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Hospital

by Robert F. Carr

NIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)

Revised by the WBDG Health Care Subcommittee

Last updated: 12-30-2010

Within This Page

 Overview
 Building Attributes
 Emerging Issues
 Relevant Codes and Standards
 Major Resources

OVERVIEW

"A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences, and comforts; a non-functional design can impede
activities of all types, detract from quality of care, and raise costs to intolerable levels." ... Hardy and Lammers

Hospitals are the most complex of building types. Each hospital is comprised of a wide range of services and
functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment functions, such as clinical laboratories, imaging, emergency
rooms, and surgery; hospitality functions, such as food service and housekeeping; and the fundamental inpatient care
or bed-related function. This diversity is reflected in the breadth and specificity of regulations, codes, and oversight
that govern hospital construction and operations. Each of the wide-ranging and constantly evolving functions of a
hospital, including highly complicated mechanical, electrical, and telecommunications systems, requires specialized
knowledge and expertise. No one person can reasonably have complete knowledge, which is why specialized
consultants play an important role in hospital planning and design. The functional units within the hospital can have
competing needs and priorities. Idealized scenarios and strongly-held individual preferences must be balanced
against mandatory requirements, actual functional needs (internal traffic and relationship to other departments), and
the financial status of the organization.

VAMC Bay Pines, FL


In addition to the wide range of services that must be accommodated, hospitals must serve and support many
different users and stakeholders. Ideally, the design process incorporates direct input from the owner and from key
hospital staff early on in the process. The designer also has to be an advocate for the patients, visitors, support staff,
volunteers, and suppliers who do not generally have direct input into the design. Good hospital design integrates
functional requirements with the human needs of its varied users.

The basic form of a hospital is, ideally, based on its functions:

 bed-related inpatient functions


 outpatient-related functions
 diagnostic and treatment functions
 administrative functions
 service functions (food, supply)
 research and teaching functions

Physical relationships between these functions determine the configuration of the hospital. Certain relationships
between the various functions are required—as in the following flow diagrams.
These flow diagrams show the movement and communication of people, materials, and waste. Thus the physical
configuration of a hospital and its transportation and logistic systems are inextricably intertwined. The transportation
systems are influenced by the building configuration, and the configuration is heavily dependent on the transportation
systems. The hospital configuration is also influenced by site restraints and opportunities, climate, surrounding
facilities, budget, and available technology. New alternatives are generated by new medical needs and new
technology.

In a large hospital, the form of the typical nursing unit, since it may be repeated many times, is a principal element of
the overall configuration. Nursing units today tend to be more compact shapes than the elongated rectangles of the
past. Compact rectangles, modified triangles, or even circles have been used in an attempt to shorten the distance
between the nurse station and the patient's bed. The chosen solution is heavily dependent on program issues such
as organization of the nursing program, number of beds to a nursing unit, and number of beds to a patient room. (The
trend, recently reinforced by HIPAA, is to all private rooms.)

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BUILDING ATTRIBUTES

Regardless of their location, size, or budget, all hospitals should have certain common attributes.

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

An efficient hospital layout should:

 Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel


between frequently used spaces
 Allow easy visual supervision of patients by limited staff
 Include all needed spaces, but no redundant ones. This requires careful
pre-design programming.
 Provide an efficient logistics system, which might include elevators,
pneumatic tubes, box conveyors, manual or automated carts, and gravity
or pneumatic chutes, for the efficient handling of food and clean supplies
and the removal of waste, recyclables, and soiled material
 Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so that they may
be shared by adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of
multi-purpose spaces
 Consolidate outpatient functions for more efficient operation—on first
floor, if possible—for direct access by outpatients
 Group or combine functional areas with similar system requirements
 Provide optimal functional adjacencies, such as locating the surgical
intensive care unit adjacent to the operating suite. These adjacencies
should be based on a detailed functional program which describes the
hospital's intended operations from the standpoint of patients, staff, and
supplies.

VAMC Albuquerque, NM

Flexibility and Expandability

Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, hospitals should:

 Follow modular concepts of space planning and layout


 Use generic room sizes and plans as much as possible, rather than
highly specific ones
 Be served by modular, easily accessed, and easily modified mechanical
and electrical systems
 Where size and program allow, be designed on a modular system basis,
such as the VA Hospital Building System. This system also uses walk-
through interstitial space between occupied floors for mechanical,
electrical, and plumbing distribution. For large projects, this provides
continuing adaptability to changing programs and needs, with no first-cost
premium, if properly planned, designed, and bid. The VA Hospital
Building System also allows vertical expansion without disruptions to
floors below.
 Be open-ended, with well planned directions for future expansion; for
instance positioning "soft spaces" such as administrative departments,
adjacent to "hard spaces" such as clinical laboratories.

Therapeutic Environment
Hospital patients are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery. Every effort should be
made to make the hospital stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and stress-free as possible. The interior designer
plays a major role in this effort to create a therapeutic environment. A hospital's interior design should be based on a
comprehensive understanding of the facility's mission and its patient profile. The characteristics of the patient profile
will determine the degree to which the interior design should address aging, loss of visual acuity, other physical and
mental disabilities, and abusiveness. (See VA Interior Design Manual.) Some important aspects of creating a
therapeutic interior are:

 Using familiar and culturally relevant materials wherever consistent with


sanitation and other functional needs
 Using cheerful and varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that some
colors are inappropriate and can interfere with provider assessments of
patients' pallor and skin tones, disorient older or impaired patients, or
agitate patients and staff, particularly some psychiatric patients .
 Admitting ample natural light wherever feasible and using color-corrected
lighting in interior spaces which closely approximates natural daylight
 Providing views of the outdoors from every patient bed, and elsewhere
wherever possible; photo murals of nature scenes are helpful where
outdoor views are not available
 Designing a "way-finding" process into every project. Patients, visitors,
and staff all need to know where they are, what their destination is, and
how to get there and return. A patient's sense of competence is
encouraged by making spaces easy to find, identify, and use without
asking for help. Building elements, color, texture, and pattern should all
give cues, as well as artwork and signage. (As an example, see VA
Signage Design Guide.)

For an in-depth view see WBDG—Therapeutic Environments.


Cross-section showing interstitial space with deck above an occupied floor

Cleanliness and Sanitation

Hospitals must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by:

 Appropriate, durable finishes for each functional space


 Careful detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish
transitions to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints
 Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces
 Special materials, finishes, and details for spaces which are to be kept
sterile, such as integral cove base. The new antimicrobial surfaces might
be considered for appropriate locations.
 Incorporating O&M practices that stress indoor environmental quality
(IEQ)

Accessibility

All areas, both inside and out, should:

 Comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with Disability


Act (ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, the Uniform Federal
Accessibility Standards (UFAS)
 In addition to meeting minimum requirements of ADA and/or UFAS, be
designed so as to be easy to use by the many patients with temporary or
permanent handicaps
 Ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalks
and corridors are wide enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily
 Ensuring entrance areas are designed to accommodate patients with
slower adaptation rates to dark and light; marking glass walls and doors
to make their presence obvious

Controlled Circulation
A hospital is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of people and goods. Much of
this circulation should be controlled.

 Outpatients visiting diagnostic and treatment areas should not travel


through inpatient functional areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients
 Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined
 Visitors should have a simple and direct route to each patient nursing unit
without penetrating other functional areas
 Separate patients and visitors from industrial/logistical areas or floors
 Outflow of trash, recyclables, and soiled materials should be separated
from movement of food and clean supplies, and both should be separated
from routes of patients and visitors
 Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of
patients and visitors
 Dedicated service elevators for deliveries, food and building maintenance
services

Aesthetics

Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive.) It is important in enhancing
the hospital's public image and is thus an important marketing tool. A better environment also contributes to better
staff morale and patient care. Aesthetic considerations include:

 Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures


 Use of artwork
 Attention to proportions, color, scale, and detail
 Bright, open, generously-scaled public spaces
 Homelike and intimate scale in patient rooms, day rooms, consultation
rooms, and offices
 Compatibility of exterior design with its physical surroundings

Security and Safety

In addition to the general safety concerns of all buildings, hospitals have several particular security concerns:

 Protection of hospital property and assets, including drugs


 Protection of patients, including incapacitated patients, and staff
 Safe control of violent or unstable patients
 Vulnerability to damage from terrorism because of proximity to high-
vulnerability targets, or because they may be highly visible public
buildings with an important role in the public health system.
Sustainability

Hospitals are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the environment and economy of the
surrounding community. They are heavy users of energy and water and produce large amounts of waste. Because
hospitals place such demands on community resources they are natural candidates for sustainable design.

Section 1.2 of VA's HVAC Design Manual is a good example of health care facility energy conservation standards
that meet EPAct 2005 (PDF 1.3 MB, 550 pgs) and Executive Order 13423 requirements. The Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007 (EISA) (PDF 740 KB, 310 pgs) provides additional requirements for energy conservation. Also see
LEED's (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) USGBC LEED for Healthcare

Related Issues

The HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act of 1996) regulations address security and privacy of
"protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy, and may affect
location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, paper and electronic,
as well as patient accommodations."

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EMERGING ISSUES

Among the many new developments and trends influencing hospital design are:

 The decreasing numbers of general practitioners along with the increased


use of emergency facilities for primary care
 The increasing introduction of highly sophisticated diagnostic and
treatment technology
 Requirements to remain operational during and after disasters—see, for
example, VA's Physical Security Manuals
 State laws requiring earthquake resistance, both in designing new
buildings and retrofitting existing structures
 Preventative care versus sickness care; designing hospitals as all-
inclusive "wellness centers"
 Use of hand-held computers and portable diagnostic equipment to allow
more mobile, decentralized patient care, and a general shift to
computerized patient information of all kinds. This might require computer
alcoves and data ports in corridors outside patient bedrooms. For more
information, see WBDG Integrate Technological Tools
 Need to balance increasing attention to building security with openness to
patients and visitors
 Emergence of palliative care as a specialty in many major medical
centers
 A growing interest in more holistic, patient-centered treatment and
environments such as promoted by Planetree. This might include
providing mini-medical libraries and computer terminals so patients can
research their conditions and treatments, and locating kitchens and dining
areas on inpatient units so family members can prepare food for patients
and families to eat together.

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RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

Hospitals are among the most regulated of all building types. Like other buildings, they must follow the local and/or
state general building codes. However, federal facilities on federal property generally need not comply with state and
local codes, but follow federal regulations. To be licensed by the state, design must comply with the individual state
licensing regulations. Many states adopt the FGI Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health
Care Facilities, listed below as a resource, and thus that volume often has regulatory status.

State and local building codes are based on the model International Building Code (IBC). Federal agencies are
usually in compliance with the IBC except NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code), NFPA 70 (National Electric Code), and
Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines (ABAAG) or Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) takes
precedence."

Since hospitals treat patients who are reimbursed under Medicare, they must also meet federal standards, and to be
accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations
(JCAHO). Generally, the federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101).

The American with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly the building design with its general
and specific accessibility requirements. The Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines (ABAAG) or the
Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and federally funded facilities. The technical
requirements do not differ greatly from the ADA requirements. See WBDG Accessible

Regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also affect the design of hospitals,
particularly in laboratory areas.

Federal agencies that build and operate hospitals have developed detailed standards for the programming, design,
and construction of their facilities. Many of these standards are applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities
as well. Among them are:
 Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Construction & Facilities
Management Technical Information Library contains many guides and
standards, including:
o Design Guides for planning many different departments and
clinics, design manuals of technical requirements, equipment
lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning
criteria, and standard details.

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MAJOR RESOURCES

WBDG

Federal Mandate

Executive Order 13423 Technical Guidance

Products and Systems

Building Envelope Design Guide

Websites

See WBDG Health Care Facilities for generic health care facilities websites

Publications

 Design Details for Health: Making the Most of Design's Healing


Potential, 2nd Edition by Cynthia A. Leibrock and Debra Harris. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011.—Innovative design solutions in key
areas such as lighting, acoustics, color, and finishes
 Design Guide for Improving Hospital Safety in Earthquakes, Floods, and
High Winds: Providing Protection to People and Buildings. FEMA, 2007.
 Development Study—VA Hospital Building System by Building Systems
Development and Stone, Marraccini & Patterson. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, rev. 1977.
 Emergency Department Design: A Practical Guide to Planning for the
Future by John Huddy and Michael T. Rapp. Irving, Texas: ACEP
(American College of Emergency Physicians) 2000.
 Healthcare Facility Planning: Thinking Strategically by Cynthia Hayward,
AIA, FAAHC, ACHA. Health Administration Press and the American
College of Healthcare Executives, 2005.
 Hospitals, The Planning and Design Process, 2nd ed. by Owen B. Hardy
and Lawrence P. Lammers. Rockville, Md.: Aspen Publishers, 1996.
 Hospital Interior Architecture: Creating Healing Environments for Special
Patient Populations by Jain Malkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1992.
 Healthcare Design—A quarterly magazine with design articles and
presentations of recent projects
 Medical and Dental Space Planning: A Comprehensive Guide to Design,
Equipment, and Clinical Procedures, 3rd Edition , by Jain Malkin. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
 UFC 4-510-01 Design: Medical Military Facilities
 See WBDG Health Care Facilities for generic health care facilities
publications

Tools

 SpaceMedGuide-A Space Planning Guide for Healthcare Facilities—a


popular planning tool providing state-of-the-art planning methodologies,
industry benchmarks, and planning tips.

Secure / Safe
by the WBDG Secure/Safe Committee

Last updated: 12-14-2010

Within This Page

 Overview
 Related Issues
 Emerging Issues
 Major Resources

OVERVIEW

The design and construction of secure and safe buildings continues to be the primary goal for owners, architects,
engineers, and project managers. Realizing this goal is often a challenge due to funding limitations, resistance from
the users due to impacts on operations, productivity and accessibility, and the impacts on the surrounding
environment and building architecture due to perimeter security, hardening, and standoff requirements. A balance
between the security and safety goals and the other design objectives and needs of the facility can be attained. The
establishment of an integrated design process where all of the design team members understand each other's goals
can aid in overcoming these challenges and will lead to the development of a solution which addresses all of the
requirements. Understanding the interrelationship with the other WBDG design objectives (i.e., Sustainable,
Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Historic Preservation, Accessible, Functional/Operational and Productive), early in the
design process, is an essential step in overcoming the obstacles commonly encountered in the achievement of a
secure and safe building.

Aesthetic & Functional Security Measures on Pennsylvania Ave near the White House—Washington, DC

Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates—and then protects—the
building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this
process is to understand the various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment
types to consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions. This effort identifies
the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible perils or "threats," and establishes a likely
consequence of occurrence or "risk." This assessment is weighed against the vulnerabilities specific to the site or
facility. Based on these assessments and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the appropriate
safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the
cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed, and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and
use of the building.

Integrating Safe and Secure Design

There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose conflicts in arriving at
acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede
emergency egress in case of fire, and access control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict
emergency egress, and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) light pollution reduction and security
lighting objectives. Conversely, site design and security can compliment each other such as the design of a
stormwater management requirement that doubles as a barrier. Good communication between the design team, fire
protection and security design team specialists through the entire design process is necessary to achieve the
common goal of safe and secure buildings and facilities.

Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and physical safety methods. For
example, to ensure a given facility is protected from unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might
stress the deployment of guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance
and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways and vehicle barriers. In
practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a deficiency in one area may be compensated by
a greater emphasis in the other two.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a proven methodology that not only enhances the
performance of these security and safety measures, but also provides aesthetics and value engineering. CPTED
utilizes four (4) primary, overlapping principles: Natural Surveillance, Natural Access Control, Territoriality, and
Maintenance. Natural surveillance follows the premise that criminals do not wish to be observed; placing legitimate
'eyes' on the street, such as providing window views and lighting, increases the perceived risk to offenders, reduces
fear for bonafide users, as well as lessening reliance on only camera surveillance. Natural Access Control
supplements physical security and operational measures with walls, fences, ravines, or even hedges to define site
boundaries, to channel legitimate users to designated entrances, and to reduce access points and escape routes.
Territoriality involves strategies to project a sense of ownership to spaces such that it becomes easier to identify
intruders because they don't seem to belong. Clear differentiation between public, semi-public, and private spaces by
using signage, fences, pavement treatment, art, and flowers are examples of ways to express ownership.
Maintenance is a key element to preserve lines of sights for surveillance, to retain the defensiveness of physical
elements, and to project a sense of care and ownership. Together, the principles of CPTED increase the
effectiveness of operational, technical, and physical safety methods, thereby lessening equipment and operating
costs.

For total design efficiently and cost effectiveness, security, safety, and CPTED measures are best applied at the
beginning of a project. Security programming is a useful practice to identify security design requirements necessary
to satisfy stakeholder concerns.

In addition to the operational/technical/physical taxonomy, it is useful to characterize risk reduction strategies as


either structural or non-structural. Structural mitigation measures focus on those building components that carry
gravity, wind, seismic and other loads, such as columns, beams, foundations, and braces. Examples of structural
mitigation measures include building material and technique selection (e.g., use of ductile framing and shear walls),
building code compliance, and site selection (e.g., soil considerations). In contrast, non-structural strategies focus on
risks arising from damage to non-load-bearing building components, including architectural elements such as
partitions, decorative ornamentation, and cladding; mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) components such as
HVAC, life safety, and utility systems; and/or furniture, fixtures and equipment (FF&E) such as desks, shelves, and
other material contents. Non-structural mitigation actions include efforts to secure these elements to the structure or
otherwise keep them in position and to minimize damage and functional disruption. These measures may be
prescriptive, engineered, or non-engineered in nature.

It should be noted that in any given building, non-structural components, including general building contents, typically
account for over three-quarters of the cost of a building; this figure can be even higher for specialized occupancies
such as medical facilities. Additionally, structural and non-structural components can potentially interact during an
incident, requiring a deliberative approach to implementing a comprehensive agenda of structural and non-structural
mitigation actions.

Consistent with areas of professional responsibility, it is useful to identify four fundamental principles of multi-hazard
building design:

 Plan for Fire Protection


Planning for fire protection for a building involves a systems approach
that enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a
total building fire safety system package.
 Ensure Occupant Safety and Health
Some injuries and illnesses are related to unsafe or unhealthy building
design and operation. These can usually be prevented by measures that
take into account issues such as indoor air quality, electrical safety, fall
protection, ergonomics, and accident prevention.
 Resist Natural Hazards
Each year U.S. taxpayers pay over $35 billion for recovery efforts,
including repairing damaged buildings and infrastructure, from the
impacts of hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornados, blizzards, and other
natural disasters. A significant percentage of this could be saved if our
buildings properly anticipated the risk associated with major natural
hazards.
 Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets
Effective secure building design involves implementing countermeasures
to deter, detect, delay, and respond to attacks from human aggressors. It
also provides for mitigating measures to limit hazards to prevent
catastrophic damage and provide resiliency should an attack occur.

Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a
total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.

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RELATED ISSUES
Information Sensitivity

As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the
public is even more interested in efforts to protect people, buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents
both benefits and challenges, because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for
mitigation can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For that reason,
project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any information that pertains to vulnerabilities, or facility
infrastructure particularly when the building is part of a critical infrastructure or system. Per Department of Homeland
Security (DHS), critical infrastructure is defined as "the assets, systems, and networks, whether physical or virtual, so
vital to the United States that their incapacitation or destruction would have a debilitating effect on security, national
economic security, public health or safety, or any combination thereof." Legal counsel should be obtained on how
best to protect such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable local, state, and
federal laws.

Renewed Emphasis on Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Threats

Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and designers of a wide variety of
building types and spaces now consider strategies to mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Security for Building
Occupants and Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate them.

Development and Training on Occupant Emergency Plans

Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and occupants to be able to respond to
all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures
are all important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and property
from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and
physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for
Operational staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of
appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and conducting actual drills.

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EMERGING ISSUES

Building Information Modeling (BIM) can be a useful tool for building security. For example, intelligent objects in 3D
provide better understanding of vulnerabilities and better correlation with other design aspects like building and site
access, location and types of doors and windows, and structural design characteristics for seismic versus blast
design. BIM will further the integration between project team members, design disciplines, and the various stages of a
project to achieve the goal of a high performance building.

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MAJOR RESOURCES

WBDG

Design Objectives

Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs

Tools

LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Publications

 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General
Services Administration (GSA).
 FEMA 386 Series, Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series
 FEMA 386-2, Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and
Estimating Losses
 FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks
against Buildings
 FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential
Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings
 International Building Code
 The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical
Infrastructure and Key Assets", The White House. February 2003.
 Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and
Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors;
Committee on Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design
Criteria, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press, 1991.

Websites

 Interagency Security Committee (ISC)


 The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP)
 Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC)

Plan for Fire Protection


by the WBDG Secure/Safe Committee

Last updated: 06-03-2010

Within This Page

 Overview
 Performance-Based Design
 Recommendations
 Related Issues
 Emerging Issues
 Relevant Codes and Standards
 Major Resources

OVERVIEW

The United States has the highest fire losses in terms of both frequency and total losses of any modern technological
society. New facilities and renovation projects need to be designed to incorporate efficient, cost-effective passive and
automatic fire protection systems. These systems are effective in detecting, containing, and controlling and/or and
extinguishing a fire event in the early stages. Fire protection engineers must be involved in all aspects of the design in
order to ensure a reasonable degree of protection of human life from fire and the products of combustion as well as to
reduce the potential loss from fire (i.e., real and personal property, information, organizational operations). Planning
for fire protection in/around a building involves an integrated systems approach that enables the designer to analyze
all of the building's components as a total building fire safety system package. The analysis requires more than code
compliance or meeting the minimum legal responsibilities for protecting a building; that is, building and fire codes are
intended to protect against loss of life and limit fire impact on the community and do not necessarily protect the
mission or assets, or solve problems brought upon by new projects with unique circumstances. Therefore, it is
necessary to creatively and efficiently integrate code requirements with other fire safety measures as well as other
design strategies to achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety (evacuation, recovery,
egress/smoke. Identify critical systems: diesel generators, etc.).

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PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN (PBD)

The success of any complex project hinges on getting all the stakeholders, owners, designers, special consultants,
and AHJs working together in a collaborative manner to achieve performance-based design solutions. The Society of
Fire Protection Engineers has developed and published (in collaboration with NFPA) the SFPE Engineering Guide to
Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and Design of Buildings and the SFPE Code Official's Guide to
Performance-Based Design Review (developed and published in collaboration with ICC).

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RECOMMENDATIONS
Issues to address in developing a successful fire protection design usually include:

Design Team—It is most important that the project delivery team include a Fire Protection Engineer with adequate
experience and knowledge in fire protection and life safety design. The Fire Protection Engineer should be involved in
all phases of design, from planning to occupancy.

Design Standards and Criteria (i.e., Building Code, etc.)—to be utilized by the design team, including statutory
requirements, voluntary requirements addressing owner's performance needs, and requirements that are sometimes
imposed by insurance carriers on commercial projects.

Site Requirements—A quality site design will integrate performance requirements associated with fire department
access, suppression, and separation distances and site/building security.

 Fire department access


o Design buildings with uncomplicated layouts that enable
firefighters to locate an area quickly.
o Provide rapid access to various features such as fire department
connections (FDCs), hose valves, elevators and stairs,
annunciators, key boxes, etc.
o Accommodate the access of fire apparatus into and around the
building site
o Comply with local authorities having jurisdiction to accommodate
the access of fire apparatus into and around the building site
and to coordinate access control point layout.
 Fire hydrants

Coordinate with security measures

Building Construction Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

 Construction type, allowable height, and area


 Exposures/separation requirements
 Fire ratings, materials, and systems
 Occupancy types
 Interior finish
 Exit stairway enclosure

Egress Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

 Exit stairway remoteness


 Exit discharge
 Areas of refuge
 Accessible exits
 Door locking arrangements (security interface)

Fire Detection and Notification System Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

 Detection
 Notification
 Survivability of systems
Fire Suppression Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

 Water supply
 Type of automatic fire extinguishing system
o Water-based fire extinguishing system
o Non-water-based fire extinguishing system
 Standpipes and fire department hose outlets

Emergency Power, Lighting, and Exit Signage, at a minimum will address the following elements:

 Survivability of systems
 Electrical Safety
 Distributed Energy Resources

Special Fire Protection Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

 Engineered smoke control systems


 Fireproofing and firestopping
 Atrium spaces
 Mission critical facility needs

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RELATED ISSUES

Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements

The concern for terrorist attacks has caused design and engineering professionals to address integrated fire
protection and security measures for the building site as well as within the building. For example, perimeter protection
measures must be well-designed to ensure that fire departments can still access sites and buildings. Another
example is the increased need to coordinate HVAC design and proper automatic emergency operations in the event
of a fire or chemical/biological/radiological (CBR) event.

Virtually every project that requires fire protection must also meet sustainability goals. Thus, it is important to balance
security/safety goals with those for sustainability for example, specify fire resistant materials that are durable and can
meet green products standards whenever possible. Further, consider life-cycle cost when making decisions on
materials, equipment and systems.

Mass Notification

Notifying building occupants and visitors both inside and outside facilities of hazardous events has become a critical
aspect of personnel safety and health. Whether it is a fire, chemical spill, criminal activity, or act of terrorism,
everyone in the vicinity of such events must be warned so they know whether to shelter in place or flee—including
which direction to go. Mass notification systems can be employed in single buildings or on campuses and military
bases. Notices can be sent over loudspeakers, to computer monitors and to cell phones. See UFC 4-021-01 Design
and O&M: Mass Notification Systems

Bollard Spacing

Bollard spacing for accessibility related to access for fire vehicles and personnel. The Americans with Disabilities
(ADA) Act calls for spacing bollard 36 inches apart to meet clear opening requirements. Site security designers need
to balance security with access, considering bollard location and spacing respective to vehicular traffic, bus stops,
hardened street furniture, and pedestrian traffic.

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EMERGING ISSUES

Green Roofs

With the proliferation of vegetative roofs on buildings to reduce heat island effect and control stormwater runoff,
consideration must be given to firefighters having to ventilate a structure during a major fire event. Provide adequate
roof hatches and other access points for firefighters.

Permeable Pavement

Permeable pavement is being specified more frequently as a means of controlling stormwater runoff from building
sites. Not all types of permeable pavement are designed to hold emergency fire and rescue vehicles. Coordinate with
site designer/landscape architect to ensure permeable pavement selected will meet load requirements of emergency
vehicles. Another option to consider is to use permeable pavement in parking lots for passenger vehicles and
standard pavement for access roads, loading docks and driveways to building entrances.

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RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

Building codes and fire codes vary across the nation. For federal projects, consult with the appropriate federal agency
or the Contracting Officer. For non-federal projects consult with the appropriate building code and fire code official, for
minimum and recommended fire safety measures.

Legislation

 OMB Circular A-119—Federal Participation in the Development and Use


of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment
Activities
 P.L. 93-498—Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act, 1974
 P.L. 100-678, Section 21—Public Building Amendments, 1988
 P.L. 102-522—Fire Administration Authorization Act of 1992 (aka Federal
Fire Safety Act)

Federal Guidelines

 DOD: UFC 3-600-01 Design: Fire Protection Engineering for Facilities


 GSA: Facilities Standard for the Public Building Service, P100
 GSA: Fire Safety Retrofitting in Historic Buildings by Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation and General Services Administration. 1989.
 HUD: Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies
 VA: Fire Protection Design Manual

Other Publications

 Fire Publications - Evacuation, NIST—a compendium of research and


position papers on multi-hazard evacuation theory

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MAJOR RESOURCES

WBDG

Historic Preservation

Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs, Comply with Accessibility Requirements

Design Discipline

Fire Protection Engineering

Standards and Code Organizations

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)


 ASTM International
 FM Global
 International Code Council, Inc. (ICC)
 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
 Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)

Associations
 American Fire Sprinkler Association (AFSA)
 Automatic Fire Alarm Association (AFAA)
 National Fire Sprinkler Association (NFSA)
 Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE)

Laboratories

 NIST Building and Fire Research Lab

Universities

 Oklahoma State University School of Fire Protection and Safety


 University of Maryland Fire Protection Engineering
 Worcester Polytechnic Institute Fire Protection Engineering and Center
for Fire Safety Studies

Fire Protection Engineering


by Morgan Hurley, P.E., SFPE

Last updated: 06-02-2009

Within This Page

 Introduction
 Description
 Emerging Issues
 Relevant Codes and Standards
 Major Resources

INTRODUCTION

Fire protection engineers use science and technology to protect people and property from fire. When designing new
buildings or renovations to existing buildings, fire protection engineers develop the plan for fire protection.

Fire protection engineering has evolved significantly over the past several centuries. Early application of fire
protection engineering was intended to prevent conflagrations, which could destroy entire cities. Until the early 1900s,
the primary objective of fire protection engineering was to limit a fire to its building of origin. As fire protection
engineering advanced, this objective was refined to limit a fire to its object or room of origin.

However, it wasn't until the later part of the 20th century that fire protection engineering had matured to the point that
it included the fundamental tenets of a distinct, professional discipline (Lucht, 1989).

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DESCRIPTION

A. Professional Definition

Fire protection engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to protect people and their
environment from destructive fire, which includes:

 analysis of fire hazards


 mitigation of fire damage by proper design, construction, arrangement,
and use of buildings
 materials, structures, industrial processes, and transportation systems
 the design, installation and maintenance of fire detection and suppression
and communication systems, and
 post/fire investigation and analysis.

A fire protection engineer by education, training, and experience:

 is familiar with the nature and characteristics of fire and the associated
products of combustion
 understands how fires originate, spread within and outside of
buildings/structures, and can be detected, controlled, and/or
extinguished, and
 is able to anticipate the behavior of materials, structures, machines,
apparatus, and processes as related to the protection of life and property
from fire.

For more information on the role of the Fire Protection Engineer in the design of fire protection systems, see the
SFPE Position Statement on The Engineer and the Technician: Designing Fire Protection Systems at www.sfpe.org.

B. Professional Role in 'Whole Building' Design

Fire protection engineers exemplify the concept of "whole building design." Fire protection engineers design systems
that, taken individually, could be considered mechanical (fire sprinklers, fire-fighter's standpipes, smoke control),
electrical (fire alarm), architectural (means of egress design), or structural (fire resistance design).

When designed by fire protection engineers, these systems are coordinated into a comprehensive, fire and life safety
strategy.

It is beneficial to involve fire protection engineers in a design at the earliest stages of planning, generally at the
feasibility or concept design stage. The benefits of involving a fire protection engineer at this stage include:

 Greater design flexibility


 Innovation in design, construction, and materials
 Equal or better fire safety
 Maximization of cost/benefit

Conversely, if a fire protection engineer is not brought in to a project team until after problems are identified, delays
can result as the fire protection engineer analyzes the problem and develops solutions. At this stage there may be
reduced design flexibility available and resistance to change by team members from other disciplines, if portions of
the project design have been completed and decisions approved. This is particularly true in cases where fire
protection problems are not identified until plans are submitted for regulatory approval.

Additionally, fire protection engineers can ensure that security related provisions designed into a building do not
diminish fire safety to occupants. For example, ensure that access control to a building does not also make it more
difficult to quickly exit a building in the event of a fire or similar emergency.

C. Strategies for Achieving "Whole Building" Design Objectives

For most projects, fire protection engineering is largely practiced through the application of prescriptive codes and
standards. For broad classifications of occupancies or fire hazards, prescriptive codes and standards identify, in very
specific terms, exactly how individual fire protection systems are to be designed, installed, tested, and maintained.

Prescriptive codes and standards have the benefit that they are easy to apply and enforce. Additionally, buildings
designed to prescriptive codes and standards have a good history of performance in fires. However, they do not
result in uniform levels of safety or cost-benefit. Consider, for example, stores classified as mercantile occupancies. A
store that sells greeting cards would fall under this occupancy classification, as would a store that sold liquor in
bottles. Although the protection that would be required in these stores would be similar, the fire hazard presented by
these stores would be different.

"Performance-based design" is a tool that can be used to look at fire safety from a "whole building" perspective.
"Performance-based design" is an engineering approach to fire protection design based on (1) established fire safety
goals and objectives, (2) analysis of fire scenarios, and (3) quantitative assessment of design alternatives against the
fire safety goals and objectives using engineering tools, methodologies, and performance criteria (SFPE, 2000).

When using performance-based designs, fire safety goals for a building are identified. These goals may include life
safety, property protection, mission continuity, and environmental protection. These goals are subsequently refined
into quantitative measures of building performance through engineering analysis and consultation with building
stakeholders, such as the building owner and code enforcement officials. Next, fire scenarios are established. Fire
scenarios are descriptions of the types of fires from which the building is intended to provide protection.

The next step is the selection of design strategies. The types of fire protection strategies that are used in
performance-based design are no different than those that are used when applying prescriptive codes, such as
detection, suppression, egress, or fire endurance.
After fire protection strategies are developed, they are evaluated using engineering tools and models to determine
whether the fire safety goals are met for each of the fire scenarios.

For most buildings, the entire building will not be designed on a performance basis. Much of the building will be
designed using prescriptive codes, and for relatively simple buildings, all of the building will likely be designed using
prescriptive codes. However, performance-based design offers opportunities to achieve desired aesthetics or
functionality in a building. It also ensures that the fire performance of the whole building will be considered as more
than an agglomeration of single systems.

Historically, performance-based design has been practiced by use of "equivalency" or "alternate methods and
materials" clauses found in most prescriptive codes. These clauses permit the use of strategies other than those
specified in the code, provided that they provide an equivalent or greater level of safety. Within the last few years,
performance-based codes and design guides have been published. See following section, Emerging Issues.

Designing from a "whole building" approach does not require that design be on a performance-basis. It is necessary,
however, that the design of fire protection-related systems be coordinated with each other and with other building
systems and the overall building design.

D. Relationship to Building Systems and Relevant Codes and Standards

Fire protection engineers generally design the following types of systems:

 Fire sprinklers
 Standpipes
 Fire detection and alarm
 Special hazards systems, such as clean agents, water mist, or CO²
 Smoke management

Additionally, fire protection engineers frequently collaborate with other design professionals in the design of the
following systems:

 Structural fire resistance


 Fire rated construction
 Means of egress

E. Interaction with Other Disciplines

Designing a building from a 'whole building' approach requires a fire protection engineer to coordinate the different
types of fire protection that are designed into buildings including:

 coordination of sprinkler system zoning with fire alarm system zoning


 coordination of sprinkler system water flow and tamper switches with the
fire alarm system
 coordination of fire alarm and egress system with building security
 coordination of smoke control systems with detection and HVAC system
designs
 coordination of fire separations with architectural designs
 coordination of penetrations of fire rated assemblies with mechanical and
electrical designs (e.g., piping, ductwork, and wiring penetrations)
 coordination of means of egress with architectural designs.

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EMERGING ISSUES

Performance-based design has been practiced for decades through the use of "equivalency" clauses and "alternate
methods and materials" clauses found in most prescriptive codes. In these cases, performance-based design was
applied on an ad-hoc basis, with the approach used developed between the designer and code enforcement official.

Over the last decade, performance-based design has become more formalized. In the U.S., several performance-
based codes have been published, including the International Performance Code and performance-based options
within the NFPA Building Construction and Safety Code and the NFPA Life Safety Code. Additionally, several guides
have been published by the Society of Fire Protection Engineers that provide information intended to facilitate
performance-based design, including the SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis
and Design of Buildings.

Performance-based design facilitates designing fire protection from a "whole building" perspective, as it requires that
interactions between all fire protection systems with the building and its occupants be considered.

Additionally, in the wake of 9/11, several issues, such as structural fire protection and means of egress of high-rise
buildings, are receiving increased attention. This attention may result in changes in the way buildings are designed,
or an affirmation of current approaches.

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RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

Fire protection is impacted by a number of codes and standards. The most frequently used codes and standards
include:

 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)


o NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
o NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code
o NFPA 101, Life Safety Code
o NFPA 1, Uniform Fire Code
o NFPA also publishes several codes and standards which cover
specific aspects of fire protection and fire related hazards.
 International Code Council
o International Building Code
o International Fire Code

ASTM publishes several fire protection related standards through its E-5 committee.

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MAJOR RESOURCES

WBDG

Design Objectives

Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Secure / Safe—Plan for Fire Protection, Secure / Safe—Ensure
Occupant Safety and Health

Professional Associations

 Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE)—The professional


association for fire protection engineering. The association produces
publications and education programs on subjects pertinent to fire
protection engineering.

Organizations

 ASTM International—Through its E-5 committee, ASTM International,


formally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials,
publishes a number of fire test standards that address issues such as
flame spread and structural fire resistance.
 International Code Council (ICC)—The mission of the ICC is to provide
codes, standards, products, and services for all concerned with the safety
and performance of the built environment. The ICC publishes model
codes that are adopted throughout the United States. These include the
International Building Code, the International Fire Code, and the
International Performance Code.
 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)—The mission of the NFPA is
to reduce the worldwide burden of fire and other hazards on the quality of
life by providing and advocating scientifically-based consensus codes and
standards, research, training, and education. Established in 1896, NFPA
publishes 300 codes and standards using a code-development process
that is accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)—The Building and
Fire Research Laboratory at NIST conducts fire research and develops
fire models. The NIST web page provides links to all recent NIST fire
related publications and free downloads of all fire models published by
NIST. Fire test data can also be downloaded from the NIST site.
 Underwriters Laboratories (UL)—is a product-safety testing and
certification organization. UL tests and certifies a number of fire protection
products for compliance with fire test standards.

Publications and Reference Books

 Fire Protection Handbook—provides valuable information on the basis for


their codes and standards, and also provides information on some basic
fire science. The National Fire Protection Association's codes and
standards provide criteria associated with the design of fire safety in
buildings.
 SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering is a comprehensive
compendium of the fire science that underpins fire protection engineering.
The Handbook provides information in the areas of the fundamental
science and engineering concepts that are applied in fire protection
engineering, fire dynamics, fire hazard calculations, design calculations,
and fire risk analysis.

Several other publications related to fire protection engineering are available from www.sfpe.org.

Design and Analysis Tools

There are several computer models available that can be used to simulate fires. Primarily because they can be
obtained for free, the most commonly used models are those that are published by NIST. However, several
proprietary models are also available. Additionally, several tools are available to perform other types of fire protection
calculations. The most widely used are sprinkler hydraulic calculation programs. There are also a number of
programs available for performing calculations associated with the design of other types of fire protection systems.
These programs are generally proprietary.

A comprehensive listing of fire models is available at www.firemodelsurvey.com.

Training
 Post graduate training
 Continuing education

In the United States, post-graduate education in fire protection engineering is available from the University of
Maryland and Worcester Polytechnic Institute. While both programs are located on the east coast, both also offer
distance-learning programs.

The two largest sources of continuing education are:

 The Society of Fire Protection Engineers provides courses on a number


of aspects of fire protection engineering. Courses are offered in both
classroom and distance-learning formats.
 The National Fire Protection Association offers a number of courses that
are designed to help students better understand the codes and standards
that NFPA publishes.

Additional Resources

 "Coming of Age," article in Journal of Fire Protection Engineering by


Lucht, D. 1 (2), pp. 35-48. 1989.
 Engineering Guide—Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and
Design of Buildings by National Fire Protection Association. Quincy, MA:
SFPE, 2000.
 2007 Profile of the Fire Protection Engineer (PDF) – A survey conducted
by the Society of Fire Protection Engineers.

Electrical Safety
by Michael A. Cherock, PE, RCDD

Principal, Powerhouse Design Architects and Engineers Ltd.

Last updated: 06-22-2010

Within This Page

 Introduction
 Description
 Application
 Relevant Codes and Standards
 Additional Resources

INTRODUCTION

As an engineer, contractor, manufacturer, or maintenance personnel, and whether one's business is electrical in
nature or not, electrical safety is a concern shared by all in the building industry. Approximately 300 deaths occur
each year by accidental electrocutions. Over 800 people die annually due to fires caused by electrical faults. Each
year, electrical mishaps account for thousands of people sustaining shock injury or burns, and electrical failures
cause over 1.3 billion dollars in property damage.

(Courtesy of Tim Matyas)

As building systems become more integrated and the industry further embraces sustainable and environmental
concepts into design, the importance of continued building operation is more critical. Besides familiar electrical
equipment and systems, newer technologies like renewable energy systems and on-site power generation are
increasingly becoming integral parts of many projects. Electrical safety issues related to photovoltaic systems and
distributed energy resources, such as fuel cells and microturbines, are evolving and must not be overlooked.
Electrical safety is an essential element to any successful building project from conception to day-to-day operation.
Understanding the importance of electrical safety, how to recognize the forms that electrical safety can undertake,
and providing resources for implementing electrical safety in one's work are all required to institute an electrical safety
program.

For full understanding, electrical safety is broken down into three distinct topics of discussion: Perspectives and
Responsibilities, Modes of Electrical Safety, and Electrical Safety Resources. Each topic is independent but all three
rely on the availability and enforcement of the others for full implementation of safety measures. One without the
others results in exposure to the hazardous or potentially hazardous effects of electrical energy and its impact on
personnel and equipment.

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DESCRIPTION

A. Perspectives and Responsibilities

The proper mind frame is the first step to establishing responsibility to enforce standards of electrical safety. So,
perspective determines the impact electrical safety has on one's work. The four perspectives are defined by
recognized and accepted roles within the building industry:

 Engineer
 Contractor
 Maintenance
 Manufacturer

A perspective does not imply or indicate an individual's role or title within an organization. Rather, the perspective
defines a frame of reference. For example, an electrician installing a junction box outdoors inspects the box for
defects that may have occurred during the manufacturing process and verifies that it is intended for outdoor
installation. Implementation of an adequate electrical safety program requires an electrician to be aware of not only
the installation methods associated with mounting outdoor rated enclosures but also to be aware of the standards
that an enclosure must meet in order to be rated for outdoor exposure. The electrician can identify with both the
contractor's and manufacturer's perspectives during this "simple and routine" installation. All perspectives must be
fully understood to achieve the utmost level of electrical safety in one's work, see Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Perspective Interrelationships

Engineer's Perspective

The engineer's perspective identifies measures necessary to achieve electrical safety in the engineering design
process. Hence, the engineer's perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical safety from conception
of a need to the implementation of an idea. General responsibilities include:

 Equipment ratings
 Conductor ampacities
 Selective coordination of overcurrent protective devices
 Adherence to applicable codes
 Supply/demand equality
 General power distribution methods

The term engineer is not reserved only for the electrical engineer but, instead, includes all disciplines involved in the
process of engineering. For example, the mechanical engineer must responsibly contribute needed electrical data for
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment, and controls.

Contractor's Perspective
The contractor's perspective identifies measures necessary for electrical safety in the installation process. Hence, the
contractor's perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical safety from implementation of an idea to
complete realization of that idea. General responsibilities include:

 Proper mounting of equipment


 Adequate tightening or torque of connections
 Use of correct tools
 Minimizing of insulation abrasion
 Onsite coordination with other contractors
 Adherence to applicable codes

(Courtesy of Joe Tedesco)

The term contractor is not reserved only for electrical contractor but, instead, includes all trades. For example, the
mechanical contractor must responsibly utilize the proper method of installation of the mechanical equipment for
interconnection of electrical feeds including elevators, HVAC equipment, and controls.

Maintenance Perspective

The maintenance perspective identifies measures necessary for electrical safety in the operation of a system. This
perspective is one that deciphers the preventative, real-time, and reactive actions available to continued system
operation. Hence, the maintenance perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical safety by
implementation of preventative programs and ongoing system monitoring. General responsibilities include:

 Preventative maintenance
 Monitoring of equipment parameters
 Use of safety measures when working on equipment
 Following tag out procedures
 Use of correct tools
 Thorough knowledge of systems
 Adherence to applicable codes

Manufacturer's Perspective
The manufacturer's perspective identifies measures necessary for electrical safety in the creation and construction of
equipment and devices. Hence, the manufacturer's perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical
safety by implementing the other three perspectives during the respective phases of the manufacturing process. The
employment of the other three perspectives and understanding end user utilization must align singularly for the
purpose of electrical safety. General responsibilities include:

(Courtesy of Peter L. Jannitto, Jr.)

 Equipment ratings
 Conductor ampacities
 Selective coordination of overcurrent protective devices
 Adherence to applicable codes
 Supply/demand equality
 General power distribution methods
 Proper mounting of equipment
 Adequate tightening or torque of connections
 Use of correct tools
 Preventative maintenance
 Monitoring of equipment parameters

B. Modes of Electrical Safety

Once perspectives and responsibilities are determined, electrical safety is further defined by mode. There are three
major modes:

 Preventative
 Real-Time
 Reactive

Each mode constitutes a different approach to safety and is defined by the work performed. The three modes
combined form an all inclusive approach to maintaining electrical safety as an integral part of any process or program
involving electricity, see Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Mode Interrelations

Preventative Mode

The preventative mode is identified by administrative actions utilized to ward off or prevent electrical mishaps prior to
work being performed. A list of actions for the preventative mode should include:

 Implementation of preventative maintenance programs


 Requiring tagout/lockout procedures
 Instituting second-checks requirements for de-energizing during
troubleshooting
 Resourcing applicable codes during design

The initial step towards developing an electrical safety program for an individual or agency is to generate a list of
administrative actions identified as "preventative" with respect to the nature of their work.

Real-Time Mode

The real-time mode is identified by procedural actions to ward off or prevent electrical mishaps while performing work.
In many cases, the real-time mode is the implementation of actions identified in preventative mode. A list of actions
for the real time mode should include:

 Preventative maintenance being performed


 Tagout/lockout procedures being completed during system repair
 Second-checks while de-energizing equipment
 Applying code requirements during design
 Correct installation procedure
 Proper tie-offs on equipment supports
 Torque checks

An electrical safety program for an individual or agency should generate a list of procedural actions identified as "real
time" with respect to the nature of their work and to coordinate those actions with the preventative mode actions.
Reactive Mode

The reactive mode is identified by procedural and administrative actions utilized to address electrical mishaps that are
occurring or have occurred. The reactive mode tends to be the main focus of many established programs and
generally garners the most attention by others outside the building industry because of the detrimental effect
electrical mishaps can cause. A list of actions for reactive mode should include:

 Fire suppression training


 Electrical shock training (see Fig. 3: Effects of Electric Shock Levels)
 CPR training
 Electrical shock victim identification
 Emergency planning
 Electrical system orientation

Fig. 3: Effects of Electric Shock Levels @ 60Hz*

Amps Description

1-15mA Perception of electrical current.

15-100 mA Muscles contract and cannot release, severity determined by current level.

100 mA Ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs.

> 2 Amps Body receives major burns due to "frying" effect.

* Assume worst case body resistance of 300Ohms with varying voltage applied to reach listed currents. Current levels and
effects remain approximate due to factors such as health, age, size, etc of the victim.

An electrical safety program for an individual or company agency should generate a list of procedural and
administrative actions identified as "reactive" with respect to the nature of their work and coordinate those actions
with the preventative and real-time modes.

C. Electrical Safety Resources

Resources abound that enable one or one's agency to better recognize perspective and responsibility for electrical
safety. With so many resources available, an electrical safety program should implement a method of sourcing the
information into a manner that is easily accessible. An "Electrical Safety Library" is a start to organizing and making
the vast information easier to access. Equally important is the ability to access different media types. Today, not only
is access to the Internet a necessity but multiple entry points are suggested. A dedicated area on the computer
network for electrical information is an excellent way to manage and identify resources on hand and those becoming
available. Within the database, electrical safety resources should be categorized by Perspectives and Modes. Lastly,
all electrical safety resources enforced by local ordinance or codes, or required by one's agency should be noted and
made available to all users.
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APPLICATION

Electrical safety has been a concern for all since the time electricity became an essential part of everyone's daily
lives. However, for those in the building industry, ownership of electrical safety is a necessity. The building industry
and all those immediately affected by it often dictate the rules governing one's actions for the benefit of the end user.
Therefore, electrical safety requires a proactive approach most often initiated at an organizational level. The
perspectives, modes, and resources presented in this Resource Page should be used to establish the framework
necessary for one or one's organization to develop or realign an electrical safety program better tailored to meet
one's needs. It is important to note that the first step to any effective safety program is structure, followed by
education and implementation.

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RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

 National Electrical Code (NEC) - NFPA 70—The NEC is the accepted


standard for protection of persons and property from electrical
installations. Familiarization with NFPA 70 is a must for any one whose
responsibility is designing, installing, verifying and maintaining safe and
compliant electrical systems. Information can be found through the NFPA
website with a membership or printed and electronic versions of the code
can be purchased from NFPA and other suppliers.
 National Electrical Installation Standards—The NEIS gives definition to
"neat and workmanlike manner" as required by the National Electrical
Code. Each standard is submitted for approval by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
 National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)—The NESC is a product of the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). This code
provides information on the installation, operation, and maintenance of
electrical systems. The intent of the publication is the safeguarding of
persons performing the work. Information, like the NEC, is available with
IEEE membership or by buying a printed or electronic version of the
code.
 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)—The NFPA is the definitive
source for everything related to fire protection. The association has
developed numerous standards that have been adopted by federal, state,
and local jurisdictions as enforceable standards. The site has plenty of
free information but more specific information is restricted to members
only.
 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)—NIOSH is
similar in mission to OSHA but differs by the singular perspective that
NIOSH is the federal agency responsible for the prevention of work
related disease and injury, and is part of the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention.
 Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)—OSHA is the
main governmental source for effective safety practices. The website is a
vast, readily accessible information resource with a thorough search
engine.

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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

WBDG

Design Objectives

Productive—Promote Health & Well-Being, Secure/Safe—Plan for Fire Protection, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant
Safety and Health

Products and Systems

Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment


 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment
 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment
 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment
 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting
 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
 48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
 48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation
Equipment

Organizations/Associations

 Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI)


 National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA)
 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
 National Safety Council (NSC)
 National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)

Others

 Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCI)


 Bureau of Labor Statistics
 Electrical Construction and Maintenance
 Ground-Fault Protection on Construction Sites
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) - Electricity
Division
 Safteng.net - Safety First
 Underwriter's Laboratories Inc. (UL)

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