Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by Robert F. Carr
NIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)
Overview
Building Attributes
Emerging Issues
Relevant Codes and Standards
Major Resources
OVERVIEW
"A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences, and comforts; a non-functional design can impede
activities of all types, detract from quality of care, and raise costs to intolerable levels." ... Hardy and Lammers
Hospitals are the most complex of building types. Each hospital is comprised of a wide range of services and
functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment functions, such as clinical laboratories, imaging, emergency
rooms, and surgery; hospitality functions, such as food service and housekeeping; and the fundamental inpatient care
or bed-related function. This diversity is reflected in the breadth and specificity of regulations, codes, and oversight
that govern hospital construction and operations. Each of the wide-ranging and constantly evolving functions of a
hospital, including highly complicated mechanical, electrical, and telecommunications systems, requires specialized
knowledge and expertise. No one person can reasonably have complete knowledge, which is why specialized
consultants play an important role in hospital planning and design. The functional units within the hospital can have
competing needs and priorities. Idealized scenarios and strongly-held individual preferences must be balanced
against mandatory requirements, actual functional needs (internal traffic and relationship to other departments), and
the financial status of the organization.
Physical relationships between these functions determine the configuration of the hospital. Certain relationships
between the various functions are required—as in the following flow diagrams.
These flow diagrams show the movement and communication of people, materials, and waste. Thus the physical
configuration of a hospital and its transportation and logistic systems are inextricably intertwined. The transportation
systems are influenced by the building configuration, and the configuration is heavily dependent on the transportation
systems. The hospital configuration is also influenced by site restraints and opportunities, climate, surrounding
facilities, budget, and available technology. New alternatives are generated by new medical needs and new
technology.
In a large hospital, the form of the typical nursing unit, since it may be repeated many times, is a principal element of
the overall configuration. Nursing units today tend to be more compact shapes than the elongated rectangles of the
past. Compact rectangles, modified triangles, or even circles have been used in an attempt to shorten the distance
between the nurse station and the patient's bed. The chosen solution is heavily dependent on program issues such
as organization of the nursing program, number of beds to a nursing unit, and number of beds to a patient room. (The
trend, recently reinforced by HIPAA, is to all private rooms.)
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BUILDING ATTRIBUTES
Regardless of their location, size, or budget, all hospitals should have certain common attributes.
VAMC Albuquerque, NM
Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, hospitals should:
Therapeutic Environment
Hospital patients are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery. Every effort should be
made to make the hospital stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and stress-free as possible. The interior designer
plays a major role in this effort to create a therapeutic environment. A hospital's interior design should be based on a
comprehensive understanding of the facility's mission and its patient profile. The characteristics of the patient profile
will determine the degree to which the interior design should address aging, loss of visual acuity, other physical and
mental disabilities, and abusiveness. (See VA Interior Design Manual.) Some important aspects of creating a
therapeutic interior are:
Accessibility
Controlled Circulation
A hospital is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of people and goods. Much of
this circulation should be controlled.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive.) It is important in enhancing
the hospital's public image and is thus an important marketing tool. A better environment also contributes to better
staff morale and patient care. Aesthetic considerations include:
In addition to the general safety concerns of all buildings, hospitals have several particular security concerns:
Hospitals are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the environment and economy of the
surrounding community. They are heavy users of energy and water and produce large amounts of waste. Because
hospitals place such demands on community resources they are natural candidates for sustainable design.
Section 1.2 of VA's HVAC Design Manual is a good example of health care facility energy conservation standards
that meet EPAct 2005 (PDF 1.3 MB, 550 pgs) and Executive Order 13423 requirements. The Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007 (EISA) (PDF 740 KB, 310 pgs) provides additional requirements for energy conservation. Also see
LEED's (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) USGBC LEED for Healthcare
Related Issues
The HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act of 1996) regulations address security and privacy of
"protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy, and may affect
location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, paper and electronic,
as well as patient accommodations."
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EMERGING ISSUES
Among the many new developments and trends influencing hospital design are:
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Hospitals are among the most regulated of all building types. Like other buildings, they must follow the local and/or
state general building codes. However, federal facilities on federal property generally need not comply with state and
local codes, but follow federal regulations. To be licensed by the state, design must comply with the individual state
licensing regulations. Many states adopt the FGI Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health
Care Facilities, listed below as a resource, and thus that volume often has regulatory status.
State and local building codes are based on the model International Building Code (IBC). Federal agencies are
usually in compliance with the IBC except NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code), NFPA 70 (National Electric Code), and
Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines (ABAAG) or Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) takes
precedence."
Since hospitals treat patients who are reimbursed under Medicare, they must also meet federal standards, and to be
accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations
(JCAHO). Generally, the federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101).
The American with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly the building design with its general
and specific accessibility requirements. The Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines (ABAAG) or the
Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and federally funded facilities. The technical
requirements do not differ greatly from the ADA requirements. See WBDG Accessible
Regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also affect the design of hospitals,
particularly in laboratory areas.
Federal agencies that build and operate hospitals have developed detailed standards for the programming, design,
and construction of their facilities. Many of these standards are applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities
as well. Among them are:
Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Construction & Facilities
Management Technical Information Library contains many guides and
standards, including:
o Design Guides for planning many different departments and
clinics, design manuals of technical requirements, equipment
lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning
criteria, and standard details.
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MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG
Federal Mandate
Websites
See WBDG Health Care Facilities for generic health care facilities websites
Publications
Tools
Secure / Safe
by the WBDG Secure/Safe Committee
Overview
Related Issues
Emerging Issues
Major Resources
OVERVIEW
The design and construction of secure and safe buildings continues to be the primary goal for owners, architects,
engineers, and project managers. Realizing this goal is often a challenge due to funding limitations, resistance from
the users due to impacts on operations, productivity and accessibility, and the impacts on the surrounding
environment and building architecture due to perimeter security, hardening, and standoff requirements. A balance
between the security and safety goals and the other design objectives and needs of the facility can be attained. The
establishment of an integrated design process where all of the design team members understand each other's goals
can aid in overcoming these challenges and will lead to the development of a solution which addresses all of the
requirements. Understanding the interrelationship with the other WBDG design objectives (i.e., Sustainable,
Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Historic Preservation, Accessible, Functional/Operational and Productive), early in the
design process, is an essential step in overcoming the obstacles commonly encountered in the achievement of a
secure and safe building.
Aesthetic & Functional Security Measures on Pennsylvania Ave near the White House—Washington, DC
Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates—and then protects—the
building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this
process is to understand the various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment
types to consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions. This effort identifies
the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible perils or "threats," and establishes a likely
consequence of occurrence or "risk." This assessment is weighed against the vulnerabilities specific to the site or
facility. Based on these assessments and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the appropriate
safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the
cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed, and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and
use of the building.
There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose conflicts in arriving at
acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede
emergency egress in case of fire, and access control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict
emergency egress, and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) light pollution reduction and security
lighting objectives. Conversely, site design and security can compliment each other such as the design of a
stormwater management requirement that doubles as a barrier. Good communication between the design team, fire
protection and security design team specialists through the entire design process is necessary to achieve the
common goal of safe and secure buildings and facilities.
Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and physical safety methods. For
example, to ensure a given facility is protected from unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might
stress the deployment of guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance
and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways and vehicle barriers. In
practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a deficiency in one area may be compensated by
a greater emphasis in the other two.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a proven methodology that not only enhances the
performance of these security and safety measures, but also provides aesthetics and value engineering. CPTED
utilizes four (4) primary, overlapping principles: Natural Surveillance, Natural Access Control, Territoriality, and
Maintenance. Natural surveillance follows the premise that criminals do not wish to be observed; placing legitimate
'eyes' on the street, such as providing window views and lighting, increases the perceived risk to offenders, reduces
fear for bonafide users, as well as lessening reliance on only camera surveillance. Natural Access Control
supplements physical security and operational measures with walls, fences, ravines, or even hedges to define site
boundaries, to channel legitimate users to designated entrances, and to reduce access points and escape routes.
Territoriality involves strategies to project a sense of ownership to spaces such that it becomes easier to identify
intruders because they don't seem to belong. Clear differentiation between public, semi-public, and private spaces by
using signage, fences, pavement treatment, art, and flowers are examples of ways to express ownership.
Maintenance is a key element to preserve lines of sights for surveillance, to retain the defensiveness of physical
elements, and to project a sense of care and ownership. Together, the principles of CPTED increase the
effectiveness of operational, technical, and physical safety methods, thereby lessening equipment and operating
costs.
For total design efficiently and cost effectiveness, security, safety, and CPTED measures are best applied at the
beginning of a project. Security programming is a useful practice to identify security design requirements necessary
to satisfy stakeholder concerns.
It should be noted that in any given building, non-structural components, including general building contents, typically
account for over three-quarters of the cost of a building; this figure can be even higher for specialized occupancies
such as medical facilities. Additionally, structural and non-structural components can potentially interact during an
incident, requiring a deliberative approach to implementing a comprehensive agenda of structural and non-structural
mitigation actions.
Consistent with areas of professional responsibility, it is useful to identify four fundamental principles of multi-hazard
building design:
Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a
total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.
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RELATED ISSUES
Information Sensitivity
As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the
public is even more interested in efforts to protect people, buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents
both benefits and challenges, because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for
mitigation can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For that reason,
project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any information that pertains to vulnerabilities, or facility
infrastructure particularly when the building is part of a critical infrastructure or system. Per Department of Homeland
Security (DHS), critical infrastructure is defined as "the assets, systems, and networks, whether physical or virtual, so
vital to the United States that their incapacitation or destruction would have a debilitating effect on security, national
economic security, public health or safety, or any combination thereof." Legal counsel should be obtained on how
best to protect such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable local, state, and
federal laws.
Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and designers of a wide variety of
building types and spaces now consider strategies to mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Security for Building
Occupants and Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate them.
Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and occupants to be able to respond to
all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures
are all important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and property
from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and
physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for
Operational staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of
appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and conducting actual drills.
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EMERGING ISSUES
Building Information Modeling (BIM) can be a useful tool for building security. For example, intelligent objects in 3D
provide better understanding of vulnerabilities and better correlation with other design aspects like building and site
access, location and types of doors and windows, and structural design characteristics for seismic versus blast
design. BIM will further the integration between project team members, design disciplines, and the various stages of a
project to achieve the goal of a high performance building.
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MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG
Design Objectives
Tools
Publications
Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General
Services Administration (GSA).
FEMA 386 Series, Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series
FEMA 386-2, Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and
Estimating Losses
FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks
against Buildings
FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential
Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings
International Building Code
The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical
Infrastructure and Key Assets", The White House. February 2003.
Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and
Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors;
Committee on Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design
Criteria, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press, 1991.
Websites
Overview
Performance-Based Design
Recommendations
Related Issues
Emerging Issues
Relevant Codes and Standards
Major Resources
OVERVIEW
The United States has the highest fire losses in terms of both frequency and total losses of any modern technological
society. New facilities and renovation projects need to be designed to incorporate efficient, cost-effective passive and
automatic fire protection systems. These systems are effective in detecting, containing, and controlling and/or and
extinguishing a fire event in the early stages. Fire protection engineers must be involved in all aspects of the design in
order to ensure a reasonable degree of protection of human life from fire and the products of combustion as well as to
reduce the potential loss from fire (i.e., real and personal property, information, organizational operations). Planning
for fire protection in/around a building involves an integrated systems approach that enables the designer to analyze
all of the building's components as a total building fire safety system package. The analysis requires more than code
compliance or meeting the minimum legal responsibilities for protecting a building; that is, building and fire codes are
intended to protect against loss of life and limit fire impact on the community and do not necessarily protect the
mission or assets, or solve problems brought upon by new projects with unique circumstances. Therefore, it is
necessary to creatively and efficiently integrate code requirements with other fire safety measures as well as other
design strategies to achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety (evacuation, recovery,
egress/smoke. Identify critical systems: diesel generators, etc.).
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The success of any complex project hinges on getting all the stakeholders, owners, designers, special consultants,
and AHJs working together in a collaborative manner to achieve performance-based design solutions. The Society of
Fire Protection Engineers has developed and published (in collaboration with NFPA) the SFPE Engineering Guide to
Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and Design of Buildings and the SFPE Code Official's Guide to
Performance-Based Design Review (developed and published in collaboration with ICC).
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Issues to address in developing a successful fire protection design usually include:
Design Team—It is most important that the project delivery team include a Fire Protection Engineer with adequate
experience and knowledge in fire protection and life safety design. The Fire Protection Engineer should be involved in
all phases of design, from planning to occupancy.
Design Standards and Criteria (i.e., Building Code, etc.)—to be utilized by the design team, including statutory
requirements, voluntary requirements addressing owner's performance needs, and requirements that are sometimes
imposed by insurance carriers on commercial projects.
Site Requirements—A quality site design will integrate performance requirements associated with fire department
access, suppression, and separation distances and site/building security.
Fire Detection and Notification System Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
Detection
Notification
Survivability of systems
Fire Suppression Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
Water supply
Type of automatic fire extinguishing system
o Water-based fire extinguishing system
o Non-water-based fire extinguishing system
Standpipes and fire department hose outlets
Emergency Power, Lighting, and Exit Signage, at a minimum will address the following elements:
Survivability of systems
Electrical Safety
Distributed Energy Resources
Special Fire Protection Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
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RELATED ISSUES
The concern for terrorist attacks has caused design and engineering professionals to address integrated fire
protection and security measures for the building site as well as within the building. For example, perimeter protection
measures must be well-designed to ensure that fire departments can still access sites and buildings. Another
example is the increased need to coordinate HVAC design and proper automatic emergency operations in the event
of a fire or chemical/biological/radiological (CBR) event.
Virtually every project that requires fire protection must also meet sustainability goals. Thus, it is important to balance
security/safety goals with those for sustainability for example, specify fire resistant materials that are durable and can
meet green products standards whenever possible. Further, consider life-cycle cost when making decisions on
materials, equipment and systems.
Mass Notification
Notifying building occupants and visitors both inside and outside facilities of hazardous events has become a critical
aspect of personnel safety and health. Whether it is a fire, chemical spill, criminal activity, or act of terrorism,
everyone in the vicinity of such events must be warned so they know whether to shelter in place or flee—including
which direction to go. Mass notification systems can be employed in single buildings or on campuses and military
bases. Notices can be sent over loudspeakers, to computer monitors and to cell phones. See UFC 4-021-01 Design
and O&M: Mass Notification Systems
Bollard Spacing
Bollard spacing for accessibility related to access for fire vehicles and personnel. The Americans with Disabilities
(ADA) Act calls for spacing bollard 36 inches apart to meet clear opening requirements. Site security designers need
to balance security with access, considering bollard location and spacing respective to vehicular traffic, bus stops,
hardened street furniture, and pedestrian traffic.
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EMERGING ISSUES
Green Roofs
With the proliferation of vegetative roofs on buildings to reduce heat island effect and control stormwater runoff,
consideration must be given to firefighters having to ventilate a structure during a major fire event. Provide adequate
roof hatches and other access points for firefighters.
Permeable Pavement
Permeable pavement is being specified more frequently as a means of controlling stormwater runoff from building
sites. Not all types of permeable pavement are designed to hold emergency fire and rescue vehicles. Coordinate with
site designer/landscape architect to ensure permeable pavement selected will meet load requirements of emergency
vehicles. Another option to consider is to use permeable pavement in parking lots for passenger vehicles and
standard pavement for access roads, loading docks and driveways to building entrances.
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Building codes and fire codes vary across the nation. For federal projects, consult with the appropriate federal agency
or the Contracting Officer. For non-federal projects consult with the appropriate building code and fire code official, for
minimum and recommended fire safety measures.
Legislation
Federal Guidelines
Other Publications
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MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG
Historic Preservation
Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs, Comply with Accessibility Requirements
Design Discipline
Associations
American Fire Sprinkler Association (AFSA)
Automatic Fire Alarm Association (AFAA)
National Fire Sprinkler Association (NFSA)
Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE)
Laboratories
Universities
Introduction
Description
Emerging Issues
Relevant Codes and Standards
Major Resources
INTRODUCTION
Fire protection engineers use science and technology to protect people and property from fire. When designing new
buildings or renovations to existing buildings, fire protection engineers develop the plan for fire protection.
Fire protection engineering has evolved significantly over the past several centuries. Early application of fire
protection engineering was intended to prevent conflagrations, which could destroy entire cities. Until the early 1900s,
the primary objective of fire protection engineering was to limit a fire to its building of origin. As fire protection
engineering advanced, this objective was refined to limit a fire to its object or room of origin.
However, it wasn't until the later part of the 20th century that fire protection engineering had matured to the point that
it included the fundamental tenets of a distinct, professional discipline (Lucht, 1989).
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DESCRIPTION
A. Professional Definition
Fire protection engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to protect people and their
environment from destructive fire, which includes:
is familiar with the nature and characteristics of fire and the associated
products of combustion
understands how fires originate, spread within and outside of
buildings/structures, and can be detected, controlled, and/or
extinguished, and
is able to anticipate the behavior of materials, structures, machines,
apparatus, and processes as related to the protection of life and property
from fire.
For more information on the role of the Fire Protection Engineer in the design of fire protection systems, see the
SFPE Position Statement on The Engineer and the Technician: Designing Fire Protection Systems at www.sfpe.org.
Fire protection engineers exemplify the concept of "whole building design." Fire protection engineers design systems
that, taken individually, could be considered mechanical (fire sprinklers, fire-fighter's standpipes, smoke control),
electrical (fire alarm), architectural (means of egress design), or structural (fire resistance design).
When designed by fire protection engineers, these systems are coordinated into a comprehensive, fire and life safety
strategy.
It is beneficial to involve fire protection engineers in a design at the earliest stages of planning, generally at the
feasibility or concept design stage. The benefits of involving a fire protection engineer at this stage include:
Conversely, if a fire protection engineer is not brought in to a project team until after problems are identified, delays
can result as the fire protection engineer analyzes the problem and develops solutions. At this stage there may be
reduced design flexibility available and resistance to change by team members from other disciplines, if portions of
the project design have been completed and decisions approved. This is particularly true in cases where fire
protection problems are not identified until plans are submitted for regulatory approval.
Additionally, fire protection engineers can ensure that security related provisions designed into a building do not
diminish fire safety to occupants. For example, ensure that access control to a building does not also make it more
difficult to quickly exit a building in the event of a fire or similar emergency.
For most projects, fire protection engineering is largely practiced through the application of prescriptive codes and
standards. For broad classifications of occupancies or fire hazards, prescriptive codes and standards identify, in very
specific terms, exactly how individual fire protection systems are to be designed, installed, tested, and maintained.
Prescriptive codes and standards have the benefit that they are easy to apply and enforce. Additionally, buildings
designed to prescriptive codes and standards have a good history of performance in fires. However, they do not
result in uniform levels of safety or cost-benefit. Consider, for example, stores classified as mercantile occupancies. A
store that sells greeting cards would fall under this occupancy classification, as would a store that sold liquor in
bottles. Although the protection that would be required in these stores would be similar, the fire hazard presented by
these stores would be different.
"Performance-based design" is a tool that can be used to look at fire safety from a "whole building" perspective.
"Performance-based design" is an engineering approach to fire protection design based on (1) established fire safety
goals and objectives, (2) analysis of fire scenarios, and (3) quantitative assessment of design alternatives against the
fire safety goals and objectives using engineering tools, methodologies, and performance criteria (SFPE, 2000).
When using performance-based designs, fire safety goals for a building are identified. These goals may include life
safety, property protection, mission continuity, and environmental protection. These goals are subsequently refined
into quantitative measures of building performance through engineering analysis and consultation with building
stakeholders, such as the building owner and code enforcement officials. Next, fire scenarios are established. Fire
scenarios are descriptions of the types of fires from which the building is intended to provide protection.
The next step is the selection of design strategies. The types of fire protection strategies that are used in
performance-based design are no different than those that are used when applying prescriptive codes, such as
detection, suppression, egress, or fire endurance.
After fire protection strategies are developed, they are evaluated using engineering tools and models to determine
whether the fire safety goals are met for each of the fire scenarios.
For most buildings, the entire building will not be designed on a performance basis. Much of the building will be
designed using prescriptive codes, and for relatively simple buildings, all of the building will likely be designed using
prescriptive codes. However, performance-based design offers opportunities to achieve desired aesthetics or
functionality in a building. It also ensures that the fire performance of the whole building will be considered as more
than an agglomeration of single systems.
Historically, performance-based design has been practiced by use of "equivalency" or "alternate methods and
materials" clauses found in most prescriptive codes. These clauses permit the use of strategies other than those
specified in the code, provided that they provide an equivalent or greater level of safety. Within the last few years,
performance-based codes and design guides have been published. See following section, Emerging Issues.
Designing from a "whole building" approach does not require that design be on a performance-basis. It is necessary,
however, that the design of fire protection-related systems be coordinated with each other and with other building
systems and the overall building design.
Fire sprinklers
Standpipes
Fire detection and alarm
Special hazards systems, such as clean agents, water mist, or CO²
Smoke management
Additionally, fire protection engineers frequently collaborate with other design professionals in the design of the
following systems:
Designing a building from a 'whole building' approach requires a fire protection engineer to coordinate the different
types of fire protection that are designed into buildings including:
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EMERGING ISSUES
Performance-based design has been practiced for decades through the use of "equivalency" clauses and "alternate
methods and materials" clauses found in most prescriptive codes. In these cases, performance-based design was
applied on an ad-hoc basis, with the approach used developed between the designer and code enforcement official.
Over the last decade, performance-based design has become more formalized. In the U.S., several performance-
based codes have been published, including the International Performance Code and performance-based options
within the NFPA Building Construction and Safety Code and the NFPA Life Safety Code. Additionally, several guides
have been published by the Society of Fire Protection Engineers that provide information intended to facilitate
performance-based design, including the SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis
and Design of Buildings.
Performance-based design facilitates designing fire protection from a "whole building" perspective, as it requires that
interactions between all fire protection systems with the building and its occupants be considered.
Additionally, in the wake of 9/11, several issues, such as structural fire protection and means of egress of high-rise
buildings, are receiving increased attention. This attention may result in changes in the way buildings are designed,
or an affirmation of current approaches.
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Fire protection is impacted by a number of codes and standards. The most frequently used codes and standards
include:
ASTM publishes several fire protection related standards through its E-5 committee.
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MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG
Design Objectives
Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Secure / Safe—Plan for Fire Protection, Secure / Safe—Ensure
Occupant Safety and Health
Professional Associations
Organizations
Several other publications related to fire protection engineering are available from www.sfpe.org.
There are several computer models available that can be used to simulate fires. Primarily because they can be
obtained for free, the most commonly used models are those that are published by NIST. However, several
proprietary models are also available. Additionally, several tools are available to perform other types of fire protection
calculations. The most widely used are sprinkler hydraulic calculation programs. There are also a number of
programs available for performing calculations associated with the design of other types of fire protection systems.
These programs are generally proprietary.
Training
Post graduate training
Continuing education
In the United States, post-graduate education in fire protection engineering is available from the University of
Maryland and Worcester Polytechnic Institute. While both programs are located on the east coast, both also offer
distance-learning programs.
Additional Resources
Electrical Safety
by Michael A. Cherock, PE, RCDD
Introduction
Description
Application
Relevant Codes and Standards
Additional Resources
INTRODUCTION
As an engineer, contractor, manufacturer, or maintenance personnel, and whether one's business is electrical in
nature or not, electrical safety is a concern shared by all in the building industry. Approximately 300 deaths occur
each year by accidental electrocutions. Over 800 people die annually due to fires caused by electrical faults. Each
year, electrical mishaps account for thousands of people sustaining shock injury or burns, and electrical failures
cause over 1.3 billion dollars in property damage.
As building systems become more integrated and the industry further embraces sustainable and environmental
concepts into design, the importance of continued building operation is more critical. Besides familiar electrical
equipment and systems, newer technologies like renewable energy systems and on-site power generation are
increasingly becoming integral parts of many projects. Electrical safety issues related to photovoltaic systems and
distributed energy resources, such as fuel cells and microturbines, are evolving and must not be overlooked.
Electrical safety is an essential element to any successful building project from conception to day-to-day operation.
Understanding the importance of electrical safety, how to recognize the forms that electrical safety can undertake,
and providing resources for implementing electrical safety in one's work are all required to institute an electrical safety
program.
For full understanding, electrical safety is broken down into three distinct topics of discussion: Perspectives and
Responsibilities, Modes of Electrical Safety, and Electrical Safety Resources. Each topic is independent but all three
rely on the availability and enforcement of the others for full implementation of safety measures. One without the
others results in exposure to the hazardous or potentially hazardous effects of electrical energy and its impact on
personnel and equipment.
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DESCRIPTION
The proper mind frame is the first step to establishing responsibility to enforce standards of electrical safety. So,
perspective determines the impact electrical safety has on one's work. The four perspectives are defined by
recognized and accepted roles within the building industry:
Engineer
Contractor
Maintenance
Manufacturer
A perspective does not imply or indicate an individual's role or title within an organization. Rather, the perspective
defines a frame of reference. For example, an electrician installing a junction box outdoors inspects the box for
defects that may have occurred during the manufacturing process and verifies that it is intended for outdoor
installation. Implementation of an adequate electrical safety program requires an electrician to be aware of not only
the installation methods associated with mounting outdoor rated enclosures but also to be aware of the standards
that an enclosure must meet in order to be rated for outdoor exposure. The electrician can identify with both the
contractor's and manufacturer's perspectives during this "simple and routine" installation. All perspectives must be
fully understood to achieve the utmost level of electrical safety in one's work, see Fig. 1.
Engineer's Perspective
The engineer's perspective identifies measures necessary to achieve electrical safety in the engineering design
process. Hence, the engineer's perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical safety from conception
of a need to the implementation of an idea. General responsibilities include:
Equipment ratings
Conductor ampacities
Selective coordination of overcurrent protective devices
Adherence to applicable codes
Supply/demand equality
General power distribution methods
The term engineer is not reserved only for the electrical engineer but, instead, includes all disciplines involved in the
process of engineering. For example, the mechanical engineer must responsibly contribute needed electrical data for
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment, and controls.
Contractor's Perspective
The contractor's perspective identifies measures necessary for electrical safety in the installation process. Hence, the
contractor's perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical safety from implementation of an idea to
complete realization of that idea. General responsibilities include:
The term contractor is not reserved only for electrical contractor but, instead, includes all trades. For example, the
mechanical contractor must responsibly utilize the proper method of installation of the mechanical equipment for
interconnection of electrical feeds including elevators, HVAC equipment, and controls.
Maintenance Perspective
The maintenance perspective identifies measures necessary for electrical safety in the operation of a system. This
perspective is one that deciphers the preventative, real-time, and reactive actions available to continued system
operation. Hence, the maintenance perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical safety by
implementation of preventative programs and ongoing system monitoring. General responsibilities include:
Preventative maintenance
Monitoring of equipment parameters
Use of safety measures when working on equipment
Following tag out procedures
Use of correct tools
Thorough knowledge of systems
Adherence to applicable codes
Manufacturer's Perspective
The manufacturer's perspective identifies measures necessary for electrical safety in the creation and construction of
equipment and devices. Hence, the manufacturer's perspective evolves into a responsibility that ensures electrical
safety by implementing the other three perspectives during the respective phases of the manufacturing process. The
employment of the other three perspectives and understanding end user utilization must align singularly for the
purpose of electrical safety. General responsibilities include:
Equipment ratings
Conductor ampacities
Selective coordination of overcurrent protective devices
Adherence to applicable codes
Supply/demand equality
General power distribution methods
Proper mounting of equipment
Adequate tightening or torque of connections
Use of correct tools
Preventative maintenance
Monitoring of equipment parameters
Once perspectives and responsibilities are determined, electrical safety is further defined by mode. There are three
major modes:
Preventative
Real-Time
Reactive
Each mode constitutes a different approach to safety and is defined by the work performed. The three modes
combined form an all inclusive approach to maintaining electrical safety as an integral part of any process or program
involving electricity, see Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Mode Interrelations
Preventative Mode
The preventative mode is identified by administrative actions utilized to ward off or prevent electrical mishaps prior to
work being performed. A list of actions for the preventative mode should include:
The initial step towards developing an electrical safety program for an individual or agency is to generate a list of
administrative actions identified as "preventative" with respect to the nature of their work.
Real-Time Mode
The real-time mode is identified by procedural actions to ward off or prevent electrical mishaps while performing work.
In many cases, the real-time mode is the implementation of actions identified in preventative mode. A list of actions
for the real time mode should include:
An electrical safety program for an individual or agency should generate a list of procedural actions identified as "real
time" with respect to the nature of their work and to coordinate those actions with the preventative mode actions.
Reactive Mode
The reactive mode is identified by procedural and administrative actions utilized to address electrical mishaps that are
occurring or have occurred. The reactive mode tends to be the main focus of many established programs and
generally garners the most attention by others outside the building industry because of the detrimental effect
electrical mishaps can cause. A list of actions for reactive mode should include:
Amps Description
15-100 mA Muscles contract and cannot release, severity determined by current level.
* Assume worst case body resistance of 300Ohms with varying voltage applied to reach listed currents. Current levels and
effects remain approximate due to factors such as health, age, size, etc of the victim.
An electrical safety program for an individual or company agency should generate a list of procedural and
administrative actions identified as "reactive" with respect to the nature of their work and coordinate those actions
with the preventative and real-time modes.
Resources abound that enable one or one's agency to better recognize perspective and responsibility for electrical
safety. With so many resources available, an electrical safety program should implement a method of sourcing the
information into a manner that is easily accessible. An "Electrical Safety Library" is a start to organizing and making
the vast information easier to access. Equally important is the ability to access different media types. Today, not only
is access to the Internet a necessity but multiple entry points are suggested. A dedicated area on the computer
network for electrical information is an excellent way to manage and identify resources on hand and those becoming
available. Within the database, electrical safety resources should be categorized by Perspectives and Modes. Lastly,
all electrical safety resources enforced by local ordinance or codes, or required by one's agency should be noted and
made available to all users.
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APPLICATION
Electrical safety has been a concern for all since the time electricity became an essential part of everyone's daily
lives. However, for those in the building industry, ownership of electrical safety is a necessity. The building industry
and all those immediately affected by it often dictate the rules governing one's actions for the benefit of the end user.
Therefore, electrical safety requires a proactive approach most often initiated at an organizational level. The
perspectives, modes, and resources presented in this Resource Page should be used to establish the framework
necessary for one or one's organization to develop or realign an electrical safety program better tailored to meet
one's needs. It is important to note that the first step to any effective safety program is structure, followed by
education and implementation.
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
WBDG
Design Objectives
Productive—Promote Health & Well-Being, Secure/Safe—Plan for Fire Protection, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant
Safety and Health
Organizations/Associations
Others