Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Safety Systems
Shutdown Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Emergency Core Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The systems described in this brochure are those of a typical CANDU 6 generating station;
however, they are essentially the same as those of other CANDU stations in most respects.
iii
Introduction
CANDU nuclear power stations have consistently proven to be competitive with other types of
nuclear power plants, while offering unique advantages to their operators. Some of the design
features and unique characteristics of the CANDU reactor are:
• a reactor core comprising several hundred small diameter fuel channels rather than one huge
pressure vessel
• heavy water (D2O) for moderator and coolant
• separate low pressure moderator and high pressure fuel cooling systems
• on-power refuelling
• reactivity devices that are located in the cool low pressure moderator, and not subjected to high
temperatures or pressures
• natural uranium fuel or other low fissile content fuel
• reduced consequences from accidental reactivity fluctuations — excess reactivity available from
the fuel is small and the relatively long lifetime of prompt neutrons in the reactor precludes rapid
changes in power levels
• two fully capable safety shutdown systems, independent from each other and the reactor
regulating system.
This Technical Summary provides an overview of the CANDU 6 nuclear power system. All
CANDU 6 power plants are fundamentally the same, although there are differences in detail: these
largely result from different site conditions, and from improvements made in the newer designs.
1
CANDU Nuclear Generating Station
Major Systems
Pictorial symbols representing major systems
are used throughout this publication to indicate
relationships between major systems and their
sub-systems.
Nuclear Power
Fuel to Grid
Station Instrumentation
and Control
2
3
Station Flow Diagram
Nuclear Steam Supply System The on-power refuelling system can also be
used to remove a defective fuel bundle in the
A CANDU 6 nuclear steam supply system’s unlikely event that a fuel defect develops.
power production process starts like that of CANDU 6 reactors have systems to identify
any other nuclear steam supply system, with and locate defective fuel.
controlled fission in the reactor core. However,
unlike other reactors, the CANDU 6 is fuelled Pressurized heavy water (D2O) coolant is
with natural uranium fuel that is distributed circulated through the fuel channels and steam
among 380 fuel channels. Each six-meter-long generators in a closed circuit. The fission heat
fuel channel contains 12 fuel bundles. The fuel produced in the fuel is transferred to heavy
channels are housed in a horizontal cylindrical water coolant flowing through the fuel channels.
tank (called a calandria) that contains cool The coolant carries the heat to steam generators,
heavy water (D2O) moderator at low pressure. where it is transferred to light water to produce
Fuelling machines connect to each fuel channel steam. The steam is used to drive the turbine
as necessary to provide on-power refuelling; generator to produce electricity.
this eliminates the need for refuelling outages.
Steam
Steam
Generator
Pump/Motor
Assembly
To Fuel
Channels
From Fuel
Channels
Feedwater
Calandria Feedwater
Pump
Assembly
Fuelling Machine
Fuel
Fuel
Channels Moderator
4
Turbine Generator System Electric Power System
The turbine generator system comprises steam The electric power system comprises a main
turbines directly coupled to an alternating power output transformer, unit and service
current electrical generator operating at transformers, and a switchyard. This system
synchronous speed. steps up (increases) the generator output voltage
to match the electric utility’s grid requirements
• The steam turbine is a tandem compound unit, for transmission to the load centres and also
generally consisting of a double flow, high supplies the power needed to operate all of the
pressure turbine and three double flow, low station services.
pressure turbines, which exhaust to a high
vacuum condenser for maximum thermal The main switchyard portion of the electric
efficiency. The condenser may be cooled by power system permits switching of outputs
sea, lake or river water, or by atmospheric between transmission lines and comprises
cooling towers. automatic switching mechanisms, and lightning
and grounding protection to shield the
• The generator is a high efficiency hydrogen-
equipment against electrical surges and faults.
cooled machine arranged to supply alternating
current at medium voltage to the electric
power system.
Generator
Power
to Grid
High
Pressure
Turbine Switchyard
Cooling
Water
Condenser
5
Nuclear Steam Supply System – Overview
Reactor Feedwater and Steam Generator System
The reactor comprises a stainless steel horizontal The steam generators transfer heat from the
cylinder (called the calandria), closed at each heavy water reactor coolant to light water (H2O)
end by end shields, which support the horizontal to form steam, which drives the turbine genera-
fuel channels that span the calandria, and pro- tor. The low pressure steam exhausted by the
vide personnel shielding. The calandria is low pressure turbine is condensed in the cond-
housed in and supported by a light water-filled, ensers by a flow of condenser cooling water.
steel lined concrete structure (the reactor vault) The feedwater system processes condensed
which provides thermal shielding. The calandria steam from the condensers and returns it to
contains heavy water (D2O) moderator at low the steam generators via pumps and a series
temperature and pressure, reactivity control of heaters.
mechanisms and several hundred fuel channels.
Reactor Regulating System
Fuel Handling System
This system controls reactor power within
The fuel handling system refuels the reactor specific limits and ensures that station load
with new fuel bundles without interruption of demands are met. It also monitors and controls
normal reactor operation; it is designed to oper- power distribution within the reactor core, to
ate at all reactor power levels. The system also optimize fuel bundle and fuel channel power
provides for the secure handling and temporary within their design specifications.
storage of new and irradiated fuel.
Safety Systems
Heat Transport System
Four special safety systems (shutdown system
The heat transport system circulates pressurized number 1, shutdown system number 2, the emer-
heavy water coolant (D2O) through the reactor gency core cooling system and containment sys-
fuel channels to remove heat produced by fission tem) are provided to minimize and mitigate the
in the uranium fuel. The heat is carried by the impact of any postulated failure in the principal
reactor coolant to the steam generators, where nuclear steam plant systems. Safety support
it is transferred to light water to produce steam. systems provide services as required (electric
The coolant leaving the steam generators is power, cooling water and compressed air) to
returned to the inlet of the fuel channels. the special safety systems. (See Safety Systems
on page 46.)
Moderator System
Neutrons produced by nuclear fission are moder-
ated (slowed) by the D2O in the calandria. The
moderator D2O is circulated through systems
that cool and purify it, and control the concen-
trations of soluble neutron absorbers used for
adjusting the reactivity.
6
Reactivity Control Devices
Steam to Turbine
Reactor
Feedwater
Steam Generator
Fuel
Heavy Water Inlet Handling
System
Heavy Water Oulet
Fuel Bundle
Fuel Bundle
7
Reactor Assembly and Fuel
Reactor Assembly Horizontal and vertical reactivity measurement
and control devices are located between
The CANDU 6 reactor assembly, shown in the rows and columns of fuel channels, and are
figure opposite, includes the fuel channels perpendicular to the fuel channels.
contained in and supported by a horizontal
cylindrical tank known as the calandria. The The fuel channels are also shown in the figure
calandria is closed and supported by end shields opposite, with additional detail provided in the
at each end. Each end shield comprises an inner accompanying figure. Each fuel channel locates
and an outer tubesheet joined by lattice tubes at and supports 12 fuel bundles in the reactor core.
each fuel channel location and a peripheral shell. The fuel channel assembly includes a zirconium-
The inner space of the end shields are filled niobium alloy pressure tube, a zirconium calandria
with steel balls and water, and are water tube, stainless steel endfittings at each end, and
cooled. The fuel channels, supported by the four spacers which maintain separation of the
end shields, are located on a square lattice pressure tube and the calandria tube. Each
pitch. The calandria is filled with heavy water pressure tube is thermally insulated from the
moderator at low temperature and pressure. cool, low pressure moderator, by the CO2 filled
The calandria is located in a steel lined, water gas annulus formed between the pressure tube
filled concrete vault. and the concentric calandria tube.
Fuel
The CANDU 6 fuel bundle consists of 37
elements, arranged in circular rings as shown in
the photo opposite. Each element consists of
natural uranium in the form of cylindrical pellets
of sintered uranium dioxide contained in a
zircaloy 4 sheath closed at each end by an end
cap. The 37 elements are held together by end
plates at each end to form the fuel bundle. The
required separation of the fuel elements is
maintained by spacers brazed to the fuel elements
at the transverse mid-plane. The outer fuel
elements have bearing pads brazed to the
outer surface to support the fuel bundle in the
Reactor face (during construction) pressure tube.
8
Calandria
End Shield
Tubesheet Heavy Water Moderator
End Fitting
Feeder Pipe Calandria Tube
Gas Annulus
Spacers
Shield Plug
Channel Pressure Tube Fuel Bundles
Closure Liner
Tube
Calandria Tube
Positioning Pressure Tube
Assembly
9
Fuel Handling System
The fuel handling system: The fuelling machines receive new fuel
while connected to the new fuel port and
• provides facilities for the storage and
discharge irradiated fuel while connected to
handling of new fuel
the discharge port.
• refuels the reactor remotely while it is
operating at any level of power The entire operation is directed from the control
room through a pre-programmed computerized
• transfers the irradiated fuel remotely from
system. The control system provides a printed
the reactor to the storage bay.
log of all operations and permits manual
intervention by the operator, if required.
Fuel Changing
The fuel changing operation is based on the
combined use of two remotely controlled
fuelling machines, one operating on each end of
a fuel channel. New fuel bundles, from one
fuelling machine, are inserted into a fuel channel
in the same direction as the coolant flow and the
displaced irradiated fuel bundles are received
into the second fuelling machine at the other
end of the fuel channel. Typically, either four or
eight of the 12 fuel bundles in a fuel channel are
replaced during a refuelling operation. For a
CANDU 6 reactor, about 10 fuel channels per
Fuelling machine in operating position at face of reactor.
week are refuelled.
10
The discharge and transfer operations are The storage volume of the bays has sufficient
remotely controlled by station staff. Operations capacity for a minimum of 7 years’ accumulation
in the storage bays are carried out under water, of irradiated fuel.
using special tools aided by cranes and hoists.
Defective fuel is inserted into cans under water Neither new or nor irradiated CANDU fuel
to limit the spread of contamination before can achieve criticality in air or light water,
transfer to the defective fuel bay. regardless of the storage configuration.
Calandria
Fuel
Channels
Fuelling
Machine New Fuel
Storage
Irradiated
Fuel
Discharge Bay
Transfer
Canal Reception
Bay
Irradiated Fuel
Storage Bay
Canned
Defective Fuel
11
Moderator and Auxiliary Systems
Moderator System below levels at which an explosion hazard
would exist.
About four per cent of reactor thermal power
appears in the moderator. The largest portion of The system includes two compressors and two
this heat is from gamma radiation; additional recombination units which form a circuit for the
heat is generated by moderation (slowing down) circulation of cover gas through the calandria
of the fast neutrons produced by fission in the relief ducts. Normally one compressor and both
fuel, and a small amount of heat is transferred recombination units operate, with the other
to the moderator from the hot pressure tubes. compressor on standby.
The system includes two 100 per cent capacity
Purification System
pumps, two 50 per cent flow capacity heat
exchangers cooled by recirculated cooling The moderator purification system:
water and a number of control and check valves.
• maintains the purity of D2O, thereby minimiz-
Connections are provided for the purification,
ing radiolysis which can cause excessive pro-
liquid poison addition, heavy water (D2O)
duction of deuterium in the cover gas.
collection, supply and sampling systems.
• minimizes corrosion of components, by
The moderator pump motors are connected to removing impurities present in the D2O and
the medium voltage Class III power supply. In by controlling the pD.
addition, each pump has a pony motor, capable
• under operator command reduces the concen-
of driving the pump at 25 per cent speed, con-
tration of the soluble poisons, boron and
nected to the Class II power supply. In the event
gadolinium, in response to reactivity demands.
of a loss of Class IV power (see page 34), the
power to the main motors is lost until the diesel • removes the soluble poison, gadolinium,
generators can supply Class III power. The cool- after shutdown system number 2 has operated.
ing water supply to the heat exchangers is also
re-established after three minutes at a reduced D2O Sampling System
flow rate following a total failure of Class IV
This system allows samples to be taken
power. The rate of heat removal is sufficient to
from the:
limit the increase of moderator temperature in
the calandria to an acceptable value during a • main moderator system
failure of Class IV power and subsequent • moderator D2O collection system
reactor shutdown.
• moderator purification system
The heavy water in the calandria functions as • D2O cleanup system.
a heat sink in the unlikely event of a loss of
coolant accident in the heat transport system Laboratory tests may be performed on the
coincident with a failure of emergency samples to determine:
core cooling.
• pD (pH)
Helium is used as the cover gas for the modera- • chlorides concentration
tor system because it is chemically inert and is • isotopic purity
not activated by neutron irradiation. Radiolysis
of the heavy water moderator in the calandria • boron and gadolinium concentration
results in production of deuterium and oxygen • tritium content
gases. The cover gas system prevents accumula-
tion of these gases by catalytically recombining • fluorides content
them to form heavy water. The deuterium and • organics content.
oxygen concentrations are maintained well
12
Operation of the Moderator System
The series/parallel arrangement of the system
lines and valves permits the output from either
pump to be cooled by both of the heat exchang-
ers and assures an acceptable level of moderator
cooling when either of the two pumps is isolated
for maintenance. Reactor power must be reduced
to about 60 per cent if one moderator heat
exchanger is isolated.
Reactor
Compressors
Moderator
D2O Sampling Head Tank
Heat Heat
Exchanger Exchanger
To D2O Cleanup From D2O
Supply
Moderator
D2O Collection Circulation
Pump
RCW
Purification System
Heat Transport System
System Operation from the inlet headers and is returned from each
channel through individual feeder pipes to the
The heat transport system (HTS) circulates pres- outlet headers. Each heat transport system loop
surized D2O coolant through the fuel channels is arranged in a ‘Figure of 8’, with the coolant
to remove the heat produced by fission in the making two passes, in opposite directions,
nuclear fuel. The coolant transports the heat to through the core during each complete circuit,
steam generators, where it is transferred to light and the pumps in each loop operating in
water to produce steam to drive the turbine. series. The coolant flow in adjacent fuel
Two parallel HTS coolant loops are provided channels is in opposite directions. The HTS
in CANDU 6. The heat from half of the 380 fuel piping is fabricated from corrosion resistant
channels in the reactor core is removed by each carbon steel.
loop. Each loop has one inlet and one outlet
header at each end of the reactor core. D2O The pressure in the heat transport system is
is fed to each of the fuel channels through controlled by a pressurizer connected to the outlet
individual feeder pipes headers at one end of the reactor. Valves provide
isolation between the two loops and the pressurizer
in the event of a loss-of-coolant accident.
14
Heavy water, Steam
Heat Transport System
Pressurizer Heavy Water: Inlet
Heat Transport System
Heavy Water: Outlet
Steam Steam
Generator Generator
Calandria
HTS HTS
Loop 1 Loop 2
Page 15
A comparison of
principal CANDU Heat Transport System Conditions Heat Transport Pumps Steam Generators
Heat Transport Electrical Number Elements Number Outlet Maximum Outlet Total Operating Motor Area (m2) Integral Steam
System Parameters Output of in Fuel of header Channel Header Rating per Preheater Pressure
CANDU 6 Operating stations (MW) Fuel Bundle Loops Pressure Flow Quality (kW) Steam (MPa)
or under construction Gross/Net Channels (MPa) (kg/s) (%) Generator
15
Heat Transport Auxiliary Systems
Pressure and Inventory Control System transport system. However, if the isotopic purity
of the collection tank contents is low, the D2O
The heat transport pressure and inventory con- can be pumped to drums for upgrading.
trol system consists of a pressurizer, D2O feed-
pumps, feed and bleed valves and a D2O storage
tank. This system provides: Shutdown Cooling System
• pressure and inventory control for each The shutdown cooling system is capable of:
heat transport system loop • cooling the heat transport system from 177°C
• overpressure protection down to 54°C, and holding the system at that
temperature indefinitely
• a controlled degassing flow.
• providing core cooling during maintenance
Heavy water in the pressurizer is heated electri- work on the steam generators and heat trans-
cally to pressurize the vapour space above the port pumps when the heat transport system
liquid. The volume of the vapour space is is drained down to the level of the headers
designed to cushion pressure transients, without • of being put into operation with the heat
allowing excessively high or low pressures in transport system at full temperature and
the heat transport system. pressure.
The pressurizer also accommodates the change The shutdown cooling system consists of two
in volume of the reactor coolant in the heat independent circuits, one located at each end of
transport system from zero power to full power. the reactor. Each circuit consists of a pump and
This permits the reactor power to be increased a heat exchanger, connected between the inlet
or decreased rapidly, without imposing a severe and outlet headers of both heat transport system
demand on the D2O feed and bleed components loops. The system is normally full of D2O and
of the system. isolated from the heat transport system by power
operated valves.
When the reactor is at power, pressure is
controlled by the pressurizer; heat is added to the The shutdown cooling pumps are sized so that
pressurizer via the electric heaters to increase no boiling can occur in any of the fuel channels.
pressure, and heat is removed from the pressur- For normal cool-down, steam from the steam
izer via D2O steam bleed to reduce pressure. generators bypasses the turbine and flows into
The coolant inventory is adjusted by the feed the turbine condenser to reduce the heat
and bleed circuit. Pressure can also be controlled transport system temperature to 177°C in
by the feed and bleed circuit with the pressurizer approximately 30 minutes.
isolated at low reactor power and when the
reactor is shut down. This feed and bleed circuit is
For cool-down from 177°C to 77°C, the isolat-
designed to accommodate the changes in coolant
ing valves at the reactor headers are opened and
volume that take place during heat-up and
all heat transport pumps are kept running. The
cool-down.
heat transport pumps force a portion of the total
core flow through the shutdown cooling heat
D2O Collection System exchangers, where it is cooled by recirculated
• collects leakage from mechanical components cooling water flowing around the heat
exchanger coils.
• receives D2O sampling flow
• receives D2O drained from equipment prior to At 77°C, the heat transport pumps are shut down
maintenance. and the shutdown cooling system pumps are
started. The system is then cooled to 54°C. D2O
The collected D2O is pumped from the collec- can be drained down to the level just above the
tion tank to the storage tanks of the pressure and reactor headers, if required for maintenance of
inventory control system for re-use in the heat the steam generators or pumps.
16
Purification System interchanger, cooler, filter and ion exchange
column before being returned through the inter-
The heat transport purification system:
changer to a pump inlet in each circuit. The heat
• limits the accumulation of corrosion products transport pump provides the flow through the
in the coolant by removing soluble and purification system. The interchanger-cooler
insoluble impurities combination minimizes the heat loss in the
D2O purification cycle.
• removes accumulations of fine solids follow-
ing their sudden release due to chemical,
Isolating valves in the purification system inlet
hydraulic or temperature transients
and outlet lines are provided for maintenance.
• maintains the pD(pH) of D2O at the The valves also allow draining of the heat trans-
required value. port system coolant to just above the elevation of
the headers without the need to drain the purifi-
Flow is taken from one reactor inlet header of cation system. These valves close automatically
each heat transport loop, passed through an in the event of loss-of-coolant accident.
D2O Purification
Interchanger Filter
Exchange
Columns
Heat Transport
Ion
System Pump
Assembly
Fuel
Channel
Inlet Inlet
Header Header
Degasser
Computer Programs
Reactivity
Instrumentation Control Devices
19
Reactor Regulating System Computer Programs
Reactor Power Measurements Setback Routine
For the reactor regulating system to control total The setback routine monitors a number of plant
reactor power and to maintain the proper power parameters and reduces reactor power gradually,
distribution in the reactor, power measurements in a ramp fashion, if any parameter exceeds
in the reactor core are required. specified operating limits. The rate at which
reactor power is reduced and the level at which
In the high power range, zonal reactor power the setback is terminated are determined by the
estimates based on platinum flux detectors are particular parameter.
adjusted by comparison with thermal and vana-
dium flux detector measurements. In the low Stepback Routine
power range, total reactor power is determined
based on measurements from uncompensated A situation which could possibly result in dam-
ion chambers with logarithmic amplifiers. age is indicated when certain plant variables
are outside their specified ranges. The stepback
routine checks the values of these variables
The Demand Power Routine
and if necessary, disengages the clutches of
The demand power routine serves three the mechanical control absorbers. This allows
functions: the absorbers to drop into the core, to produce
a rapid decrease in power.
• selects the mode of operation of the plant
• calculates the reactor power setpoint Flux Mapping Routine
• calculates an effective power error that is used The flux mapping routine uses measurements
as the driving signal for the reactivity control from vanadium detectors to calculate the spatial
devices. distribution of reactor power. Flux mapping
serves the following functions:
Reactivity Control and Flux Shaping
• guards against locally over-rating the fuel
Long-term reactivity control in CANDU 6 is
• helps to calibrate the zone power detectors
provided by the on-power refuelling system.
to properly reflect the spatial flux distribution
Depleted fuel bundles are removed and new fuel
bundles added to the core in a manner that main- • provides information for optimizing power
tains a constant long-term reactivity distribution output and fuel management.
throughout the core. The functions of short-
term reactivity control and flux shaping are
performed by the light water zone control
absorbers, adjusters, mechanical control
absorbers, and moderator poison control.
20
Thermal Power Flux Power
Flux Distribution
Adjusters
Steam to Vanadium
Turbine
Ion Chambers Platinum
Steam Generators
21
Reactor Regulating System Instrumentation
The instrumentation systems provide the operat- Ion Chamber System
ing personnel with measurements of the reactor-
neutron flux and with other core information. Three ion chambers are employed in the reactor
These systems also provide the necessary inputs regulating system, for measuring neutron flux in
for reactor regulation during start-up, shutdown, the range from 10-7 to 15 per cent of full power.
steady power and power manoeuvring condi- Compensation is not required, since adequate
tions. Proportional counters, uncompensated ion discrimination against gamma rays is achieved
chambers, and self-powered in-core flux detec- by employing appropriate materials in the detec-
tors are used to provide continuous measurement tor and by gamma shielding in the construction
of the reactor power from spontaneous fission of the ion chamber housings. These ion cham-
level to 150 per cent full power (approximately bers are located in housings at one side of the
14 decades). A minimum overlap of one decade core. In addition to one ion chamber for the
is provided between successive ranges of reactor regulating system, each housing also
instrumentation. contains an ion chamber and shutter for shut-
down system number 1. Each of the three chan-
nels consists of an ion chamber and amplifier
Start-Up Instrumentation
unit. The solid state amplifiers upgrade the ion
This temporary instrumentation is required chamber outputs to suitable input signal levels
during the initial reactor start-up to monitor for processing in the control computers. Three
the neutron flux over the range from the sponta- similar ion chambers, mounted on the other side
neous fission flux level to the sensitivity level of of the core, provide inputs to shutdown system
the permanent ion chambers. After start-up, this number 2.
instrumentation is removed and is not required
for subsequent start-ups, unless a prolonged Self-powered In-core Flux Detectors
shutdown, more than 30 days, occurs. In this
case, the residual flux, due mainly to photoneu- In the high power range (above 15 per cent
tron production, decays beyond the sensitivity of power), self powered in-core flux detectors
the ion chambers. Two sets of triplicated fission provide the required spatial flux information
chambers are used. One set covers the very low not available from the ion chambers.
flux range (10-14 to 10-10 of full power). The sec-
ond set covers the flux range from 10-11 to 10-6 Two types of in-core detectors are used in the
of full power and overlaps the ranges of both reactor. One type uses platinum as the sensitive
the first set and the permanent ion chamber emitter material, while the other uses vanadium.
instrumentation. The sheaths of both types are made of Inconel.
The platinum detectors are fast-acting, sensitive
to both neutrons and gamma rays, and because
of their prompt response to flux changes are
used in the reactor regulating system and in the
two shutdown systems. The vanadium detectors
are sensitive to neutrons, but because of a rela-
tively slow response to flux changes, are used
only in the flux mapping system.
22
Thermal Power Flux Power
Flux Distribution
Adjusters
Steam to Vanadium
Turbine
Ion Chambers Platinum
Steam Generators
23
Reactor Regulating System Reactivity Control Devices
Light Water Zone Control Absorbers Adjusters
Light water (H2O) is a neutron absorber (poison) Adjusters are cylindrical neutron absorbing rods.
in the heavy water cooled and moderated A CANDU 6 reactor typically has 21 vertically
CANDU 6 reactor. The liquid zone control mounted adjuster rods, normally fully inserted
system takes advantage of this fact to provide between columns of fuel channels for flux
short-term global and spatial reactivity control shaping purposes.
in the CANDU 6 reactor core.
Removal of adjusters from the core provides
The liquid zone control system in the reactor positive reactivity to compensate for xenon
consists of six tubular, vertical zone control buildup following large power reductions, or in
units that span the core. For flux control the the event that the on-power refuelling system is
zone control units are located such that 14 unavailable. The adjusters are capable of being
zone control compartments are formed and are driven in and out of the reactor core at variable
distributed through the core. Each zone control speed to provide reactivity control. The adjusters
unit can comprise either of two or three zone are normally driven in banks, the largest bank
control compartments. Flux (power) in each containing five rods.
zone is controlled by the addition or removal
of light water from the liquid zone control Adjusters are usually fabricated from stainless
compartment in that zone. steel. In some CANDU plants the adjusters are
made from cobalt, and are used to produce
Mechanical Control Absorbers cobalt 60 for medical and industrial purposes.
Four mechanical control absorbers, mounted
Poison Addition and Removal
above the reactor, can be driven in or out of the
core at variable speeds, or dropped by gravity A reactivity balance can be maintained by the
into the core, between columns of fuel channels, addition of soluble poison to the moderator.
by releasing a clutch. These absorbers are nor- Boron is used to compensate for an excess of
mally parked out of the core; they are driven reactivity when fresh fuel is introduced into the
in to supplement the negative reactivity from reactor. Gadolinium is added when the xenon
the light water zone control absorbers, or are load is significantly less than equilibrium (as
dropped to effect a fast reduction in reactor happens after prolonged shutdowns).
power (stepback). When inserted, the mechanical
control absorbers also help to prevent the reactor An ion exchange system removes the poisons
from going critical when the shutoff rods of from the moderator. Addition and removal of
shutdown system 1 are withdrawn, and are inter- poison is normally controlled by the operator.
locked, in this inserted position, until the shut- However, the reactor regulating system can
down system number 1 is energized also add gadolinium, in special circumstances.
and available.
24
Hardware Interlocks The interlocks remain active, preventing reactor
startup, until shutoff rods are fully withdrawn
The reactivity mechanisms are subject to a num- and available for reactor shutdown. There are
ber of interlocks, external to the control comput- further interlocks to prevent more that a limited
ers, which limit the consequences of erroneous number of high worth adjusters from being with-
operation of these mechanisms. drawn at the same time. This limits the rate of
positive reactivity insertion.
When the reactor is in a tripped state (i.e., shut-
down system 1 and/or shutdown system 2 insert- With the exception of the light water zone
ed) these interlocks prevent withdrawal of the controlers, which are controlled only from
adjusters and mechanical control absorbers. the computer, the reactivity control units can
Poison removal from the moderator is also also be manually controlled from the control
inhibited to prevent increases in reactivity. room panels.
Flux Distribution
Adjusters
Steam to Vanadium
Turbine
Ion Chambers Platinum
Steam Generators
25
Feedwater and Main Steam System
Feedwater System Steam Generators and Main Steam Systems
Feedwater from the regenerative feedwater heat- Reactor coolant (heavy water) flows through
ing system is supplied separately to each steam small tubes, arranged in an inverted, vertical,
generator. The feedwater is pumped into the U-tube bundle, within each of the four steam
steam generators by three 50 per cent capacity generators and transfers heat to the re-circulated
multi-stage feedwater pumps with the flow rate water outside the tubes, producing steam.
to each steam generator regulated by feedwater Moisture is removed from the steam by steam
control valves. A check valve in the feedwater separating equipment located in the drum (upper
line to each steam generator is provided to pre- section) of the steam generator. The steam then
vent backflow in the unlikely event of feedwater flows via four separate steam mains, through the
pipe failure. An auxiliary feedwater pump is pro- reactor building wall, to the turbine where they
vided that can supply four per cent of full power connect to the turbine steam chest.
feedwater requirements during shutdown condi-
tions, or if the main feedwater pumps become The steam pressure is normally controlled by
unavailable. the turbine governor valves that admit steam
to the high pressure stage of the turbine. If the
The chemistry of the feedwater to the steam turbine is unavailable, up to 70 per cent of full
generators is precisely controlled by demineral- power steam flow can bypass the turbine and
ization, deaeration, oxygen scavenging and pH go directly to the condenser. During this opera-
control. A blowdown system is provided for tion, pressure is controlled by the turbine by-
each steam generator that allows impurities pass valves. Auxiliary bypass valves are also
collected in the steam generators to be removed provided to permit up to 10 per cent of full
in order to prevent their accumulation and power steam flow during low power operation.
possible long-term corrosive effects.
Steam pressure can be controlled by discharging
steam directly to the atmosphere via four atmos-
pheric steam discharge valves which have a
combined capacity of 10 per cent of full power
steam flow. These valves are used primarily for
control during warm-up or cool-down of the
heat transport system.
26
NO - Normally Open
NC - Normally Closed
Flow Measurement
Steam Steam
Steam Steam
Generator Generator
Feedwater Feedwater
Calandria
Feedwater
Lines
From
From Feedwater Control Valve Stations Feedwater
Heating
System
27
CANDU 6 Nuclear Power Plant
Key to Diagram
1. Diesel room 39. Fuelling machine
2. Water treatment plant * 40. Catenary 12
3. Crane hall 41. Fuel channel end fittings
4. Turbine building 42. Steam generator support 13
5. Turbine building crane column
6. Generator 43. Feeder pipe insulation cabinet
7. Condenser 44. Fuelling machine vault door
8. Battery room 45. End shield cooling 14
9. Boiler feed water tanks 46. Fuelling machine track
10. Deaerator storage tank 47. Moderator inlet pipe 17
11. Deaerator 48. New fuel handling machine
15
12. Reactor building 49. New fuel port
13. Dousing tank 50. Fuelling machine service ports
14. Dousing water supply pipes 51. Rehearsal facility 16
15. Dousing water valves 52. Spent fuel port 18 19
20
16. Dousing water spray nozzles 53. Spent fuel elevator
17. Steam pipes 54. Entrance to spent fuel area
18. Steam generators 55. Airlock
19. Pressurizer 56. Crane 21 22
20. Crane 57. Spent fuel shipping area
21. Heat transport pumps 58. Spent fuel handling area 27 23
22. Bleed condenser 59. Spent fuel bay gantry
26 24
23. Bleed cooler 60. Spent fuel bay
24. Hatch 61. Spent fuel transfer baskets 35
25
25. Reactor vault 62. Spent fuel transfer trolley
26. Pressure relief pipes 63. Spent fuel storage baskets 36 31
28
27. Reactivity mechanism deck 64. Fuelling machine maintenance
28. Reactivity mechanism guide area 37 29
tubes 65. Decontamination room 39
29. Calandria 66. New fuel storage 42 34 30
32
30. Poison injection nozzles 67. Tool crib 38 33
40
31. Poison tanks 68. Vapour recovery equipment 41 47
43 48
32. Ion chambers 69. Office 46
33. Fuel channel assemblies 70. Control room * 45 54
44
34. End shield 71. Control equipment room 49 50 51 52 53
35. Headers 72. Computer room
36. Feeder pipes 58
37. Fuelling machine bridge * Some items have been moved 59
38. Bridge support column for clarity.
61
60
62
63
Technical Data
Reactor
Type PHWR
Thermal output (PHTS) 2064 MW(th) Weight of bundle (nominal) 23.7 kg
Coolant flow rate (PHTS) 7.7 Mg/s Weight of uranium per bundle (nominal) 19.2 kg
Design temperature (RIH) 279° C Sheath outside dia. (cold) 13.1 mm
Design pressure (RIH) 12.9 MPa(g) Sheath thickness (average) 0.4 mm
Operating temperature (RIH) 266° C Sheath material Zircaloy - 4
Operating pressure (RIH) 11.75 MPa(abs) Elements per bundle 37
Design temperature (ROH) 316° C Fuel material Natural UO2
Design pressure (ROH) 10.7 MPa(g) Fuel bundles in core 4560
Operating temperature (ROH) 310° C Fuel bundles per channel 12
Operating pressure (ROH) 10.0 MPa(abs) Heat Transport System
Fuel Channels Number of loops 2
Pressure tube inside diameter Primary coolant D2O
(cold, unpressurized) 103.38 mm Reactor inlet temperature 266° C
Core Length (between calandria tubesheets) 5.94 m Reactor outlet temperature 310° C
Number of pressure tubes 380 Reactivity Control Units
Coolant flow (nominal) 24 kg/s Power control 14 light water compartments
Est. pressure drop – 12 bundles 838 kPa 21 stainless steel rods
Fuel 4 cadmium rods
Length of bundle 495.3 mm Safety shutdown 28 cadmium rods (vertical)
Outside dia. of bundle (over bearing pads) 102.4 mm 6 gadolinium nitrate injection tubes (horizontal)
28
Materials (out of core) Stainless steel Turbine
(in core) zircaloy/stainless steel/cadmium Single shaft tandem compound steam turbine directly coupled to 828 MVA
generator. Steam turbine consists of one double flow high pressure cylinder,
Steam Generators two external moisture separator/reheaters and three double flow low
Type, number of units Vertical U-tube, 4 pressure cylinders.
Steam flow for 4 steam generators 1033.0 kg/s
Steam pressure at full power 4.7 MPa(abs) Generator
Steam temperature at full power 260° C Rated 828 MVA at 0.9 power factor and 414 kPa(g) hydrogen pressure.
Maximum moisture 0.25% 1800 rpm with terminal voltage of 22,000 volts, 60 Hz.
Feedwater temperature 187° C Condenser
Reactor Coolant Pumps Single tube sheet shells. Each shell is connected to the three LP turbine
Number 4 exhausts.
Motor/type AC vertical, TEWAC induction Two 100% main condensate extraction pumps and one auxiliary condensate
Rated capacity 2228 l/s extraction pump. Three 50% main steam generator feedwater pumps and
Rated head 215.0 m one auxiliary steam generator feedwater pump.
Containment
Type Prestressed cylindrical concrete
Inside diameter 41.46 m
Height Above Grade 46.02 m
Total Inside Containment 65,500 m3
29
Turbine Generator System
The system consists of a turbine generator unit, Generator
and associated condensing and feedwater heat-
ing systems. The generator is a three-phase, four-pole
machine. The generator typically operates at
Steam produced in the steam generators enters 1800 r.p.m. to serve 60 cycle electrical systems,
the high pressure turbine and its water content and at 1500 r.p.m. to serve 50 cycle systems.
increases as it expands through this high pres-
sure stage. On leaving this stage, the steam The associated equipment consists of a solid
passes through separators where the water is state automatic voltage regulator controlling a
removed; it then passes through reheaters where thyristor convertor which supplies the generator
it is heated by live steam taken directly from the field via a field circuit breaker, generator slip
steam mains. The reheated steam then passes rings and brush gear.
through the low pressure turbines, into the
condenser where it condenses to water which is The main power output from the generator to the
then returned to the steam generators via the step-up transformer is by means of a forced air
feedwater heating system. cooled, isolated phase bus duct, with tapoffs to
the unit service transformer, excitation trans-
Steam Turbine former and potential transformer cubicle.
30
Feedwater Heating System generator output.) Two of the heater units incor-
porate drain cooling sections and the third a sep-
On its return to the steam generators, condensate arate drain cooling stage. Next, the feedwater
from the turbine condenser is pumped through enters a deaerator where dissolved oxygen is
the feedwater heating system. First it passes removed. From the deaerator the feedwater is
through three low pressure feedwater heater pumped to the steam generators through two
units, each of which contains two heaters fed by high pressure feedwater heaters each incorporat-
independent regenerative lines. (This permits ing drain cooling sections.
maintenance work to be carried out on the
heaters with only a small effect on the turbine
Condensate
High Pressure Auxiliary Low Pressure
Heaters Pump Deaerator Heaters
Condensate
Extraction
To Steam Generators Pumps
Feed Tank
Pumps (3)
31
Electric Power System
Turbine Generator Unit Service Transformer
The turbine generator system (described on During normal station operation the station ser-
page 30) consists of a turbine generator unit and vices power is supplied by both the unit service
associated condensing and feedwater systems. transformer and the system service transformer.
The power transmitted from the generator However, either transformer can provide the
terminals to the main output transformer and total service load in the event of a failure of one
the unit service transformer is at the generator supply. The transformer is fed from the output
nominal operating voltage. system of the turbine generator.
Switchyard
Generator
33
Electric Power System Station Services
Power Classification Class II Power Supply
The station services power supplies are classi- Uninterruptible alternating current (AC) supplies
fied in order of their levels of reliability require- for essential auxiliaries are obtained from the
ment. The reliability requirement of these power Class II power supply, which comprises:
supplies is divided into four classes that range
• Two low voltage AC three phase buses which
from uninterruptible power to that which can
supply critical motor loads and emergency
be interrupted with limited and acceptable
lighting. These buses are each supplied
consequences.
through an inverter from a Class III bus
via a rectifier in parallel with a battery.
Class IV Power Supply
• Three low voltage AC single phase buses
Power to auxiliaries and equipment that can which supply AC instrument loads and the sta-
tolerate long duration interruptions without tion computers. These buses are fed through
endangering personnel or station equipment an inverter from Class I buses, which are fed
is obtained from Class IV power supply. from Class III buses via rectifiers in parallel
This class of power supply comprises: with batteries.
• Two primary medium voltage (MV) buses,
each connected to the secondary windings of In the event of an inverter failure, power is sup-
the system service and unit service transform- plied directly to the applicable low voltage bus
ers in such a way that only one bus is supplied and through a voltage regulator to the applicable
from each transformer. instrument bus. If a disruption or loss of Class
III power occurs, the battery in the applicable
• Two MV buses supplied from the secondary circuit will provide the necessary power without
windings of two transformers on the primary interruption.
MV buses. These buses supply the main heat
transport pumps, feed pumps, circulating
Class I Power Supply
water pumps, extractor pumps and chillers.
Uninterruptible direct current (DC) supplies
Complete loss of Class IV power will initiate for essential auxiliaries are obtained from the
a reactor shutdown. Class 1 power supply, which comprises:
• Three independent DC instrument buses, each
Class III Power Supply
supplying power to the control logic circuits
Alternating current (AC) supplies to auxiliaries and one channel of the triplicated reactor safe-
that are necessary for the safe shutdown of the ty circuits. These buses are each supplied from
reactor and turbine are obtained from the Class a Class III bus via a rectifier in parallel with
III power supply with a standby diesel generator a battery.
back-up. These auxiliaries can tolerate short
• Three DC power buses which provide power
interruptions in their power supplies. This
for DC motors, switchgear operation and for
class of power supply comprises:
the Class II AC buses via inverters. These DC
• Two medium voltage buses supplied from the buses are supplied from Class III buses via
secondary windings of the two transformers a rectifier in parallel with batteries.
on the Class IV primary MV buses. These
buses supply power to the pumps in the Automatic Transfer System
service water system, emergency core cooling
system, moderator circulation system, shut- To ensure continuity of supply, in the event of
down cooling system, heat transport system a failure of either the unit or system power, an
feed lines, steam generator auxiliary feed automatic transfer system is incorporated on
line, and the air compressors and chillers. the station service buses.
• A number of low voltage buses. Transfer of load from one service transformer
to the other is accomplished by:
34
• A manually initiated transfer of power under The generators can be up to speed and ready to
normal operating conditions, or an automati- accept load in less than two minutes. The total
cally initiated transfer for mechanical trips interruption time is limited to three minutes. Each
on the turbine. generator automatically energizes half of the shut-
down load through a load sequencing scheme.
• A fast open transfer of power, supplied auto-
There is no automatic electrical tie between the
matically to both load groups of the class IV
two generators, nor is there a requirement for
power supply system, when power from one
them to be synchronized. In the event of one
transformer is interrupted. This fast transfer
generator failing to start, the total load will be
ensures that the voltage and phase difference
supplied from the other generator.
between the incoming supply and the residual
on the motors has no time to increase to a level
that would cause excessive inrush currents. Emergency Power Supply System
• A residual voltage transfer, comprising auto- The Emergency Power Supply System can
matic closure of the alternate breaker after the provide all shutdown electrical loads that are
residual voltage has decayed by approximately essential for safety.
70 per cent. This scheme is time delayed, may
require load shedding and could result in reac- This system and its buildings are seismically
tor power cut-back. It is provided as a back-up qualified to be operational after an earthquake.
to the above transfers. The system provides a backup for one group
of safety systems (shutdown system number 2,
emergency water supply, secondary control area)
Station Battery Banks
if normal electric supplies become unavailable
The station battery banks are all on continuous or the main control room becomes uninhabit-
charge from the Class III power supply and in able. The system comprises two diesel generat-
the event of a Class III power disruption will ing sets, housed in separate fire resistant rooms,
provide power to their connected buses. which are self-contained and completely inde-
pendent of the station’s normal services. There
Standby Generators is adequate redundancy provided in both the
generating distribution equipment and the loads.
Standby power for the Class III loads is supplied
by two (or more) diesel generator sets, housed in
separate rooms with fire resistant walls. Each
diesel generator can supply the total safe shut-
down load of the unit. The Class III shutdown
loads are duplicated, one complete system being
fed from each diesel generator. In the event of
failure of Class IV power, the two diesel genera-
tors will start automatically.
35
Electric Power System Station Services
Unit Automatic
Service Transfer Switch
Transformer
Primary MV Buses
Turbine Services
Turbine
Services Reactor
MV Buses
Transformer
Rectifiers
Batteries
36
Station Class I
Service Class II
Transformer Class III
Class IV
Turbine Services
Turbine
Reactor Services
Standby
Generator
Mechanical
Transfer
Low Voltage Buses Switches
Rectifiers
Regulators
Batteries
Safety
Circuits
Motors Control
Logic
Instrumentation Motors
Computers
37
Station Instrumentation and Control
Digital computers are used for station control, Operator Communication Stations
alarm annunciation, graphic data display and These computerized stations replace much of the
data logging. The system consists of two inde- conventional panel instrumentation in the control
pendent digital computers (DCCX and DCCY), room. A number of man-machine communication
each capable of station control. stations, each essentially comprising a keyboard
and colour CRT monitor, are located on the main
Both computers run continuously, with programs control room panels. The displays provided on
in both machines switched on, but only the con- the monitors include:
trolling computer’s outputs are connected to the
station equipment. In the event that the control- • graphic trends
ling computer fails, the control of the station • bar charts
is automatically transfer to the “hot” standby
• status displays
computer.
• pictorial displays
Individual control programs use multiple inputs
• historical trends.
to ensure that erroneous inputs do not produce
incorrect output signals. This is achieved by
Copies can be obtained from the line printers,
rejecting:
of any display monitor the operator wishes
• analog input values that are outside to record.
the expected signal range
• individual readings that differ significantly Automatic Transfer
from their median, average or other reference. A fault in any essential part of one computer
results in automatic transfer of control to the
A spare computer is provided as a source of other computer. If both computers fail, the
spare parts for the station computers. It is also station is automatically shut down.
used for:
• program assembling and checkout
• operator and maintainer training
• diagnosing faults in equipment removed
from the station computers.
Alarm Annunciation
Alarm messages are presented on coloured
display monitors (cathode ray tubes) which are
centrally located above the station main control
panels. Two line printers, one for each computer,
provide chronological records of all alarm
conditions.
38
Station
Inputs
Alarm Annunciation
Automatic
Transfer
Station Control
Outputs
39
Station Instrumentation and Control/Instrumentation
Station instrumentation performs a number Control Room
of monitoring, control and display functions.
Nuclear instrumentation is provided to allow The latest CANDU 6 control room is illustrated
automatic control of reactor power and flux on the opposite page. The control room features
shape and to monitor local core behaviour. an array of panels at the perimeter with two
Conventional instrumentation provides signals large central display screens, and the operations
for control and display of other plant variables. console. Information is provided on the panels
and at the operations console to allow the station
The plant is automated to a level that requires to be safely controlled and monitored.
a minimum of operator action for all phases
of station operation. All major control loops The instrumentation and controls on the panels
employ the two computers as direct digital are grouped on a system basis, with a separate
controlers. Conventional analog control panel allocated to each major system. Coloured
instrumentation is used on smaller local loops. cathode ray tube (CRT) displays and advanced
annunciation systems provide uncluttered con-
The instrumentation required for the operation trol room panel layouts and excellent monitoring
of the safety systems incorporates triplicated capabilities. The operator can call up informa-
information channels that provide the system tion displays on the panel CRTs, the operating
with a redundancy that ensures that single control console CRTs, and central display
component failures will not cause spurious screens in a variety of alphanumeric and graphic
operation. The safety systems operate indepen- formats via keyboards. All display annunciation
dently of the dual computers to avoid cross messages are colour coded to facilitate system
linked faults. identification and the priority of the alarm.
40
Qinshan Phase III Unit 1, Control Room
41
Station Instrumentation and Control/Control
Digital computers are used to perform all the Heat Transport System Pressure
control and monitoring functions of the station.
The system is designed to: This program controls the pressurizer steam
bleed valves and heaters to maintain heat
• handle both normal and abnormal situations transport system pressure at a fixed setpoint.
• be capable of automatically controlling the
unit at startup and at any preselected power Control Modes
level within the normal loading range Reactor following turbine
In this mode of operation the turbine-generator
• be capable of automatically shutting down load is set by the operator: the steam generator
the unit if unsafe conditions arise pressure control program requests variations
• be tolerant of instrumentation failures. in reactor power to maintain steam generator
pressure constant. This control mode is termed
Control Programs “reactor follows turbine” or “reactor follows
station loads”.
The functions of the overall station control sys-
tem are performed by control programs loaded Turbine following reactor
in each of the two unit computers. The major In this control mode, “turbine follows reactor”,
control function programs are described below, the station loads are made to follow the reactor
but there are also programs for: output. This is achieved by the steam generator
• Heat Transport System Control pressure control program adjusting the plant
loads to maintain a constant steam generator
• Moderator Temperature Control pressure. This mode is used at low reactor power
• Turbine Runup and Monitoring levels, during startup or shutdown, when the
steam generator pressure is insensitive to reactor
• Fuel Handling System Control. power. It is also used in some upset conditions
when it may not be desirable to manoeuvre
Reactor Regulation reactor power.
This program adjusts the reactivity control
devices to maintain reactor power equal to Unit Power Regulation
its desired setpoint. This program manoeuvres the unit power, by
adjusting the turbine load setpoint, to maintain
Steam Generator Pressure the generator output at the level demanded by
This program controls steam generator pressure the local operator, or by a generation control
to a constant setpoint, by changing the reactor signal from a remote control centre.
power setpoint (normal mode), or by adjusting
the station loads (alternate mode).
42
Valve Normally Open
Atmospheric
Valve Normally Closed Steam Steam
Steam Flow Discharge
Flow Measurement Pressure Valves
Condenser Governor Valves
Steam Steam
Generator Steam Electro-hydraulic
Generator Discharge Controler
Level Valves
Shaft
Speed Generator
Exciter
Turning
Feedwater Gear
Valves
Turbine Electrical
Output
Reactivity
Devices Flux Detectors
Reactor
Demanded
Reactor Reactor Power
Power Setpoint
Steam Unit
(alternate Reactor Generator
mode) Regulation Power
Pressure Regulator
Control
Electrical Output
Steam Generator Setpoint
Level Control (normal mode)
43
Site and Plant Arrangement
Typical Site Layout Buildings and Structures
General site requirements for a nuclear Reactor Building
power plant: The reactor building houses the nuclear reactor
and auxiliaries, primary heat transport system,
• Land must be provided for an exclusion area
fuel handling equipment, and instrumentation.
around the plant. A perimeter of 914 meters
from all reactors, on the landward side, was
provided for CANDU plants put into operation The reactor building’s major structural
before 1990: for some newer plants this dis- components are:
tance, known as the exclusion radius, has
• pre-stressed concrete containment structure
been reduced to less than 500 meters.
• internal reinforced concrete structures
• The site should be located so as to be easily
incorporated into the utility’s electrical • reinforced concrete calandria vault.
grid system.
The containment structure is separated from the
• A relatively flat shelf of sedimentary rock
internal structural systems. This provides flexi-
a few metres above high water level is an
bility in over-all building construction and no
ideal site, as both construction costs and
inter-dependence between the containment wall
site preparation time are reduced.
and other structures.
• Suitable land access by rail and/or road to
transport heavy equipment. If site is on a Service Building
navigable water body, water access may be The service building houses nuclear facilities
used to transport the heaviest equipment. which can be located outside of the reactor
building. More general service facilities, e.g.,
equipment maintenance shops and laboratory
facilities, are located in the common area of
this building.
Turbine Building
The turbine building consists of a turbine hall,
auxiliaries bay and two single story annexes.
Space is provided in the auxiliaries bay for the
electrical power distribution equipment. Water
treatment plant and diesel generators are located
at grade level in the annexes.
44
Pumphouse
The pumphouse consists of a reinforced concrete
substructure containing the condenser cooling
water pumps, raw service water pumps, fire
pumps, screens, and racks and screen wash
pumps. A steel framed superstructure provides
housing for the pump motors. Roof hatches
are provided for installation and maintenance
of the pumps.
Turbine Building
Service Upgrader Tower
Building Reactor Building
ÀÀÀ
@@@
Pumphouse
Shore Line
Excl
nt) usio
nde n Ra
d epe dius
(Site
(Site de
dius pend
on Ra ent)
lusi
Exc
Switchyard
45
Safety Systems
Overall Requirements The containment system confines any activity
released from the fuel and heat transport system
Like most metals, fuel sheaths weaken at very
to the reactor building during an accident. Along
high temperatures. Fuel sheath integrity is there-
with the other special safety systems, it ensures
fore at risk if a component failure causes the
that the dose limits for accidents, set by the
cooling of the fuel to be reduced relative to
Canadian regulatory agency, the Atomic Energy
the power it produces.
Control Board, and the local regulatory authority
are not exceeded.
If such a failure occurs, the reactor process
systems can often stop its course or moderate
its effects. Backing these up are special safety Safety Support Systems
systems. They are independent of the process These systems may be used for normal station
systems and of each other both functionally and operation and are also used to support the
physically, and are not used in the day-to-day operation of the safety systems.
operation of the plant. They can, if needed, shut
down the reactor (shutdown systems), refill the Systems Grouping
reactor fuel channels with coolant and remove
residual or “decay” heat from the fuel (emer- To provide defence against low probability
gency core cooling system) and prevent release incidents such as local fires or missiles (turbine
to the environment of radioactivity which may blades, aircraft strikes etc.), the station safety,
escape from the reactor (containment systems). post shutdown, and safety support systems are
separated into two groups that are functionally
Supporting these special safety systems are sys- and physically independent of each other. Each
tems that provide alternate sources of electrical group is designed to provide the following
power (emergency power supply system) and functions:
cooling water (emergency water supply system). • shut down the reactor
Moderator
Safety Systems
Emergency Core Cooling (ECCS) when pressure in that loop falls below the injec-
tion pressure – 4.14 MPa (600 psia). This period
System Operation to ECC injection can take about 10 seconds for
a maximum pipe-size break. Coolant escaping
The emergency core cooling system provides
from the ruptured circuit collects in the reactor
ordinary water to the heat transport system to
building sump. Minimum time to empty the
compensate for the heavy water coolant lost in
water (maximum break) is 2.5 minutes. The
a postulated Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA),
entire HP phase is initiated automatically.
and recirculates and cools the heavy water/
light water mixture that collects in the reactor
When the ECCS water tanks reach a predeter-
building floor to the reactor headers to maintain
mined low level, the HP injection valves close
fuel cooling in the long term.
automatically.
The CANDU 6 ECCS has three stages of opera-
tion: high, medium and low pressure. System Medium Pressure (MP) Operation
operation is triggered, on a loss-of-coolant acci- The medium pressure stage consists of water
dent (LOCA), when the heat transport system supplied from the dousing tank, and delivered to
pressure drops to 5.5 MPa (800 psia) and a loop the HTS headers via the ECC pumps. The valves
isolation system (independent of ECCS logic) connecting the dousing tank to the ECC pumps
closes the applicable valves to isolate the two are opened on the LOCA signal, while the MP
HTS loops. injection valves open on a delayed signal. The
water in the dousing tank provided for MP ECC
High Pressure (HP) Operation is sufficient for a minimum of 13 minutes opera-
The initial LOCA signal isolates the two HTS tion with the maximum design basis HTS break.
loops, opens the gas inlet, HP injection and the
applicable heat transport system H2O/D2O isola- There are two ECC pumps each capable of pro-
tion valves simultaneously and also initiates the viding 100 per cent of the water needs at a pres-
rapid cooling of the steam generators: the latter sure of 150 psia. Class IV electrical supply to the
is accomplished by opening the main steam ECCS pumps is backed up by Class III power
safety valves on the steam generator secondary and the emergency power supply system.
side, and discharging steam. Emergency coolant
(ordinary water) is forced from the ECCS water Low Pressure Operation
tanks into the ruptured HTS loop
As the dousing tank nears depletion, the valves
between the reactor building floor and the ECC
pumps open. Water collected in the reactor base-
ment is returned to the heat transport system
via heat exchangers, to provide long term
Moderator
Fuel fuel cooling.
Pressure tube
The heat exchanger maintains the temperature
Gas annulus
of the coolant flow at about 49°C. Temperature
Calandria tube of the water (D2O and H2O) from the sump
would be about 66°C at the ECC pumps.
48
Undamaged HTS Loop Backup Decay Heat Removal
During the ECCS operating sequence decay heat In the very unlikely event that the emergency
in the undamaged HTS loop is transferred to the core cooling system fails during or following a
steam generators by natural circulation. Coolant LOCA, decay heat is transferred from the fuel
losses from this circuit prior to its isolation will to the moderator by radiation and conduction.
be less than 20 per cent. This inventory loss can The centre element of the CANDU 6 fuel bundle
be made up by opening the isolating valves to is only 50 mm from the cool heavy water
the feed circuit with the override control in the moderator (see fuel channel section shown on
control room or, if the circuit pressure falls previous page): hence decay heat removal from
below that of the injection tanks, by the ECCS. the fuel following shutdown is assured without
melting the uranium dioxide, even if no coolant
is present in the fuel channel.
Heat
Exchanger
Medium Pressure Valves
Input
Valves
ECC
Break Pumps
49
Safety Systems
Containment Condensation, on the building walls, and opera-
tion of the building air coolers subsequently
Containment comprises a number of systems reduce the pressure from 7 kPa (1 psig) to about
that operate to provide a sealed envelope around atmospheric. Vapour recovery dryers initially
the reactor systems if an accidental radioactivity clean up the containment atmosphere when the
release occurs from these systems. The struc- dewpoint has reached about 16°C. This is fol-
tures and systems that form containment are: lowed by a fresh air purge that is discharged
through the dryers and reactor building ven-
• a lined, post-tensioned concrete tilation system filter train, removing the par-
containment structure ticulate and radioiodine activity prior to
• an automatic dousing system atmospheric release.
50
Dousing
Tank
Dousing Spray
Ventilation Isolation
To Air Filter Discharge Valves
System
Ventilation
Air
Irradiated
Fuel Storage
Building
Access
Airlock
Reactor
Fuel Transfer
Channel
Base Slab
51
Heavy Water (D2O) Management
The station is designed to prevent the loss of Cleanup System
D2O from the reactor systems. Special measures
are taken to recover and upgrade D2O which The D2O cleanup system purifies the down-
does escape. graded D2O collected in the station by removing
most of the impurities, with the exception of H2O.
Provisions ensuring optimum D2O manage-
ments are: The D2O cleanup system contains three ion
exchange columns, one charcoal filter and
• use of welded joints, with the number of two feed pumps.
mechanical joints in heavy water systems
is kept to a minimum The ion exchange columns remove lithium, iron
• heavy water and light water systems are and boron ions and other corrosion products.
segregated as much as possible The columns also remove fission products that
may be present.
• a D2O liquid recovery system is provided
• the building containing most heavy water The charcoal filter removes any oil present in the
systems is sealed and has a minimum through heavy water, as well as impurities such as
ventilation flow amines and carbonates. The clean downgraded
D2O is transferred to the D2O upgrading system.
• air entering and leaving the reactor building
is dried to minimize D2O downgrading and Vapour Recovery System
loss respectively
A D2O vapour recovery system is provided in
• air within the building is maintained dry by the reactor building to maintain a dry atmos-
closed circulation and drying systems so that phere in areas that may be subject to leakage.
any increase in humidity can be readily detected. The areas are segregated into three groups, each
Heavy water vapour removed by the dryers is group serviced by one portion of the system.
recovered and upgraded.
Areas accessible only during reactor
Deuteration and De-deuteration System shutdown
The spent resins from the ion exchange columns • fuelling machine operating areas
of the heat transport system and the moderator • boiler room, including shutdown cooler areas
system contain D2O. To recover the D2O the
resins are processed (de-deuteration – a down- • moderator room (exclusive of enclosure
ward flow of H2O through the resin beds) around equipment).
in the deuteration and de-deuteration system.
Moderator areas
Similarly when ion exchange resins are received • enclosure space around moderator equipment
from the suppliers they are also processed
(deuteration – an upward flow of D2O through Areas accessible during reactor operation
the resin bed) to remove H2O. • fuelling machine maintenance locks
• fuelling machine auxiliary equipment room
The ion exchange resins from the heat transport
and moderator systems are processed separately • monitoring rooms.
and in both of the processes some D2O is down-
graded, collected and transferred to the D2O
cleanup system.
52
D2O Collection System The upgrading system accepts mixtures varying
from 2 per cent to 99 per cent D2O and upgrades
This system is designed to collect D2O leakage them to reactor grade 99.8 per cent D2O. The
from mechanical components that may occur overhead distillate has a concentration of less
in any area of the reactor building and to than 2 per cent D2O.
receive D2O drained from equipment prior
to maintenance.
D2O Supply System
The D2O in the holding tank is transferred, by The D2O supply system receives D2O from
two pumps, to either the pressure and inventory two sources:
control system or, if downgraded, to the D2O
• fresh D2O is received from tank trucks
cleanup system.
or drums
D2O Upgrading System • upgraded D2O is received from the upgrading
system.
The D2O upgrading system separates a mixture
of H2O and D2O into: The four storage tanks of the D2O supply system
• an overhead distillate, richer in light water contain inventory for one moderator or one heat
than the feed transport system.
• a bottom product, richer in heavy water than The four tanks also act as a high isotopic D2O
the feed. storage facility during normal reactor operation.
H2O
Pump Pump
Filter Filter
D2O Cleanup D2O Cleanup HTS D2O Supply
D2O
Pump
To Moderator
To Heat Transport System System
53
Fuel Cycle Flexibility
Overview reprocessing) to be used as fuel in CANDU; no
addition of uranium is required. The absence of
High neutron economy is the feature of the uranium prevents the formation of plutonium.
CANDU reactor that allows it to operate with The fissile content of the transuranic mix
a variety of low fissile content fuels. Several depletes rapidly due to the lack of plutonium
possible fuel cycles are illustrated in the follow- formation. As a result, the level of neutron flux
ing figure. These include natural uranium (NU increases rapidly in order to maintain reactor
cycle) and slightly enriched uranium (SEU power at the rated level. The high level of neu-
cycle). Also, this feature of CANDU provides tron flux is instrumental in transmuting and
a unique synergy between CANDU and Light annihilating the toxic material. The CANDU
Water Reactors (LWRs) as there is sufficient reactor can therefore produce energy through the
fissile content in spent LWR fuel to provide destruction of toxic waste and without producing
new fuel in CANDU (Tandem cycle) as mixed any such waste in the process, and falls into the
uranium and plutonium oxide (MOX) fuel. category of “green” technology.
Alternately, the recovered uranium from the
LWR spent fuel can be used in CANDU without
CANDU fuel cycle options of current interest
the plutonium (RU cycle) to operate in synergy
include: natural uranium (NU), slightly enriched
with LWRs that recycle the plutonium.
uranium (SEU), recovered uranium (0.9 per cent
U235) (RU), direct use of spent LWR fuel in
In addition to burning the products of conven-
CANDU (DUPIC), the thorium/U233 cycles and
tional LWR fuel reprocessing, the CANDU reac-
the transuranic mix. The fuel cycle options are
tor can operate on LWR spent fuel, refabricated
illustrated in the following figure, and are dis-
without chemical reprocessing (DUPIC Cycle),
cussed further in the following sub-sections.
a process that is easier to safeguard against
diversion of fissile material. This fuel cycle
is particularly suitable for LWR owners and An important feature of CANDU's versatility
operators that do not have access to indigenous is that alternate fuel cycles can be implemented
resources of uranium and conventional spent in operating CANDU reactors, with little or
fuel reprocessing technology. no equipment change. As a result, fuel cycle
benefits do not require a big investment in new
The option of recycling reprocessed LWR fuels designs. This versatility also allows “reversibili-
in CANDU leads to higher energy output by ty” of fuel cycle options. Even if a CANDU has
30 to 40 per cent compared with recycling using been optimized for a particular fuel cycle, the
LWRs alone. Furthermore, the recycling of plu- operator can convert to alternate fuel cycles,
tonium in the LWR is limited in capacity by if required. This is a major attraction of the
otherwise unacceptable changes in the dynamic advanced fuel cycles, since it preserves the
behaviour of the reactor. No such limitation option of national independence of enrichment
exists with CANDU. supply even while using the advanced fuel.
The high neutron economy of CANDU also has The ability to switch to alternative nuclear fuels
implications in the area of waste disposal, in that become available in the global market
particular, in the reduction of the radiotoxicity allows CANDU to take advantage of global fuel
of spent fuel. There is sufficient fissile content availability, thereby reducing cost and providing
in the mixture of plutonium and the higher increased security of fuel supply.
actinides (a by-product of LWR spent fuel
54
Enriched
Uranium
Fuel LWR
Plutonium Cycle
Enrichment
Natural Fuel
Dry Processing
Direct Use
0.9%U 0.6%Pu
Uranium
Mine Recovered Reprocessing
Uranium 0.9%
Actinide Burning
Thorium Cycle
Plutonium Cycle
CANDU fuel cycles (current and future)
55
Fuel Cycle Flexibility
Natural Uranium Fuel Cycle requires 1.2 wt per cent enrichment to achieve,
minimizes uranium resource requirement. The
CANDU Nuclear Power Plants now in operation spent fuel volume is reduced to 33 per cent of
or under construction utilize natural uranium that of the natural uranium cycle as the burnup
(NU) fuel. The ability to burn natural uranium is increased by three times.
is a direct consequence of the excellent neutron
economy provided by CANDU. The RU cycle essentially uses a waste product
of LWR spent fuel reprocessing since only the
Historically, the ability to use NU fuel has had plutonium from the spent LWR fuel is currently
many benefits to CANDU owners, including low recycled into the LWR; Therefore the cost of
fuelling costs compared to other nuclear power the RU fuel material is potentially low. The
plants, no reliance on supply of uranium enrich- exit burnup of this fuel in CANDU is between
ment or fuel reprocessing, and low uranium 14 and 18 MWd/kgU (depending on the U235
resource consumption. content of the RU which varies between 0.8 to
1.0 wt per cent). The additional energy obtained
These benefits, coupled with competitive in CANDU is approximately 40 per cent of
capital cost, have made natural uranium fuelled initial LWR fuel burnup. The reduction in
CANDU reactors a competitive electricity supply CANDU spent fuel volume with the RU cycle is
option. Although CANDU spent fuel volumes approximately 50 per cent that of the natural
are greater than for LWRs, the economic impact uranium cycle.
is offset by the lower specific activity and the
absence of criticality concerns in handling and
DUPIC Cycle
storage. Thus, on-site dry spent-fuel storage has
been implemented with relative ease at operating The DUPIC cycle facilitates the use of spent
CANDU plants. The dry storage technology is LWR fuel in CANDU without the need for
also applicable to the alternative fuel cycles chemical reprocessing, via relatively simple
mentioned above. fuel refabrication technologies.
Short Term Advanced Fuel Cycles – The DUPIC cycle is particularly suitable for
RU & SEU countries that have spent LWR fuel and which
do not have reprocessing technology, due to the
The short-term SEU and RU cycles involve very simplified refabrication technology utilized by
little development and can be implemented into the DUPIC process.
existing CANDU plants as no significant hard-
ware changes are required. The choice of the The DUPIC cycle offers strategic benefits, such
enrichment level for the SEU fuel is dictated as security of supply and protection from
primarily by the limit placed on fuel discharge uranium and enrichment price changes. The
burnup. development of LWR-CANDU fuel cycles,
such as DUPIC, transforms spent LWR fuel
There is a specific enrichment level (and burnup) inventory from a “waste-disposal” cost into a
that maximizes the utilization of the natural valuable energy resource. A mix of LWRs and
uranium which is the starting material for the CANDUs incorporating the DUPIC fuel cycle
SEU fuel. This enrichment level is approximately would generate electricity utilizing 40 per cent
1.2 wt per cent U235. This is due to the opposing less uranium resources than LWRs alone.
effects of enrichment and the production rate
of plutonium (which is the source of more than The DUPIC cycle has important non-proliferation
50 per cent of the energy generated by natural advantages; fissile plutonium is never separated
uranium CANDU fuel). The enrichment reduces from the remaining heavy metals, so that no
the production rate of plutonium but it also stream of material exists which could be diverted
extends the fuel life in the core, which tends to non-peaceful use.
to increase the total energy contribution of the
plutonium. A burnup of 22 MWd/kgU, which
56
Thorium Cycle
Thorium, which is abundant in many areas of
the world, is a fertile material and produces
a fissile material, U233, by neutron capture.
Hence, thorium can largely displace uranium
in CANDU operation.
57
2251 Speakman Drive
Mississauga, Ontario
Canada L5K 1B2
Tel. 905 823-2325
Toll free: 1-866-344-2325
Fax: 905 403-7420
www.aecl.ca
CANDU® (CANada Deuterium Uranium) is a registered trademark of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL).
CANFLEXTM (CANDU Flexible) is a trademark of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL).