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Soulful of Science Education

The Role of Constructivism in Teaching and
Learning Chemistry
April 14, 2008 by yulirahmawati
Introduction
Constructivism is one of theory of learning which well developed in the recent year and
becomes most significant and dominant perspective in science education (Taber, 2006).
According to Bodner (1986), constructivist model focus on constructing the knowledge in the
learners’ mind. Every student has different experiences, therefore teacher has to be aware that
knowledge is constructed differently in the learners’ mind. Students have their own preexisting
knowledge based on their experiences that is constructed in their mind (Taber, 2006). Most
studies show the advantages of using this theory of knowledge in the learning process regarding
to recognize students’ alternative conceptions.
Furthermore, research on the students’ alternative conceptions in chemistry has been
developed to improve teaching and learning chemistry. The investigations show that the
chemistry educators become realize that the importance of students’ alternative conceptions
within the process of understanding the concepts in chemistry. According to Krishnan and Howe
(1994), students’ difficulties to understand the concepts in science is because the teachers have
lack of knowledge on students’ prior understanding of the concepts in the classroom. Moreover,
according to Mulford & Robinson (2002), alternate conceptions play important role in learning
chemistry than simply producing inadequate explanations to questions. Therefore, as chemistry
educators, it is important to understand the role of students’ alternative conceptions in learning
chemistry.
Moreover, since our department is part of pedagogical university in Indonesia who educate
the chemistry teachers, it is important to emphasize the students’ alternative conceptions and
constructivism view of learning for our pre-service teachers. Therefore, in this paper, I will
discuss students’ alternative conceptions, the constructivist theory of learning, and also reflect on
my own experiences on learning and teaching chemistry. I hope this paper will provide the
powerful ideas to improve teaching and learning chemistry in our institution.
The Constructivism View
Constructivism view of learning is developed based on Kelly’s work (1950s) on personal
construct and Ausubel (1960s) on learning based on what the learner knows (Benner, 2003 as
cited in Parkinson, 2004). Furthermore, the earlier psychologist who focus on children’s thinking
process is Jean Piaget. According to Piaget (1970), knowledge is constructed in learners’ mind
through their interaction with the environment. “Piaget believes that there was a biological
inevitability to how children developed” (Marsh, 2000). Furthermore, according to Bodner
(1986), there are three concepts of Piaget’s work which related to constructivist theory of
knowledge which are assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Therefore, Piaget’s work
had some insight (Marsh, 2000) which are (1) children think differently related to their stage of
development, (2) learning requires active involvement between children and environment, (3)
Children construct their own cognitive structures. Therefore, Piaget’s work is important in the
constructivist theory of learning.
Constructivist is different from the traditional view of learning in sense of the view of the
real world. “The traditional view of knowledge is based on the common-sense belief that a real
world exists regardless of whether we take interest in it or even notice it” (Bodner, 1986). The
traditional knowledge implies that the knowledge is reality that will be replied in learners’ mind.
Furthermore, traditional education view focused on “instructional goals such as recalling facts,
generalization, defining concepts and performing procedures” (Almala, 2005). Therefore, this
view ignores the difference of preexisting knowledge of individual. On the other hand,
constructivist view learning as the product of interaction between existing understanding and
new knowledge (Parkinson, 2004). Furthermore, according to Tyter (2002a), there are three
types of constructivism which are personal constructivism, radical constructivism and social
constructivism. Personal constructivism focuses on the prior knowledge of individual which can
be constructed by individual. On the other hand, radical constructivism focuses on students’
knowledge based on their experiences which recognize students’ freedom to have their own
ideas. Social constructivism focuses on individual construct the knowledge throughout the social
process. However, in general, constructivist “emphasize reasoning, critical thinking, social
negotiation, self regulation and mindful reflection” (Almala, 2005, p.9). Furthermore,
constructivists view learning as an active process in which the learners actively construct
knowledge as they try to comprehend their reality world. According to Driver and Bell (1986) as
cited in Parkinson (2004, p.90), there six characteristics of constructivist theory of learning:
(1) learning is not only depend on the learning environment, but also the knowledge of the
learners,
(2) learning involves the construction of meaning,
(3) the construction of meaning is a continuous and active process,
(4) meaning, once constructed, are evaluated and can be accepted or rejected,
(5) learners have the final responsibility for their learning,
(6) students construct the meaning between the experience with the physical world through
natural language.
According to these six principles which are related to the Piaget’s work, teacher could use this
information to apply the teaching strategies using the constructivist theory of learning.
Constructivism learning succeed to lead the new and meaningful learning for the students.
However, constructivism lacks a theory of agency which “overemphasizes the role of social
structures and norms at the expense of the agents who help create and change them in the first
place” (Finnemore, 1996, p.1). Moreover, constructivism remains a method more than anything
else does. The central challenge is theory development. To accomplish this task, constructivists
must integrate their insights and assumptions with middle-range theory (Finnemore, 1996).
The constructivist as theory of learning is very useful to apply in the classroom. One
important aspect that can be developed through constructivist approach is learners use active
process to develop their own meaning and knowledge (Jonassen, Mayes, and McAleese,1993) .
As a result, learning process will be the meaningful experiences for the students. However,
according to Prawat (1992) as cited in Treagust, Duit, & Fraser, 1996), there are four beliefs
which are chalengges and debates on constructivism , which are: 1) learner and content are
separated, 2) tendency to equate activity with learning, 3)limited research evidence, 4)curriculum
is fixed. Moreover, in my opinion, there are several limitations of using constructivist theory.
Firstly, it is time consuming, because it needs more time to use the strategies which can monitor
the construction of each student’s knowledge. Secondly, some students could have difficulty to
take responsibility for their own learning. For example, if the learners do not take responsibility
for learning such as self management, they will find this approach is difficult. Thirdly, teachers
need aware to assess every student as different and unique individual. Therefore, it is important
for teachers to be motivated and creative to apply this approach in the classroom. Moreover,
applying constructivist in the classroom also encourage the teachers to shift their paradigm from
replicable the knowledge into the construction of individual knowledge.
Students’ Alternative Conceptions in Chemistry
According to Tytler (2002a), there are significant research studies in science which focus
on students’ alternative conceptions which could influence the learning process in their mind. As
a result, it becomes challenges for the teachers to recognize and guide these students’ alternative
conceptions. Moreover, it is common perceptions that the teachers face the difficulties to explain
the concepts in chemistry. Students could reject, accept, or assimilate the concepts or ideas
which are given by the teacher, because they already have their own concepts which recognize as
“prior knowledge”. These prior knowledge could be strongly hold by students and it is difficult
to be changed ( Treagust, Duit, Fraser, 1996). According to Tytler (2002a), there are many terms
that are used regarding to alternative conceptions, such as misconceptions, intuitive ideas,
interpretive frameworks, children’s science, etc. Based on research study on “An Inventory for
Alternate Conceptions among First-Semester General Chemistry Students”, Mulford and
Robinson (2002) used the diagnostic instrument which develop by Treagust (1988) (as cited in
Mulford and Robinson, 2002). They found that one of students’ alternate conceptions in
chemistry on the conservation of mass, molecules, and atoms during a chemical reaction is “the
total number of molecules is also conserved in a chemical reaction” (p.741). Moreover the other
examples of students’ alternative conceptions in chemical bonding based on octet rule are:” 1)
Atom “need” filled shell, 2) A covalent bond holds atom together the bond is sharing electrons,
3) molecul forms from isolated atoms” (Robinson, 1993, p.1073). These examples are only few
students’ alternative conceptions which influence the students to understand the chemistry
concepts. Teachers could use the information of students’ alternative conceptions to choose the
best teaching strategies to guide these conceptions. As a result, students could engage with
chemistry concepts through their existing ideas. Therefore, it is important for teacher to
recognize students’ conceptions before introducing the new topics in chemistry.
The Role of Constructivism on Teaching and Learning Chemistry
The constructivist theory of learning has important implication on the teaching-learning
process in the classroom. It is common that most science education focus on the scientific
learning of the learners rather than the growth of learners’ knowledge as holistic individual
(Taber, 2006). Using the constructivist theory of learning encourages the students to reflect their
own knowledge which is important in the learning process (Bodner, 1986). The meaningful
learning environment can be created if the students can relate their preexisting knowledge with
the concepts that they are received (Novak & Gowin as cited in Bodner, 1986). This paper will
discuss two roles of constructivism in chemistry education, which are:
1) Improving Teaching and Learning in Chemistry
In the classroom, teacher has to be aware that students held their perceptions on every
topics and it can be influence or uninfluenced by teaching (Osborne, 1983). Constructivism
requires significant a shift paradigms for teachers, parents, and students. For example, teachers
would spend less time on lecturing, drilling the students on basic concepts, and rote learning
(Andrew, 2007). Teachers can use the information of the students’ preexisting knowledge to
create the instruction which can avoid the misunderstanding of concepts. Furthermore, according
to Needham (1987) as cited in Parkinson (2004), there are five key phases to teach by
constructivist view: (1) orientation, (2) elicitation of ideas, (3) reconstruction of ideas, (4)
application of ideas, (5) review. In summary, teachers could use varied strategies which explore
students’ experiences and stimulate them to reflect and think critically related to their
experiences and the new knowledge.
Moreover, according to Tytler (2002b), there are three learning models which apply the
constructivist /conceptual change approach which are 1) generative learning model by Cosgove
and Osborne (1985), 2) interactive approach by Biddulph (1990), and 3) Japanese science
activity structure by Linn, Lewis, Tsuchida & sanger (2000). Even though, these models are
different in several ways, but the principle is the similar which is exploring and guiding students’
prior knowledge through class discussion and generate shared meaning. This table bellow is
summary of these three learning models.
Table 1. Three Learning Models Guided by Constructivism/
Conceptual Change Approaches
Principles Phase
Generative Learning Interactive Approach Japanese Science Activity
Model Structure
Explore students’ prior Preliminary Preparation Connect lesson to students’
knowledge interests & prior
knowledge
Establish the context Focus Exploratory activities Elicit student ideas and
opinions
 Stimulate Students’ Curiosity Challenge Students’ questions Plan investigation (create the
predictions)
Conduct Investigation Application Students’ Conduct Investigations
investigations
Reflect on the students’ ideas Reflection Exchange information
Analyze information
Reflect the prediction
Connect to the next lesson
According to Tytler (2002b), general principles of constructivist approach are giving opportunity
for students to: communicate their own ideas, extend their knowledge by the experiences, think
about the experiences, try the new ideas, reflect on changes their ideas, have positive learning
environment. Moreover, according to Gunstone (1995), the good science learning provides
opportunities for students to integrate, extend, and monitor their learning. Both the authors
pursue the principles which are found in metacognitive approaches.
Moreover based on these three learning models,I had experience on appyling metacognitive skills
to help students to understand the chemistry concepts. Metacognitive skills allow students to
understand their thinking process and concepts (Wellman, 1983 as cited in Pressley, Mac Kinno,&
Waller, 1985). Most studies of students’ understanding stated solutions through the use of
meaningful learning experiences (Rickey & Stacy, 2000; Treagust, Chittleborough, & Mamiala,
2004). Metacognition gives meaningful learning for students because “metacognition involves,
among other things, taking responsibility for own’s learning process” (Anderson Nashon, 2006,
p.299). “In metacognition classrooms, learners are expected to ask questions about where they
went wrong and to tell the teacher when they don’t understand” (Parkinson, 2004, p.99).
Therefore, metacognitive skills are important to understanding the ideas and give significant
impact on problem solving in chemistry (Rickey, & Stacy, 2000). This table bellow shows the
correlation metacognitive skills and those three learning models.
Table 2. Principles of Three Learning Models and Metacognitive Approach

Principles
Three Learning Models Metacognitive approach
Explore students’ prior knowledge Explore students’ conscious on their prior knowledge and guide them
Establish the context to the topic (control of learning)
Stimulate Students’ Curiosity Encourage students to predict the investigation
Conduct Investigation Select the strategies (investigation)
Reflect on the students’ ideas Monitor the progress of learning
Correct the errors
Analyze effective strategies
Change the learning when necessary
Table 3. Experience on Applying Metacognitive Approach in Laboratory
 Topic: The Qualitative Analysis of Copper

Phase Teacher Activity Example

Explore students’ conscious
on their prior knowledge
and guide them to the
topic (control of
learning)
Predict the investigations
Select the strategies
(investigation)
Monitor the progress of
learning
Correct the errors
Analyze effective strategies
Change the learning when
Explore students’ prior
knowledge (pre-test through
interview). Asking them
questions on basic concepts of
the experiments
Encourage students to predict
the investigation based on
their understanding of the
experiments concepts
Guide them to select the
strategies in the experiments
Observe their experiments and
ask the questions to encourage
them reflect on their prior
knowledge and the result of
experiments. Then guide them
to clarify their understanding
I asked the metacognitive questions before they worked
on the experiment of qualitative analysis of copper:
Me : Why should we add Sodium Hydroxide in that
copper solution?”
Student : “To identify copper which result Copper
Hydroxide with stable blue precipitation?
Me : “Can we change it with other bases?”
Student : “Yes”
Me : “Why?”
Student : “Because all bases have hydroxide to
precipitate Copper”
Me :”So, Can I use Ammonium Hydroxide to get the same
stable precipitation?”
Student : “Yes, because it consist of hydroxide”
Note: I found the alternative conception, not all
hydroxide can produce the stable precipitation. The
excess of Ammonium Hydroxide will dilute the copper
hydroxide into the complex compound.
On this stage, I asked my students to predict the result of
investigation, for example:
Me : What will be happened if you add Potassium Iodide
into Copper solutions?
Student : the cuprous Iodide will be formed as brown
precipitation
Me : What will be happened if you add the excess
Potassium Iodide?
Student : It will be diluted
Me : Why
Student : Ehm, I don’t know
Note : The student just remember the note on the
practicum book, but if the questions expand into the
basic concepts, most of my students could not answer it
On this phase, I will guide them to choose the best
strategy in the experiment , for example:
Me :So, If copper solution with Potassium Iodide will
form the precipitation, how mix these solutions?
Student : add the Potassium Iodide into the tube which
contain the copper solution
Me : run the liquid or drop it?
Student :is it different?
Me : don’t forget the theory of precipitation, it is bect way
to get slow nucleation but rapid crystal growth, so you
will get the pure precipitation
Students : So, it means better to drop the solution rather
than to run it straight away, right?
Note: I tried to guide students to find out the best
strategies to conduct the experiment
On this phase, students worked on their experiment. Then,
I asked them to reflect on their prior knowledge and their
prediction on the experiment result, for example:
Me : So, What happened when you add the excess of
Ammonium Hydroxide into the copper solution?
Student : Firstly, it formed the blue precipitation, but the
 necessary excess of Ammonium Hydroxide diluted it into the dark
blue of complex compound
Note : On this stage, I asked students to explain the
concepts of complex compound related to the
experiment
The metacognitive strategies help to monitoring my students’ learning process, especially
their alternative understanding on chemistry concepts. Even though, the process need time and
efforts from the teacher, but the learning became engaging and meaningful for the students.
Moreover, according to Tytler (2002b), there are 8 components of effective science teaching and
learning: 1) encourage students to express their ideas, 2) challenge students to develop
meaningful understanding, 3) create correlation between science with their lives, 4) apply varied
strategies to monitor students’ learning, 5) apply varied and continuous assessment, 6) represent
science in different aspects,7) link classroom program with the community, and apply the
technology for effectiveness. These 8 components can be applied through constructivism
approaches. Therefore, it is important for teachers to apply the constructivist approach to help
their students involve in active learning process through meaningful learning experiences.
2. Developing the Research Areas
Since constructivism approach focus on students’ conceptual change, the research areas in
chemistry in our institution could be developed. Finding the alternative students’ conceptions can
be explored to help the teacher recognize the existing students’ ideas in chemistry concepts.
Moreover, the varied teaching strategies also can be explored to help students understand the
chemistry concepts and to guide students alternative conceptions. There is large number of
research studies in chemistry focus on students’ alternative conception which informed by
constructivism approaches. For example:

1. An Inventory for Alternate Conceptions among First-Semester General Chemistry Students

(Mulford & Robinson, 2002). They found the several alternative students’ conceptions on
atom, molecul, and chemical reactions concepts.

2. An alternative framework for chemical bonding (Robinson, 1998). He pointed out several
students’ alternative conceptions on chemical bonding based on octet rule.

3. Commonsense Chemistry: A Model for Understanding Students’ Alternative Conceptions

(Talanquer, V., 2006). He propose a model to investigate students alternative conceptions.
4. A Phenomenographic Study: First Year Chemical Engineering Students’ Conceptions of
Energy in Dissolution Processes(Lyle & Robinson, 2002). They propose the
Phenomenographic method to identify range of students’ alternative conceptions

5. Introducing dynamic equilibrium as an explanatory model (Driel, Vos, & Verloop, 1999).
They work on teaching model to help students understand the concept of equilibrium.
Moreover, it is also important for encouraging our pre-service teachers to explore this field of
research. Even though, in Indonesia, research studies in constructivism have been started few
years ago, but it still need to be developed, because this view of learning could solve problems
on students’ understanding in chemistry concepts. Moreover, according to White (1998),
teachers need to explore the research studies and theory of learning which appropriate to be
applied in their classroom. As a result, the research will give contribution for improving teaching
and learning in chemistry and developing theory of learning.
Conclusion
First, in chemistry education, constructivism plays important role to improve teaching and
learning in chemistry and develop the research area in chemistry education. The teaching
strategies which informed by constructivism are powerful to create the meaningful learning
process in chemistry. The meaningful learning process will help students to understand the
chemistry concepts through the active learning process. Moreover the varied research areas can
be developed through this view of learning. As a result, research studies could be applicable in
the classroom.
Second, three learning models apply the constructivist /conceptual change approach: generative
learning model , interactive approach and Japanese science activity structure which give
opportunity to explore and guide students’ prior knowledge through class discussion and
generate shared meaning. Moreover, my experience on metacognition approach is one example
teaching approach under the theory of contructivism. Metacognitive skills allow students to
reflect on their thinking process on understanding the concepts. As a result, students could
monitor their learning progress, create the changes, and choose the strategies to get the best
achievement. This approach also gives opportunities for teachers to create meaningful learning
experiences for students.
Third, teachers need to be creative to apply varied teaching strategies to use the constructivist
approaches. Teachers’ role is also important to deal with the challenges within this theory of
learning such as learner and content are separated, 2) tendency to equate activity with learning,
3) limited research evidence, 4) curriculum is fixed, 5) time management, 6) students’ learning
responsibility, and 7) unique individual. As a result, the constructivism will be powerful to be
applied in teaching and learning process.
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