are used.

All--metal locknuts are constructed with either the threads in the locking insert
out--of--phase with the load--carrying section, or with a saw--cut insert with a
pinched--in thread in the locking section. The locking action of the all--metal nut
depends upon the resiliency of the metal when the locking section and loadcar-
rying section are engaged by screw threads.
They are made out of steel alloy, CRES or CRES silver-plated.
Silver-plated nuts should not be used in contact with titanium.

Part -66


Part -66
LOW-- TEMPERATURE SELF--LOCKING NUTS

General
These should not be used in any location where the temperature will exceed
121˚C (250˚F).

Fibre- or nylon-locknuts are constructed with an unthreaded fibre--locking insert
held securely in place. The fibre or nylon has a smaller diameter than the nut,
and when a bolt or screw is entered, it taps into the insert, producing a locking
action.
After the nut has been tightened, ensure the rounded or chamfered end bolts,
studs or screws extend at least one thread or chamfer through the nut. Flat end
bolts, studs or screws should extend at least 1/32 inch through the nut.
If fibre--type self--locking nuts are reused, inspect the fibre carefully to ensure it
has not lost its locking friction or become brittle. Do not reuse locknuts if they
can be run up fingertight.
Bolts 5/16 inch diameter and over with cotter-pin holes may be used with self--
locking nuts but only if free from burrs around the holes. Bolts with damaged
threads and rough ends are not acceptable. Do not tap the fibrelocking insert.
Locking Insert

Part -66


Part -66
HELI - COIL INSERTS

Many screws and bolts are driven into threads cut into castings made of such
soft metals as aluminIum, magnesium or plastic. Rather than allowing these
soft materials to wear each time the screw is inserted or removed, the holes
are protected with Heli--Coil inserts.

Heli-Coil inserts are available for all thread standards. These inserts are
manufactured from round wire which is converted into a diamond-shaped
cross-section having a tolerance of .0005mm (0.0002 in) across the flats.
This precision wire is formed into a spiral coil which has a driving tang and a
notch to facilitate removal of the tang after the insert is screwed into a Heli--Coil
tapped hole.
Two types of Heli--Coil inserts are available.
S The standard type provides a free running thread
S The screw-lock type provides a resilient internal locking thread.
Heli--Coil inserts permit each thread to ”adjust” to the screw. In threaded as-
semblies there is always the possibility of lead and angle errors between mat-
ing members. Heli--Coil inserts are self--adjusting to compensate for such er-
rors and thereby assure that all threads are fully engaged.
Heli--Coil Inserts assure full load distribution throughout the entire length of the
thread because all threads are fully engaged. In an ordinary threaded assembly
the first thread carried 45--50% of the load.
Notch
Tang
Wire Section Insert Partly Installed
Typical Wire Thread Insert
Wire thread inserts have a tang at the inner end to facilitate fitting with a spe-
cial tool; this tang may be removed after installation if required.

Part -66

Inserting Handle
Key
Prewind
Inserting
Tool
Mandrel
Tang
Nozzle
Chamber
Slot
Body Handle
Mandrel
Inserting Key & Prewind Inserting Tool

Figure 82 Heli-Coil Insertion
Part -66
Installation
Since the internal and external threads on a thread insert have the same num- outer end of the insert is at least half a pitch below the surface of the
ber of threads per inch and the internal thread is designed to be of standard component.
size, then a special-size tap is required to cut the threads into which the insert -- When a prewind tool is used, the insert should be placed in the chamber
is fitted. These special taps and checking gauges are provided by the insert with the tang towards the nozzle and the mandrel pushed forward
manufacturers.

through the insert to engage the tang in the slot.
S Drilling. The hole for the insert should be drilled to the diameter and depth The mandrel should be rotated clockwise and pushed gently forward to
specified in tables supplied by the insert manufacturer, the depth being cal- engage the insert coil in the nozzle threads, rotation being continued until
culated from the fitted length of the insert, plus the thread runout, plus a half the insert is about to emerge from the outer end of the nozzle.
pitch gap at each end of the insert. The tool should then be placed squarely over the tapped hole and the
Care should be taken to ensure that the hole is drilled in the correct location handle rotated to transfer the insert from the tool into the tapped hole; no
and square to the surface, and that all swarf is removed before tapping. In forward pressure should be used.
some cases, particularly when the hole is near to the edge of the compo- -- Unless otherwise stated, inserts should be installed so that the outer coil
nent, it may be necessary to check for cracks by a specified non--destruc- is at least half a pitch below the component surface.
tive testing method.
-- Absolute cleanliness of the tapped hole and freedom from burrs is es-
S Thread Tapping. The thread should be tapped with a special tap provided sential to prevent distortion of an insert. When jointing compound or
by the insert manufacturer, a straight--fluted tap being used for hand-tapping anti--corrosive compounds are specified, they should be applied strictly
and a spiral--fluted tap for machine-tapping where this is possible. according to the relevant instructions and surplus compound should be
Normal workshop practices should be used for tapping, with special empha- removed as specified after installing the insert.
sis on cutting the thread coaxially with the hole.
S Tang Removal. It is not always necessary to remove the tang of a wire
Lubricant should be used according to the type of metal being cut, eg a light
thread insert, but removal may be specified in some cases for screw clear-
mineral oil is generally recommended for tapping light alloys.
ance or product appearance, both in blind holes and through-holes.
S Thread Gauging. After the insert thread has been cut it should be cleaned A tang in a through-hole is removed by use of the inserting key used as a
of all swarf and foreign matter. The thread should then be checked with a punch, with the tang outside the engaging slot, or by use of a special punch.
special GO/NO-GO plug gauge provided by the insert manufacturer to en- A sharp blow with a hammer on the key or punch will fracture the wire at the
sure that the thread is satisfactory. notch where the tang joins the coil.
Any thread imperfections indicated by tightness of the GO gauge should be To remove the tang from an insert fitted in a blind hole, long round--nosed
removed by further use of the original tap or, if this is ineffective, by use of a pliers are required; the tang should be bent backwards and forwards
new tap. through the insert bore until it fractures at the notch and can be removed.
S Fitting the Insert. An insert should be screwed into the lapped hole by the
use of either an inserting key or an inserting tool of the prewind type, de-
pending upon which is recommended for the particular insert. A different
sized key or tool is provided for each size of insert.
-- The inserting key should be used by sliding the insert onto it so that the
tang is engaged in the driving slot at its forward end; the assembly
should then be applied to the tapped hole, compressing the insert down-
wards with the thumb and forefinger of one hand while turning the key
with the other hand; no downward pressure should be applied on the

key. The insert will find into the thread and should be installed so that the

Part -66

Major
Diameter
Half-Pitch
Minimum
Tap
Drill Size
Punch
Minimum
Fitted Length Full
of Insert Sleeve
Thread
Depth
Minimum Notch
Thread
Tang Break-Off Punch
Half-Pitch Runout
Minimum
Tang
Wire Thread Insert Hole Data

Figure 83 Heli-Coil Insertion Data
Part -66
Insert Removal
Under normal circumstances, particularly when fitting instructions have been
carefully carried out, the removal of inserts should be unnecessary. However, if
an insert has to be removed because of bad fitting, damage or wear, this can
be done by bending the top coil inwards to form a rough tang and unscrewing
the insert with the insertion tool or a pair of pliers.

Some manufacturers recommend the use of a tapered left--hand tap of ap-
propriate size, which grips the top coils internally and unwinds the insert when
rotated. Other manufacturers provide a range of extractor tools which are fitted
with hardened and tempered blades; the blade will bite into the inner surface of
the insert, which can then be unscrewed.
After removal of an insert, the threads in the hole should be carefully examined
for damage before fitting a new insert.

Part -66

Press inwards (blade
will bite into insert coils)
Handle
A
Blade
1/4 coil
(approx) View A-A
End of
Insert Coil

Figure 84 Typical Heli-Coil Extractor Tool
Part -66


LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
M 6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
SAFETY METHODS
General
Safetying is the process of securing all aircraft bolts, nuts, screws, pins and
other fasteners so that they do not work loose due to vibration. A familiarity

with the various methods and means of safetying equipment on an aircraft is
necessary in order to perform maintenance and repair.
There are various methods of safetying aircraft parts. The most widely-used
methods are
S wirelocking
S cotter (split) pins
S lock-washers
S locking plates
S snap--rings (circlips) and
S self--locking nuts.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
MS 20995 -- NC -- 32

Military Specification
Standard--Number
Letter Code
Wire Diameter in 1/1000”
Letter Code Material Alloy Elements
19% Chromium
C CRES
9% Nickel
Carbon Steel 0.18 to 0.23%

F
--Zinc plated-- Carbon
Ni Base with
N Ni Cr Fe -- Alloy
15.5% Cr and 8% Fe
Ni Cu - Alloy Ni Base with 30% Cr

NC
(Monel)

Figure 85 Lockwire Material Identification
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
NUTS, BOLTS AND SCREWS:

Wire Locking
Nuts,bolts and screws may be locked using either the single- or double-twist
methods. The double-twist method is the most common method of wirelocking.

The single-wire method may by used on small screws in a closely-spaced
closed geometrical pattern, on parts in electrical systems and in places that are
extremely difficult to reach.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66

Figure 86 Typical Wirelocking Examples
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
WIRELOCKING
Wirelocking is the most positive and satisfactory method of safetying cap--
screws, studs, nuts, bolt--heads, and turnbuckle barrels which cannot be safe-
tied by any other practical means. It is a method of wiring together two or more
units in such a manner that any tendency of one to loosen is counteracted by

the tightening of the wire.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
Bend
down or
back

Bolt-Heads
Small screws
closely spaced
Bend
down or
back
Bend
down or
back

Figure 87 Locking of Screws
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66


LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66

Single-fastener application
Small screws in closely (double-twist method)
spaced geometrical pattern
(single-wire method)
Note wirelocking shown is installed for right-hand threads; routing must be

opposite for left-hand threads.
External snap
(single-wire method)
Screw-heads
(double-twist method)
Bolt-heads Castle nuts

Figure 88 Locking of Screws (Cont.)
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66


LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66

No safety wire
hole provided
Grip end of
wire with
pliers Clockwise
twist
No safety wire
hole provided
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Step 5 Step 6
Step 4
Counter- Fold back,
clockwise cut off
twist square

Figure 89 Locking of Electric Connectors
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
LOCKING DEVICES - WASHERS

Various methods exist, depending on their application and the whim of the de- Shakeproof Washer
sign authority, for locking nuts and bolts with washers. This is a spring steel washer with slanting serrations on its internal or external
circumferences. The angle of the serrations is such that the nut is able to ride
Spring Washer
over them whilst being tightened, but any tendency to unscrew will be resisted

This is either a single coil or square section spring with sharp corners or a by the sharp edges of the serrations biting into the underside of the nut (similar
double-coil spring. It is fitted beneath the nut so that when the nut is tightened to a ratchet).
the spring is compressed, setting up a friction and thus preventing the nut from
vibrating loose.
Shakeproof Washers
Spring Washers
Tab Washer
This is a metal washer with two or more tabs, suitable for use with plain nuts.
One tab is bent against one of the flats of the nut and the other is bent over an
edge of the component or fitted into a slot or hole machined in the component.
It is not permissable to straighten the tabs and re-use the washer.
Tab Washers

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66

Locking Plate
Split Pins
Centre Punching/Burring
Pal Nut
Circlips

Figure 90 Other Locking Devices
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
LOCKING DEVICES - QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS

Pip Pin Camloc
This is a simple and secure, non-threaded fastener, allowing the rapid installa- The Camloc fastener consists of four principal parts:
tion and removal of parts without tooling. Available as a simple locating pin S receptacle
(detent pin) and a locking version (double-acting).

S grommet
1. Ring pull detent pin. A single ball locates the pin, no positive lock. The
S retaining ring and
simplest option for location purposes. Simply push to insert, and pull to re-
move. Fitted with a ’keyring’ loop. S stud assembly.
The receptacle consists of an aluminium alloy forging mounted in a stamped
sheet metal base. The receptacle assembly is riveted to the access door
frame, which is attached to the structure of the aircraft.
The grommet is a sheet metal ring held in the access panel by the retaining
ring.
Grommets are available in two types; the flush type and the protruding type. In
2. Double acting steel pin. To release the ball lock mechanism, the ring han- addition to serving as the grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also
dle can be pushed in or pulled out (double acting), moving a centre core, holds the stud assembly.
thus releasing the two balls, allowing the pin to be extracted.
The stud assembly consists of a
Instantaneous self locking, Vibration resistant, easy application.
S stud
S cross pin
S spring, and
S spring cup.
The assembly is designed so that it can be quickly inserted into the grommet
by compression of the spring. Once installed in the grommet, the stud assem-
bly cannot be removed unless the spring is again compressed.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
Outer Member
Stud Assembly

Stud Assembly Grommet
Grommet
Retaining Ring
Rivet
Flush or
Protruding Grommet
Inner Member
Receptacle
Stud Retaining Ring
Grommet
Retaining Ring Protruding-Type Installation
Outer Member
Stud Retaining Ring Stud Assembly
(used on some fasteners)
Grommet
Grommet
Receptacle Retaining Ring
Rivet
Inner Member
Flush-Type Installation

Figure 91 Camloc Fastener
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
Dzus
Dzus fasteners are available in two types:
S One is the light--duty type, used on box covers, access hole covers, and
lightweight fairing.
S The second is the heavy--duty type, which is used on cowlings and heavy

fairings.
The main difference between the two types of Dzus fastener is a grommet,
used with the heavy--duty fasteners. Otherwise their construction features are
about the same.
The figure opposite, left, shows the parts making up a light--duty Dzus fastener.
Notice that they include a spring and a stud. The spring is made of cadmium--
plated steel wire and is usually riveted to an aircraft structural member. The
stud comes in a number of designs (as shown in views A, B, and C) and
mounts in a dimpled hole in the cover assembly.
Airloc
The figure opposite, right, shows the parts that make up an Airloc fastener.
Similar to the Camloc fastener, the Airloc fastener consists of a receptacle,
stud, and cross pin. The stud is attached to the access panel and is held in
place by the cross pin. The receptacle is riveted to the access panel frame.
Two types of Airloc receptacles are available:
S the fixed type and
S the floating type.
The floating type makes for easier alignment of the stud in the receptacle.
Several types of studs are also available. In each instance the stud and cross
pin come as separate units so that the stud may be easily installed in the ac-
cess panel.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66

Fixed Type Floating Type
Oval Type
Receptacle
Cross Pin
Flush Type Wing Type
Spring Stud
Cover Assembly Dimpled Hole Panel Stud
Dzus Fastener Airloc Fastener

Figure 92 Dzus and Airloc Fasteners
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
LOCKING DEVICES - COTTER PINS

Cotter pins are used to secure bolts, screws, nuts and pins. Some cotter pins
are made of low--carbon steel, while others consist of stainless steel, and thus
are more resistant to corrosion.
Stainless steel cotter pins are used in locations where non-magnetic material is

required. Regardless of shape or material, use all cotter pins for the same gen-
eral purpose: safetying.
The figure opposite shows three types of cotter pins and how their size is de-
termined.
NOTE: Whenever uneven--prong cotter pins are used, the length measurement
is to the end of the shorter prong.
Cotter pin installation is shown opposite.
S Use castellated nuts with bolts that have been drilled for cotter pins.
S Use stainless steel cotter pins.
S The cotter pin should fit neatly into the hole, with very little sideplay.
The following general rules apply to cotter pin safetying:
S Do not bend the prong over the bolt end beyond the bolt diameter (cut it off
if necessary).
S Do not bend the prong down against the surface of the washer (again, cut it
off if necessary).
S Do not extend the prongs outward from the sides of the nut if you use the
optional wraparound method.
S Bend all prongs over a reasonable radius - sharp-angled bends invite break-
age.
S Tap the prongs lightly with a mallet to bend them.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66

Length
Diameter
Uneven prong
optional
Optional Preferred

Figure 93 Cotter Pins
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
LOCKING DEVICES - KEYS

Introduction S Feather Key. This type of key is used when axial movement is required be-
The name key is given to a specially--shaped piece of metal that is used to tween the hub and the shaft. An example of the use of a feather key is
transmit a drive at considerable mechanical power from a shaft to a hub, or when a gear or a pulley must slide along a shaft whilst continuing to trans-
vice versa, when the mating surfaces are otherwise smooth. mit drive. The keyway in the hub is cut to allow the key the minimum side

and top clearance needed to provide a sliding fit.
The key is a solid piece of metal that is wedged between the parts, or fitted into
matching recesses (or keyways) in the shaft and hub. S Woodruff Key. This key is made in the shape of a segment of a parallel--
sided disc --similar to the capital letter D. It fits into a shaped cavity in the
A key is of rectangular or square section, uniform in width, and of either uni-
shaft which conforms closely to the profile of the key, and into a uniform
form or tapered thickness.It is produced in many variations, depending upon
keyway in the hub to provide a push fit on the sides with clearance along
the situation and the load to be transmitted. In general, keys are used only in
the top flat face of the key. The advantage of the Woodruff key is that it is
circumstances which do not call for frequent separation of the parts.
suitable for fitting to either parallel or taper shafts.
Taper Keys
The agreed engineering standard is for a taper of 1 part in 100 on the thick-
ness, with the tapering surface of the key matching the recess (or keyway) cut
into the bore of the hub.
Several types of taper key are in common use:
S Hollow Saddle Key. This type of key is hollowed (shaped) to fit the radius
of the shaft. When driven into position, its taper provides a friction drive be-
tween hub and shaft that is capable of transmitting a moderate load. There
is no keyway cut into the shaft and, therefore, hollow keys are not suitable
for heavy loads.
S . Flat Saddle Key. This rectangular or square-section key is driven into a
keyway in the hub and bears upon a flat on the shaft. It provides a more
positive drive than that achieved by the hollow saddle key.
S Gib--Headed Key. This taper key is fitted into keyways which are machined
partly in the shaft and partly in the hub. An important feature of fitting keys
into these keyways is that the keyways must be perfectly aligned before
fitting the key. With this in mind, it may be necessary to use a slave key
when assembling the parts together; never rely upon the key to align the
keyways as it is driven in.
These keys and their keyways are capable of transmitting a much greater
driving load than are the saddle-type keys. The head of the Gib--headed key
is used as a means of removing the key when it is not possible to drift the
key out from the opposite side.

LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66
Hub
Hub

Key Key
Shaft Shaft
Hollow Saddle Key Flat Saddle Key
Hub
Key
Shaft
Gib-Headed Key
Hub Hub
Key
Key
Shaft
Shaft
Feather Key Woodruff Key

Figure 94 Keys
LOCKING DEVICES
Part -66


M6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS
Part -66
M 6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS

Part -66
RIVETS (SOLID RIVETS)

General
The upset head of a solid rivet is formed by deformation of the shank.
Aluminium Alloy Rivets

Rivets made of US material 1100 are used in the ‘as fabricated’ condition. They
are used to attach aluminium alloy components where a low--strength rivet is
sufficient to hold the load.
Rivets made of US material 2017, 2117 and 7050 are heat treated by the
manufacturer, no further treatment is necessary. They are used to attach alu-
minium alloy components where a medium strength is necessary.
NOTE: Rivets made from US material 2017 can also be installed after heat treat-
ment, but this must be specified in a specific repair (For Heat Treatment
refer to SRM chapter 51).
Rivets made of US material 2024 are supplied in -T4 condition. They are used
to attach aluminium alloy components where high strength is necessary. These
rivets are to be heat treated (Refer to SRM chapter 51).
Monel Rivets
Monel rivets, without heat treatment before use, are used in steel, titanium or
aluminium alloy riveted assemblies.
Titanium Rivets
Titanium rivets are rivets with a cylindrical or a partially tapered shank. No heat
treatment is necessary for this type of rivet.
Selection of the Correct Rivet
When repairing aircraft structure, it must be restored to the condition of struc-
tural integrity and aerodynamic shape that was needed for its original certifica-
tion.
When selecting a rivet, the shear strength of the rivet must match the bearing
strength of the material being riveted, with the bearing strength being slightly
higher than the shear strength.
A commonly-used rule of thumb for selecting the rivet size is to choose a rivet
whose diameter is at least 3 times the thickness of the thickest sheet being
joined.

Part -66
Round Head

Flat Head
Brazier Head
Universal Head
Flush Head
Flush Head (Special Deicer)
Slug
Washer Head, Special (A286)
Flush 100
_ Shear Head
(NAS 1097)
100_ Crown Flush Shear Head
100_ Crown Tension Head

Figure 95 Head Types of Solid Rivets
Part -66
RIVET MATERIALS
1100 Aluminium (A) 5056 Aluminium Alloy (B)
This is commercially pure aluminium, and a rivet made of this material is too Many aircraft parts are made of magnesium, and to avoid a dissimilar metal
soft and does not have the strength required for structural applications on air- contact that could lead to corrosion, magnesium structure is riveted with 5056

craft. These rivets are designated by the letter A, and there is no identifying rivets which contain about five percent magnesium as an alloying agent.
mark on their head. A--type rivets are used only in non--structural parts of an These rivets are identified by a raised cross on their head.
aircraft such as fairings and furnishings inside the cabin.
Shear head rivets are also available.
2117 Aluminium Alloy (AD)
Corrosion--Resistant Steel (F)
There are more rivets of 2117 aluminium than any other alloy, and these rivets
Rivets of this material are used for fastening corrosion--resistant steel sheets
have sufficient strength for structural use. Since they do not need to be heat--
for such applications as fire--walls and exhaust shrouds. They do not have any
treated (as do some of the other types of structural rivets) they can be driven in
marking on their head.
the condition they are received from the supplier.
AD rivets are identified by a small dimple in the centre of their head. Monel (M) (Nickel Alloy)
Monel rivets are identified with two recessed dimples or a raised r in their head
2017 Aluminium Alloy (D)
and are used in some instances in place of corrosion-resistant steel rivets,
D--rivets are identified by a raised dot in the centre of their head. where their somewhat lower shear strength is not detrimental.
They are the most often used rivet in Boeing airplanes. D--rivets are available
as standard rivets and as shear head rivets. Shear head rivets (BAC R 15 Titanium (T)
CE.D) have smaller heads than ordinary 100--degree countersink rivets. They Titanium rivets are identified by a raised V or T on their head and are used for
are generally used to attach the fuselage skin to the stringers. fastening Steel Alloy and Titanium Alloy.
NOTE: DO NOT SHAVE SHEAR HEAD RIVETS.
NOTE: ON AIRBUS AIRCRAFT IT IS PERMITTED TO HEAT-TREAT D-RIV-
ETS BEFORE INSTALLATION AND STORE THEM IN A FREEZER.
(SEE DD- RIVETS)
2024 Aluminium Alloy (DD)
DD--rivets are made of heat--treated aluminium alloy and they are so called ice-
box rivets.
They are identified by two raised dashes on their heads.
They are placed in cold storage (--10o F or lower) immediately after the heat-
treating operation to prevent them from becoming too hard to drive. This type
of rivet is used where high strength is required.
Icebox rivets must be completely driven within 15 minutes after removal from
the freezer or dry ice; they are not to be returned to cold storage once they
have been removed.

Part -66
RIVET MATERIAL CODE HEAD MARK HEAT TREAT

1100 Aluminium Alloy A No Mark No
2117 Aluminium Alloy AD Dimpled No
2017 Aluminium Alloy D Teat No
2017 Aluminium Alloy DU Raised Double Yes

Dash + Teat
DD Raised Double Yes
2024 Aluminium Alloy Dash
7050 Aluminium Alloy FV Corrugated Head No
5056 Aluminium Alloy B Raised Cross No
Corrosion Resistant Steel F No Mark No
Monel M Dimpled No
Monel M r Raised r No
Titanium T V Raised V No
Titanium T T Raised T No

Figure 96 Rivet Head Identification Markings
Part -66


Part -66

o
AD DD 100 Flushhead (CSK)
AD DD Universal Head
Shearhead Rivet Flushhead Rivet

o o
100 100
o
AD DD 82 Flushhead (CSK)

Figure 97 Rivet Heads
Part -66


Part -66
MS 20426 MS 20470
100o Countersunk Head Universal Head
Length
Length

AN 470, 430, 456, 426, 442 RIVETS Dia.
Dia.
Application: Solid shank rivets are the most universally used device for the construction of sheet metal aircraft
Material: 1100--H14 Al-alloy:Designated A - no mark on head

2217--T4 Al-alloy:Designated AD - dimple in head
2017--T4 Al-alloy:Designated D - raised teat on head
2024--T4 Al-alloy: Designated DD - two raised dashes on head
5056--H12 Al-alloy:Designated B - raised cross on head
Head shape: Designated by the AN number: AN 426 - 100˚ countersunk head
AN 430 - round head
AN 456 - brazier head
AN 470 - universal head
Diameter: The first dash number in 1/32“ increments.

AN 470 AD 4 - 8 is a universal head rivet made of 2117--T4 Al-alloy,
4/32“ or 1/8“ in diameter
Length: The second dash number is the length of the rivet in 1/16“ increments

Figure 98 Rivet Nomenclature
Part -66


Part -66

Basics General for Solid Rivets
MS 20470 AD 5 -- 12
Military Standards Number for AL Rivets with Universalhead
MS 20426 = 100 Flush Head
Material Designation
Rivetdiameter 1/32” (5/32”) Example
Griplength 1/16” (12/16”) Example
NAS 1097 AD 5 -- 12
National Aerospace Number for AL Rivets with Countersink
100o Flush Shear Head
Material Designation
Rivetdiameter 1/32 ( 5/32” ) Example
Griplength 1/16” ( 12/16” ) Example

Figure 99 Part Number Example
Part -66
HI-LOK AND HI-LITE

General
There are two parts of the Hi-Lok and Hi-Lite (pin threaded) fastener: S When standard aluminium alloy nuts are used, spot-facing is necessary as
1. a threaded pin with a head (universal or countersink) follows:

2. a collar with an internal thread and an external shear groove. -- for 5/16 in. (8.0 mm) diameter pin (threaded) and the outer surfaces are
more than1.5 degrees out of parallel
The pin has a hexagonal recess in the threaded end. This recess permits the
use of an Allen wrench to hold the pin during installation. The hexagonal drive- -- for 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) and larger diameter pin (threaded) and the outer sur-
end of the collar breaks off at the shear groove when the collar is installed to its faces are more than1.0 degree out of parallel.
correct torque value. Pins (threaded) and collars are usually supplied lubricated and this lubricant
In some areas with a limited clearance, self-locking nuts and washers are used must not be removed.
instead of collars. When used on wings, a washer is not used, reducing the risk Pin (threaded) fasteners are usually installed in interference-fit holes. However,
of a fuel leak. a clearance fit hole (unless specified differently) must be used if one or more of
When pin (threaded) fasteners are used to join structure with outer surfaces the structural members to be attached are made of:
that are not parallel , the conditions that follow are applicable: S steel
S When standard aluminium alloy collars (ASNA2O28, DAN11, NSA5075 and S stainless steel
NSA5O75W) are used, an out-of-parallel condition up to 3.0 degrees is ac- S titanium.
ceptable.
Before the installation of pin (threaded) fasteners, ensure that:
S When standard CRES collars (ABS0258, ASNA2036, DAN12, HL73, HL86
S all the necessary pins and collars or nuts are of the correct type
and and HL87) are used, an out-of-parallel condition up to 0.5 degrees only
is acceptable. S the pins and collars or nuts are made of the correct material
S the pins and collars or nuts have the correct surface protection and/or lu-
NOTE: IN THESE CONDITIONS, THE AXIS OF THE FASTENER HOLE
brication
MUST BE PERPENDICULAR TO THE SURFACE ON WHICH THE
FASTENER HEAD WILL SEAT. S the pins have the correct grip length
S If the conditions above will be exceeded, the applicable self-aligning collar S the thread of the pin has the same diameter as the collar or nut applicable
and washer must be used. When permitted, suitable self-aligning standard to the pin.
nuts and washers can be used. Install the pin (threaded) fasteners with power or hand tools.
Conditions as mentioned above are not applicable to the wing structure. For The correct hand tools are available from the various pin manufacturers (an
the wing structure the conditions that follow are applicable: example is shown in a figure later on) but a hand tool can be made locally with
S When standard steel nuts are used, spot-facing is necessary when the outer a ratchet handle tool made of hardened steel. It is necessary to modify this tool
surfaces are more than 0.5 degree out of parallel. as follows:
S remove the ball in the square drive
S drill a hole for the Allen wrench through the square drive.

Part -66


Part -66

Collar
Internal Recess
Bolt Collar Drive End

Figure 100 Hi Lok
Part -66

HI-LOK COLLARS
Material Diameter Supplier Part Number Colour of Collars
2024 Standard and HL 79 Red

1/64” Oversize
2024 1/32” Oversize HL 84 Blue
2024 3/64” Oversize HL 279 Black
CRES Standard and HL 87 Cadmium Plate

1/64” Oversize
CRES 1/32” Oversize HL 393 Cadmium Plate
CRES 3/64” Oversize HL 287 Cadmium Plate

Part -66


Part -66

PIN
1. INSTALL PIN IN ITS HOLE 4. PLACE THE INSTALLATION TOOL
MAKE SURE THAT THE TIGHTLY OVER THE COLLAR AND
HEAD IS FULLY SEATED RECESS FOR TURN UNTIL COLLAR DRIVE END
ALLEN WRENCH SHEARS OFF
COLLAR
PIN FITTED
5. DISENGAGE THE INSTALLATION TOOL
2. INSTALL COLLAR ON THE PIN BY FROM PIN, DISCARD COLLAR DRIVE END
HAND, USE AT LEAST 2 THREADS
TO MAKE CORRECT THREAD NOTE: THIS ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWS
ALIGNMENT. A PROTUDING HEAD PIN.
COUNTERSUNK HEAD PINS
ARE INSTALLED IN A SIMILAR
SOCKET MANNER.
ALLEN WRENCH
COLLAR DRIVE END
3. ENGAGE THE ALLEN WRENCH

INTO THE RECESS IN THE PIN

Figure 101 Sequence of installation: Hi-Loks
Part -66
TAPER-LOK
General It is very important to tightly clamp the parts together when they are prepared
A Taper-Lok fastener is a tapered bolt with a threaded end and a self-locking for the installation of Taper-Loks.
nut. The nut is also threaded and includes its own washer. The use of this fas- Taper-Lok bolts can be installed with hand or power tools.
tener is almost the same as that of a standard nut and bolt. It is very important to prepare the hole for a Taper-Lok to the highest possible

Taper-Loks are used in those areas of the structure where a high fatigue per- precision. If this is not done, it could have a detrimental effect on the fatigue life
formance is required. The Taper-Lok helps to achieve this performance be- of the structure.
cause it has a constant interference fit in the tapered hole in the structure. This
NOTE: IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT ONLY APPROVED OPERATORS
causes a good compression of the structure material around the fastener hole,
INSTALL TAPER--LOK BOLTS. .
and a balanced stress pattern.

The holes for protruding head bolts must have a relief radius at the head end of
An additional feature of the Taper-Lok is the good sealing effect that is given by
the hole.
the tapered interference fit.
The taper of the bolt, and the hole to which it is fitted, is small. It is only 6.35 NOTE: IF A HOLE THAT HAS BEEN USED BEFORE IS FOUND DAM-
mm (0.25 in) for each linear foot (12 in), a ratio of 1 in 48. AGED OR OVERSIZE, IT MUST BE REPAIRED TO USE THE COR-
RECT OVERSIZE BOLT (REFER TO SRM CHAPTER 51).
The Taper-Lok bolt is a light bolt with good strength property. Bolts are avail-
able for tension or shear uses. The data given in the head-marking table will help the operator to identify the
correct bolt to fit in a hole of specified dimensions (nominal diameter and grip
Taper-Lok bolts are usually supplied with a special lubricant on them. The spe-
length).
cial lubricant must not be removed before the bolt is installed.
The Taper-Loks of different nominal diameters are divided into grip-length
Before the Taper-Loks are installed in a repair, ensure that:
groups. Thus bolts of the same nominal diameter can be found for use on ma-
S they are made of the correct material terials of different thickness. Part numbers on the head and end of the bolt are
S they have the correct type of head used to identify a bolt.
S they are of the correct diameter
S they are of the correct grip length
S the nuts are of the correct type.

Part -66

Example of the stress Example of the stress
pattern in an assembly pattern in an assembly
with a standard bolt with a Taper-Lok bolt
(imbalanced stress) (balanced stress)

Figure 102 Taper-Lok Stress Pattern
Part -66
LOCKBOLT
General
A Lockbolt (pin swaged) fastener is a two-piece assembly consisting of: S All cutting tools (drills, reamers and countersinks) used to prepare the hole
1. A pin with a protruding or countersink head. The shank of the pin includes for a pin must be in good condition, to ensure that the surface of the hole is

grooves on to which a collar is swaged, a tension break-off groove and pull- smooth.
grooves. The pull-grooves are only used for installing the pin (swaged) S Before installing pins, ensure that the pins and collars are as specified in the
2. A collar that is swaged on to the locking grooves on the pin shank to secure repair procedure.
the pin (swaged) when it is installed. S The shank of a pin does not expand when the pin is installed, therefore the
hole for the pin must be prepared very accurately.
NOTE: IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE COLLARS ARE PUT ON THE PINS
WITH THE COLLAR FACING THE CORRECT WAY. S Collars for pins can only be swaged with a suitable power tool.
S Only corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) or titanium pins are used for repair S The various manufacturers of Lockbolt pins and collars use different part-
work. numbering methods. It is recommended that these items are stored in con-
tainers that show the applicable part number and type of item.
S A correctly-installed Lockbolt gives a strong but light-weight fastener, and is
available for tension or shear requirements . S The identification number for pins (swaged) and collars is given in the SRM
chapter 51.
S Pins are installed in clearance- and transition-fit holes when they are used
to repair steel or titanium structure. S Unless otherwise specified, pins are ‘wet-installed’ with sealant.
S Pins are installed in clearance-fit holes in structures that are a combination Before you install Lockbolt pins, ensure that the holes are clean, smooth and
of aluminium alloy and steel or titanium, unless otherwise specified in a re- prepared in accordance with SRM chapter 51.
pair procedure. When an existing hole is damaged or oversize, install the next oversize pin.
NOTE: IF THE HOLE SIZE IS ONLY GIVEN FOR THE STEEL OR TITA-
NIUM IN THE COMBINATION ABOVE, THEN THE HOLE IN THE
ALUMINIUM ALLOY PART IS AN INTERFERENCE FIT.
S Pins are supplied lubricated. This lubricant must not be removed before
they are installed unless otherwise specified in an engineering document.
S Repair parts must be temporarily secured with grip-pins or other suitable
tools before the fasteners are installed.
S When it is not possible to install a Lockbolt because of limited space a Hi-
Lok (Refer to SRM chapter 51) is an acceptable alternative.
S Where Lockbolts are installed in structure with surfaces that are not parallel,
the limits that follow apply:
-- for CRES tension-type pins, an angle up to 7 degrees is acceptable
-- for titanium tension-type pins, an angle up to 5 degrees is acceptable,
except in the wing structure where the limit is 3 degrees
-- for titanium shear-type pins, an angle up to 3 degrees is acceptable.

Part -66

Tension Lock Bolt
Shear Lock Bolt
Blind Lock Bolt

Figure 103 Lockbolts
Part -66
CHERRYLOCK BLIND RIVET

General
There are three types of these blind rivets that are used for repair work on the
aircraft. These are:

S Standard Cherrylock
S Bulbed Cherrylock
S Oversize Cherrylock
These blind rivets are supplied as one piece and consist of three parts:
S A tubular body that has a head at one end. Two types of head are available:
a 100° countersink head and a protruding head.
S A pin that goes through the body. The pin has a head opposite the body
head. It also has a lock-groove, a break-off groove and pull-grooves. The
pin head of the bulbed type has also a shear ring. This makes sure that the
pin breaks off at the break-off groove in line with the top of the rivet head
when the ring shears and relocates on the pin head.
S A lock-collar on the pin. When the blind-rivet is installed, the collar is
swaged into the lock-groove on the pin and in the head. This makes sure
that the pin is locked into the body.
To identify the correct blind rivet for a repair, or a replacement, refer to SRM
chapter 51.
These blind rivets are supplied with a layer of lubricant on them. Do not clean
them, or touch them more than is necessary, before they are installed.
Do not install blind rivets that are not in a satisfactory condition. Discard any
that are not.
You can use hand or power operated tools to install blind rivets. These tools
must have the correct heads attached to them.
It is recommended that you do a test procedure on some unwanted materials
before you install blind rivets. Do the test on materials that are the same (type
and thickness) as the repair materials. Use blind rivets that are the same (head
type, diameter and grip-length), as those for the repair.
After you have installed a blind rivet, the end of the pin can be above the rivet
head. You can mill the pin until it is in line with the top of the rivet head.

Part -66

CHERRYLOCK CHERRYLOCK BULBED

Figure 104 Cherrylock and Cherrylock Bulbed
Part -66
CHERRYMAX BLIND RIVET

General
There are two types of these blind rivets that you can use for repair work on
the aircraft. These are:

S Cherrymax,
S Oversize Cherrymax.
These blind rivets are supplied as one piece and consist of three parts:
S A tubular body that has a head at one end. Two types of head are available:
a 100° countersink head and a protruding head.
S A pin that goes through the body. The pin has a head opposite the body
head. It also has a lock-groove, a break-off groove and pull-grooves. There
is also a driving anvil on the pin. This makes sure that the lock-collar sits
correctly, and that the pin always breaks off at the break-off groove.
S A lock-collar on the pin. When the blind rivet is installed, the collar is
swaged into the lock-groove on the pin and in the head. This makes sure
that the pin is locked into the body.
To identify the correct blind rivet for a repair, or a replacement, refer to SRM
chapter 51.
These blind rivets are supplied with a layer of lubricant on them. Do not clean
them, or touch them more than is necessary, before they are installed.
Do not install blind rivets that are not in a satisfactory condition. Discard any
that are not.
You can use hand or power operated tools to install blind rivets. These tools
must have the correct heads attached to them.
It is recommended that you do a test procedure on some unwanted materials
before you install blind rivets. Do the test on materials that are the same type
and thickness as the repair materials. Use blind rivets that are the same head
type, diameter and grip-length, as those for the repair.
After you have installed a blind rivet, the end of the pin can be above the rivet
head. You can mill the pin until it is in line with the top of the rivet head.

Part -66

Figure 105 Cherry Max
Part -66
RIVNUTS
Introduction
A rivnut is a combination of a rivet and a nut, resembling a hollow rivet with
threads inside its shank. It is used when it is necessary to attach anything with

a screw to thin sheet metal.
Fitting
A hole is drilled through the skin and the rivnut is slipped into the hole and up-
set with a special puller so that it grips the skin.
When the installation tool is unscrewed, it leaves the threaded receptacle in the
skin.
A key on the rivnut fits into a slot cut into the edge of the hole to prevent the
rivnut rotating when the screw is inserted or removed.

Part -66

.052in
.075in max
.045in min

Figure 106 Rivnut - Grip Length Determination
Part -66
DETERMINATION OF FASTENER LENGTH

General A Selection of Fastener Manufacturers’ Grip Gauges
When determining the length of a fastener for installation, the combined thick-
ness of the material to be joined must be known. This measurement is known
as ”grip length”.

Work Sequence
S Put the grip scale (gauge) in the hole.
Cherry
S Hook the gauge on to the rear face of the material. Make sure that the ma-
terials are clamped and there is no gap.
S Read the material thickness of the material on the front face of the gauge.
Visu-Lok
Hi-Shear

Part -66

Measurement scale for
Measurement scale for countersunk--head pins
round--head pins (reverse side of gauge)
Calibrated scale for plate thickness

(grip length) in 1/16” increments.
Note -- only even numbers marked.

Figure 107 Grip Scale Usage
Part -66


Part -66

EXAMPLE A: The point of measurement is situated between the 6 and 8 graduations.
Use a fastener with a grip length of 7.
EXAMPLE B: The point of measurement is opposite the 6 graduation.

Use a fastener with a grip length of 6.
EXAMPLE C: The point of measurement is over a countersink. Ensure that the

thickness is measured at the top of the countersink. If necessary, used
a straight--edge.
NOTE If the point of measurement is on a line, use the lower figure.

Figure 108 Fastener Length Determination
Part -66


M6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS
Part -66
M 6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS

Part -66
RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PIPES (TUBES)

Introduction
A tube assembly consists of the tube and both tube fittings. Tube assemblies
are differentiated according to their use as low, medium and high pressure tube

assemblies.
Extruded tube material of various non-corrosive steels, aluminium and titanium
alloys is available.
Their dimensions are determined by the ”nominal diameter”, the ”external diam-
eter” and the ”wall thickness”.
The higher the quality of material that is selected for a line, the easier it is to
achieve the same operational pressure with reduction of the wall thickness and
thus less flow resistance due to the larger inner diameter.
Steel lines are increasingly being used as pressure lines, even if this could be
accomplished with aluminium lines. The reason for this is the greater operating
safety and the longer life expectancy.
S At pressures of over 1500 PSI (105 bar) we speak of high pressure lines,
S under 1500 PSI (105 bar) medium pressure lines
S suction and return lines we speak of low pressure lines.
Medium and low pressure lines are preferably made of aluminium alloys for
weight-saving.
Lines in the engine area, where there is danger of fire, and in the landing gear
area, where there is danger of being hit by stones, must principally be made of
steel. Titanium lines are still the exception; they can be used due to reasons of
weight or as ”flexible metal pipes” instead of hoses.
At the same time, the lines must be able to connect to the connections exactly
matching the axis and be free of tension so that they maintain the necessary
seal over longer operating periods.

Part -66

Ref. AMM A340 / ATA 20--23--00

Figure 109 Table I (Material / Diameter / Thickness)
Part -66

Figure 110 Table II (Material / Diameter / Thickness)
Part -66

Figure 111 Table II (cont. Material / Diameter / Thickness)
Part -66
TUBE FITTINGS
General
Tube fittings or tube connections form the transition to the fittings on the units,
branches or to other tubes.

In this way they must fit to the various types of tubing and nominal diameters
on the one side and to the various threads and fittings (flared or ball--bush fit-
tings) on the other side.
There are tube fittings for the various pressure ranges in aluminium and tita-
nium alloys respectively and in cadmium-plated or stainless steel versions.

Part -66
Swaged Ferrule Swaged Ferrule
Fitting Nut
Nut Line Component Side

Swaged Fitting
Line Line-To-Line Connection

(Harrison Type)
Component-To-Line Connection
Line (Harrison Type)
Swaged Ferrule
Bulkhead
Locknut Nut
Swaged Fitting
Harrison Type
Line
Line-To-Line Connection Through Bulkhead

(Deutsch Type)
Deutsch Type

Figure 112 Connection Examples
Part -66
FLARELESS FITTINGS
The illustrations show versions of the ”flareless tube fittings” now widely in use
which usually achieve their seal by the ”ball--bush principle”.
MS Fitting

The sleeve or O--ring of malleable steel is shaped by pre-stressing in such a
way that its inner cutting edge is pushed over the pipe to seal it. At the same
time the lip of the seal is pushed into the cone of the fitting and forms a seal
line. During this the tube must, in principle, be on the stop support.
Harrison Fitting
The sleeve of solid steel has a ball--bush fitting as a seal and is not moulded.
The tube is moulded, in that it is swaged in the sleeve from inside so that it is
sealed tightly. With this type of fitting, the tube is not allowed to touch the end
of the fitting.
The advantage of this type of fitting is ease of handling, as well as simple tool-
ing required for installation.

Part -66

Fitting
Sleeve
Tube
Seal edge Sleeve
Cutting Edge Tube

Figure 113 Flareless Fitting
Part -66
Swage Fitting/Harrison Type
For this type of connection, you also need a special tool, which moulds a
sleeve by widening the pipe. The tool can be compared to a thorn that expands
in the tube by a mechanical process.
This type of connection is well suited for thin-walled tubes and is almost totally

vibration-resistant.

Part -66
Swaged Ferrule
Nut Line

Swaged Fitting
Line Line-To-Line Connection

(Harrison Type)
Sleeve

Figure 114 Harrison-Type Fitting
Part -66
Permaswage Fitting
With this type of connection, a steel sleeve is squeezed onto the prepared pipe
end with a hydraulically driven tool.
The advantage of this type of fitting is that is can be made quickly in situ, it is
light, and gives a good seal.

The great disadvantage of this fitting is that is cannot be separated, which can
be very problematic at disassembly.

Part -66
Lower Die
Hydraulic Tube Block Assembly
Fitting Stop
Plate

Head Assembly
Knurled
Surfaces
Reference
Mark
Knurled
Surfaces
Power Unit
Before Swaging After Swaging
Seal

Figure 115 Permaswage Fitting
Part -66
FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Introduction Types of Flare
With a flare-type fitting a special tool is required to make the flare. There are two types of flare used in aircraft tubing systems:
By tightening the union nut, a sleeve is pulled against a conical fitting, whereby S Single Flare
the tube is pressed between the fitting and the sleeve. The close fit between

S Double Flare.
the inside of the flared tube and the flare cone of the fitting provides the actual
seal, therefore surfaces must be scrupulously clean and free of cracks, Single Flare
scratches and nicks etc. A single flare is formed with either an impact-type flaring tool or one having a
The sleeve provides added strength and suports the tube to prevent vibration flaring cone with a rolling action.
concentrating on the flare. S Impact-Type
This fitting is relatively complicated to manufacture, but has proved its worth for This method involves the tubing being clamped in flaring blocks (the ’grip
use in engines because it is relatively vibration-resistant. die’) whilst a plunger is driven into the end of the tube using light hammer
blows whilst rotating the plunger.
Flare Angle
S Roll-Type
Aircraft flared fittings have a standard flare angle of 37o and are not inter- This is the preferred method, involving an entirely self-contained unit pro-
changeable with vehicle-type flares, which are 45o. ducing a good flare.
The tube is clamped and the flaring cone is turned into the tube end, ex-
Leak Inspection
panding the flare until it reaches the edges of the die. No hammering is re-
If a leak is apparent from a correctly-tightened joint, it should be dismantled quired.
and mating surfaces thoroughly inspected for debris or damage.
Dimensions
CAUTION: DO NOT OVER-TIGHTEN THE JOINT IN ATTEMPTING TO
CURE A LEAK. THIS MAY RESULT IN FAILURE OF A COM- See next page.
PONENT.

Part -66
Grip Die shown in

Flaring Tool
vice
Plunger
Yoke

Tubing
Grip
Die
TOP VIEW
Steel
Grip Pilots
Die Tubing
SIDE VIEW
Fitting Nut Sleeve Impact-Type Flaring Tool
Tube
Roll-Type Flaring Tool

Figure 116 Single Flare Fittings and Tools
Part -66
Single Flare (Cont’d)
Dimensions Dimensions for Single-Flare Tubing

Single flares must be manufactured to certain tolerances to ensure a strong,
leak-free joint.

External Sleeve Diameter B Radius
Tube OD (in)
Steel or Aluminium Alloy Tubing (in) +0.010 (in)
+0.000
1/8 0.032
37o
0.200 -0.010
+0.000
3/16 0.032
0.302 -0.010
+0.000
1/4 0.032
B 0.359 -0.010
Sleeve Sleeve +0.000
External External 5/16 0.032
Diameter Diameter 0.421 -0.010
+0.000
Flare Flare 3/8 0.046
0.484 -0.010
+0.000
1/2 0.062
0.656 -0.010
Maximum Minimum
Flare Flare +0.000
5/8 0.062
0.781 -0.010
+0.000
3/4 0.078
0.937 -0.010
+0.000
1 0.093
1.187 -0.015

Part -66

AN910 Coupling AN911 Nipple AN912 Bushing
AN821 AN824 AN913 Plug AN914 Elbow

Elbow Tee
AN915 Elbow AN916 Elbow AN917 Tee
Tapered Pipe Thread Fittings
AN827 AN832 AN833

Cross Union Elbow AN AC
AN Feature AC
37o Angle 35o
Recess
Coarser Threads Finer
AN938 AN939 AN941 Blue Grey or

or Colour
Body Length
Tee Elbow Elbow yellow

Body Length
black
Longer Body Length Shorter

Common Aircraft Pipe Fittings
Flared fitting part numbers are either ’AN’ or ’MS’. Some older types (’AC’)
still exist. It is important to be aware of this and note that there are a num-
ber of physical differences that mean they are NOT interchangeable.

Figure 117 Flared Fitting Types
Part -66
Double Flare
Soft aluminium tubing with an outside diameter of 3/8 in or smaller can be
double-flared to provide a stronger connection.
A double flare is smoother and more concentric than a single flare and thus
provides a better seal. It is also more durable and resistant to the shearing ef-

fect of torque.
Procedure
S The tubing is inserted into the flaring die to a depth determined by the stop-
pin and then clamped.
S The upsetting tool is inserted and, with as few blows as possible, the initila
upset is formed.
S The upsetting tool is then substituted for the flaring tool and then hammered
to form the double flare.

Part -66

37o
B
1. Position tubing against stop
Tube
Size
Tube Size A Diameter B Radius

(Nominal +0.010 +0.010
2. Form initial upset External Di- -0.010
ameter)
1/8 0.224 0.032
3/16 0.302 0.032
1/4 0.359 0.032
5/16 0.421 0.032
3. Complete flare 3/8 0.484 0.046
Dimensions for Double-Flare Tubing

Figure 118 Double Flare
Part -66
TUBE DAMAGE
Evaluation of tube damage
Various different types of damage are described in the aircraft manuals:
-- Sharp--bottomed surface defect is defined as damage with loss of ma-

terial where the damage cuts into the material to form a sharp edge at
the deepest point. (eg scratches)
-- Round--bottomed surface defect is defined as damage with loss of
material, although the damage on the bottom is not sharp edged, but
rounded instead (eg abrasion points)
-- A round--bottom surface impact is a dent in the tube walling.
In principle, the following limitations apply: if damage is not described in the
manual, it is not permitted.
For example, sharp-edged dents (angle smaller than 90o) are not allowed be-
cause they are not described in the example in the manual.

Part -66

Ref. AMM A340 / ATA 20--23--11

Figure 119 Damage Tolerances
Part -66
HOSES
General Construction
Hoses (including fittings) are produced mainly by a manufacturer. It is unusual Hoses are built up from layers.
to fabricate hose assemblies. S The inner layer carries the fluid and therefore must be compatible (chemi-
Fitted hoses must meet the following requirements: cally) with the fluid being transported and have the minimum amount of po-

S there must be a certain amount of slack between both fittings because rosity.
hoses reduce their length by between 2% and 4% and expand in diameter The four main compounds used to construct inner liners are
when under pressure. Tensile stress on the fittings is unsafe and therefore Neoprene (for petroleum-based fluids)
not permitted. Buna-N (better suited for petroleum-based fluids)
Butyl (phosphate ester-base hydraulic fluid (Skydrol))
S they must not twist when the end-fittings are tightened. Twisted hoses have
Teflon (compatible with almost every fluid carried).
a shortened life and can be damaged or buckle when there is movement.
End-fittings can loosen off. S Reinforcement layers cover the inner liner and determine the hose’s
strength.
Why hoses? Common materials used for reinforcement layers are
Flexible hoses are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary to mov- cotton
ing parts and in areas of high vibration. rayon
polyester fabric
Applications carbon-steel wire
There are essentially three types of hose ratings: stainless steel wire braid.
S Low pressure ................. up to 600 pounds per square inch (psi) Diligent design of reinforcement layers can minimise the dimensional
changes of hoses under pressure.
S Medium pressure .......... up to 3000 psi
S The protective outer cover is usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or
S high pressure ................. 3000 psi + stainless steel braid. It is put over the reinforcement to protect from physical
Lay Lines damage or heat.
Lay lines run along the length of a hose. They are yellow, red or white stripes, Inspection
incorporating MIL-SPEC numbers and various other manufacturers’ informa- At designated intervals, hoses should be inspected for deterioration. Particular
tion. attention should be paid to indications of leakage and mechanical damage
Besides identifying the hose, it serves to indicate whether the assembly is (braid separation from the covering or broken wire braids).
twisted when installed. Damage limits will be found in the SRM.

Part -66

A lay-line is a visual indicator for twisting
Low pressure
Swaged fittings require special machinery
to assemble and cannot be reused.
Medium pressure
Hose length
Assembly length
High pressure

Figure 120 Flexible Hoses
Part -66
Reusable Fittings
It is possible to re-manufacture certain hose assemblies by re-using the end-fit-
tings (the socket, nut and nipple).
Prior to this, however, it is important to thoroughly inspect the salvaged fittings
for wear or other damage.

If any doubt exists as to the item’s serviceability, it is to be discarded.
Method
Determine the length of hose required (usually using old assembly as pat-
tern).
Protect the outer covering by wrapping with tape, then cut the hose to length
with a fine-tooth saw, ensuring both ends are square-cut.
1. With the socket held firmly in a vice (using suitable protection for its sur-
face) and the tape removed, screw the hose into it. Having bottomed the
hose in the socket, back it off approximately half a turn.
2. With the socket still held firmly in the vice, force the lubricated end of the
assembly tool into the hose sufficiently far for the nipple to be inserted.
3. Using the assembly tool, the nipple is then screwed into the socket,
squeezing the hose tightly between socket and nipple.
4. Finally, back off the nipple to leave a gap, permitting the nut to turn freely.
Cleaning and Pressure-Testing

The completed hose assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at
1 1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.
CAUTION: PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY
OF SPECIALISTS. A HOSE THAT BURSTS UNDER PRES-
SURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES.

Part -66
1. With socket held in vice, 3. Nipple is screwed into

screw hose into socket. socket with assembly tool.
Use wrench
on hex
Hose Vice Nipple Nut
Jaws
Hose Shoulder
of Socket
Assembly
Tool Adaptor
Socket
2. Lubricate assembly tool and
Nut force into hose to open inner liner. 4. After installation there should be clear-
ance between nut and socket to permit
nut to turn freely.
Nipple
Vice
Jaws Socket 1/32 to 1/16 inch clearance
Hose
Breakdown of Reus-
able Hose Fitting
Shoulder
of Socket Assembly
Swivel Type
Tool

Figure 121 Reusable Hose Fittings
Part -66
HOSE INSTALLATION
There are a number of checks to carry out prior to installing a flexible hose.
Inspect the hose for:
S applicability
S length

S cleanliness
S damage.
Check the hose identification tag for:
S part number
S cure date (within limits)
S assembly date (within limits)
When fitting a hose assembly, it is important:
S not to twist it, thereby placing it under undue strain. Check the lay line
printed along the hose length
S that it is subjected to the minimum of flexing during operation
S that it is supported at least every 24 inches
S that it is not stretched tightly between its fittings
S that the minimum bend radius is observed.

Part -66

Flexure
Clamp
Flexure

Prevent twisting

Figure 122 Installation Example 1
Part -66
Hose Installation (Cont’d)
It is possible to replace a short bend radius with an elbow fitting, but the largest
possible bend radius is still preferred.
The minimum permissable bend radius is determined by the operating pres-
sure, the type of hose and the nominal size. The bend radius required in-

creases when the hose has to carry out movements in the operating condition.
If they can move and become twisted, they are to be fixed with clamps to pre-
vent this.
Clamps are also necessary where there is a danger to the hoses due to vibra-
tion, long lengths or sharp edges.
Protective Sleeves
There are areas on an aircraft that produce wear (from abrasion) or extreme
heat.
Flexible hoses must be protected from these dangers with suitable sleeving.
Sleeving is available in a variety of materials, including
S heat shrink
S nylon spiral wrap
S Teflon.
CAUTION: TAKE CARE WHEN REMOVING FIRE SLEEVES; EARLY
PRODUCTS CONTAINED ASBESTOS.

Part -66

Chafe marks
Clamp too big Chafe marks
Bend radius too small


Figure 123 Installation Example 2
Part -66


M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66
M 6.8 BEARINGS

M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66
BEARINGS (GENERAL)
Plain Bearings Bearing Loads
In their simplest form, these bearings consist of load--carrying cylindrical inserts Bearings typically have to deal with two kinds of loading, radial and thrust.
made of hard wearing materials, such as cast iron, phosphor--bronze, white Depending on where the bearing is being used, it may see all radial loading, all
metal or special plastics. Plain bearings are used mainly in applications where thrust loading or a combination of both.

the loads are relatively light and the motion is relatively continuous. The prime
example is crankshafts and connecting rods in internal combustion engines.
To work efficiently, there must be some clearance between the stationary part
and the rotating part. Extreme care needs to be taken to ensure that particle
contaminants do not collect in this clearance in order that rapid wear is avoi-
ded. Regular maintenance is therefore very important with most plain bearing
applications.
In view of the need for frequent maintenance, anti--friction bearings with rolling
elements have largely replaced plain bearings in modern applications.
Bearings are used to support the journals of shafts and axles.
Bearings for supporting journals, which are designed to accept forces at right-
angles to the drilling axis, are called journal bearings or roller bearings.
Bearings for pivot journals, which are designed to accept forces in a longitudi-
nal direction, are called pivot bearings or axial bearings. These are different
to sliding bearings or anti-friction bearings.
Sliding Bearings
The journal of a sliding bearing operates in a bearing box, a bearing bushing
or directly in the bearing body.
Bearings for large journal diameters and bearings that cannot be pushed over
the shafts during assembly (eg crankshafts) must be two-part bearings.
To decrease friction between journal and bearing, a continuous lubrication film
has to exist. For this, bearing play is necessary.
The amount of bearing play depends on the demands the bearing is subjected
to and the lubricant.
Sliding bearings are resistant to push forces, they operate with little noise and
they are suitable for both slow and fast rotational journal speeds.
Their high starting resistance, however, is disadvantageous. They also require
continuous maintenance.

M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66
Thrust
Load

Wheel rim
Motor
Radial
Load
Radial Load
(weight of car)
Hub
Tapered roller
bearings
Thrust Load
(cornering forces)
Bearings

Figure 124 Types of Bearing Loads
M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
There are five basic types of anti--friction bearings:
S tapered
S needle

S ball
S spherical and
S cylindrical.
Each is named for the type of rolling element it employs.
An anti-friction bearing consists of the outer and inner raceway, the rolling ele-
ment and usually a rolling element cage.
The roller element rolls on the tracks of the raceways. Thus the friction of slid-
ing is replaced by the much lower friction of rolling. The rolling element can be
arranged in one or two rows. The cage keeps a certain space between the roll-
ing elements.
The raceways and rolling elements are manufactured from chromium steel or
chromium nickel steel. They are hardened and ground. The rolling element and
the tracks of the rings are polished. Steel plate or brass plate is usually used as
material for the cages.
There is a distinction to be made between ball bearings and roller bearings.
Ball bearings have a very low starting resistance and are suitable for high rota-
tion speeds. Roller bearings are used if the occurring stresses are too severe
for ball bearings. Theoretically, balls transfer the bearing pressure to only one
spot whilst rollers transfer the pressure along a line. This is why rollers and
their tracks withstand higher pressures than balls and their tracks.
Pin bearings have smaller outer diameters than roller bearings for the same
shaft diameter. The pins can also be installed directly between the shaft and
the bearing housing without raceways.

M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66

Ball
Cylindrical Rollers
Needle Rollers
Spherical Rollers
Tapered Rollers

Figure 125 Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types
M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66
Ball Bearings Spherical Roller Bearings
All types of ball bearings have a ’point’ contact between the balls and the The self-aligning feature of spherical roller bearings allows minor angular dis-
races. Because of this point contact for a given load capacity it is generally placements between shaft and housing to be accommodated. They have a
necessary to specify a larger ball bearing than a tapered roller bearing which high radial load-carrying capacity, but under heavy load the stress is not evenly
distributes the load over the length of the roller (line contact). The most popular distributed and true rolling motion only occurs at two contact points on each
type is the ’deep groove ball bearing’ which is suitable for light radial loads only. roller. This naturally induces skidding along the roller length and therefore the

Axial or shock load conditions should be avoided since this can lead to rapid spherical roller bearing has a higher coefficient of friction and lower speed ca-
failure. pabilities than other types of roller bearings.
It is also important to ensure that the lubricant is clean since contaminants tend The cage must be of an extremely robust construction to counteract the roller
to get trapped in the race groove, which ultimately limit performance and bear- skewing effect which increases the cage moment of inertia and limits the num-
ing life. Deep groove ball bearings are supplied as an assembly with insepara- ber of rollers. It is best suited to applications where there is a risk of misalign-
ble races; they necessarily have a radial clearance which can only be adjusted ment at assembly, and where speed and deflection criteria are not exacting.
by the fits of the inner and outer races. They are mostly used where size, load
capacity and radial clearance are not important, but where ease of assembly Tapered Roller Bearing
and low cost are. The tapered roller bearing combines the benefits of all the other bearing types
as well as offering additional advantages :
Cylindrical Roller Bearings
S Combined radial and thrust load capacity
The most common use of cylindrical roller bearings is at non--locating positions
S A longer relative life for a given bearing size, or
where it is necessary to accommodate thermal expansion effects by allowing
axial displacement (floating) of the shaft relative to the housing. S Reduced bearing size for a given load capacity.
Inner and outer races are separable (which facilitates mounting and dismount- S Adjustability: for optimum performance either end-play or preload values
ing) and the cylindrical rollers have line contact with the races so they can carry can be specified according to the design requirements.
more radial load than the point contact of ball bearings. S Less sensitive to contaminated environments due to the natural pumping
The cage must align and retain the rollers which necessitates a heavier cage action which forces any particle contaminants out of roller/race contact area.
and fewer rollers when compared to a tapered roller bearing of similar size, and S Low friction coefficient and high speed capabilities due to true rolling motion,
hence a lower load capacity. when compared to other roller bearing types.
Designs are also available to carry a limited axial load by integrating additional S Simple mounting and dismounting with separable inner and outer races.
flanges on the inner or outer race. However, the full axial thrust must be taken S A choice of mounting arrangements to suit the loading aspects and design
between the flanges and the roller ends which can lead to high stress con- constraints of an application.
centrations.
S Lower price for a given calculated fatigue life.
Needle Roller Bearings
Needle roller bearings are similar to cylindrical roller bearings but with long, thin
rollers, giving them a very compact cross--section. They are very adaptable
and have a high radial load capacity in relation to their sectional height, but can
cope only with very light axial loads.
Typical applications are in the synchromesh mechanisms of automotive gear-
boxes, and as planetary gear bearings in light duty epicyclic hub--reduction

units.

M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66

1
0.
8
0.
6
0.
4
0.
2
0
The tapered roller bearing can handle both radial

and thrust loads
The same calculated fatigue life as for ball or cylindrical roller bearings can
be achieved under the same combined axial / radial load by a tapered roller
bearing of a much smaller bore.
Alternatively, a tapered roller bearing of the same bore can achieve much
greater fatigue life.

Figure 126 Tapered Roller Bearing: Advantages
M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66
BEARING MATERIALS
The following are suitable as bearing materials: copper tin alloys, copper tin
zinc casting alloys, lead tin alloys, cast iron, dry-powdered metals and synthet-
ics.
These materials have good sliding properties. Some have good emergency

properties, ie they are insensitive to short interruptions of lubricant supply (self-
lubricating bearing materials). Dry-powdered bearing metals contain fluid or
solid lubricants in their pores. These come out when heated and provide the
necessary lubrication.
A requirement for the long working life of bearings is adequate lubrication. Inte-
grated oil grooves or oil wells distribute the lubricant over the full length of the
bearing. An even film of lubricant must be maintained by supplying enough oil
or grease. If the lubricant is missing the journal will cut into the bearing. Syn-
thetic bearings are often lubricated with water. The water also acts as a cool-
ant, because these bearings tend to retain heat.
Where machines use sliding bearings there is the possibility of insufficient oil in
the bearings when starting the machine. This can be avoided by using a grease
pump. By operating the pump before starting the machine, the bearings will be
pre-lubricated.
With sliding bearings, grease lubrication is usually only used for strongly-
stressed bearings with a large size bearing play (rolling stands), for slow-mov-
ing shafts and for swinging shafts and axles.
RADIAL BEARINGS
Radial bearings can accept forces that act radially to the shaft axis. Axial bear-
ings or longitudinal bearings accept forces that act in the direction of the axis of
the shaft. With the exception of roller bearings and pin bearings, radial bearings
can be subjected to low axial forces and axial bearings can be subjected to low
radial forces.

M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66

Grooved Ball Angle Ball Self-Aligning Detachable Ball Roller Needle Tapered Self-Aligning Barrel-Shaped
Bearing Bearing Ball Bearing Journal Bearing Bearing Roller Roller Radial Roller Bearing
Bearing Bearing Roller
Bearing
Arrows indicate the permissable direction of load or force
Axial Grooved Ball Bearing Axial Self-Aligning Roller Bearing

Figure 127 Radial Bearings
M6.8 BEARINGS
Part -66


M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
M 6.9 TRANSMISSIONS

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
TRANSMISSIONS GENERAL
General
Physical power transmission from the engine to flying control surfaces, under-
carriage etc is achieved by belts, cables, control chains, chainwheels, pulleys

and levers.
Additional components may be shafts, pull- and push-rods, cranks, eccentrics,
threads, friction wheels, hydraulics and compressed air.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66


M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS

Introduction
Chains provide strong, flexible and positive connections and are generally used Chains may be used solely in control runs or in conjunction with cable assem-
wherever it becomes necessary to change the direction of control runs in sys- blies.

tems where considerable force is exerted. Incorrect assembly of chains should be rendered impossible by the use of non-
The change of direction is achieved by the use of chain wheels or pulleys. reversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of wheels, guards
Chains may be found in and connectors.
S control column installations
S aileron and elevator controls
S trim control systems.
Pitch
Outer Plate
Bearing Pin
Inner Plate
Width between
Roller inner plates
Bush
Outer Plate
Roller Diameter
Typical Chain End Assembly

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

(a)
End-Connector
(b)
(c) Bi-Planer Block

End-Connector
End-Connectors
End-Connector
End-Connector

Figure 128 Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
CHAIN DRIVES
General
Chain drives are suitable for non-slip power transmission with large spaces be-
tween axles when cogwheels are not available to decrease the size of the

spaces. Most often roller chains or gear chains are used, for example, for the
thrust-drive of machine tools and in the field of automobile manufacture. Roller
chains and gear chains have low frictional loss and are smooth-running.
The turnable rolls of roller chains roll along the flanks of the chain wheel teeth.
the number of teeth on the chain wheels should not be smaller than 12, other-
wise chain wear will be too high.
Roller chains do not require much maintenance and will work without any dis-
turbance even when temporarily contaminated or during rough operation.
Gear chains have cogged lugs which engage into the gaps between the teeth
of the chain wheel. They are virtually silent in operation. The number of teeth of
the chain wheels should not be smaller than 17 with regard to wear.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Cover plate
Chain bearing
TOOTH-TYPE CHAIN
ROLLER CHAIN
MULTIPLE ROLLER CHAIN

Figure 129 Chain Drives
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS
General
Toothed-wheel gears transfer rotational movement at low speeds without slip.
This means that a change of the transformation ratio (which could be caused

by slipping of a belt) is not possible.
To reduce noise as much as possible, the wheels of high-speed toothed-wheel
gears should have ground tooth-flanks and should operate in an oil bath.
To prevent accidents, all toothed-wheel gears must be covered by efficient
protection devices which also prevent contamination.
Power transmission in parallel shafts is achieved by spur wheels or by a cog-
wheels with internal toothing and pinion (a small driving wheel). In the case of
shafts with axes that stand perpendicular to each other, power transmission is
achieved by bevel gears.
If the axes are crossing, power transmission is achieved by a worm and worm
gear or by a helical gear.
By the use of a spur wheel and spur rack, rotational movements are trans-
formed into straight-line movements and vice versa.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Gear rim
Pinion
Spur gears Internal toothing Spur gear and spur rack Bevel gears Helical gears Worm gears

Figure 130 Toothed-Wheel Gears
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
SPUR GEARS
General
Spur gears may have straight teeth, slanting teeth and herringbone teeth. On
wheels with slanting or herringbone teeth, the teeth are arranged helically on

the wheel.
Wheels with slanting teeth operate much more silently than wheels with straight
teeth, because at all times several teeth are engaged (not engaged suddenly
with their entire breadth).
However, slanting teeth create a force that acts in an axial direction. This force
has to be picked up by axial bearings. To avoid excessive axial force, the slant-
ing angle of the teeth should not be larger than 20o.
In wheels with herringbone teeth, the axial forces eliminate each other. Be-
cause of this, herringbone gears are used for the transmission of large forces.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

STRAIGHT TEETH
SLANTING TEETH GEAR OR HER-
RINGBONE GEAR
STEPPED GEAR

Figure 131 Spur Gears
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
BEVEL GEARS
General
Bevel gears that operate together are two conical surfaces which roll without
slipping because of their tooth system. The bevel peaks meet at one point, pro-

vided the bevel wheels are correctly manufactured.
In a bevel gear, a wheel cannot be exchanged for another with a different num-
ber of teeth because the angle in which the teeth are cut or slotted to the body
of the wheel changes with the number of teeth.
Bevel wheels are manufactured with straight, circular or helical teeth. Those
with curved teeth operate with very little noise, but they create a larger axial
force than wheels with straight teeth.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Pinion
Pinion
Bevel wheel
Bevel wheel
STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR HELICAL BEVEL GEAR

Figure 132 Bevel Gears
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
HELICAL GEARS
General
Helical gears are only suitable for the transfer of small forces, because the
flanks of the teeth contact in only one spot. Helical wheels that operate to-

gether must both have teeth that are inclined to the same side (left or right).
The degree of slant of both wheels may vary. The combination of the slanting
angles results in the axial angle of both wheels - usually 90o.
WORM GEARS
General
Large transmissions can be achieved with worm drives when the drive is
created by the worm. When a one-toothed worm turns once, the respective
worm gear moves only the distance of one tooth. The ratio of transmission be-
comes larger the higher the number of teeth of the worm gear.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Worm drive shaft
HELICAL GEARS WORM GEARS

Figure 133 Helical and Worm Gears
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
GEAR UNITS
Gear units transmit the (usually constant) rotational speed of the driving engine
in a way that the shaft or spindle turns with the required rotational speed. Gear
units can also change the direction of the rotational movement.

STEPPED-PULLEY DRIVE
With a single-pulley drive, only as many rotational speeds can be reached as
the belt pulleys have stages. More than 5 stages are rarely used because a
higher number of stages would take up too much space. If two three-stage belt-
drives are arranged in series, 9 rotational speeds (not 6) will result.
To get the same belt tension for every stage the sum of both working stage di-
ameters must be identical . To enable the V-belt to move from one stage to the
next in a V-belt drive, the distance between the axes of the belt pulleys must be
made adjustable with a rocker or an eccentric.
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS
There are two types of variable gears, depending on how the individual toothed
wheels contact each other:
S caster swivel wheel gears, and
S driving-key-type transmission.
The wheels of variable gears are engaged and reach the desired rotational
speed by moving them sideways. If many rotational speeds are required by a
machine tool, several gears are arranged in series. Variable gears are suitable
to transmit large forces. They are used to adjust the revolutions of turning ma-
chines, milling machines and planing machines.
Like all other toothed-wheel gears, they are not suitable to drive machines for
precision work. Variable gears usually may only change gears during start up or
run down.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

9 different speed selections Output
drive
3 different speed selections
Input drive
Input drive
STEPPED PULLY DRIVE TOOTHED WHEEL GEARING

Figure 134 Stepped Pulley Drive/Toothed Wheel Gearing
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
DRIVING-KEY-TYPE GEARS
The driving-key-type gear can only be used to transmit small forces at low rota-
tional speeds. The tightly-fitted toothed wheels on the driving shaft are
constantly engaged to the loosely-adjusted wheels of the driven shaft. An elas-
tic spring coupling key is moved in axial direction in the slot of the hollow driven

shaft.
This elastic spring coupling key engages in the splines of the wheels and
moves the shaft. Rings which are installed between the individual wheels press
the elastic spring coupling key out of the spline of one wheel before it can en-
gage in the spline of the next wheel. Driving-key-type gears do not need much
space and can change gears during operation.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Drive Shaft
Output Drive Shaft
Shift Rod
Driven Shaft II
Ring
Shift Lever
Coupling Key

Figure 135 Driving-Key-Type Gearing
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
INFINITELY VARIABLE ROTATIONAL SPEED

The infinitely variable rotational speed makes it possible to adjust to every de-
sired rotational speed within the speed range during operation. This can be
achieved mechanically, electrically or by fluids.

FRICTION GEARS
Friction gears have a simple set-up. The driving friction wheel is movable so
that the rotational speed of the driven friction disk is infinitely variable. The effi-
ciency of these gears is unfavourable.
CONE PULLEY DRIVE

The cone pulley drive is suitable for transmission of smaller forces at high rota-
tional speeds. The cone pulley pairs are axially movable. By adjusting the pul-
leys, the V-belt is forced to move more to the outside of one pulley and more to
the middle of the other. This changes the effective pulley diameters and thus
the transmission ratio.
The cone pulley drives are built for adjustment ranges up to 10:1. Adjustment
range here means the ratio of the largest to the smallest output speed.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

V-Belt
Input Drive
Output Drive
Driven Friction Wheel
Driven Friction Disk
Output Drive
Input Drive
FRICTION GEAR DRIVE
CONE PULLEY DRIVE

Figure 136 Friction Gear
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS CONTROL MECHANISM

General
The structural elements of power transmission within control mechanisms must
meet the following requirements:
S safe

S lightweight
S movement free from play.
Cables
Cables are the primary transmission components in airplanes without “fly by
wire“ systems. Cables are versatile, offer movement free of play, problem-free
transmission on a weight-saving basis and can thus be routed into almost ev-
ery area via guiding pulleys.
It has to be regarded as a disadvantage that cables can only transmit pulling
forces. Cables are connected by turnbuckles. Clips secure the turnbuckles. By
twisting the turnbuckles the tension of the cables is changed.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Rudder

Rudder Aft Control Quadrant
Torque Tube
Aft Quadrant
RA RB Quadrant In-
put Rod
Rudder
Control
Cables
Cable RB
Cable RA

Figure 137 Control Mechanism
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
PUSH RODS
Push rods are used to operate rudders, auxiliary rudders, flaps etc. Push rods
can transmit pulling and pushing forces.
CAUTION: IF PUSH RODS ARE ADJUSTED, ENSURE THAT THE
THREAD IS VISIBLE THROUGH THE CONTROL--HOLE.

QUADRANTS
Forces are transferred to cables via cable quadrants and the forces of the
cables are also transmitted to push rods via cable quadrants.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Wing Structure
Structure
Quadrant
Aileron
Quadrant
Push Rod
Push Rod
Output Cable Input Cable
Cable
Quadrant
Push Rod

Figure 138 Push Rods and Quadrants
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
ROTARY SELECTORS
Swinging or rotating movements are transmitted by rotary selectors.

M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66

Output Push Rod
Torque Tube
Input Push Rod Output Push Rod
Output Push Rod
Torque Tube System

TORQUE TUBE TO TRANSMIT SWINGING MOVEMENT
Flap Trans-
mission
Flap Power Unit
TORQUE TUBE SYSTEM TO TRANSMIT ROTARY MOVEMENT

Figure 139 Rotary Selectors
M6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66


M6.10 CONTROL CABLES
Part -66
M 6.10 CONTROL CABLES

Part -66
CABLE LINES
Introduction
Cable lines have advantages over other mechanical actuators, such as
linkages, shafts and chains, predominantly weight-saving. Friction
Lock
Cable lines are used in many applications and can be routed into almost every

Block
space via guiding pulleys or deflector rolls. Cable Riser
Handling, checking, adjustment and stretching are relatively easy.
Cables used in airplane construction normally consist of individual cable wires
with a minimum tensile strength of 1200N/mm2 at a breaking elongation of 2 or
7%.
The steel wires are twisted into strands and these are twisted into cables. Nor-
mally the wires are twisted in one direction and strands the opposite.
The number of steel wires in one strand and the number of strands in one Tensiometer
cable are the result of the following calculation:
S 3/32 - 7x7
or
S 1/8 - 7x19 Trigger
In this calculation the fractional numbers stand for the diameter of the cable
(inch). To check the tension of aircraft control cables, a tensiometer is used.
The cable is placed between two blocks on the frame and riser.
The first figure tells you that the cable consists of 7 strands and the last figure The trigger is then pulled to apply pressure to the cable and indicate the cable tension.
tells you how many steel wires there are in a strand.
Tensioning
Large aircraft have a complex automatic cable tensioning system to maintain
tension relative as the aircraft expands and contracts due to ambient air tem-
peratures.
Small aircraft cable tensions are set up as a compromise as they do not have
this automatic system.

Part -66

Diameter Diameter
1x7 1 x 19
Non-Flexible Cable Non-Flexible Cable
(A) (B)
Diameter Diameter
7x7 7 x 19
Flexible Cable Extra-Flexible Cable
(C) (D)

Figure 140 Build-Up of Cables
Part -66
CABLE TERMINALS
Introduction
Metal cable terminals are swaged to the end of a cable by plastic deformation
of their hollow shanks.

Terminal Types
There are a number of different cable terminal types:
S Ball (single or double shank)
S Stud end (short or long thread)
S Fork end and
S Eye end.

Part -66

Ball and Double Shank
Ball and Single Shank
Long-Threaded Stud End
Short-Threaded Stud End
Fork End
Eye End

Figure 141 Cable Terminals
Part -66
CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Fairleads
Restraining
Fairleads are used to guide control cables to prevent contact with the aircraft Rings
structure.
Cable

Retaining
Pressure Seals Groove
Where control cables pass through pressure bulkheads, pressure seals are
used. The seals are filled with grease and allow the cable to pass freely whilst
preventing the loss of pressurization air.
Pulleys Split Fairlead
Pulleys are used in control cable runs to effect a change in direction.
CABLE TURNBUCKLES
Air Seal Bulkhead
Rub Strip
Introduction
Pressure Seal
Change in cable tension is effected by turnbuckles.
There must be no more than three threads exposed at either end of the turn-
buckle barrel and the turnbuckle must never be lubricated.
Locking
Fairlead Guard
Opposite are illustrations of the various methods of locking turnbuckles. Pin
Many of the more modern turnbuckles are safetied with clip-type locking de- Solid Fairlead
vices. When the tension is correctly adjusted, the two-piece clips are inserted
into a groove in the turnbuckle body and the terminal end on the cable. The two
pieces are then clipped together through the hole in the barrel.
Pulley

Part -66
Twisted ends to be tucked into hole in

turnbuckle to prevent fouling

Twisted ends to be tucked into hole in
swaged fitting to prevent fouling Inspection
Fork End Hole
Cable Swaged Cable

Inspection Hole
Fitting
Wirelocking of Turnbuckle with Fork Wirelocking of Turnbuckle with
End-Fittings Swaged End-Fittings
Inspection Hole Fork End
STAGE 2
STAGE 1
STAGE 3 Turnbuckle Body Locking Clip

Not less than 4 turns
required for each wrap
Clip-Type Turnbuckle Safetying
Alternative Method of Wirelocking of Turnbuckle
with Swaged End-Fittings

Figure 142 Turnbuckles
Part -66
FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Introduction
Manually-operated remote controls are installed in aircraft to operate, from the
flight deck, such components as trim tabs, brake control valves and engine

controls.
They can also be adapted for other uses such as the indication of landing gear
movements, position of flaps etc.
Remote Control Methods
Chains, sprockets, pulleys, cable, levers and rods are used for remote control,
but advantage may be gained by the use of a cable and conduit since the con-
trol can be bent to pass through the structure.
Cable and Conduit
Cable and conduit is relatively lightweight and installation is simple compared
with other methods of remote control.
Teleflex and Bowden are typical methods of cable and conduit control, in
which each system consists primarily of a cable passing through a covering
(conduit) fitted with appropriate end fittings.
In principle, if the conduit is bent, a pull on the cable will tend to straighten the
conduit, but because of the natural stiffness and the fact that the ends of the
conduit are fixed, straightening is prevented.

Part -66

Single-Entry Straight-Lead 90o Double-Entry
Unit Unit Junction Box Unit
Rotary Movement
Not Exceeding 90o Anti-Torsion
Tube
Clamp Block
Nipple-Type Con-
Sliding End Swivel Joint nector
Fitting
Quick-Break
Unit
Spent Travel Tube

Clamp-Type Con-
180o Double- nector
Entry Unit
Teleflex

Figure 143 Typical Remote Control System
Part -66
TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Cables Conduits
The cable consists of a tension wire wound either with a continuous left- or The rigid conduits normally used in aircraft are of light alloy, although steel and
right-hand helix winding which engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the tungum conduits are used for special purposes. It may be bent in smooth
transmitting and receiving ends of the control run. curves to radii of not less than 3 inches.

The helix winding may also be used as a thread by which various end fittings Where there is relative movement between conduit and component, flexible
can be attached to the cable. conduit may be fitted, but to avoid backlash only the minimum length should be
The cable is designed for transmitting both pull and push. used. Flexible conduit may be bent to a radius of not less than 9 inches.
There are two types of cable in use: NOTE: SUPPORT MUST BE GIVEN TO BENT PORTIONS OF THE CON-
1. No 2 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is DUIT, BUT CLAMP BLOCKS, SPACED 3 FT APART, SHOULD BE
wound with a compression winding. The latter is wound with a left-hand USED TO SECURE STRAIGHT PORTIONS TO THE AIRFRAME.
helix winding which is pitch-spaced by a spacer winding. The cable is 3/16“
Sliding End Fittings
diameter.
These are used where it is not necessary to convert the pull-push movement of
2. No 380 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is
the cable into a rotary movement; they are used in lieu of wheel units.
wound direct with a right-hand helix winding and spacer winding. In this
method of construction there is improved efficiency and a reduction in back- Various types of sliding end fitting are available, each comprising a guide tube
lash, particularly when the cable is under compression. The cable is 3/16“ terminating in a fork, eye, ball joint or an internal or external threaded fitting.
diameter. The cable is attached to the end fitting by means of a special collet attachment
or by means of a lock spring and plug.
NOTE: BECAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN THE LAY OF THE CABLES
(LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND) THEY ARE NOT INTERCHANGE-
ABLE.
EG A No 2 CABLE MUST BE USED WITH A No 2 TRANSMITTING
UNIT.

Part -66
Ball Ends

Compression Helix Spacer
Winding Winding Winding
End screwed
to take fitting
Tension Spacer Tension Helix

Wire Winding Wire Winding
Ball and
No 2 Cable No 380 Cable socket end
Eye end
(fork joint)
Fork end

Figure 144 Types of Teleflex Cable and End Fittings
Part -66
End Fittings 5. Junction Box Unit. These are installed where it is necessary to reverse
The transmitting end of a control is usually fitted with a wheel unit consisting of the direction of travel of the control cables, or to branch a run of cable so
a hand-operated gear wheel enclosed in a casing. as to operate two components (eg on both port and starboard sides of the
aircraft).
Alternatively, where the control loading is light and the control run fairly straight,
In one type the box contains a gear wheel and provision is made for two
a pull-push operating handle can be used.
cables to pass through the box, one on either side of the gear wheel. The

At the remote end, the cable operates an appropriate wheel unit or is coupled, gear wheel may be rotated to move both cables, or one cable may operate
by means of a sliding end fitting, direct to the actuating mechanism on the com- the gear wheel which in turn operates the other cable.
ponent being controlled.
6. Swivel Joints. This can be installed where rotary movement of the control
Swivel joints are also provided to take up the angular movement of an actuat- lever at the receiving end does not exceed 90o. This type of joint consists
ing lever at the end of a control run. of a ball and socket connection inside a housing attached to the end of the
1. Single-Entry Unit. In this wheel unit the cable enters the unit by means of rigid conduit. The housing must be rigidly secured to the aircraft structure.
a conduit connector and is led into a slot in the gear wheel. The rotary The ball is welded to a length of tubing of the same size as the conduit. A
travel of the unit is limited to 270o of travel of the gear wheel and a mini- suitable sliding end fitting is attached to the end of the control cable so that
mum of 40o engagement must be maintained at all times between the gear the guide tube slides freely over the swivel joint tube.
wheel teeth and the cable.
2. Double-Entry Unit. Where greater travel than can be obtained with a
single-entry unit is required, a double-entry unit may be used. In this wheel
unit the cable enters the unit by means of a conduit connector and, after
wrapping round the gear wheel, emerges via another conduit connector at
a point 90o, 120o or 180o from the point of entry.
The end of the cable that emerges from the unit may be accommodated in
a short length of conduit known as a spent travel tube.
3. Anti-Torsion Tube. It is sometimes necessary to prevent the control cable
from turning in the conduit and so altering the relative adjustment. This is
done by installing an oval-sectioned anti-torsion tube in place of a spent
travel tube. This tube serves as a guide to an oval ferrule secured to the
spent travel end of the cable.
4. Straight-Lead Unit. In this unit the cable passes straight through and con-
sequently engages on only a few teeth of the gear wheel. Therefore, these
units are not suitable for heavily-loaded controls. It can be interposed in a
control run or fitted at the transmitting or receiving ends of a control.

Part -66
Cable Gear
Wheel

Cable
Lock Conduit
Nut
Conduit
Connector
Attachment Coil Return Spring

(Lock Spring) (Optional)
Single-Entry Double-Entry Pull-Push Con-

Unit Unit trol Unit
Conduit Ball End

Connector (welded to Conduit
Nipple conduit)
Spring Body Bearing Circlip
Swivel Joint
Straight Lead Unit Junction Box Unit

Figure 145 Teleflex System Components
Part -66
End Fittings (cont’d)
7. Torsion Drive. In certain installations the final linear movement of the con-
trol is converted to rotary action by the use of a distributor box coupled, via
a torsion drive, to the component to be operated. The torsion drive is simi-
lar to a normal flexible drive.

8. Distributor Box. This is similar in construction to a receiver unit with a
gear wheel attached to the face of the cable gear wheel. The attached gear
wheel drives a pinion on a cross shaft which engages with one or two
tongue ends of the torsion drive cable.
To convert the rotary motion of the torsion drive to the linear movement of a
trimming tab, a sprocket-driven screw jack may be used.
To prevent vibration from affecting the setting of a wheel unit control, or to
lock the control in any position, a damping device may be fitted. This device
consists of a spring-loaded friction plate pressed against the gear wheel.

Part -66

Cable
Distributor
Box Screw Jack
Torsion
Drive

Figure 146 Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive
Part -66
Conduit Connectors Servicing
Some conduit connectors are similar in construction to all-metal pipe couplings Servicing of the control system consists of checking its operation, examining
without an olive. The standard nipple-type connector consists of a screwed for wear and damage, renewing defective parts and periodical lubrication.
nipple that is threaded onto a rigid conduit, before the conduit is flared. The Stiff control movement may be caused by the following:
nipple is then screwed into a wheel unit or conduit connector body, thus retain-
ing the conduit secure against a shoulder in the internally-threaded connection

hole.
Probable Cause Remedy
Another type of conduit connector, termed a clamp connector, consists of a
split block bored out to house the unflared ends of a conduit. The conduit is (a) Flexible type - renew complete
gripped by tightening two clamping bolts, and is located by two bifurcated pins. conduit.
Damaged conduit.
(b) Rigid type - cut out damaged
Quick-Break Units portion and renew.
Quick-break units of various types are installed in control runs to facilitate re- Kinked cable. Renew cable.
moval of components without disturbing the control. The cable joining fittings
are similar in all types of quick-break unit and consists of rods machined with Dismantle end fittings and remove
interlocking slotted ends attached to the ends of the cables. the cable from the conduit.
Lack of lubricant in conduit.
Smear the cable with high-altitude
grease and re-assemble.
Remove sliding tube from end of
cable and test for freedom.
Bent sliding end fitting. If stiff, fit new parts.
Check alignment of swivel joint (if
fitted).
Fouling between end fitting and
Renew damaged parts and reset the
airframe due to damage or faulty
assembly.
installation.
Worn wheel unit gear wheel, allowing
Renew wheel unit.
cable to override.
Dismantle, clean, assemble and test.
Jammed swivel joint.
If unsatisfactory, renew swivel joint.

Part -66
Conduit Tecalemit Conduit Lock Pins

Connector Conduit
Nipple Connector
Nipple Clamp
Nipple

Conduit Body Conduit
Nipple-Type Connector Clamp Connector Bolts

Clamp-Type Connector
Conduit Conduit Connector
Cover Plate
Interlocking Rods Body
Typical Quick-Break Unit

Figure 147 Teleflex Conduit Connectors
Part -66
Teleflex System Installation
1. Conduit. Rigid conduit must be clean, free from dents and deformations 4. Cable. The cable must be kept clean, free from kinks and well lubricated. If
and reasonably straight. When renewing a conduit, never use conduit that dirty, it may be cleaned in kerosine, wiped dry with a non--fluffy cloth and re
has been previously bent for some other part of the system. After fitting the lubricated. A cable that has been damaged, strained or over heated, must
cable in the conduit, it should be possible to work the cable backwards and be renewed.
forwards by hand. If this is not possible, the run of conduit has not been The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:

installed properly. A. Assemble the conduit in position.
Damage to rigid conduit may be repaired by inserting a new length of con-
B. Cut the cable 2 inches in excess of requirements.
duit and making the connection by use of a connector. Bending, if neces-
sary, should be done by use of a bending machine, or by using a special C. Fit the cable into the unit and engage with the transmitting end fitting.
hand bender. Flexible conduit, if damaged, must be completely renewed. D. Assemble the receiving end fitting and mark the required length of
2. Conduit Connectors. When tightening a nipple type connector, two span- cable.
ners should be used to prevent twisting of the conduit. If there is any end E. Remove the cable from the conduit and cut to length.
play between the conduit and the body of the connector after tightening, F. Replace the cable and, at the same time, smear the cable with high alti-
dismantle the connection and check the flare on the conduit; flaring of a tude grease as it enters the conduit.
conduit should be done only with the special flaring tool provided.
G. Connect the cable to the end fittings and check for freedom of move-
When fitting a clamp type connector, the ends of the two lengths of conduit
ment and range of movement.
must be square and unflared. To fit the connector, remove the locking pins
and slacken off the clamping bolts. Slide the two lengths of conduit into the H. Ensure that all fittings are in safety and correctly locked. Lubricate, as
connector and ensure that the ends butt centrally in the transverse slot, necessary.
then tighten up the clamping bolts. Insert a drill of the correct size through 5. Sliding End Fitting. To attach the cable to a sliding end fitting, unscrew
the locking pin holes. Operate the drill which will cut half way through the the hexagon plug, screw the locknut right back and pass the cable through
wall of the conduit. Insert the bifurcated locking pins and open out their the plug, then proceed as follows:
legs. The correct size drill is 3/32 in dia for No. 2 and No. 3 conduits. A. Screw the lock spring on to the end of the cable, so that about 3/16 in
3. Wheel Units. To fit the cable into the single entry unit, tuck it into the slot in (two threads) of cable projects through the spring.
the gear wheel and ensure that the cable helix engages with the gear wheel B. Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the end fitting
teeth to give a wrap of at least 40o. On double entry units, the cable should and screw the plug tight down. During this operation the end fitting must
engage with the gear wheel correctly and project through the lead out hole be prevented from rotating.
throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the cable end, when fully
C. Check that the free end of the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but
extended, does not foul the blanked end of the spent travel tube. All wheel
not beyond the fork gap (fork end fittings only). If satisfactory, position
units should be packed with high altitude grease.
the tab washer, tighten the locknut and lock with the tab washer.
D. Check the distance from the face of the bore to the sliding tube which
should not exceed 0.45 inches. This ensures that the lock spring is
tightly compressed.

Part -66

Cable
Tabwasher
Lockspring Inspection Hole Swivel Tube
Locknut
Outer Sliding Tube
Plug Permanently Secured to Tube
Forked-End Type

Figure 148 Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting
Part -66
BOWDEN CONTROLS
Cable
This short run, lightly--loaded type of control has a cable made of non corrod-
able steel wire, which. is designed for ”pull” operation only. The return action is
provided by a spring.

Conduit
The conduit consists of a close coil wire, covered with cotton braiding and fin-
ished with a black waterproof coating. Caps are fitted on each end of the con-
duit to prevent the braiding from unravelling and to reinforce the end of the con-
duit. On some installations, rigid conduit is used to house the cable over
straight runs.
Cable Nipples
When a control assembly is made up, the ends of the cable are threaded
through brass nipples which are soldered or swaged to the cable.
End Fittings
Various types of end fitting and connector are provided, each installation being
designed to meet a specific requirement. Normally, the transmitting end of a
control is fitted with a hand lever which engages with the nipple on one end of
the cable. At the remote end, the cable passes through an adjustable stop and
is connected to the component operating lever. To return the hand lever to the
normal position after operation, the system is spring loaded either at the trans-
mitting or receiving end of the control run.
Hand Lever
A typical hand lever is illustrated. If it is necessary to dismantle an existing con-
trol or to fit a new cable, unscrew the adjustment to slacken the cable, then
rotate the nipple and slide the nipple and cable sideways to pass the cable
through the end fitting slot.

Part -66
Trunnion Plain
Waterproofing Cotton Braiding Coiled Wire Spherical

Cap Cable
Cable and Conduit
Types of Nipple
Spade Grip Hand Lever
Nipple
Cable
Stop Cap
Conduit
Parking
Catch
Typical Hand Lever

Figure 149 Bowden Control Components 1
Part -66
Adjustment Stop
The remote end of the cable usually passes through a plain stop and is at-
tached to the component by the cable nipple. The plain stops, which may be
fitted to both ends of the conduit, consist of hexagon headed screws drilled to
allow the cable to pass through. The head of each screw is counterbored to
receive the protective cap fitted over the end of the conduit.

When the stop is fitted to the remote end of the conduit, it is mounted in a Tee
barrel, which must be securely fixed to a rigid member of the airframe. Where it
is inconvenient to fit plain stops at the ends of the conduit, a double ended stop
may be fitted in the length of the conduit.
The stops also enable the length of the conduit to be adjusted, thus altering the
tension of the cable.
Connectors
Two types of connector are used. The cable connector is used for joining two
cables only and cannot be employed where a conduit is fitted. It is also used
for joining a length of Bowden cable to a cable of a different type, such as may
be used for long straight runs. The control connector is used for joining two
Bowden controls, as illustrated.
Junction Box
A junction box is used for connecting a single cable to two others where there
are two components to be operated by a single control or where one compo-
nent is operated by two controls.

Part -66
Adjustment Stop Locknut Tee-Barrel
Adjustment End Safety Hole Cap Cable

Locknut Note: thread of adjustment Conduit
end must cover safety hole
Double-Ended Stop
Adjustable Stop and Tee-

Barrel
Cable Connec-
tor
Barrel Connecting Conduits Slider Connecting Cables
One cable entering operates two cables Cap

leaving (for spring-return controls)
Typical Junction Box

Cable
Conduit
Control Con-
nector

Figure 150 Bowden Control Components 2
Part -66
Installation
1. Conduit. The conduit must be clean, free from kinks or distortion and not
damaged. If damaged, the conduit must be renewed. Any bends in the con-
duit should be as large as possible. The minimum radius of bend is twelve
times the diameter of the conduit.
Where the cable is connected to a lever, the alignment should be such that

the centre line of the conduit is in a straight line through the mid position of
the rise and fall of the arc of travel of the lever.
If this adjustment is not made, the cable may rub on the edge of the stop
and be worn away.
When the conduit has been correctly aligned, the Tee barrel forming the
adjustable stop mounting must be securely locked in this position. This is
important as, should the Tee barrel swivel, the control will be distorted. The
control should be attached to the airframe by pliable clips. For controls lon-
ger than 2 ft., the conduit should be supported every 12 in. The conduit of a
Bowden control should never be in tension.
2. Cable. Care must be taken when handling the cable to avoid kinking it, as
this will cause the cable to work harshly in the conduit. The cable must be
clean, free from fraying or corrosion and lubricated with graphited synthetic
grease applied at room temperature (60-70oF.) The grease must be well
rubbed into the interstices of the cable.
3. Servicing. The control should be inspected periodically as follows:
A. Inspect the cable ends for fraying or other damage. Frayed cables must
be renewed.
B. Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear, especially at bends and
at the ends.
C. If there is any slackness in the cable, screw out the conduit adjustment
stops until the slackness disappears. After adjustment, make sure that
all components are still in safety and securely locked.
D. Operate the control lever over its full range and ensure that the spring
returns the lever freely and smoothly to its stop.
E. Check the security and locking of mountings and clips.

Part -66


Part -66


M6.11 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND
CONNECTORS Part -66
M6.11 ELEC. CABLES & CONNECTORS

HAM US/F-5 SaR Dec.2006 Page: 369
CONNECTORS Part -66
INTRODUCTION
General
The installation of the single wire electrical system in aircraft is unique in that
the wire is only used to support the electrical current to the load and then back

through the aluminium structure to the generator or battery.
Electrical Installation techniques have evolved rapidly with the new electronic
systems that are used in modern aircraft.

CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
DESIGN
General
A wire is an isolated single copper conductor surrounded by insulation.
A cable is any group of two or more conductors, with or without shielding, sep-

arately insulated and grouped together by an outer sleeve.
ELECTRICAL WIRES
There are many different types of aircraft wire and cable available from a wide
range of manufacturers. Selection of the correct type, or suitable alternative is
usually made in accordance with the aircraft wiring diagram manuals and gen-
eral specifications.
Normally, a stranded copper conductor is used for maximum wire flexibility. The
strands are tinned, nickel plated or silver plated.
Wires with aluminium conductors are only used for large loads (galleys etc.) to
save weight.
A variety of different materials are used for wire and cable insulation. All consist
of high quality plastics and must be:
-- voltage resistant up to 600 V

-- resistant against all aircraft fluids
-- highly flexible
-- strong
-- light weight
Wire types are categorised into different temperature ranges and are manufac-
tured in accordance with military specifications (Mil)
-- Up to 100/150_C (normal)
-- Up to 250_C (high temp)
-- Up to 400_C (fire resistant)

CONNECTORS Part -66

American Standard German Standard Type of wire or cable
MIL-W (e.g.) DIN-Norm (e.g.)
Mil -W 5086 DIN 9251 copper stranded wire up to 105_ C
Mil -C 7078 copper stranded wire up to 105_ C

/
Mil -W 16878 DIN 9253 copper stranded wire below 105_ C, (inside boxes only)
Mil -W 7139 / copper stranded wire up to 250_ C
Mil -W 7072 DIN 29900 aluminum stranded wire up to 150_ C
Mil -W 25038 / copper stranded wire up to 400_ C (750_ F)

Figure 151 Examples of wire categorisation
CONNECTORS Part -66
WIRE & CABLE TYPES

1 Wire
4 Cable (multi twisted)
MIL--W--5086 or * MIL--W--7139

MIL--W--7078
Max voltage: 600 V

Max voltage: 600 V
Temperature range : --55°C to +105°C
Temperature range: --65_ C to +250_ C
* --60°C to +250°C
2 Wire 5 Aluminium wire

NSA 935 012 (Type AKA or AKB metric)
MIL--W--7072 or LN 29900
Max voltage : 600 V
Temperature range : --55_ C to +200_ C Max voltage : 600 V
Temperature range : --55_C to +105_ C
Installation of aluminium wires:
-- only for wires larger than size 8
-- not on engines
3 Cable (shielded)
-- not in high vibration areas
MIL--W--7078
Max voltage : 600 V

Temperature range : --65_ C to +250_ C

CONNECTORS Part -66
1
4

*
NICKEL PLATED FIBRE GLASS
POLYAMIDE FILM or
COPPER
POLY VINYL CHLORIDE- or
POLY TETRA FLOURETHYLENE- AROMATIC POLYIMIDE or

POLY VINYL CHLORIDE NICKEL PLATED POLYAMIDE
INSULATION WRAPS POLY TETRA FLOURETHYLENE
COPPER
POLY VINYL CHLORIDE
NICKEL PLATED COPPER AROMATIC POLYIMIDE TOPCOAT
POLYAMIDE or
SOLID DIELECTRIC
ALUMINIUM POLY VINYL CHLORIDE
CONDUCTOR
SHIELD
FIBRE GLASS
AROMATIC PLYIMIDE
POLY VINYL
NICKEL PLATED CHLORIDE POLY TETRA FLOURETHYLENE

COPPER
POLYAMIDE

Figure 152 Wire and cable types
CONNECTORS Part -66
SHIELDED WIRE COAXIAL CABLE

Shielded wires are used in systems to protect against any outside erratic sig- This type of cable is only used to transport high frequency signals, e.g commu-
nals or magnetic interference. The shield is around single wires or multi--con- nication transmitter antenna cables.
ductor cables.
Transport of high frequency signals in co--axial cable is best achieved when

In signal circuits operating below 50 KHz, maximum protection is provided by both sides of the shield are grounded.
grounding the shield on one side only, to prevent backflow current on the shield
due to a difference of potential.
Coax cables are manufactured with stranded or single cores in a temperature
range of --40_C up to 84 _C (e.g. MIL --C17D).
Exception: The ARINC 429 data bus shielding is grounded on both ends.
Antenna
Coaxial cable grounded on

Shielded single or multi conductor both sides
cable with signals below 50 KHz
grounded on one side only
Shielded ARINC 429 data bus cable

grounded on both sides

CONNECTORS Part -66

Shielded cable Coaxial cable
SOLID COPPER CONDUCTOR

STRANDED
COPPER CONDUCTOR PVC INSULATION
DIELECTRIC SHIELD TOP COATING

INSULATION INSULATION
TINNED COPPER SHIELD

SECONDARY SHIELD INSULATION
PRIMARY
INSULA- INSULATION
TION
TINNED COPPER SHIELD
e.g: RG 58 CU Impedance 50 Ohms
WIRING DIAGRAM SYMBOL

WIRING DIAGRAM SYMBOL

Figure 153 Shielded and Coaxial cable design
CONNECTORS Part -66
IDENTIFICATION
The following examples illustrate the usual ways in which wires and cables are
part numbered.
All aircraft use a wide variety of different wires and cables. Only the original

cable types installed at manufacture or authorised alternatives are to be used.
All aircraft maintenance organisations must guarantee this.
The part number of the wire or cable does not reflect its circuit functionality.
This information is printed on the wire or cable, separate from the part number
as required by ISO 2574. (Ref. manufacturer wire ident. next pages)
Boeing wire type codes see SWPM 20--00--13

Airbus wire type codes see ESPM 20--32--21

CONNECTORS Part -66
EXAMPLE:
BMS 13-20 T4 C3 S22

Boeing Material Specification Type Wire Size
Class
Material Specification
Class
BMS 13--28 is equal to MIL-W 7139
wire type a) Class 1 ( C1)
Type
Single insulated wire
a) Type 1 (T1)
Insulated wire with one conductor b) Class 2 (C2)
Two twisted insulated wires
b) Type 2 (T2)
c) Class 3 (C3)
Shielded cable.Type1 with one additional shield
Three twisted insulated wires
c) Type 3 (T3) b) Class 4 and so on till C8
Shielded cable type 2 with one additional shield Four twisted insulated wires, etc.
insulation
Wire Size
d) Type 4 (T4)
Insulated twisted multi conductor cable Reverse Numbering system to

made of type 1 wire. present
the current carrying capacity

Figure 154 BMS numbering system
CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
Example:

-ABS
* -EN
-ASNE
* *
* *
* US types for A300/ A310 /A300--600 only

M types for all other Airbus A/C
REF:: ESPM 20--32--21

Figure 155 Airbus wire type coding
CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66

1
)
1) THESE VALUES ARE TRUE FOR ALL WIRES INSTALLED IN

BUNDLES AT 20_C AMBIENT TEMPERATURE.
* WIRES INSTALLED SEPARATELY CAN INCREASE

CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY BY 60%
*

Figure 156 German Standard sheet DIN 9253
CONNECTORS Part -66
MANUFACTURER WIRE IDENTIFICATION

Manufacturer Identification System for Electrical Wires
Summary of ISO 2574
Due to the variation in requirements for wire coverings, the minimum size of

wire that can be marked will depend upon the overall diameter and should
be stated in the national induvidual wire specification.
All single wires and multi conductors (on the red wire only) shall have a
manufactures legend, printed in a contrasting color, repeated at intervals of
150 to 500 mm and containing the following information:
-- Specification (wire type)

-- Manufacturer
-- Country of Origin
-- Year of manufacture
-- Wire size (AWG)
( Also refer to DIN 29575 and NSA 935000)
Codes for Airbus see ESPM 20--32--21

CONNECTORS Part -66
ESPM 20--32--21
Examples:

AND ON
AND ON
1991: 91
1 SPECIFICATION 1
2 WIRE SIZE 4 COUNTRY OF ORIGIN :

( ISO 2716 Code )
D or DE = Deutschland
F or FR = France
G or GB = Great Britain
3 YEAR OF MANUFACTORING: ISO 02574 Code US = United States
CODE CODE
AI ISO AI ISO 5 MANUFACTURER:
AQ
AR
AS
AT
AU
1 AF AV
AG AW
AH AX
AI AY
AK AZ
AL
AM
AN
AO
AP

Figure 157 Manufacturer wire identification
CONNECTORS Part -66
SYSTEM WIRE IDENTIFICATION

General
To facilitate installation and maintenance wires and cables must carry identifi-
cation markings.
The wire identification marking should consist of a combination of letters and

numbers that identify; the circuit it belongs to, its wire size and any other infor-
mation to relate the wire to a wiring diagram.
All Aircraft Maintenance Divisions are required to mark all wires with a number-
ing system for identification, prior to installation.
Wires are marked using a special wire marking machine.
The principle methods are:
-- mechanical printing with heat and a color foil
-- ink-- jet
-- CO2 laser
-- UV laser
Wire identification marking -- Boeing rules;
-- Wires must be marked at each end of the wire, cable or harness within 3
in (10cm) of the end.
– The maximum marking interval allowed is 72 in (1.8m).
-- Marking must be in upper case letters and Arabic numerals.
-- Must be easily read at a distance of15 in (40cm) with ambient room light.
-- Must have a minimum contrast measurement of 55 percent and
-- Is not necessary on a wire that is less than 3 in (10cm) long.
Some wires and cables cannot easily be marked without insulation damage. In
these cases, insulation tubing printed with the identification mark can be
installed on the wire or cable. This method is normally used for identifying the
following:
--Shielded wire
-- Thermocouple wire
-- Multiconductor cable
-- High temperature wire ( with insulation difficult to mark)

The page below illustrates a typical wire marking example.

CONNECTORS Part -66

WIRE
W 081-G 099 -22

WIRE
2233 - 2712
W 2
8 2
1 3
- 3
G -
Vertical printing is used if the 0
wire size is very small and on 2
9 7
newer cable types with thin in-
sulation 9 1
- 2
2
2

Figure 158 Wire marking
CONNECTORS Part -66
AIRBUS WIRE MARKING

Airbus wire marking rules
The method by which a cable is marked is determined by the cable category. Non--printable cables or cables with Identification Sleeves
There are three main categories of cables: (a) Definition

--Printable cables Non--printable cables are cables that cannot be marked due to their physical
--Non--printable cables structure or whose insulation can be damaged by marking (e.g.coaxial
cables).
--Cables without markings
This category comprises :
--large gauge cables , AWG 14 and below, shorter than 2500 mm (98 in),
Printable cables:
with the exception of single wires to AWG 10 that are marked with CO2 la-
(a) Definition ser.
Printable cables are identified by direct marking of the insulation at regular --medium gauge cables shorter than 2500 mm (98 in.), located inside elec-
intervals. tronic racks.
--This category mainly contains 24 to 6 gauge cables, longer than 75 mm --all cables that are marked by hot stamping and are connected to an end
(2.95 in.) and fibre optic cable. termination (VN,VG,VC) located in a Skydrol zone (ref. Specific Areas chap-
ters 20--31--21).
(b) Operation --sensitive cables identified by code S.
--For single wires, hot stamping or laser marking must be used depending
on the coating code. (b) Operation
--For shielded and fibre optic cables, laser marking must be used. Non--printable cables are identified with NSA 937201 sleeves.
The sleeves shall be adapted to the cable gauge and located as close as
The full cable length must be marked as follows: possible to the terminations, 150 mm ( 6 in.) max. These sleeves are white
--For cables shorter than 2000mm (78.74 in), at a maximum pitch of 75 mm and printed with the cable identification characters in black.
(2.95 in.) The exception to this rule is the sensitive cables (code S) sleeves which are
--For cables longer than 2000mm (78.74 in), at a maximum pitch of 75 mm pink printed black.
(2.95 in.) within 1 m of each end and at a maximum pitch of 380 mm (14.96 The minimum character height for all sleeves is 3.2 mm (0.13 in.).
in) on the center portion of the cable. Cables without markings
Cables without markings are :
(c) Special cases --cables shorter than 150 mm (6 in.) and ground pick--up cables (ferrule to fer-
--If a cable is shortened by modification within the 75 mm (2.95 in) pitch rule or to connector).
zone, a cable identification sleeve must be added at the shortened end. --circuit breaker monitoring cables (A320 only).
--monitoring cables connecting two adjacent in--line circuit breakers
ESPM 20--32--22 (A330--A340 only).
--cables inside small VU’s (BF type --flexible cables).

CONNECTORS Part -66
SHEATHED

SHEATHED
NUMBER
END

Figure 159 Airbus wire marking
CONNECTORS Part -66
SYSTEMS LETTER CODING

(Abstract of MIL--W5088 and DIN 29571)
The table below lists a basic method of coding for the first letter in system iden-
tification. A second letter is often used to provide a more detailed system de-

scription.
The second letter coding is listed in the wiring diagram manual and is used as
follows:
S A = Radio Altimeter
I I_____ Second letter: Sub--System: Radio Altimeter
I_______ First letter: System: Radar Navigation
Sometimes more than one system ( e.g. Radio Altimeter ) is installed.

Additional systems are coded as follows:
1 SA ≅ Radio Altimeter System # 1

Common usage is also made of the ATA 100 chapter numbering system as
illustrated in the second table below:

CONNECTORS Part -66
System Coding
A
C
D

E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
P
Q
R
S
T
W
X
ATA - Chapter

Figure 160 System Coding
CONNECTORS Part -66
BOEING IDENTIFICATION Wire or cable number:

Each wire in the bundle must have a different number. Wires shorter than 10
cm are only numbered if noted in the wiring diagram manual (WDM ).
Wire bundle Number:
Boeing uses the following coding for different wire types:
Every system uses a separate wire bundle number. Sometimes they are di-
vided into electrical and electronic systems. 001--199 = single conductors

If there are no printable wires inside the wire bundle, a yellow identification wire 200--299 = double conductors
is inserted which is annotated with the bundle number. 300--399 = triple conductors
System coding letter: 400--499 = quadruple conductors
As described previously under system coding. 500--... = special use
Color Code Wire Size
Used by multiple conductor cables as illustrated on the next page. Denoted in American Wire Gauge (AWG) reverse numbering system.
i.e: Higher number = smaller wire.
Example: Typical Boeing Wiring Diagram (ATA 100 Spec.)
Wire Size
Wire Number
System Coding
Wire Bundle

CONNECTORS Part -66
W104 G 299 22 R
COLOR CODE

WIRE BUNDLE
SYSTEM CODE WIRE NO. WIRE SIZE
Wire Bundle No.
Color-Code
even bundle no. Electrical systems
odd bundle no. Electronic systems
Wire/ Cable No.
Wire number categories:
Wire / Cable No.

001 - 199 = Single wire
200 - 299 = 2 twisted wires
300 - 399 = 3 twisted wires
400 - 499 = 4 Twisted wires
500 - = Special wires

Figure 161 Boeing wire numbering
CONNECTORS Part -66
AIRBUS IDENTIFICATION
( Ref. ESPM 20--32--21)
Wire Number
All wires on the aircraft must be identified. A numeric reference system is used Colour--Code
which indicates the function of the wire.

A. Colour of shielded and un--shielded
Wire identification Rules multi--wire cable elements
Wires are identified by two groups of four figures separated by a space. The 1 White
first four figures make up the system coding number. The second four figures
represent the number of the wire in the circuit. 2 Red Blue
System coding number 3 Red Blue Yellow
The first two digits:
4 Red Blue Yellow Green
Refer to the ATA 100 chapter numbering system
e.g. Chapter 33 = Lighting) 5 Red Blue Yellow Green White
6 Red Blue Yellow Green White Black
Digits three and four:
Refer to the ATA 100 sub--chapter numbering system B. Color Codes
e.g. Sub chapter 33--13 = Panel lighting Amber
A
B Blue
Wire or cable number: BK Black
BR Brown
Each wire in the ATA chapter must have a unique number. C Clear
Wires shorter than 10 cm. are only numbered if noted in the wiring diagram G Green
manual (WDM ). GY Grey
O Orange
P Purple
Color code PK Pink
R Red
Used for multiple conductor cables and written behind the last digit. V Violet
W White
Y Yellow
Wire size
An indication of wire size is not included in the Airbus wire numbering system.
Wire type and size is indicated on the appropriate wiring diagram by means of
a footnote.

CONNECTORS Part -66
33 13 0175 R
ATA chapter Colour Code or

sensitive cable code S
Wire number
ATA sub--chapter
ESPM 20--32--21
The complete wire number for this

example would be: 3313--0183 (see
note)
PART OF WDM 33-13-01

Figure 162 Airbus wire identification
CONNECTORS Part -66
SPECIAL AIRBUS REGULATIONS
Ground Wires Ground Wires

Ground wires used for single system grounds use the wire identification code
appropriate to the system.

All common grounds used for multiple systems use the ground points ATA
Wire Numbers from 1 to 8999
chapter 2491 (circuit code VN) for identification (see example).
for all over the aircraft
ATA Chapter for Ground Wires
Spare Wires
Spare wires use chapter 2499 for identification.
Spare Wires
Wire Numbers from 1 to 8999

ARINC Bus Identification
for all over the aircraft
Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) 429 data bus cables use numbers
from 7000 to 7999 and the appropriate ATA prefix of the corresponding system ATA Chapter for Spare Wires
(see example).
Sensitive Wires (Primary Fly by Wire Systems)

The following rules apply for any wires annotated on wiring diagrams with the
letter ’S’ or for wires in a wire bundle wrapped by pink wire ties:
--no modification allowed without a service bulletin from Airbus.
--after modification, full flight control system functional checks must be car-
ried out prior to the aircraft return to service.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Ground Wires
Common
Grnd.

Pressure seal
feed through
(VP)
Spare Wire Common
( 2499-5207 ) Grnd Wire
Type: DE Wire Size 20
Spare Wires 24-99-01 System

Grnd. Wire
S
S
Sensitive Wires 22-23-02 24-91-05

Figure 163 Airbus special regulations
CONNECTORS Part -66
CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY

The table below shows the current carrying capacity guidelines for copper and
aluminium wire with different wire sizes.
The maximum current flow specified in this table represents wires in wire

bundles of approx. 30 wires, with an ambient temperature of 20_C.
If the temperature goes down, the maximum possible current in one wire will go
up and vice versa.
If the number of wires in which 100% current is flowing at the same time is
lower, the maximum possible current flow in every other wire will increase.
The exact maximum current flow for a wire is calculated by the manufacturer in
accordance with MIL--W5088 (current rating calculation).
In addition to the American Wire gauge(AWG) numbering system measured in

inch 2, Airbus uses some alternative metric wire cross sections measured in
mm 2 which have the same AWG.
Wires with metric cross sections are marked with a green dashed line on the
outside of the insulation.
This different cross section measurement under the same AWG does not pres-
ent any problems for crimping but requires careful selection of the correct wire
stripping tool.

CONNECTORS Part -66
TABLE 2 COPPER WIRES IN BUNDLE

Green dashes on wire Wire Fuse Type max Conductor
Wire cross max Ampere Cross Cross Current Terminal
Size norm max Fuse
section Section Section C/B Wire diameter diameter Cross section bolt

A / metr. mm2 / M mm2 /US AWG A A A A mm mm mm2 mm ∅
Wire max Wire

Size
(AWG) diameter
Green dashes on wire *

*
American wire gauge = wire size
TABLE 2 ALUMINUM SINGLE CONDUCTOR

Wire Current Fuse Type max Conductor Bolt
Cross
norm max
Section Size C/B Fuse Wire diameter diameter Number
A A A A mm mm
mm2 AWG
Ref.: ESPM 20--32--21
Max current displayed in this column is for 20 _ C environment temperature

With increasing temperature max current is reduced

Figure 164 Current carrying capacity
CONNECTORS Part -66
AROMATIC POLYIMIDE (AP) INSULATION

General Precautions for AP insulated wires (Summary of Advisory Circular (AC) 25--xx 1989)
One of the main aims in modern aircraft is to save weight and space. When To prevent carbon arc tracking the following precautions are to be observed:
compared to older types of insulation AP saves approximately 50% weight and
30% space thus offering attractive design features.

-- Care must be taken to prevent damage to the insulation during wire strip-
ping, crimping and during installation.
AP also has very high temperature resistance. On average it commences to
smolder at 815_ C.
-- All looms must be fully supported to prevent movement, which could give
rise to wire/wire or wire to structure abrasion. Where contact cannot be
Tests have shown however, that under certain conditions live AP insulated prevented, suitable action is to be taken to prevent chafing.
wires and cables can be destroyed by a phenomena known as Carbon Arc
Tracking.
-- In--line-splices must be located outside of the loom and the loom below
the splice wrapped prior to installation.
This phenomena falls into two categories:
-- Physical damage to the insulation material must be immediately rectified
Dry carbon arc tracking is caused by short circuit, wire to wire or wire to by repair or replacement.
ground, resulting in a build up of carbon deposits on the conductors. This oc-
curs when the wire insulation is broken down by chaffing or when gaps appear
-- Bend radii should be as large as the installation allows to ensure that
in the insulation wraps. The build up of carbon deposits will continue as long as
insulation cracking does not occur during the fabrication or installation of
power is applied until a full power arc is established resulting in destruction of
wire bundles. Ideally bend radii should be at least ten times the overall
the wire or wire bundle as the AP in the insulation burns.
diameter of the largest individual wire in the loom, or six times the overall
diameter of the loom, whichever is the larger.
Wet carbon arc tracking has the same result as dry carbon arc tracking but is -- Do not wrap spywrap around the loom to prevent chafing.
caused when a breakdown in the insulation is contaminated with fluid causing a
-- Do not use plastic ties to support the loom without first wrapping the
short circuit wire to wire or wire to ground.
loom with insulating tape. It is recommended that flat wax binding tape is
used for tying cable looms.
-- Plastic cable clamps are not to be used in wing areas. Metal clamps with
appropriate rubber layers may be used.
-- It is strictly forbidden to puncture AP wire insulation with a test prod.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Polyimide Tape : double layer counter wraps

2
NICKEL PLATED
COPPER OUTER COVERING
GOLD COLORED
1 Varnish or topcoat
POLYIMIDE TAPE ( PTFE or FEP or Liquid H )
WITH 50% OVERLAP
1
POLYIMIDE TAPE
WITH 50% OVERLAP
1 HEAT BONDED POLYIMIDE TAPE WRAPS
2 THE OUTER COVERING IS FOR WIRE MARKING

Figure 165 ARC Tracking Sensitive wire
CONNECTORS Part -66
SPECIAL WIRES & CABLES

Thermocouple
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) cable conductors are made of two different
alloys: Chromel and Alumel.

These two materials are also used as elements in the thermocouple.
Some older aircraft also use Copper and Constantan as wire conductor materi-
als due to the lower resistance and therefore voltage drop of these materials.
To prevent confusion with normal copper conductor twin core cable (insulation
colour red/blue ) the conductor insulation colours for thermocouple cables are
different. They are usually white/green but can be white/red or red/yellow but
are never the same as normal twin core cable.
Caution:
Repair Alumel wires with Alumel splices only
Repair Chromel wires with Chromel splices only
Ref. SWPM 20--10--13

ESPM 20--43--11

CONNECTORS Part -66

NAME ABBREVIATION INSULATION COMPOSITION BOLT
COLOR TYPE
CHROMEL + CR or CH WHITE 89 % Ni 10% Cr 1 % Fe SMALL
ALUMEL _ AL GREEN or RED 94 % Ni 2% Al 1% Si 2,5% Mn 0,5% Fe LARGE
COPPER CU RED 100% Cu ____

+
CONSTANTAN _ CN YELLOW 55% Cu 44% Ni 1% Mn ____

Figure 166 Thermocouple Wire
CONNECTORS Part -66
FIRE WARNING WIRES

General
All fire warning system wires must have extremely high temperature resistan-
ceand must conform to MIL--W--25038.

The normal temperature range is up to 400_C with a maximum fire resistance
of 1093_C ( 2000_ F flame) for 5 minutes.
Fire warning system wire insulation is generally red but can also be white.

CONNECTORS Part -66

COLOR: red or white
CONDUCTOR SILICON GRAPHITED PTFE

NICKEL PLATED COPPER
POLY TETRA FLUOR ETHYLENE
TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE : UP TO 400_C

FIRE RESISTANT FOR 5 min : UP TO 1093_C ( 2000_ F)

Figure 167 Fire Warning Wires
CONNECTORS Part -66
SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
Termination of AL-- and CU-- wires AMP Copalum terminations
To reduce the aircraft’s weight some manufacturers use Aluminum (Al) wires AMPCopalum terminals and splices provide reliable, low cost terminations for
for the supplies to galleys, pumps etc. both aluminum and copper stranded wire.

Therefore at many places connections are made between Al and Cu wires by Each product features a copper body construction and employs a perforated
splices or terminal blocks. copper alloy liner (brass). This crimp construction produces electrically and me-
chanically stable connections by overcoming the inherent common problems of
aluminum oxide penetration and reformation, cold flow corrosion and thermal
These connections remain stable for a long period of time provided that the Al
expansion.
and Cu wires do not come into direct contact with eachother (the current will
disintegrate the Al wire).
During crimping, the relatively soft aluminum conductor is extruded though the
liner perforations, breaking brittle aluminum oxides and allowing clean alumi-
The use of a special non magnetic washer in--between the terminals is recom-
num to be brought into direct contact with the liner and the wire barrel.
mended for separation purposes.
By using stranded conductors the number of independent contact surfaces is

The installation of Al wires is not allowed on the engine and in manifold junction
increased and creates cold welds among the strands. This reduces the possi-
boxes.
bility of electrical failure due to thermal expansion, creep and corrosion.

CONNECTORS Part -66

Example of Terminal Connection Copalum Terminals and In Line Splices :
NUT
LOCK WASHER INSERT
NON MAGNETIC
NON MAGNETIC WASHER
INSERT BODY
WASHER
COPPER
TERMINALS ALUMINIUM BODY
TERMINAL
ALUMINIUM
TERMINAL
COPPER
INSERT
TERMINALS
INLINE SPLICE
TERMINAL
TERMINAL
BLOCK
SWPM 20--30--13

Figure 168 Special connections
CONNECTORS Part -66
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
Introduction
Electrical connectors are used to facilitate maintenance when frequent discon-
nection is required.

They are categorised by type and class and in the vast majority of cases make
use of crimped contacts. Some connectors with soldered contacts still exist but
are becoming increasingly rare.
The decision on wether to install pins or sockets at a connector is decided by
establishing which side of the disconnect is live or ’hot’. The hot side will nor-
mally have socket type contacts installed in order to minimise the risk of elec-
tric shock.
Connectors generally fall into two basic groups:

--Split shell (disassembled) construction
--Assembled construction
Split shell connectors are identified by AN numbers and as stated previously

are divided by type and class with manufacturers variations in each.
There are six basic types of AN connector, which are further broken down into
the five classes indicated below:
Class A -- General purpose connector with a solid, one--piece back shell.

Class B -- Back shell separates into two parts.
Class C -- Pressurised connector, con--removeable inserts
Class D -- Moisture and vibration resistant. Wires are threaded through tight--fit-
ting holes in the back shell sealing grommet.
Class K -- Fireproof connector.
Classes A, B, C, and D -- Made of aluminium.

Class K -- Made of steel.

CONNECTORS Part -66

(Only annotated if not normal)

Figure 169 Split shell connectors
CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
EXPLODED VIEW OF TWO DIFFERENT SPLIT SHELL CONNECTORS

ESPM 20--48--23

Figure 170 Split shell construction
CONNECTORS Part -66
Assembled connectors
Assembled connectors are by far the most common connector type.
They consist basically of one part, i.e.; the insert locking mechanism and insu-
lator are an integral part of the connector shell.

Only the backing clamp is separate and carries a different part number to the
connector. (This applies when ordering parts. The backing clamp does not
come with the connector!)
Assembled connector part numbers generally follow the same convention as

that of split shell connectors as illustrated in the example below.
TYPICAL PART NUMBER:
SERIES
CLASS
SHELL SIZE
insert
arrangement
INSERT ROTATION CODE POSITION

CONNECTORS Part -66

BAYONET BOLT
TRACTION RELIEF COUPLING
HOUSING
INSERT BODY
MOUNTING
MASTER KEYWAY
SOCKETS
TRACTION RELIEF CLAMP

BAYONET RIFLE
PARTNUMBER
MAIN-KEY
PINS BAYONET COUPLING NUT

Figure 171 Assembled connectors
CONNECTORS Part -66
Exploded view of MS connectors
The picture below details the component parts of a Monitor the bend radius of wire and cable
MS 3106 B connector.
Back-shell

The back-shell of any connector has to provide the wires with proper support .
At the end of the connector housing a ”follower” provides an interfacial seal as
well as sealing at wire ends.
Typical strain relief clamps :
STRAIN RELIEF LEG

CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
Connector installation
Circular connectors, when installed with the axis in a horizontal direction,shall
be positioned so that the master key-way (main groove) is located at the top.
When installed with the axis in a vertical direction the master key-way shall be

located forward in relation to the aircraft.
1 Shell size
The shell size is denoted in 1/16 inch. The letter “S” is used for a short housing.
2 Contact groove codes

To prevent cross connection, the insert of most connectors can be rotated and
inserted into the shell.at manufacture.
3 Contact arrangement
This is a code for the contact arrangement which is sometimes equal to the
number of contacts. (For Boeing aircraft this is always the case)

CONNECTORS Part -66
1 SHELL SIZE NUMBER OF CONTACTS POSSIBLE 3

85
ORIENTATION CODE
2
NORMAL
(no letter code)
W X
Y Z
CONTACT ARRANGEMENT

Figure 172 Contact groove codes
CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT CONFIGURATION - NUMBERS

In modern connectors the contact configuration is usually denoted by either
letters, numbers or a combination of both.
The convention for numbered contact configurations is shown below.

Most connectors use a circle line running from inside to outside, some connec-
tors however, count from outside to in and some count in columns.
In order to establish which way a line is counting, look for the number adjacent
to the outside contact.
As an additional aid to counting, every 10th contact is circled.
SWPM 20--61--00

CONNECTORS Part -66

CONTACT CONFIGURATION
(numbers)
18/11
10 # 16 contacts 18/31
1 # 2 shielded contact 31 # 20 contacts
53
55
18/ 35
56 #22 contacts
24/79
24/61
79 # 22 contacts
61 # 20 contacts

Figure 173 Contact arrangements
CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- LETTERS

Where the contact configuration is denoted in letters, the number of contacts is
often greater than the number of letters in the alphabet.
For this reason, use is made of the following order of precedence:
--Upper case letters

--Lower case letters
--Double upper case letters
The following graphic illustrates examples of this method of contact marking.
Flag notes are used for clarification.
1
Start at the outer shell, circle inside in alphabetical order.
2
After the last upper case letter ’Z’ the first lower case letter ’a’ is marked
with a circle.
3
After the last lower case letter ’z’ the next contact is ’AA’. This is also
marked with a circle.
4
.As some letters are similar to numbers and also to other letters they are
deleted to prevent confusion. Each time a letter is deleted, it is marked on the
connector by a small slash.
In Wiring Diagrams small letters can be presented in different ways. For

instance lower case ’a’ can be written as follows:
A or -- A or < A or : A or a

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT MARKING

(numbers)
CONTACT MARKING
(numbers & letters) SOCKETS SOCKETS
PINS
1
1 1
ARINC 600 Plug

a
1
1 1
Q missing
SOCKETS
PINS PINS
VIEW FROM REAR OF VIEW AT CONNECTOR FACE

CONNECTOR

Figure 174 Contact marking
CONNECTORS Part -66
ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING
General
All connectors are environmentally sealed. The following example illustrates an
assembled connector sealed at three points.

1 This position is sealed when a contact is inserted and locked.
2 This position is sealed across the mating faces of the plug and receptacle.
3 This position is sealed when a wire or seal plug is installed.
Optimum environmental protection is achieved when all three positions are

sealed.

CONNECTORS Part -66

RECEPTACLE PLUG TRACTION NUT
3 3
Wire Seal
Contact Wire
1
Rear of the Connector
1 SLEEVE OVER WIRE IF

Insulator Rubber Grommet
GROMMET OPENING TOO LARGE

Figure 175 Environmental seals
CONNECTORS Part -66
Seal plug insertion
All unused contact holes must be fitted with nylon or Teflon seal plugs.
Unwired contacts

For crimped contact connectors outside the pressurised area, appropriate un-
wired contacts must be fitted, in conjunction with the seal plugs, in order to pro-
vide a full environmental seal.
SWPM 20--60--08
ESPM 20--48--41

CONNECTORS Part -66
SEAL PLUG INSERTION

Appr. SEAL ROD
0,1 inch
unwired contact
With unwired Contact installed

(UNPRESSURIZED AREA)
Appr.
No Contact installed
(PRESSURIZED AREA)

Figure 176 Seal Plug insertion
CONNECTORS Part -66
CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES
As well as the standard connector part numbers, a number of alternative part
numbers and manufacturers are listed in the standard practices manuals.
Some examples are listed below.

SWPM 20--61--11

CONNECTORS Part -66

INTERCHANGEABLE WITH ZZ; MS 24266

Figure 177 Examples of part numbers
CONNECTORS Part -66
COAXIAL CONNECTORS
Coaxial cables and connectors are used to interconnect the components in cir-
cuits transporting high frequency signals.
Soldered coaxial connectors

This description covers the BNC, C, HN, and LN series:
1. Place nut, washer and gasket over cable. Remove outer jacket of shield.
2. Unbraid and comb out shield. Cut dielectric and conductor to given dimen-
sions. Tin center conductor.
3. Slide shield clamp over the shield and butt against cable jacket.
4. Fold shield strands back over clamp. Trim braid ends to dimension shown.
5. Place contact on conductor and solder with minimum heat.
Crimped coaxial shelf connector

This type of crimped coaxial connector is used inside shelf receptacles.
S Fig. 1
-- Prepare the cable as shown, and slide the sealing boot and outer ferrule
over the cable.
S Fig. 2
-- Insert the stripped wire into center contact, so that the conductor is vis-
ible through the inspection hole.
-- Select an appropriate crimp tool and locator and crimp contact.
-- Maximum allowable gap between the insulation and the end of the con-
ductor is 0,030 to 0,060 inch.
S Fig. 3
-- Hold the shielded cable behind the primer-coated area. Insert the contact
wire assembly into the shielded contact body. A properly inserted contact
cannot be removed.
ESPM 20--44--31 20--48--31/32

SWPM 20--53--05 20--71--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
Soldered coax connector Crimped coax connector

WASHER
NUT GASKET Figure 1
COAX CABLE #1
TYPICAL RECEPTACLE
DIELECTRIC
COAX CABLE #2 Figure 2

CONDUCTOR
SHIELD
SHIELD CLAMP
SHELF
COAX CABLE #3 RECEPTACLE Figure 3
K-GRIP ( CRIMPED)
SHIELD CLAMP
COAX CABLE #4
CONTACT
SNAP RING INNER K-GRIP
SLEEVE
OUTER K-GRIP
CAP SHIELD
SLEEVE
CONDUCTOR SHIELD INSULATION

COAX HOUSING CONTACT INSULATOR

Figure 178 Coax connector process
CONNECTORS Part -66
POLARISATION KEYS
Most computer shelf receptacles are equipped with polarisation keys to prevent
the wrong computer being inserted into a shelf.
Three posts can be rotated into six different positions so that the shelf and the
computer polarisation keys must match before the computer can be inserted.

The keying code also forms the last two digits of the connector part number.
The shaded area indicates the solid portion of the post.

The un--shaded area indicates the open portion of post.
POSITIONS
ARINC 600 Rack Connector
SWPM 20--71--11 (-12, -14)

ESPM 20--44--21

CONNECTORS Part -66

EXAMPLE:
AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT LIST

FIN PLUG RECEPTACLE
Equip. Part Number (P/N)
No. MALE SHELL FEMALE SHELL
D 235 DPX2 -33 ( ...... ..... ...... ...... ) - 10
POLARISATION KEY CODE
RECEPTACLE HOUSING IN
COMPUTER
PLUG HOUSING IN SHELF

Figure 179 Polarisation keys
CONNECTORS Part -66
Polarisation coding
The table below illustrates the complete list of polarisation codes for three post
polarisation keys.

CONNECTORS Part -66
PLUG SHELL POST RECEPTACLE SHELL KEY

Figure 180 Polarisation coding
CONNECTORS Part -66
LOCKWIRING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS

Non self--locking threaded coupling connectors located in engine nacelles,
areas of high vibration and in areas that are normally inaccessible for mainte-
nance inspections must be wire--locked.

For this purpose, 0.02 in (0.5mm) diameter, corrosion resistant steel locking
wire (MS 33540) must be used.
1 2 3 Wire locking for split shell connectors.
4 If the receptacle has no holes for wire locking, the plug can be wire
locked to a hole in the surrounding structure provided that the safety wire
length is less than 5.904 in (15cm).
5 Wire locking for co--axial connectors.

The preferred tool for wire locking connectors is the wire locking plier shown
below.
SWPM 20--60--07 ESPM 20--51--12

CONNECTORS Part -66

NO SAFETY WIRE
HOLE PROVIDED
3 5
1
HOLE
SINGLE OR DOUBLE LOOP
STRUCTURE
SAFETY
SCREWS
PLUG SHELL
COUPLING NUT
LOCK--WIRE
MAX: 15cm
2 4 LENGTH 6

Figure 181 Lock-- wiring
P66 A M6 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SYSTEM FOR HEAT TREATABLE ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
M6.0 M A T E R I A L S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 TEMPER DESIGNATION FOR HEAT--TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 GLARE (FIBRE METAL LAMINATES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 M 6.3.1 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
MATERIALS OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
METAL GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 COMPOSITES GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
METALS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
CRYSTAL AND CELLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 USAGE OF COMPOSITES ON AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 REINFORCING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M 6.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 MATRIX MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
STEEL APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 CORE MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ALLOYING INGREDIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 HOW PLASTICS ARE CREATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 POLYMERISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
STEEL ALLOYS AND TEMPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 POLYCONDENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
CORROSION-RESISTANT (STAINLESS) STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 POLYADDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
PRECIPITATION-HARDENED STAINLESS STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ADHESIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 FILM ADHESIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
LOW ALLOY STEELS AND THEIR APPLICABLE STRENGTH RESIN ADHESIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
RANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 THERMOSETTING RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
PRIMARY STEELS USED IN MODERN AIRPLANES . . . . . . . . . . 30 THERMOPLASTIC RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT POTENTIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 POLYMER RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
M 6.2 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS -NON-FERROUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 EPOXY RESINS (EPOXIDE RESINS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
TITANIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 RESINS AND HARDENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
PROPERTIES - TITANIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 RESIN/HARDENER RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 COLD AND HOT CURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 EPOXY HARDENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
SURFACE PROTECTION/CLADDING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . 46 RESIN/HARDENER RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
ALUMINIUM ALLOY DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 DISADVANTAGES OF EPOXIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
NON HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 EPOXY RESINS CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 SURFACE WETTING AND ABSORBTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
HEAT TREATMENT PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 PRE-TREATMENT FOR BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
NATURAL AGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 DAMAGE TO COMPOSITE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
ARTIFICIAL AGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION (CONT.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
HAM US/F-5 Krueger Dec.2006

Page i
P66 A M6 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMPOSITE REPAIR TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 SPECIAL FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
TYPICAL REPAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 M 6.5.1 SCREW THREADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
M 6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 THREAD FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
WOODEN WING CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 STANDARD SCREW SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
BOX SPAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 THREAD PITCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
PRESERVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 THREAD PROFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
TYPE OF DEFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 M 6.5.2 BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
REPAIR OF WOODEN STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 BOLTS, SCREWS AND NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
M 6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
PREPARATION OF STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 STUDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
SEAMS, STITCHES AND STRINGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 SELF-TAPPING SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
REPAIRS TO FABRIC COVERINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
INSPECTION OF FABRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 NON--SELF--LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
M 6.4 CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 HIGH--TEMPERATURE SELF--LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
EFFECTS OF CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 LOW--TEMPERATURE SELF--LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
EFFECTS OF CORROSION ON METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 HELI - COIL INSERTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
INFLUENCE FACTORS OF CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 M 6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
FILIFORM CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 SAFETY METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
STRESS CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 NUTS, BOLTS AND SCREWS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 WIRELOCKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
ELECTRO--CHEMICAL SERIES FOR METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 LOCKING DEVICES - WASHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
PITTING CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 LOCKING DEVICES - QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . 234
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 LOCKING DEVICES - COTTER PINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
EXFOLIATION CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 LOCKING DEVICES - KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
FRETTING CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 M 6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
MICROBIAL CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 RIVETS (SOLID RIVETS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
GALVANIC CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 RIVET MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
CREVICE CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 HI-LOK AND HI-LITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
M 6.5 FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 TAPER-LOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
LIST OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 LOCKBOLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
LIST OF CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 CHERRYLOCK BLIND RIVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 CHERRYMAX BLIND RIVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

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RIVNUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 ROTARY SELECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
DETERMINATION OF FASTENER LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 M 6.10 CONTROL CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
M 6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 CABLE LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PIPES (TUBES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 CABLE TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
TUBE FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
FLARELESS FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 CABLE TURNBUCKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
FLARE-TYPE FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
TUBE DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 TELEFLEX CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
HOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 BOWDEN CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
HOSE INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 M6.11 ELEC. CABLES & CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
M 6.8 BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
BEARINGS (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 ELECTRICAL WIRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
BEARING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 WIRE & CABLE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
RADIAL BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 SHIELDED WIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
M 6.9 TRANSMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 COAXIAL CABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
TRANSMISSIONS GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 MANUFACTURER WIRE IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
CHAIN DRIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 SYSTEM WIRE IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 AIRBUS WIRE MARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
SPUR GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 SYSTEMS LETTER CODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
BEVEL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 BOEING IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
HELICAL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 AIRBUS IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
WORM GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 SPECIAL AIRBUS REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
GEAR UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
STEPPED-PULLEY DRIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 AROMATIC POLYIMIDE (AP) INSULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 SPECIAL WIRES & CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
DRIVING-KEY-TYPE GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 FIRE WARNING WIRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
INFINITELY VARIABLE ROTATIONAL SPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 SPECIAL CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
FRICTION GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
CONE PULLEY DRIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS CONTROL MECHANISM . . . . . . . 336 CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- LETTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
PUSH RODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
QUADRANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

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COAXIAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
POLARISATION KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
LOCKWIRING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

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Figure 1 Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 36 Composite Damage Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 2 Metallic and Non-Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 37 Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 3 Crystals and Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 38 Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4 Material Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 39 Repair Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 5 Steel Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 40 Edge Band Repair (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 6 Alloying Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 41 Sandwich Repair (Boeing typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 7 Material Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 42 Blind Repair I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 8 Properties of Steel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 43 Blind Repair II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 9 Steel Components (Landing Gear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 44 Potted Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 10 Primary Steels Used in Modern Airplanes . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 45 Repair to Both Skins (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 11 Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 46 Truss-type wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 12 Application of Titanium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 47 Spars for fabric-covered truss-type wings . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 13 Application Of Titanium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 48 Wood Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 14 Aluminium Base Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 49 Plywood Skin Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 15 Properties of Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 50 Inspection of Gluelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 16 Cladding of Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 51 Check for Water Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 17 Aluminium Alloying Ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 52 Wing Rib Repairs (Typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 18 Aluminium Association Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 53 Repair to the Trailing Edge of a Wood Wing Rib . . . . . . 131
Figure 19 Hardening of Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 54 Repair of a longitudinal split in a wood wing spar . . . . . 133
Figure 20 Alloying Elements of Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 55 Types of Machine-Sewn Seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 21 Methods of Heat--treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 56 Fabric Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 22 Temperature Schedule of Heat--treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 57 Seine Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 23 GLARE (GLAss REinforced Laminate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 58 Typical Stringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 24 Composite Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 59 Repair of L-Shaped Tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 25 Composite Application on A320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 60 Normal Insertion Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 26 Reinforcement Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 61 Fabric Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 27 Matrix Materials and Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Figure 62 Chemical Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 28 Different Core Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 63 Filiform Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 29 Plastic Creation: The Polymerisation Process . . . . . . . . 77 Figure 64 Stress Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 30 Resin Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Figure 65 Electrochemical Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 31 Adhesives (Structural) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Figure 66 Electrochemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 32 Adhesive Application Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Figure 67 Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 33 Resin Injection Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figure 68 Intergranular Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 34 Typical Edge Delamination Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Figure 69 Exfoliation Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 35 Surface Wetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Figure 70 Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

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Figure 71 Microbial Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 106 Rivnut - Grip Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 72 Galvanic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Figure 107 Grip Scale Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 73 Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figure 108 Fastener Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 74 Features of a Screw Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Figure 109 Table I (Material / Diameter / Thickness) . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 75 Screw Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Figure 110 Table II (Material / Diameter / Thickness) . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Figure 76 Screw Pitch Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Figure 111 Table II (cont. Material / Diameter / Thickness) . . . . . . 279
Figure 77 Types of Fastener Heads and Recesses . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Figure 112 Connection Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Figure 78 Screw Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Figure 113 Flareless Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Figure 79 Bolt Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Figure 114 Harrison-Type Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 80 Stud Insertion/Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Figure 115 Permaswage Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Figure 81 Stud Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Figure 116 Single Flare Fittings and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Figure 82 Heli-Coil Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Figure 117 Flared Fitting Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Figure 83 Heli-Coil Insertion Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Figure 118 Double Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Figure 84 Typical Heli-Coil Extractor Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Figure 119 Damage Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Figure 85 Lockwire Material Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Figure 120 Flexible Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Figure 86 Typical Wirelocking Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Figure 121 Reusable Hose Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Figure 87 Locking of Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 122 Installation Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Figure 88 Locking of Screws (Cont.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Figure 123 Installation Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 89 Locking of Electric Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Figure 124 Types of Bearing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Figure 90 Other Locking Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Figure 125 Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Figure 91 Camloc Fastener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Figure 126 Tapered Roller Bearing: Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Figure 92 Dzus and Airloc Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Figure 127 Radial Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Figure 93 Cotter Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Figure 128 Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Figure 94 Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Figure 129 Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Figure 95 Head Types of Solid Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Figure 130 Toothed-Wheel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Figure 96 Rivet Head Identification Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Figure 131 Spur Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Figure 97 Rivet Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Figure 132 Bevel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Figure 98 Rivet Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Figure 133 Helical and Worm Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Figure 99 Part Number Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Figure 134 Stepped Pulley Drive/Toothed Wheel Gearing . . . . . . . 335
Figure 100 Hi Lok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Figure 135 Driving-Key-Type Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Figure 101 Sequence of installation: Hi-Loks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Figure 136 Friction Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Figure 102 Taper-Lok Stress Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Figure 137 Control Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Figure 103 Lockbolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Figure 138 Push Rods and Quadrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Figure 104 Cherrylock and Cherrylock Bulbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Figure 139 Rotary Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 105 Cherry Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Figure 140 Build-Up of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

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P66 A M6 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 141 Cable Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Figure 176 Seal Plug insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Figure 142 Turnbuckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Figure 177 Examples of part numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Figure 143 Typical Remote Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Figure 178 Coax connector process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Figure 144 Types of Teleflex Cable and End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Figure 179 Polarisation keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Figure 145 Teleflex System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Figure 180 Polarisation coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Figure 146 Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive . . . . . . . . . . 361 Figure 181 Lock--wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Figure 147 Teleflex Conduit Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Figure 148 Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Figure 149 Bowden Control Components 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Figure 150 Bowden Control Components 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Figure 151 Examples of wire categorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Figure 152 Wire and cable types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Figure 153 Shielded and Coaxial cable design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Figure 154 BMS numbering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Figure 155 Airbus wire type coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Figure 156 German Standard sheet DIN 9253 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 157 Manufacturer wire identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Figure 158 Wire marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Figure 159 Airbus wire marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Figure 160 System Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Figure 161 Boeing wire numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Figure 162 Airbus wire identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Figure 163 Airbus special regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 164 Current carrying capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Figure 165 ARC Tracking Sensitive wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 166 Thermocouple Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 167 Fire Warning Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 168 Special connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Figure 169 Split shell connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Figure 170 Split shell construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Figure 171 Assembled connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Figure 172 Contact groove codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Figure 173 Contact arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Figure 174 Contact marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Figure 175 Environmental seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

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Fundamentals

M6 Materials & Hardware

EASA Part-66 Cat. A

Tel: +49 (0)40 5070 2520

M6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

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DEFINITIONS Combined Stress

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PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MATERIALS OVERVIEW

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METALS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

Material Elements Density kg/dm3 Melting Point Intended use

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Titanium Ti 4.50 1727_ C as pure titanium or titanium al-

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CRYSTAL AND CELLS

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1990 Boeing MDC AI

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Aluminum 78% Aluminum 79% Aluminum 69%

Composites Composites Composites

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M 6.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

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REAR ENGINE MOUNT

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STEEL ALLOYS AND TEMPERS

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