NASA

US-B- ~

V. 2
c.1

NASA TECHNICAL NOTE NASA TN

UNIFIED S-BAND TELECOMMUNICATION

TECHNIQUES FOR APOLLO
VOLUME 11-MATHEMATICAL MODELS
A N D ANALYSIS

by John H . Puinter and George Hondros

Manned Spucecruft Center
Houston, Texas

N A T I O N A L AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON, D. C. APRIL 1966 1

 OOb9092

UNIFIED S-BAND TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES FOR APOLLO

VOLUME I1

MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND ANALYSIS

By John H. P a i n t e r and George Hondros

Manned Spacecraft C e n t e r
Houston, T e x a s

NATIONAL AERONAUTICs AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

~.
For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield, Virginia 22151 - Price $5.00
 ABSTRACT

This is the second volume in a series done at

Manned Spacecraft Center, documenting comunication
techniques used in the Apollo Unified S-band Telecom­
munications and Tracking System. A s stated in the
first volume, NASA TJY D-2208,the present document is
concerned with detailed mathematical modeling of certain
channels in the system. Specifically, this volume pro­
vides simple mathematical tools usable for predicting,
approximately, the performance of various communications
and tracking channels in the system.
 FOREWORD

The content of t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n w a s o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e c as NASA

Apollo Working Paper No. 1184, and w a s e n t i t l e d "Unified S-Band Telecom­
munication Techniques f o r Apollo, Volume 11, Mathematical Models and
Analysis." Volume I of t h i s s e r i e s , by t h e same a u t h o r s , i s e n t i t l e d
"Functional Description." This p u b l i c a t i o n , which lias become Volume 11,
i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e Working Paper mentioned above, i n c o r p o r a t i n g
only a few minor changes i n t h e form.

The authors wish t o acknowledge t h e time and e f f o r t of members of

t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a f f s of J e t Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, C a l i f o r n i a ,
and Motorola M i l i t a r y E l e c t r o n i c s Division, Western Center, S c o t t s d a l e ,
Arizona. The f i r s t d r a f t w a s reviewed by t h e following i n d i v i d u a l s from
J e t Propulsion Laboratory, each performing a s e p a r a t e review f u n c t i o n :

M. Koerner
L. CouvilLon

R. Titsworth

M. Brock"

R. Toukdarian

W. Victor

The following i n d i v i d u a l s from Motorola, I n c . reviewed t h e f i r s t draft i n

i t s entirety:

D r . S . C . Gupta
T . G. H a l l

A word of thanks i s due t o Messrs. B. D. Martin and M. E a s t e r l i n g

of JPL f o r continued a s s i s t a n c e and i n s p i r a t i o c during t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
of t h i s volume.

The a u t h o r s wish t o d e d i c a t e t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n t o G. Barry Graves

who made t h e w r i t i n g of t h i s s e r i e s of documents p o s s i b l e , and t o
Ted Freeman, one of those i n d i v i d u a l s whom t h i s work w a s intended t o
benefit.
Secti o n Page

SUMMARY .......................... 1

SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1 Background and Purpose of t h e Document . . . . . . . 5

1.2 T h e o r e t i c a l Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.1 A n a l y t i c a l Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.2 Method of P r e s e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2.3 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

.
2 0 GROUND-TO-SPACECRAFT CHANNEL ANALYSES . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 C a r r i e r Tracking Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 The Voice Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.3 The Up-Data Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 -0 SPACECRAFT-TO-GROUND PHASE MODULATED C M E L

ANALYSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 13

..............
3.1 C a r r i e r Tracking Channel 13

3.2 Angle Tracking Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.3 Ranging Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1'5

3.3.1 Clock Loop Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.3.2 Range Code Acquisition Time . . . . . . . . . 18

3.4 The FCM Telemetry Channel ............. 19

3.5 The Voice Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.6 Biomedical Data Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.7 The Ehergency Voice Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.8 The Emergency Key Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

i
S e c ti o n Page

4 .0 SPACECRAFT-TO-mOUND FREQUENCY MODULATED CHANNEL

ANALYSES .......................... 33

4.1 C a r r i e r Demodulation Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.2 T e l e v i s i o n Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.3 PCM Telemetry Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.4 Voice Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.5 Biomedical Data Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

APPENDDC A . ANGLE MODULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' A-1

A . l Basic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

.
A 2 The C a r r i e r w i t h K Subcarriers .......... A-4

A . 3 The C a r r i e r w i t h K S u b c a r r i e r s and Range

........................
Code A-6

APPENDIX B . NOISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

B . l The Narrow-Band Gaussian Random Process . . . . . . B-1

B.2 Angle Modulated C a r r i e r P l u s Noise . . . . . . . . . B-3

B.3 Transmission of S i g n a l P l u s Noise Through a

P e r f e c t Band-pas s Limiter ............. B-5

B.4 Transmission of S i g n a l P l u s Noise Through a

P e r f e c t Product Device ............... B-6

B . 4 . 1 A Nonprelimited Product Detector' . . . . . . B-6

B.4.2 A P r e l i m i t e d Product Detector . . . . . . . . B-7

B.4.3 A Nonprelimited Product Mixer . . . . . . . . B-9

APPENDIX C .PHASE-LOCKED LOOP THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

C.l A P h y s i c a l Approach t o t h e Phase-locked Loop .... C-1

C.2 The L i n e a r i z e d Model of t h e Phase-locked Loop . . . C-4

C.2.1 The Closed Loop T r a n s f e r Functions . . . . . C-5

C.2.2 Modulation Tracking Error . . . . . . . . . . C-9

C.2.3 Loop Phase Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-13

C.2.4 Threshold P r e d i c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . C-15

ii

..- ... .- . 1 . . r r r . - ...

1
.I.I1 ... I I 1.1111 111 11111111 1111 11111111 1 1 1 m 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 11111
1
II I
S e c ti o n Page

C.3 S i g n a l and Noise C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of P r e l i m i t e d

Phase-Locked Loops .................

C-18
C . 3 . 1 L i m i t e r E f f e c t s on Loop Parameters . . . . . C
- 1 9

C .4 Modulation R e s t r i c t i v e Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . C
- 2 0

C.b.1 Loop Noise Bandwidth Above Threshold . . . .

C-22

C . 5 P r e f i l t e r e d Modulation Tracking Loops . . . . . . .

C-24

APPENDIX D . PRODUCT DEMODULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

- 1

D . l Linear Product Demodulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

- 1

D . l . l
D e t e c t i o n of S i n u s o i d a l S u b c a r r i e r s . . . . .

D-2
D.1.2
Detection of A r b i t r a r y Baseband Mod­

ulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D-4
D . 1 . 3
Noise C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s............ D-6
D . 1 . 4
Output Signal-to-noise R a t i o s ........ D-6
D.1.4.1 S u b c a r r i e r and band-pass

...............
filter

D-6
D.1.4.2 Baseband modulation and

..........
low-pass f i l t e r

D-7
D.2 P r e l i m i t e d Product Demodulators . . . . . . . . . .

D-9

APPENDM E . DEMODULATION WITH MODULATION TRACKING LOOPS . . . .

E-1

E . l Detection of S i n u s o i d a l S u b c a r r i e r s and

A r b i t r a r y Baseband Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . E-3

.
E 2 Noise C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-4

E.2.1 Low-pass Output F i l t e r . . . . . . . . . . . E-5

E.2.2 Band-pass Output F i l t e r ...........

E-6

E . 3 Output Signal-to-noise R a t i o s . . . . . . . . . . .

E-8

E.3.1 S u b c a r r i e r and Band-pass F i l t e r . . . . . . .

E-8
E.3.2 Baseband Modulation and Low-pass F i l t e r . . .

E-10

APPENDIX F . SPECIALIZED DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F-1

F . l Range Clock Receiver and Code C o r r e l a t o r . . . . . . .

F-1

F.l.l S i g n a l Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F-2
F.1.2 Noise Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F-5

iii
 Section Page

F.1.3 Signal-to-noise R a t i o s........... F-10

F.1.4 Receiver Threshold ............. F-12

F.1.5 ........
Range Code A c q u i s i t i o n Time F-13

F.2 PCM Telemetry S u b c a r r i e r Demodulator . . . . . . . F-18

F.2.1 Output Data Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . F-19

F.2.2 Reference Loop Treatment . . . . . . . . . . F-20

F.3 The Residual C a r r i e r Tracking Receiver

(Ground) ..................... F-22

F.4 The Residual C a r r i e r Tracking Receiver

(Spacecraft) ................... F-25

F.5 The Spacecraft Turnaround Ranging Channel . . . . . F-29

F.5.1 Equivalent Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-32

F.5.2 Equivalent S i g n a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-35

APPENDIX G . PHASE MODULATED SIGNAL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . G-1

G . l S o l u t i o n f o r Modulation I n d i c e s . . . . . . . . . . G-2

G.2 Maximization of S u b c a r r i e r Channel S i g n a l - t o ­

noise Ratios ................... G-7

G.3 Boundary Condition on Residual C a r r i e r . . . . . . G-7

G.4 S i g n a l E f f i c i e n c y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9

APPENDIX H . SUPPLEMETYTARY THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1

H . l The Equivalent Noise Bandwidth of Linear

Networks ..................... H-1

H.2 Equivalent Noise Temperature of Linear

Systems ...................... H-5

H.2.1 Single Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-5

H.2.2 Cascaded Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-7

H.3 The Band-pass Amplitude Limiter . . . . . . . . . . H-10

H.4 The Range Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-13

H.3 Antenna P o l a r i z a t i o n Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-17

H.6 I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y of Clipped Voice . . . . . . . . . H-19

iv

.__-.. ...-.....- -. 1
1
1
. . I I, . I . I II I I .
.I I 111 I 11- ~ I II

Section Page

REFERENCES . . . R-1
 TABLES

Table Page

C.2.2-I INPUT FUNCTIONS ................... C-10

C .2. 4.1 CONFIDENCE VALUES VERSUS LOSS-LOCK PROBABILITIES . . . C-17

C -4-1 INPUT SNR VERSUS LOSS-LOCK PROBABILITIES . . . . . . . C-22

c .5.1 I"JT SNR VERSUS LOSS-LOCK PROBABILITIES . . . . . . . C-26

F.1.1-I PROGRAM STATE VERSUS CORRELATION . . . . . . . . . . . F-4

vi

 FTGURES

Figure Page

2.2-1 Up-link channels ................... 9

3.3-1 The ranging channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.4-1 PCM t e l e m e t r y channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.5-1 The voice channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.6-1 The biomedical d a t a channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3- 7-1 The emergency voice channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.8-1 The emergency key channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1-1 The FM c a r r i e r channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2-1 The t e l e v i s i o n channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3-1 PCM t e l e m e t r y channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4-1 The voice channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.5-1 The biomedical d a t a channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
.
B 1-1 I n p u t noise spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2

B .3-1 L i m i t e r model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5

B.4.1-1 Nonprelimited p r o d u c t ' d e t e c t o r .. . . . .
..... B-6
.
B 4.2-1 P r e l i m i t e d product d e t e e t o r . ... . . . .
..... B-8
B. 4.3-1 Nonprelimited product mixer . ... . . . .
..... B-9
c. 1-1 P h y s i c a l loop model . . . . . ... . . . .
..... c-1

c.2-1 Linear loop model . . . . . . ... . . . .

..... c-5
c.2.I-1 Asymptotic Bode p l o t s of t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s . . . . . C-8

c.3-1 P r e l i m i t e d phase-locked loop ............ c-18

D.1-1 Demodulator c o n f i g u r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

.
D 2-1 Demodulator c o n f i g u r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9

v ii

Figure Page

E-1 Demodulator c o n f i g u r a t i o n .............. E-1

E- 2 Asymptotic Bode p l o t ................ E-2

F.l-1 Range clock r e c e i v e r ................ F-1

F.L 5-1 Error p r o b a b i l i t y v e r s u s s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e d e n s i t y

ratio ........................ F-17
.
F 2-1 PCMtelemetry s u b c a r r i e r demodulator . . . . . . . . F-18
F.3-1 Carrier tracking receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-22

F.4-1 Carrier tracking receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-25

F .5-1 Spacecraft turnaround channe 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . F-29

H.1-1 Linear network model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1

H.1-2 Contour of i n t e g r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-4

H .2.1-1 Equivalent noise temperature of a noisy l i n e a r n e t -

work ........................ H-6

.
H 2.2-1 Cascaded l i n e a r noisy networks . . . . . . . . . . . H-8
.
H 2.2-2 Cascaded p a s s i v e and noisy networks . . . . . . . . . H-10

H.3-1 Band-pass l i m i t e r model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-11

H.3-2 Limiter s i g n a l and noise suppression v e r s u s

......................
i n p u t SNR H-12

H * 3-3 Exact and approximate s i g n a l suppression . . . . . . H-13

H.4-1 Communication l i n k model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-14

H.4-2 Antenna geometry .................. H-14
.
H 5-1 Elliptic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-18

viii

 UNIFIED S-BAND TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES FOR APOLLO

VOLUME I1

MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND A-NALYSIS

By John H. P a i n t e r and George Hondros
Manned S p a c e c r a f t Center

SUMMARY

This i s t h e second volume i n a s e r i e s done a t Manned S p a c e c r a f t

Center, documenting communication techniques used i n t h e Apollo Unified
S-band Telecommunications and Tracking System. A s s t a t e d i n t h e f i r s t
volume, NASA TN D-2208, t h e p r e s e n t document i s concerned with d e t a i l e d
mathematical modeling o f c e r t a i n channels i n t h e system. S p e c i f i c a l l y ,
this volume provides simple mathematical t o o l s usable f o r p r e d i c t i n g ,
approximately, t h e performance of v a r i o u s communications and t r a c k i n g
channels i n t h e system.
 SYMBOLS

Signal structure:

A
peak amplitude of a s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r

c(t> a square-waveform, having v a l u e s +1 and -1, which

m a y be s u b s c r i p t e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

baseband modulation f u n c t i o n of a frequency-modulated

cwr i e r

a r b i t r a r y s i g n a l function

output f u n c t i o n of an i d e a l bandpass l i m i t e r

o u t p u t f u n c t i o n of an i d e a l m u l t i p l i e r

a d e s i r e d s i g n a l time f u n c t i o n which may appear

with identifying subscripts

nwi peak frequency d e v i a t i o n i n r a d i a n s / s e c of a sinu­

s o i d a l s u b c a r r i e r on a down-link frequency
modulated c a r r i e r

peak phase d e v i a t i o n , i n r a d i a n s , of a s i n u s o i d a l
s u b c a r r i e r of a down-link phase modulated
carrier

peak phase d e v i a t i o n , i n r a d i a n s , of a s i n u s o i d a l
s u b c a r r i e r of an u p - l i n k phase modulated
carrier

peak phase d e v i a t i o n i n r a d i a n s of a pseudo-random

r a n g i n g code on an u p - l i n k phase modulated c a r r i e r

Acpreff e f f e c t i v e peak phase d e v i a t i o n of a pseudo-random

ranging code on down-link phase modulated c a r r i e r

e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation f u n c t i o n on a s u b c a r r i e r
on a down-link frequency modulated c a r r i e r

e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation f u n c t i o n on a down-link

subc arr i e r

e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation f u n c t i o n on an u p - l i n k
subcarrier

e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation f u n c t i o n of an angle

modulated c a r r i e r

 Ut) a modulating f u n c t i o n of an angle modulated s i n u s o i d a l

carrier

iu m o d u l a t e d r a d i a n frequency of a s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r
C

iu r a d i a n frequency of a down-link s u b c a z r i e r
i
e. r a d i a n frequency of an up-link s u b c a r r i e r
J
Phase-locked l o o p s :

amplitude of i n p u t s i n u s o i d

amplitude of VCO s i n u s o i d

e q u i v a l e n t one-sided closed-loop n o i s e bandwidth

Laplace t r a n s f o r m of e ( t )

maximum v a l u e of e ( t )

l o o p modulation t r a c k i n g e r r o r f u n c t i o n

Laplace t r a n s f o r m of h ( t )

e q u i v a l e n t c l o s e d loop input output t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n

l o o p f i l t e r impulse response f u n c t i o n

open loop g a i n c o n s t a n t

VCO c o n s t a n t

p o l e frequency of t h e loop f i l t e r

Laplace t r a n s f o r m of vd(t)

VCO d r i v i n g f u n c t i o n

o u t p u t f u n c t i o n of v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r (VCO)

peak f a c t o r f o r VCO phase j i t t e r

zero frequency of t h e loop f i l t e r

loop damping r a t i o

v a r i a n c e of VCO phase j . i t t e r p r o c e s s

Laplace t r a n s f o r m of tpi(t) i n complex v a r i a b l e s

3
 Laplace transform of output phase f u n c t i o n

input phase f u n c t i o n

VCO output phase f u n c t i o n

loop n a t u r a l resonant frequency

a sample f u n c t i o n of a narrow-band-limited white

Gaussian n o i s e process

sample f u n c t i o n s of independent low frequency

white Gaussian n o i s e processes derived from n ( t )

v a r i a n c e s of t h e v a r i a b l e s n , x, y

a b s o l u t e , nonzero, values of t h e f l a t s p e c t r a l
densities

I (u)),@ (iu),@ (u)) noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n s x ( t ) ,

2: Y 11
Y(t>, n(t>

I a b s o l u t e , nonzero, value o f t h e f l a t s p e c t r a l
density

s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of an equivalent low frequency

white Gaussian phase process derived from n ( t )

Miscellaneous:

B f i l t e r transmission bandwidth

equivalent square t r a n s m i s s i o n bandwidth of an

BL
i d e a l bandpass l i m i t e r

bandwidth of an output f i l t e r
BO

midfrequency of an output bandpass f i l t e r

fm
f i l t e r transmission c o n s t a n t
Kf
K peak t o r m s f a c t o r
P
K' m u l t i p l i e r constant of an i d e a l m u l t i p l i e r
cp
M frequency m u l t i p l i c a t i o n r a t i o

an output n o i s e power

NO

pL output power of an i d e a l bandpass l i m i t e r

I
 S
- SNR s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e power r a t i o
”
v o l t a g e l i m i t i n g l e v e l of an i d e a l bandpass l i m i t e r
vL
s i g n a l suppression f a c t o r of an i d e a l bandpass l i m i t e r

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Purpose of t h e Document

Work s i m i l a r t o t h i s volume has been performed p r e v i o u s l y , e x t e r n a l

t o Manned Spacecraft Center. I n general, such work w a s fragmentary and
w a s performed t o meet c e r t a i n immediate needs such as responses t o NASA
r e q u e s t s f o r proposal. When work began on t h i s volume i n mid-1963, t h e
authors f e l t t h a t a need e x i s t e d f o r a comprehensive t u t o r i a l document
s e t t i n g down general analyses of t h e types of channels employed i n t h e
Apollo system. It w a s f e l t t h a t f o r such a document t o be u s e f u l t o NASA
engineers it should c o n t a i n , i n appendix form, s u f f i c i e n t b a s i c explana­
t i o n t o completely and independently support t h e body o f t h e document.
This work i s t h e a u t h o r s ’ answer t o t h a t need.

1.2 T h e o r e t i c a l Approach

1.2.1 A n a l y t i c a l Scope
The a n a l y s i s presented i n t h i s document has been performed w i t h t h e
a i m of obtaining t r a c t a b l e equations w i t h which t h e output d a t a q u a l i t y
can be p r e d i c t e d f o r each channel f o r a v a r i e t y of transmission modes
and conditions.

The approach has been t o d e r i v e output d a t a signal-to-noise power

r a t i o s which a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e i n p u t c a r r i e r - t o - n o i s e r a t i o f o r each
communication channel, by an expression containing g e n e r a l i z e d s i g n a l
modulation parameters and channel transmission parameters. The r e q u i r e ­
ment t h a t t h e channel equations be t r a c t a b l e w a s taken t o &ply t h a t t h e
expressions be r e l a t i v e l y simple and amenable t o hand c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h
t h e a i d of mathematical t a b l e s . Additionally, it w a s d e s i r e d t h a t t h e
form of t h e channel equations should give some i n t u i t i v e i n s i g h t i n t o
t h e operation of t h e channel.

Input-output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o r e l a t i o n s were derived s e p a r a t e l y

f o r each type demodulator and each type s i g n a l . Where simplifying as­
sumptions were made, t h e y were s t a t e d e x p l i c i t l y i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n s .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e most important of t h e a n a l y t i c a l assumptions have been
l i s t e d i n t h i s section.

This a n a l y s i s has t r e a t e d only d e s i r e d s i g n a l s and thermal system

n o i s e . No attempt has been made t o t r e a t intermodulation e f f e c t s or
equipment n o n l i n e a r i t i e s . System n o n l i n e a r i t i e s , such as l i m i t e r e f f e c t s
or t h e e f f e c t s of modulation r e s t r i c t i v e d e t e c t i o n , have been t r e a t e d .

 It i s not expected t h a t t h e s e channel equations w i l l y i e l d r e s u l t s

of a b s o l u t e accuracy. Rather, ease of handling channel p r e d i c t i o n s has
been obtained w i t h t o l e r a b l e accuracy through t h e use of s i m p l i f y i n g a s ­
sumptions. The philosophy has been adopted t h a t t h e performance of t h e
system analyzed here may be measured i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . The accuracy of
t h e p r e d i c t i o n a l equations having been determined, a r e q u i r e d channel per­
formance margin may be employed f o r t h e purposes of p r e d i c t i n g f o r other
transmission modes and c o n d i t i o n s than t h o s e measured i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y .

1.2.2 Method of P r e s e n t a t i o n
This document i s , i n a c e r t a i n sense, t u t o r i a l , and i n another sense,
a working document. Much m a t e r i a l , which has been b a s i c a l l y derived
elsewhere, has been extended or modified and reproduced h e r e . Enough
m a t e r i a l has been included t o make t h e document almost s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t
f o r t h e purpose o f making performance c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e system. The
scheme employed i n t h e w r i t i n g of t h i s document has been t o p r e s e n t a l l
b a s i c d e r i v a t i o n s i n appendix form. The main body of t h e paper w a s r e ­
seyved f o r assembling t h e i n d i v i d u a l channel equations from component
equations appearing in t h e appendices. I n t h i s manner, t h e m a i n body
o f t h e t e x t i s u s e f u l f o r working computations, and t h e appendices pro­
vide t h e r e q u i r e d a n a l y t i c a l support.

1.2.3' Assumptions
The most important of t h e simplifying assumptions which appear
throughout t h e document a r e t a b u l a t e d below a s an a i d t o t h e r e a d e r .

a . Modulation r e s t r i c t i v e phase-locked loops o p e r a t e with no mod­

u l a t i o n e r r o r , except f o r Doppler e f f e c t s .

b . Modulation t r a c k i n g phase-locked loops operate l i n e a r l y with

r e s p e c t t o phase.

e . Thresholds f o r phase-locked devices may be defined on a l i n e a r

b a s i s a f t e r t h e method of Martin ( r e f . 7 ) .

d. All p r e d e t e c t i o n and p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r s a r e i d e a l with f l a t

amplitude transmission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and square cut-off frequency
characteristics.

e . Input n o i s e t o a l l channels i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s being band-

l i m i t e d , white, and Gaussian.

f . All amplitude l i m i t e r s a r e i d e a l snap-action with i d e a l pre­

l i m i t i n g and p o s t l i m i t i n g f i l t e r s of equal bandwidth.

g. A l l d i g i t a l waveforms have an i d e a l square shape.

h. A l l output d a t a signal-to-noise r a t i o s a r e derived f o r channel

demodulators above t h r e s h o l d .
i . Proper s i g n a l design i n s u r e s no in-channel intermodulation
products .
6

 1 . 3 System Description
A p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e system concept, s p a c e c r a f t and ground
equipment, signal design, and system operation of t h e u n i f i e d S-band
system has been discussed i n volume I of t h i s s e r i e s , NASA TN D-2208.
Although t h e p r e s e n t volume contains block diagrams of t h e system channels,
it i s recommended t h a t t h e r e a d e r f a m i l i a r i z e himself with volume I p r i o r
t o reading t h i s volume.

2 -0 GROUND-TO-SPACECRAFT CHCWNEL ANALYSES

The s i g n a l t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e ground t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s taken as

a s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r phase modulated by a sum of ranging code, up-data
s u b c a r r i e r , and voice s u b c a r r i e r . T h i s composite s i g n a l i s demodulated
a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and t h e baseband s i g n a l i s r o u t e d t o t h e premodulation
processor f o r recovery of t h e s u b c a r r i e r s , and a l s o t o t h e PM modulator
f o r down-link transmission. I n t h i s s e c t i o n , we w i l l p r e s e n t t h e analyses
of t h e transponder c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g channel, and a l s o t h e voice and up-
d a t a channels.

2.1 C a r r i e r Tracking Channel

The performance c r i t e r i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t c a r r i e r - t r a c k i n g channel

i s t h e t h r e s h o l d of t h e c a r r i e r - t r a c k i n g phase lock-loop. The performance
of such a loop has been analyzed i n appendix C . 4 .

The input s i g n a l power a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s obtained from equation

A.3. ( 7 ) , page A-8, as
n L

where

A = s i g n a l amplitude

A+r = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e up-link c a r r i e r by t h e range code

Adj = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e up-link c a r r i e r by t h e j t h s u b c a r r i e r

The i n p u t n o i s e power, computed i n a bandwidth equal t o t h e c a r r i e r

t r a c k i n g loop n o i s e bandwidth, BN, i s given by

where

= t h e magnitude of t h e f l a t i n p u t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y .

From e q u a t i o n s (1)and ( 2 ) , w e o b t a i n

where

The t h r e s h o l d v a l u e of may be determined according t o t h e d e s i r e d

s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l o s s of c a r r i e r phase l o c k . The

r e a d e r may r e f e r t o appendix C-4 where v e r s u s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of

B

l o s s o f c a r r i e r phase l o c k i s t r e a t e d .

2.2 The Voice Channel

The s p a c e c r a f t voice channel i s shown i n f i g u r e 2.2-1 along w i t h

t h e up-data channel. Let t h e narrowest bandwidth p r i o r t o t h e wide-
band d e t e c t o r be denoted as B Then t h e i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o
LP *
computed i n B is
LP

where

A = s i g n a l amplitude

I
‘nil
= t h e magnitude o f t h e f l a t i n p u t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

. . - .. . .-. . . ..... ... 1111 I I, I

 , , ,~
N
V
Js

rJ BAND-PASS
LIMITER
Bw= B l v -
LOOP FILTER
--
"
LOW - PASS
FILTER
Bv
BV
b

BAND-PASS
LIMITER
BwBlp

BAND- PASS
REF
LIMITER LOOP FIUER­ FILTER

a 1 1-

BLUD
BW= BLUD

Figure 2.2-1.- Up-link channels

 From equatlon D.1.4.1 (61, page D-7, we o b t a i n t h e v o i c e s u b c a r r i e r
signal-to-noise r a t i o computed i n BLV' t h e bandwidth of t h e band-pass
l i m i t e r of t h e v o i c e channel. Thus, from t h i s appendix, and t a k i n g i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e s p a c e c r a f t l i m i t e r suppression (as t r e a t e d i n s e c t i o n
H. 3 ) , we o b t a i n

where

aL = l i m i t e r suppression f a c t o r

A$r = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e range code

A$v = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e v o i c e s u b c a r r i e r

A$j = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e jth s u b c a r r i e r

= v o i c e s u b c a r r i e r demodulator p r e d e t e c t i o n bandwidth
BLV

The q u a l i t y of t h e voice channel may b e determined by computing t h e

v o i c e information peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-squared n o i s e r a t i o . T h i s
r a t i o w a s chosen because much work has been performed ( r e f e r e n c e 2 3 ) re­
l a t i n g t h e peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-squared n o i s e r a t i o t o i n t e l l i g i ­
b i l i t y with c l i p p i n g depth as a parameter. Thus, from e q u a t i o n E . 3 . 2 ( 6 ) ,
page E-9, w e have

Using now equations ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) , we o b t a i n

10

-...

Since

equation ( 4 ) becomes

where

= peak frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e v o i c e s u b c a r r i e r by i t s
A f rpeak information

= bandwidth of v o i c e channel p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r
BV
Equation (6) g i v e s t h e v o i c e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i n terms of t h e range
code, t h e v o i c e channel parameters, and L s u b c a r r i e r s t r a n s m i t t e d t o
t h e spacecraft.

2.3 The Up-Data Channel

Rel’erring a g a i n t o Sigure 2.2-1, che i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o
(sm) computed in E
LP
is

-
‘i
‘i

F r o m equation D.1.4.1 (6), page D-7, we o b t a i n t h e up-data s u b c a r r i e r

SNR computed i n B t h e bandwidth of t h e band-pass l i m i t e r of t h e
LUD’
up-data channel.
Thus

11
A s in t h e c a s e oi" t h e voice channel, t h e peLk-squared s i g n a l t o mean-
squared n o i s e r a t i o w i l l b e used to determine t h e up-data channel
q u a l i t y . Thus, from e q u a t i o n E.3.2 ( 6 ) , page E-11, we have

where

-
IXlS
Kp = peak
of t h e up-data s i g n a l .

Using now equations ( 2 ) , (3), and t h e f a c t t h a t

we obtain

where

a = limiter supression f a c t o r
L

= peak frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e up-data s u b c a r r i e r by

A f peak
~
i t s information

= bandwiath of t h e up-data channel p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r

BUD

= phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e range code

A%

= phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e up-data s u b c a r r i e r

A%l

= phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e jth s u b c a r r i e r

A Pj

12

s i n c e t h e up-data r e c e i v e r i s a subsystem s e p a r a t e from t h e s p a c e c r a f t

S-band subsystem, it i s assumed t h a t t h e output d a t a q u a l i t y of t h e ,up­
d a t a r e c e i v e r may be uniquely r e l a t e d t o t h e output signal-to-noise r a t i o

of t h e up-data s u b c a r r i e r demodulator, b] B,,

. Given a s p e c i f i c a t i o n

for %
N
] , equation ( 4 ) may be used t o i n f e r t h e channel q u a l i t y .
UD BUD

3.0 SPACECRCIFT-TO-GBOUND PHASE MODULATED CHANNEL ANALYSES

3.1 C a r r i e r Tracking Channel

There a r e two performance c r i t e r i a f o r t h e c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g channel.
One c r i t e r i o n i s t h e i n p u t signal-to-noise r a t i o a t which t h e channel
t h r e s h o l d s . The o t h e r c r i t e r i o n i s t h e input signal-to-noise r a t i o a t
which t h e VCO phase j i t t e r i s acceptable f o r Doppler t r a c k i n g .

I n s e c t i o n F.3, it w a s shown t h a t t h e ground c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g loop

may be t r e a t e d f o r t h r e s h o l d as i n s e c t i o n C . 4 , given a knowledge of t h e
loop's equivalent t h r e s h o l d n o i s e bandwidth B
N'
The ground-received s i g n a l power i n t h e r e c e i v e r c l o s e d loop n o i s e
bandwidth i s obtained from equation F.5.2 ( 7 ) , page F-36, as

where
2
-0

e Os = s i g n a l suppression f a c t o r due t o phase modulated n o i s e i n

t h e s p a c e c r a f t turnaround channel

A = peak value of t h e r e c e i v e d s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r
g

13

 and

hfj

The r e a d e r should r e f e r t o s e c t i o n F.3 f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e

s p a c e c r a f t turnaround channel and t h e d e r i v a t i o n of e q u a t i o n s ( 2 ) and
( 3 ) . Other terms a r e d e f i n e d as:
= s p a c e c r a f t turnaround channel phase g a i n , n e g l e c t i n g l i m i t e r
suppression

Acpreff = e f f e c t i v e phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e turnaround

range code
Aqj, A(ph = s u b c a r r i e r phase d e v i a t i o n on t h e up-link c a r r i e r

= s u b c a r r i e r phase d e v i a t i o n on t h e down-link c a r r i e r
A q
ct = s p a c e c r a f t l i m i t e r s i g n a l suppression f a c t o r
LS
Ap.eff = e f f e c t i v e phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e turnaround
J s-Jbcarr ie r s
The ground r e c e i v e r n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
normal system n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y
l'ni I
p l u s t h e phase n o i s e

t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e s p a c e c r a f t during t h e turnaround p r o c e s s . The

t o t a l r e c e i v e r n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s defined h e r e as
l%l
and it i s t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l i n s e c t i o n F.5.1. Thus, t h e n o i s e i n t h e
ground r e c e i v e r c l o s e d l o o p n o i s e bandwidth BN i s

N
c
= 2 +
1 nTIBN
(4)

The s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o computed i n t h e c l o s e d l o o p n o i s e band­

width may be o b t a i n e d from (1)and ( 4 ) . Thus, we have

S
-
N
C

c-

II 1
Since

equation ( 5 ) may be s i m p l i y i e d . Thus

The t h r e s h o l d v a l u e of may be s p e c i f i e d as i n s e c t i o n C . 4 .

3.2 Angle Tracking Channel

The c l o s e d l o o p n o i s e bandwidth of t h e angle channel i s consider­

a b l y smaller t h a n t h a t of t h e c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g channel. Since t h e angle
channel depends on t h e c a r r i e r channel VCO f o r phase r e f e r e n c e , t h e
a n g l e channel performance i s d i r e c t l y t i e d t o t h e c a r r i e r channel p e r ­
formance. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e angle channel does n o t perform when t h e
c a r r i e r channel t h r e s h o l d s . Therefore, equation 3 . 1 (5) may a l s o be
used t o d e f i n e angle channel t h r e s h o l d .

3.3 Ranging Channel

The b a s i c model r e q u i r e d t o analyze t h e performance of t h e ranging

channel i s shown i n f i g u r e 3.3-1. Since t h e r a n g i n g channel i n c l u d e s
t h e s p a c e c r a f t transponder as w e l l as t h e ground range c l o c k r e c e i v e r ,
t h e r e a d e r i s urged t o r e a d s e c t i o n s F . l and F.5.

Various terms a r e d e f i n e d below:

= i n p u t signa1,power t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t r e c e i v e r
'is

(w) = spacecraft input noise s p e c t r a l density

'n
is

= spacecraft signal-to-noise r a t i o a t l i m i t e r input,

computed i n l i m i t e r bandwidth
 a = s p a c e c r a f t band-pass l i m i t e r s i g n a l suppression f a c t o r
LS
= s p a c e c r a f t band-pass l i m i t e r bandwidth
%S
= s p a c e c r a f t band-pass l i m i t e r v o l t a g e l i m i t i n g l e v e l
vLs
= s p a c e c r a f t wideband d e t e c t o r g a i n c o n s t a n t
Kb
= s p a c e c r a f t turnaround channel phase g a i n c o n s t a n t
+m
= s p a c e c r a f t output c a r r i e r power
sos
S = i n p u t s i g n a l power t o t h e ground r e c e i v e r
ig
( w ) = ground thermal i n p u t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y
n
'
ig
@nT(W ) = ground t o t a l "equivalent" i n p u t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y ,
i n c l u d i n g t u r n e d around n o i s e

= ground signal-to-noise r a t i o a t range clock r e c e i v e r i n p u t ,

computed using t o t a l e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

= c l o c k signal-to-noise r a t i o a t l i m i t e r i n p u t , computed i n
N l i m i t e r bandwidth

= range clock r e c e i v e r l i m i t e r bandwidth

BLR
= range clock loop n o i s e bandwidth
BN

There a r e two performance c r i t e r i a f o r t h e r a n g i n g channel. One

concerns t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o (SNR), r e q u i r e d a t t h e i n p u t of t h e
range c l o c k r e c e i v e r t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e c l o c k l o o p ( s e e f i g u r e F.1-1)
i s above t h r e s h o l d . The second c r i t e r i o n concerns t h e i n p u t SNR r e q u i r e d
f o r a given range code a c q u i s i t i o n t h e .

3.3.1 Clock Loop Threshold

Given a s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of loss of l o c k , t h e
t h r e s h o l d p r o p e r t i e s of t h e range c l o c k l o o p a r e implied by t h e c l o c k

SNR a t t h e l i m i t e r i n p u t , , computed in B
" t h e clock loop noise

bandwidth. Combining equation F.1.4 (l), page F-12, and F.5.2 (4),
page F-36, we o b t a i n

16

 S.
C S
\7
BAND-mss PHASE
LIMITER I b. MODUL ATOR
A+m

REF:
SIGNAL

LIMITER b CLOCK LOOP .

, KLR~BLR BN I

I I
REF
SIGNAL
CODE
RECEIVER
CODE
GENERAT0R
I-'
1

CLOCK

Figure 3.3-1.- The ranging channel

 (1)

where

aTreff = The e q u i v a l e n t turnaround phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e range code

on t h e down c a r r i e r as given by equation F. 5.2 ( 5 ) , page
F-36.
aV.eff = The e q u i v a l e n t turned-around phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e up-
J
s u b c a r r i e r s on t h e down c a r r i e r as given by equation F.5.2
(6), page F-36.
= a s i g n a l d e t e c t i o n l o s s as d e f i n e d i n s e c t i o n F.1.3, page
LD
F-12.

A c o r r e l a t i o n l o s s as d e f i n e d i n s e c t i o n F.1.3, page F-11.

LK

The i n p u t SNR computed i n BN i s given as

where

A = t h e peak v a l u e of t h e s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r r e c e i v e d a t t h e
g ground

2 = t h e mean-squared v a l u e of t h e turned-around phase n o i s e as

CT
'ps given by equation F.5.1 ( 5 ) , page F-34.

The v a l u e of may be obtained from equation F.5.1 ( 1 2 ) , page F-33.

Using equation (1)and ( 2 ) , t h e range c l o c k loop may be t r e a t e d f o r

t h r e s h o l d as i n s e c t i o n C . 4 .

3.3.2 Range Code A c q u i s i t i o n Time

From f i g u r e F.1.5-1, page F-17, t h e a c q u i s i t i o n t i m e f o r t h e

18

...
11
-.-­
.-.-.-.--.I.-.. 1
-.1.-. I
. 1 1 1 I I. 11111-11111 I111111111 I II I I111111111IIIIIIIIII11111111 I I I I II I I1111111111111111111111 111
pseudo-random ranging code may be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o of

e f f e c t i v e output signal-to-noise s p e c t r a l density - , using equation

Pol
F.1.5 (lb), page F-16.
Combining equations F.1.5 (lo), page F-15, and F.5 (4), page F-30,
we o b t a i n

CY L K n

where

and t h e q u a n t i t i e s A
g’
CT
‘PS”
Acpreff, IQn,l)and Acp.eff
J
a r e t h e same

a s i n s e c t i o n 3.3.1.

3 . 4 The PCM Telemetry Channel

The PCM t e l e m e t r y channel i s shown i n f i g u r e 3.4-1. “he f i g u r e
includes only those components o f t h e channel necessary f o r t h e a n a l y s i s
t o follow.

L e t us again define t h e channel i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o as

2
-0
e vs
A
13

I ‘I

where as before

A = amplitude of t h e s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r received a t t h e
g ground

= band-pass f i l t e r bandwidth
BLP
Iu
0

BAND- PASS BAND- PASS

FILTER LIMITER -
a-

( I* LOOP FILTER
Bw = BLP Bw = BLT

x 2
Ref
A

-
1
vco

I I

I b
Low-PASS
FILTER
Bw = B T
-

Figure 3.4-1.- PCM t e l e m e t r y channel

 1~-11.11111111111111111111111111 I 111 II I I I1 I 1111 I I II 1 II1 I 1
I I I 1111 I 1 I 111
.1 1111111111.1111111111 1
I. I I1
I

Qn ( f ) = t o t a l e f f e c t i v e t t i n p u t t tnoise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y
T

A t t h i s p o i n t the r e a d e r should note c a r e f u l l y t h a t

only when t h e transponder ranging channel i s closed. When t h i s channel

i s open, Q ( f ) i n c l u d e s t h e transponder turned-around noise as w e l l
"T
as t h e t t n 6 m 1 t t ground system input noise. The term Gn (f) i s given
T
i n appendix F.6.1.

The recovery o f a s u b c a r r i e r using a band-pass f i l t e r has been

t r e a t e d i n appendix D. Thus, f r m equation D . 1 . 4 . 1 (61, page D-7, and
appendix F, equation F.5.2 (4), we o b t a i n

K L
= 2 cos2(&reff) J:(%) J:(Acpi)
i=1 j =1
i#T

where AcPreff and AcP.eff a r e as defined i n s e c t i o n 3.1 and

J

2
-0
e " = s i g n a l suppression f a c t o r due t o phase modulation of t h e
down-link c a r r i e r by transponder turned-around n o i s e .

Now

(3)

Combining now equations ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) , we o b t a i n

K L

= 2 cos2(AcPreff
1=1 j=1
T
B
]
? i#T LP

21

 Considering now t h a t

equation ( 4 ) becomes

T
= 2 cos2(A'P,eff) J:(AVT) J:(Acpi) (A
','f)['>
.,

The telemetry demodulator i n t h i s r e p o r t h a s been considered as a

s p e c i a l i z e d d e t e c t o r . A s such, it h a s been t r e a t e d i n s e c t i o n F.3.
The r e a d e r may r e f e r t o t h i s s e c t i o n f o r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e demodulator
threshold.

3.5 The Voice Channel

The voice information i s t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e s p a c e c r a f t on a sub-
c a r r i e r which i s a l s o used f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n of biomedical d a t a . Thus,
t h e ground s u b c a r r i e r demodulator i s common t o both voice and biomedical
d a t a channels. The voice channel i s shown i n f i g u r e 3.5-1. The channel
i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s d e f i n e d as

where

A = amplitude of t h e s i g n a l
g;
= band-gass f i l t e r bandwidth
BLP
= input noise s p e c t r a l density
I@"Tl
A s i n t h e case of PCM t e l e m e t r y only when t h e transponder

ranging channel i s closed. Otherwise; i t ' i s d e f i n e d i n s e c t i o n F.6.

22

 Ref
I

Lp b FILTER LOOP FILTER -

B W = BLP

Figure 3.5-1.- The voice channel

Iu
w
 The s u b c a r r i e r s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o may be o b t a i n e d f r o m appeh­
dix D.1.4.1, e q u a t i o n (6). Thus
K L

i#v

A s shown i n f i g u r e 3.5-1, t h e v o i c e information i s recovered w i t h a low-pass

f i l t e r a t t h e output of t h e modulation t r a c k i n g l o o p . The v o i c e channel
q u a l i t y may be determined by computing t h e peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-
squared n o i s e r a t i o a t t h e output of t h e v o i c e channel low-pass f i l t e r .
This r a t i o w a s chosen by t h e a u t h o r s , s o t h a t it may be used d i r e c t l y t o
evaluate voice i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . -
Now, from s e c t i o n E.3.2 ( 6 ) , page E-11, we have

Using now e q u a t i o n s ( 2 ) and (3), we o b t a i n

("'
Nv
= 6p rj2 cos2 ( A v ~ e f f ) J t ( A T v )
K

ifv

Now s i n c e

24

= 6yqaj' c os2(Ayreff) J:(Aq) i =1

i fv

where

= peak frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r by i t s

M~ peak information

Bv = p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r ba.ndwidth

= phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r

Acpreff = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e range code as de­

f i n e d i n appendix E. 6
Acp.eff = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e jth s u b c a r r i e r
J turned around i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t as defined i n
appendix E . 6

wi = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e ith s u b c a r r i e r
originating i n the spacecraft

The voice channel t h r e s h o l d may be t r e a t e d as i n appendix C.

3.6 Biomedical Data Channels

The seven biomedical d a t a channels are i d e n t i c a l . Therefore, only
one of them w i l l be analyzed here. One of t h e s e channels i s shown i n
f i g u r e 3.6-1.

Examination of f i g u r e 3.5-1, s e c t i o n 3.5, r e v e a l s t h a t e q u a t i o n s (1)

and (2) of t h e voice channel a r e t h e same for t h e biomedical d a t a
channels. W e may then proceed w i t h t h e signal-to-noise r a t i o of one
biomedical d a t a s u b c a r r i e r a t t h e output of t h e voice and biomedical
d a t a s u b c a r r i e r modulation t r a c k i n g loop. Since t h e band-pass filter i s
 Ref
[u
cT\

BAND-PASS
FILTER LIMITER LOOP FILTER
B =BLp Bw = BL"

vco

BAND-PASS LOW- PASS

LIMITER DETECTOR FILTER 0
Bw =BLB Bw= BE
A

Figure 3.6-1.- The biomedical data c h a n n e l

 used f o r t h e recovery of t h e s u b c a r r i e r , we may r e f e r t o appendix E ,
s e c t i o n E . 3 . 1 , equation (81, page E-10. Thus,

where

b = frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e voice and biomedical d a t a sub-

Af
c a r r i e r due t o t h e biomedical d a t a s u b c a r r i e r i n q u e s t i o n

= frequency of t h e biomedical d a t a s u b c a r r i e r i n q u e s t i o n
fb

The d e t e c t o r shown i n biomedical data channel may be e i t h e r a modulation

t r a c k i n g l o o p or an i Dl d i s c r i m i n a t o r . Excluding t h r e s h o l d c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,
t h e a n a l y s i s of t h i s s e c t i o n holds f o r e i t h e r type of d e t e c t o r .

The recovery of d a t a from a s u b c a r r i e r using a modulation t r a c k i n g

l o o p and a low-pass f i l t e r i s covered i n d e t a i l i n appendix E. Thus,
from s e c t i o n E.3.2, e q u a t i o n ( 8 ) , we f i n d t h a t

Using now e q u a t i o n s (1) and ( 2 ) of s e c t i o n 3.6 and (1) and ( 2 ) o f t h i s

section, we obtain

cos2 (Avreff) J12(A%) fi

i=1

where

K = f a c t o r r e l a t i n g t h e peak t o rms value of t h e baseband

P modulation of t h e biomedical d a t a s u b c a r r i e r i n
question

27
 = t h e peak frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e biomedical data sub-
af, peak c a r r i e r by i t s modulation

= bandwidth of biomedical d a t a p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r
BB '

The r e s t of t h e terms of equation (3) are as d e f i n e d i n s e c t i o n 3.6.

Now s i n c e

equation ( 3 ) becomes

'n
T

The t h r e s h o l d of t h e biomedical data channels i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t

of t h e voice demodulator s i n c e voice and t h e biomedical data s u b c a r r i e r s
a r e frequency multiplexed. The voice demodulator t h r e s h o l d treatment
may be found i n appendix D.

3.7 The mergency Voice Channel

The emergency voice channel i s s h m i n f i g u r e 3.7-1. The r e a d e r
i s reminded a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e emergency voice s i g n a l does not con­
t a i n t h e "turn-around" n o i s e . This i s because t h e voice s i g n a l i s mod­
u l a t e d d i r e c t l y on t h e VCO output while t h e turn-around ranging channel
i s i n a c t i v e during t h i s mode of transmission.

The voice channel i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o may be defined as:

28

 t
BAND-PASS LOW -PASS
b FILTER FILTER
Bw= BLP BE
L

Ref

Figure 3.7-1.- The emergency voice channel

where

A = amplitude of i n p u t s i g n a l
g

= bandwidth of band-pass l i m i t e r
BLP
= i n p u t noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

Again t h e peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-squared n o i s e will be used f o r

e v a l u a t i o n of t h e channel q u a l i t y . Thus, from s e c t i o n D.1.4.2 ( 5 ) ,
page D - 8

=
2
sin V"( peak) [2IB LP
where

= peak phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e voice i n f o r ­

@%peak mation

Using now equation ( 2 ) , and t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e bandwidth

r a t i o , we o b t a i n

where

BE = bandwidth of low-pass f i l t e r used t o recover t h e voice i n f o r ­

mation

Now s i n c e

equation (3) becomes

The t h r e s h o l d of t h e emergency voice demodulator i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t of
t h e c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g loop. The c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g loop t h r e s h o l d has been
discussed i n s e c t i o n 3.1.

3.8 The knergency Key Channel

The emergency key channel i s shown i n f i g u r e 3.8-1. A s t h e f i g u r e

i n d i c a t e s , a beat-frequency o s c i l l a t o r i s used for demodulation. The
r e a d e r i s reminded t h a t no turn-around noise e x i s t s i n t h e channel s i n c e
the transponder ranging channel i s not a c t i v e during transmission of
emergency key.

Again, t h e channel input signal-to-noise r a t i o i s defined as

When p r e s e n t , t h e emergency key s i g n a l appears as a s u b c a r r i e r i n

t h e incoming s i g n a l . Thus, from equation D.1.4.1 ( 5 ) , page D-7, we
f i n d t h a t t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o o f a s u b c a r r i e r , recovered by a
band-pass f i l t e r , a t t h e output of a modulation r e s t r i c t i v e loop i s

where

ATK = phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e key s u b c a r r i e r

However, s i n c e

(3)

Equation ( 2 ) becomes

Now s i n c e
w
[u

-
d b q
31

BLP
BAND- WSS BAND-PASS
b F1LTER FILTER
Bw = B L P Bw = BsK NK BK

Ref. B FO

Figure 3.8-1.- The emergency key channel

equation ( 4 ) becomes

where

BK = key p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r bandwidth
The emergency key channel t h r e s h o l d i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e c a r r i e r loop
t h r e s h o l d . Thus, t h e r e a d e r may refer t o s e c t i o n 3.1 f o r t h r e s h o l d
r e l a t i o n s of t h e key channel.

4.0 SPACECRAFT-TO- GROUND FREQUENCY MODULATED CHANNEL ANALYSES

The s p a c e c r a f t frequency modulated c a r r i e r i s assumed t o c o n t a i n

t e l e v i s i o n a t baseband and two s u b c a r r i e r s . One s u b c a r r i e r i s i d e n t i f i e d
as t h e PCM t e l e m e t r y s u b c a r r i e r , and may c o n t a i n e i t h e r high or low b i t
r a t e real-time t e l e m e t r y or apparent high b i t rate recorded telemetry.
The o t h e r s u b c a r r i e r i s i d e n t i f i e d as t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r , and may con­
t a i n e i t h e r r e a l - t i m e c l i p p e d voice p l u s biomedical d a t a , or recorded
voice.

The following s e c t i o n s w i l l t r e a t s e p a r a t e l y t h e output d a t a s i g n a l ­

to-noise r a t i o s f o r t e l e v i s i o n , voice, PCM t e l e m e t r y , and biomedical
d a t a . The r e a d e r should note t h a t t h e mathematical r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l
involve K s u b c a r r i e r s , r a t h e r than two, i n o r d e r t h a t t h e s e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p s remain g e n e r a l .

4 . 1 C a r r i e r Demodulation Channel
The performance c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e c a r r i e r demodulator, which i s a
modulation t r a c k i n g phase-locked loop, i s i t s t h r e s h o l d . The demodu­
l a t o r t h r e s h o l d may be t r e a t e d as i n appendix C given a knowledge of
t h e e q u i v a l e n t closed-loop n o i s e bandwidth B The FM c a r r i e r demcdu­
N'
l a t o r i s shown i n f i g u r e 4.1-1. The i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s
taken as

33

BAND-PASS
LIMTER b LOOP FILTER
BW' BLP

Figure 4.1-1.- The FM c a r r i e r channel

 .. .. .. -. .
, , .. , .-..

where

s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r amplitude

i n p u t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y magnitude

bandwidth of t h e band-pass limiter

A t t h i s p o i n t we w i l l assume t h a t t h e c a r r i e r channel l o o p n o i s e band­

width i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h e bandwidth of t h e band-pass l i m i t e r pre­
ceding it. Therefore, t h e t h r e s h o l d of t h i s channel can be t r e a t e d as
i n s e c t i o n C.5.

4.2 T e l e v i s i o n Channel

The performance c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e t e l e v i s i o n channel is i t s o u t p u t

d a t a s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o . Since t h e t e l e v i s i o n demodulator i s t h e
c a r r i e r demodulator, i t s t h r e s h o l d i s t r e a t e d as s t a t e d i n s e c t i o n 4.1.
Figure 4.2-1 shows t h e t e l e v i s i o n demodulator.

The i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s taken as

where

A = s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r amplitude

I I
@ni
= input noise s p e c t r a l density

= width of t h e band-pass l i m i t e r which f e e d s t h e c a r r i e r de-

BLP modulator

The r a t i o of peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-squared n o i s e out of t h e

output low-pass f i l t e r i s t a k e n from equation E . 3 . 2 ( 6 ) , page E-11.
Thus

where AFTIT i s t h e peak frequency d e v i a t i o n i n c y c l e s per second of

the t e l e v i s i o n s i g n a l on t h e c a r r i e r .

35

w
cn

S 3

B ~p -
BAND PASS
LIMITER - LOOF
8, = B L P
I

Figure 4.2-1.- The television channel

I

U t i l i z i n g a peak t o rms f a c t o r Kp, for t h e t e l e v i s i o n waveform,

as i n s e c t i o n D.3.2, t h e mean-squared output signal-to-noise r a t i o
i s given as

F r o m equations ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) t h e d a t a output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s

7 [y[-12[3
NTv BTV
= 3K 2 L9 MTv
BTV BTv i Bw

However, s i n c e

then

(41
Tv

4 . 3 PCM Telemetry Channel

The performance c r i t e r i a for t h e t e l e m e t r y channel a r e i t s output
data s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o and t h e t e l e m e t r y demodulator t h r e s h o l d .
Figure 4.3-1 shows t h e t e l e m e t r y channel.

The i n p u t s i g n a l n o i s e r a t i o i s taken a s

where

A = s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r amplitude

rni I = input noise s p e c t r a l density

= width of t h e band-pass l i m i t e r which f e e d s t h e c a r r i e r

BLp
demodulator

37

w
03

BAND-PASS
LIMITER LOOP FILTER -b SQUARE LAW LOOP FILTER -
DETECTOR

L-l
FREQ MULT.

STl
LOW - PASS
FILTER
i

Figure 4.3-1.- PCM t e l e m e t r y channel

 The t e l e m e t r y s u b c a r r i e r signal-to-noise r a t i o a t t h e c a r r i e r
demodulator output, computed i n BLS, t h e bandwidth of t h e s u b c a r r i e r
band-pass l i m i t e r , i s t a k e n from equation E. 3.1 ( 8 ) , page E-10. Thus,

where

fT = s u b c a r r i e r frequency

Ai? = peak frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e s u b c a r r i e r on t h e c a r r i e r

T
Equation ( 2 ) employs t h e assumption that

Lp]
12 f T
2
<<I

Now t h e output d a t a s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o may be obtained. Thus,

(41

where

B = bandwidth o f t h e p o s t d e t e c t i o n f i l t e r
T
Using now equations ( 2 ) and ( b ) , we obtain:

However, s i n c e
The t h r e s h o l d of t h e t e l e m e t r y demodulator has been discussed i n
s e c t i o n F.3 where t h e demodulator a n a l y s i s i s given.

4.4 Voice Channel

The performance c r i t e r i a f o r t h e voice channel are t h e d a t a output
signal-to-noise r a t i o and t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r demodulator threshold.
The voice channel i s s h m i n f i g u r e 4.4-1.

The i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , c m p u t e d i n t h e bandwidth
BLP’
o f t h e c a r r i e r band-pass l i m i t e r i s taken as

-
A2

where

A = s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r amplitude

= input n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

The voice s u b c a r r i e r signal-to-noise r a t i o a t t h e c a r r i e r demod­

u l a t o r output, computed i n BLs, t h e s u b c a r r i e r band-pass l i m i t e r band­
width, i s taken fYm equation E . 3 . 1 ( 8 ) , page E-10, as

where

fSV = voice s u b c a r r i e r frequency

Afm = peak frequency d e v i a t i o n o f t h e s u b c a r r i e r on t h e c a r r i e r .

Equation (2) uses t h e assumption t h a t

- -
Lpj fSV <<I

The peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean;squared n o i s e a t t h e low-pass

f i l t e r o u t p u t , computed i n B t h e low-pass f i l t e r bandwidth i s taken
VY
from equation E.3.2 (61, page E-11, as
40

LIMITER LOOP FILTER -

b BAND- PASS
LOOP FILTER -
LOW-PASS
FILTER
BW' Bv
0
BW-BLP

Figure 4.4-1.- The voice channel

 where

= peak frequency d e v i a t i o n o f t h e voice s i g n a l on t h e

peak voice s u b c a r r i e r

From equations ( 2 ) and ( 4 ) t h e output d a t a signal-to-noise ratio

i s given as

('V peak
BV
= 2 . - sv
[ Af
fSV
[fvB;eaj2p]
:IBLp
N (5)

However, s i n c e

('V peak)
NV
1 BV = 3 rf
* fSV
S V I 2 rfVB;eaK] [>]i BV

The t h r e s h o l d of t h e voice demodulator may be t r e a t e d as i n appendix C .

4.5 Biomedical Data Channel

The performance c r i t e r i a for t h e b i o m e d i c a l c h a n n e l s a r e t h e d a t a

output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , t h e i n d i v i d u a l biomedical s u b c a r r i e r de­
modulator t h r e s h o l d s , and t h e voice demodulator t h r e s h o l d , s i n c e t h e
biomedical s u b c a r r i e r s a r e frequency multiplexed with t h e normal v o i c e .
Only one biomedical channel i s t r e a t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , s i n c e t h e gen­
e r a l equations a r e t h e same for a l l biomedical channels.

The i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , computed i n BLp, t h e c a r r i e r

l i m i t e r bandwidth i s taken a s

42

 LIMITER LOOP FILTER - b LIMITER -

BW-BLP BW-BLS

BAND- PASS LOW- PASS 'y'B0

LOOP FIUER d LIMITER - b FM DETECTOR b FILTER
BW-BLE L

Bw= BE

-F
Figure 4.5-1.- The biomedical data channel
w
where

A = s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r amplitude

I 'nil
= input noise s p e c t r a l density

The voice s u b c a r r i e r signal-to-noise r a t i o a t t h e c a r r i e r demod­

u l a t o r output, computed i n BLs, t h e s u b c a r r i e r l i m i t e r bandwidth, i s
taken from equation E. 3.1 ( 8 ) , page E-10, as

where

fSV = voice s u b c a r r i e r frequency

A f w = peak frequency d e v i a t i o n o f t h e s u b c a r r i e r on t h e c a r r i e r

Equation ( 2 ) uses t h e assumption t h a t

2
12 [
1 k]
fSV (3 1

The biomedical s u b c a r r i e r signal-to-noise r a t i o a t t h e output of

t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r demodulator, computed i n t h e biomedical
B~~~
s u b c a r r i e r band-pass l i m i t e r bandwidth, i s ta.ken from equation E.3.1 ( 8 ) ,
page E-10, as

2
%I

-
N
-
-

BLs

where

fSB = biomedical s u b c a r r i e r f'requency

MSB = peak frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e biomedical s u b c a r r i e r on

t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r .

Equation (4) uses t h e assumptions t h a t t h e n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y out

of t h e voice s u b c a r r i e r demodulator may be considered f l a t a c r o s s t h e
b i a n e d i c a l s u b c a r r i e r limiter bandwidth, and t h a t

44

 2
1[k] << 1 (5)
l2 fSB

The peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-squared n o i s e r a t i o a t t h e output

of t h e law-pass f i l t e r , computed i n BB, t h e low-pass f i l t e r bandwidth,
i s taken f’rom equation E. 3.2 ( 6 ) , page E-11, as

Using a peak-to-rms K
factor, for t h e biomedical data s i g n a l ,
P’
t h e mean-squared d a t a signal-to-noise r a t i o a t t h e output i s taken
from equation E. 3.2 (7),page E-11, as

Cmbining equations (21, (41, ( 6 ) , and (71, t h e output biomedical

d a t a s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s given as

However, s i n c e

equation (8) becomes

The t h r e s h o l d of t h e biomedical d a t a channels i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t

of t h e voice demodulator s i n c e voice and t h e biomedical data s u b c a r r i e r s
are frequency multiplexed.
 APPFNDIX A

ANGL;E MODULATION

A s explained i n volume 1 of t h i s s e r i e s , t h e Apollo lunar communi­

c a t i o n system employs s i n u s o i d a l angle modulation. I n p a r t i c u l a r , both
phase modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM) are employed. It
i s t h e purpose of t h i s appendix t o d e r i v e usable mathematical models
for two angle modulated s i g n a l s . The first s i n u s o i d a l s i g n a l i s modu­
l a t e d by K s i n u s o i d a l s u b c a r r i e r s . The second s i g n a l i s modulated by
t h e sum of K s i n u s o i d a l s u b c a r r i e r s p l u s a r e c t a n g u l a r wave, generated
from a pseudo-random ranging code.

A.l Basic Considerations

A s i n u s o i d a l angle modulated s i g n a l may be simply represented as

s(t) = A COS $(t) (1)

where

A = s i g n a l amplitude

$ ( t )= time v a r i a t i o n of t h e sinusoid
I f a s i g n a l function, f ( t ) , i s t o be incorporated i n t h e s i g n a l ,
two simple methods may be used. For phase modulation, l e t

$ ( t )= w c t f f(t) (m (2)

then

sPM ( t ) = A cos kct + f(t)] (3)

If w i s taken as t h e m o d u l a t e d f’requency of t h e s i n u s o i d a l s i g n a l
C
(or c a r r i e r ) , then it i s seen t h a t t h e s i g n a l f u n c t i o n f ( t ) appears
d i r e c t l y i n t h e s i g n a l phase. For frequency modulation, l e t

then

s,(t) = A COS

c 4
wet + f(t) dt
I
A-1

Now, t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s f'requency of t h e s i n u s o i d a l s i g n a l may be defined

as t h e time d e r i v a t i v e of t h e angle $(t)

It i s seen t h a t i n FM, t h e s i g n a l f u n c t i o n f ( t ) appears d i r e c t l y i n

t h e s i g n a l frequency.

Based on t h e preceding equations, one n o t a t i o n may be used t o

r e p r e s e n t e i t h e r PM or modulated s i g n a l s .

a
s ( t ) = A cos ECt + ys(t)l (7)

vs(t) i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation of t h e s i g n a l . I n terms of

a s i g n a l function f(t),
f o r PM: cps(t) = f(t)

for FM: c p s ( t ) =Jf(t) dt (9)

t
Most u s e f u l p e r i o d i c s i g n a l f u n c t i o n s can be r e p r e s e n t e d as terminated
Fourier s e r i e s i n t h e form.

f ( t ) = a0 +
K
c
i=1
pi cos wi t + bi s i n Wit
1
K
f(t) = c
0
+ ic=1 ci cos
i Wit + e d
or
K. 7 1
+ vi
f(t) = d
0
I-
i=1
di s i n
I
. w.t
_I

A- 2
 ... . .

where

c
0
and do are c o n s t a n t s
7

J
For a given s i g n a l function, co and do a r e non-time varying and
convey no information. They w i l l be d e l e t e d f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . Then
t h e s i g n a l f u n c t i o n may be defined

where t h e b r a c k e t s i n d i c a t e " e i t h e r / o r " .

For PM we may d e f i n e

where

ATi = peak phase d e v i a t i o n due to t h e ith canponent.

It i s seen t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f equation (15) p l a c e s no r e s t r i c t i o n s

on 'pi. For t h e case where V s ( t ) represents K subcarriers, the
s u b c a r r i e r s themselves may be angle modulated, i n which case is a
Vi
function of time.

A-3

 For FM, we may d e f i n e t h e frequency f u n c t i o n

K
6S ( t ) = c AWi COS
i=1

where

AWi = peak r a d i a n frequency d e v i a t i o n due t o t h e ithcomponent

It i s seen t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n of equation (16) p l a c e s no r e s t r i c t i o n

on e.. For t h e case where bs(t) r e p r e s e n t s K s u b c a r r i e r s , t h e
1

s u b c a r r i e r s themselves may be angle modulated, i n which case 8i is

a f u n c t i o n of time. It i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine, a n a l y t i c a l l y , t h e
e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation cp,(t) when 8i i s a f u n c t i o n of t i m e ,
due t o t h e d i f f i c u l t y of i n t e g r a t i n g t h e fYequency f’unction. However,
t h i s d i f f i c u l t y does not i n v a l i d a t e t h e concept of r e p r e s e n t i n g FM by
an e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation.

A.2 The C a r r i e r w i t h K Subcarriers

This s i g n a l may be r e p r e s e n t e d as

We w i l l examine first, t h e PM case. Let

cp,(t) =
K
c
i=1
sin pit cpd
r
+-
1

Then

Equation ( 3 ) has previously been t r e a t e d by G i a c o l l e t o ( . r e f . l ) . The

r e s u l t obtained i s

A-4

The Bessel f u n c t i o n expansions and summing processes l e a d i n g t o equa­

t i o n ( 4 ) a r e u n a f f e c t e d by t h e t i m e behavior of Therefore,
(pi.
equation (4) i s v a l i d f o r a n g l e modulated s u b c a r r i e r s .

The r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r i s d e f i n e d as t h a t term remaining a f t e r modu­

l a t i o n a t t h e frequency w of t h e unmodulated c a r r i e r . Observation
C
of equation (4) shows t h a t t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r term of frequency w
C
i s t h a t term f o r which a l l n a r e i d e n t i c a l l y zero.
i
n E O (5)
i
Then
K
sc(t) E A

The FM c a s e may be t r e a t e l e x a c t l y only f o r unmodu-ated s u b c a r r i e r s ,

where Bi i s c o n s t a n t . The c a s e may be t r e a t e d approximately i f t h e
g r e a t e s t frequency component i n i s much l e s s t h a n t h e s u b c a r r i e r
'i
frequency w The equivalent phase modulation i s
i'

A-5

 The e q u i v a l e n t peak phase d e v i a t i o n i s seen t o be

Aw,
ATi =r (9)
i

Then, t h e FM s i g n a l may be represented as

Equation (10) holds only w i t h t h e r e s t r i c t i o n on Bi, previously

mentioned. The G i a c o l e t t o ( r e f . 1) expansion i s t h e n

A s i n equation (6) t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r i s obtained as

A.3 The C a r r i e r with K S u b c a r r i e r s and Range Code

This s e c t i o n extends t h e G i a c o l e t t o ( r e f . 1) expansion f o r a

c a r r i e r which i s phase modulated by K s i n u s o i d a l s u b c a r r i e r s plus a
square waveform, r e p r e s e n t i n g a pseudo-random ranging code.

The modulated s i g n a l i s r e p r e s e n t e d as

where i s t h e peak phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e range code on t h e c a r r i e r ,

ACPr
and ct(t) i s a code waveform, having only t h e v a l u e s +1. It - i s as­
sumed t h a t t h e code makes instantaneous t r a n s i t i o n s between t h e + and - 1
states.

A-6

 Equation (1) may be expanded as

NOW

0c t ( t )
+1
s i n Acp, ; =
= ct(t) sin a ~ p (3)
(
-sin
0 ct(t)Acp, ; = -1 i-)

and

Combining equations ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) , and (4), we obtain

-
K
wct + C
i =1
mi sin pit + cpi

+
cos (“Pi-)
-c ( t ) s i n
t
LY
( i-)
1 sin WC-t +
K
C cCpi s i n
i=1
pit + cp i$ (5)

A-7

Equation ( 5 ) c o n t a i n s two e x p r e s s i o n s which may be t r e a t e d w i t h t h e

G i o c o l e t t o ( r e f . 1) expansion to give

r K l\

Equation (6) w i l l be used subsequently i n appendices D and G to o b t a i n

e x p l i c i t e x p r e s s i o n s for d e t e c t e d s u b c a r r i e r s and range code. A s i n
equation A . 2 (12), page A-6, t h e residual c a r r i e r term may be obtained
as
K

A- 8

 APPENDIX B

NOISE

This appendix s e t s down a l l t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r n o i s e which a r e

used i n t h e remainder of t h e document. The governing asswaption s h a l l
be t h a t a l l n o i s e processes encountered a t t h e i n p u t s of t h e v a r i o u s
systems and subsystems s h a l l be considered as c h a r a c t e r i z e d by Gaussian
s t a t i s t i c s . That i s , a l l i n p u t n o i s e wave forms w i l l be t a k e n as sta­
t i o n a r y , random, Gaussian processes. Since t h e t r e a t m e n t s of Gaussian
processes and c m b i n a t i o n s of d e t e r m i n i s t i c s i g n a l s s m e d w i t h Gaussian
n o i s e a r e w e l l documented, only t h e p e r t i n e n t r e s u l t s w i l l be s e t down
here, along with r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e o r i g i n a l treatments.

B.l The Narruw-Band Gaussian Random Process

A Gaussian n o i s e process which has a s p e c t r a l width, Af, much l e s s

than i t s c e n t e r frequency, f c , can be expressed i n a v e r y meaningful,
u s e f u l form. A sample f u n c t i o n of t h e process w i l l be r e p r e s e n t e d as
n ( t ) . The sample f u n c t i o n n ( t ) may be expressed as t h e d i f f e r e n c e of
two components i n phase quadrature as i n r e f e r e n c e 2.

where w i s t h e r a d i a n c e n t e r frequency of t h e specrum of n(t).

C
Bennett ( r e f . 2 ) shows t h a t x ( t ) and y ( t ) are sample f u n c t i o n s of
independent Gaussian processes. Davenport and Root ( r e f . 3) show t h a t
t h e p o s s i b l e v a l u e s of x ( t ) and y ( t ) a r e determined by Gaussian
v a r i a b l e s x and y, which have expected values, o r means, of zero,
and whose v a r i a n c e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e variance of t h e o r i g i n a l sample
f u n c t i o n n ( t ) by

Moreover, i f t h e narrow-band process i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n o i s e s p e c t r a l

density, 'Pn(w) w a t t s per cycle of bandwidth, t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s of
t h e x and y components are r e l a t e d as

where e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) holds r e g a r d l e s s of l i m i t a t i o n s of bandwiath of t h e

o r i g i n a l process (ref. 2).

B-1

 Ill1 I

A transformation f r o m r e c t a n g u l a r t o p o l a r coordinates y i e l d s

where p ( t ) i s i d e n t i f i e d as t h e "envelope", and cp(t) t h e "phase" of

n ( t ) . Both p ( t ) and t p ( t ) are sample f u n c t i o n s of random processes
which a r e n o t independent ( r e f . 3 ) . The d e n s i t y of t h e random v a r i a b l e
p i s Rayleigh, while t h e d e n s i t y of t h e random v a r i a b l e (p i s uniform
i n t h e range (0, 27~).

It should be noted t h a t s i n c e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s of time f u n c t i o n s

a r e e i t h e r Fourier transforms o f a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s or products
of F o u r i e r transforms with conjugate Fourier transforms, and s i n c e t h e
o r i g i n a l time f l m c t i o n s are real, t h e n t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s are two-
sided; t h a t is, t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s e x i s t f o r p o s i t i v e and negative
real frequencies.

A s p e c i a l case of t h e Gaussian narrow-band process occurs when t h e

s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , @,(W), may be considered, w i t h i n t h e narrow frequency
region of i n t e r e s t , t o be a constant. That is, f o r a c e n t e r frequency,
W it may be assumed t h a t
C'

2 0; a l l o t h e r W ( 51
where i s a constant. The spectrum of mn(w) c o n s i s t s of two
square blocks of i n t e n s i t y IQnI and width AW, centered on +w
C
and
-W r e s p e c t i v e l y , as shown i n Figure B . l - 1 .
C'

Figure B.l-1.- Input n o i s e spectrum

Then t h e l o w frequency components have s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s

= 0 ; a l l other w

B-2
This s p e c i a l case is useful i n t h e treatment of thermally generated
noise processes.

B.2 Angle Modulated C a r r i e r Plus Noise

This s e c t i o n t r e a t s t h e sum of an angle modulated (PM or FM) c a r ­
r i e r p l u s Gaussian narrow-band noise. It i s assumed t h a t t h e c a r r i e r
i s centered i n t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e noise. The s i g n a l i s r e p r e ­
sented as

s ( t ) = A cos f.t + v,(t)]

where

A = c a r r i e r amplitude

w = c a r r i e r r a d i a n frequency
C

cps(t) = c a r r i e r "equivalent" phase modulation as t r e a t e d i n

appendix A

The sum of s i g n a l p l u s n o i s e i s w r i t t e n as

where

n ( t ) = a sample f u n c t i o n of a narruw-band Gaussian process

-
s(t) + n ( t ) = A cos Ect + cp,(t)
1+ x ( t ) cos w Ct y(t) sin t
u)C

s(t) + n(t) = cos q s ( t ) + x ( t q cos w C t - A

[ s i n ps(t) + y ( t g sin w Ct

A transformation t o p o l a r coordinates g i v e s

s(t) + n(t) = A(t) COS (5)

B- 3
where

A cos V s ( t ) + x(t)
cos $ ( t )=
A( t)

+ ( t )= a r c t a n

Equation ( 5 ) shows t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f summing Gaussian noise with an

angle modulated c a r r i e r can be i n t e r p r e t e d as t h a t of producing a s i g ­
n a l which i s simultaneously amplitude and a n g l e modulated. It i s seen
that t h e amplitude or envelope f u n c t i o n A ( t ) i s not negative.

For t h e s p e c i a l case of a n angle modulated s i g n a l embedded i n

narrow-band white Gaussian noise w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y high r a t i o of c a r r i e r ­
to-noise, Bennett (ref. 2 ) has shown t h a t e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) and ( 5 ) may be
w e l l approximated by

s(t) + n(t) S A COS

1
wct + 'ps(t) + A A2 >> y 2 ( t )

Thus, i n t h e low-noise case, a d d i t i v e white band-limited Gaussian noise

(10)

may be considered t o add a s e p a r a t e "phase" j i t t e r t o a n angle modulated

s i g n a l . Where t h e approximation holds, t h e phase n o i s e may be considered
t o be a sm@e f u n c t i o n o f a Gaussian process. Thus, for t h e s p e c i a l
case, t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , @ (W), of t h e phase n o i s e may be expressed
as 'p

or

where S i s t h e angle modulated c a r r i e r puwer.

I
I 1111-II.-111111 I II I I1 I I 1 1111 111 I I I 1
.l111
.1 I 1 I 111--11.11.11111 1111 I 1 I I1 I -- 1-11

B.3 Transmission of Signal P l u s Noise Through

a P e r f e c t Band-pass Limiter

The treatment o f passing a c a r r i e r p l u s Gaussian n o i s e through a

l i m i t e r i s complex and has been performed by Davenport ( r e f . 4), Mid­
d l e t o n ( r e f . 5 ) , and o t h e r s . Section H . 3 summarizes some results of
Davenport s a n a l y s i s .

The treatment here w i l l be more i n t u i t i v e , drawing on Davenport’s

r e s u l t s as needed. Figure B . 3 - 1 shows t h e block model.

s(t) Band-pass z(t) Ideal ~ Band-pass - l(t),

filter limiter filter

Figure B.3-1. - Limiter model.

The sum o f i n p u t s i g n a l p l u s noise i s taken i n p o l a r form from

equation B.2 ( 5 ) , page B-3, as

s ( t ) + n ( t ) = A ( t ) cos I. + $(tq
Ct

The i d e a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l i m i t e r output V,(t) are represented

i

as
v (t) =
1
+vL; Z(t) >0

= -vL; z(t) < o ; z(t) = s(t) + n(t)

= 0 ; Z(t) = 0 J
where

VL = voltage l i m i t i n g l e v e l

The output f i l t e r of t h e l i m i t e r i s assumed -0 be a p e r f e c - band-pass

f i l t e r having a f l a t amplitude transmission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , square f r e ­
quency cut-off c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , and f l a t phase transmission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
a c r o s s t h e pass-band. The transmission constant i s a r b i t r a r i l y taken as
u n i t y . The f i l t e r pass-band i s assumed wide enough t o pass a l l zonal
energy a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c a r r i e r frequency u) and narrow enough t o
C
r e j e c t a l l o t h e r zones. From Davenport ( r e f . 4), t h e t o t a l power PL
out o f t h e band-pass f i l t e r i s taken as

B- 5
 2
PL = 8 p J (3

The output waveform l(t) i s taken as

l(t)= 4 2
Jc
cos p C t + +(t)l (4)

A s i n e q u a t i o n B. 2 (lo), page B-4, for t h e s p e c i a l c a s e of narrow-band,

white Gaussian n o i s e and high c a r r i e r - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , equation (4) may
be approximated as

vL
l(t) 4-
7T cos + cp,(t) 4- A ; A2 >> y 2 ( t ) (5)

For t h i s s p e c i a l case, t h e phase noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s given as

where

1 n' 1 = c o n s t a n t value of t h e white n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i n t o t h e

limiter

S = l i m i t e r i n p u t s i g n a l power

Aw = bandwidth of t h e i n p u t noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

B.4 Transmission of S i g n a l Plus Noise Through

a P e r f e c t Product Device
B.4.1 A Nonprelimited Product Detector
The product d e t e c t o r of f i g u r e B.4.1-1 i s f e d an angle modulated
s i g n a l p l u s narrow-band white Gaussian n o i s e . The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l has
n e g a t i v e s i n e phase with r e s p e c t t o t h e a n g l e modulated c a r r i e r .

-sin w t
C
Figure B.4.1-1.- Nonprelimited product d e t e c t o r

B- 6
 I
The product d e t e c t o r i s assumed t o have some g a i n constant, K and t o
cpy
r e j e c t a l l except t h e "d. c. '' or d i f f e r e n c e terms of t h e product. Then

m ( t ) = -Ki s i n w e t [s(t) + n(tq

cp

(2 1
The d i f f e r e n c e terms a t t h e output a r e

It i s seen t h a t t h e output f u n c t i o n i s e a s i l y s e p a r a b l e i n t o a signal

component, sm ( t ) ,and a n o i s e component, n m ( t ) , as

n m ( t ) = K' yo (5)
r p 2

The output n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s given as

= o ; a l l other w (7)
B.4.2 A P r e l i m i t e d Product Detector
The band-pass l i m i t e r of f i g u r e B.4.2-1 i s f e d an a n g l e modulated
s i g n a l p l u s narrow-band Guassian n o i s e and d r i v e s a product d e t e c t o r ,
having g a i n c o n s t a n t K'cp.

B-7

$!
I I:
The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l has negative s i n e phase.

-sin W t
C

Figure B. 4.2-1. - Prelimited product d e t e c t o r

From equation B.3 ( 4 ) , page R-6,

l(t)= 4 5 cos
JI
pet + cctq
where VL i s voltage l i m i t i n g l e v e l . Equation B. 2 ( g ) , page B-4, de­
scribes $ ( t ) . Then

'
m ( t ) = -K' s i n w e t l ( t ) (2)

m ( t ) = -4
V
-
fl
'
K'
sin w t cos
C
pet + $(ti] (3)

The "d.c." or d i f f e r e n c e term i s given as

2V K'
m(t) = -
rl
' s i n $(t) (4)

Prom equation B. 2 (7) page B-5

For the s - p c i a l case of r e l a t i v e l y high s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i n t o t h e

l i m i t e r , t h e approximation holds t h a t

A(t) Z A (6)

B-8

and

Where t h e approximation holds, the product d e t e c t o r output i s s e p a r a b l e

i n t o s i g n a l and n o i s e components

s
m (t) = ’9 s i n q s ( t )
2V K’
- fl

2v P’
n ( t )=
m
- L-
.rrA Y ( t ) (9)

and t h e output n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s given as

= o ; a l l other w

B.4.3 A Nonprelimited Product Mixer

For t h e device shown i n f i g u r e �3.4.3-1, s e v e r a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e s t a t e d .
The input t o t h e product device, having g a i n constant K I P , i s an a n g l e
modulated s i g n a l and narrow-band Gaussian n o i s e , centered on a r a d i a n
frequency w
C
.
The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l has n e g a t i v e s i n e phase, a r b i t r a r i l y ,
and i s of a frequency w such t h a t t h e output s p e c t r a of t h e sum and
d
d i f f e r e n c e terms do not o v e r l a p . The i d e a l band-pass f i l t e r t r a n s m i t s
a l l energy a s s o c i a t e d with t h e d i f f e r e n c e t e r m s , a r b i t r a r i l y , and r e j e c t s
t h e sum terms.

6
-sin w t
C

Figure B.4.3-1.- Nonprelimited product mixer

B-9
The band-pass f i l t e r has a n a r b i t r a r y g a i n c o n s t a n t
Kf.

vo(t) = Kf ktj terms

difference

+
1
cp,(t) + x(t) in - wd)t
(".
+ y ( t ) cos
("c - "d)t)

It i s seen t h a t t h e output f u n c t i o n c o n s i s t s of a s i g n a l component and

a noise component.

B-10

The output s i g n a l a.nd noise f u n c t i o n s have t h e same form as t h e input

functions, being merely m u l t i p l i e d by c o n s t a n t s and t r a n s l a t e d i n f r e ­
quency. Equation (6) can be transformed t o t h e usual recognizable form
of equation B.l (l), page B-1, by a s u i t a b l e r e d e f i n i t i o n of v a r i a h k s .
For t h e s p e c i a l case of white Gaussian noise a t t h e i n p u t , t h e output
noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s given as

c d (7)
0

= o ; a l l other w

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o compute t h e r a t i o o f output c a r r i e r p w e r So t o
t n e magriitude of t h e output noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f o r t h e white Gaus­
s i a n case

where

S = i n p u t c a r r i e r power

I $( = magnitude of t h e input noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

It i s seen t h a t t h e r a t i o i s constant through a p e r f e c t product mixer

and i d e a l band-pass f i l t e r , r e g a r d l e s s o f transmission g a i n constants.

B-11

 APPENDIX c

PHASE-LOCKED LOOP THEORY

C.l A P h y s i c a l Approach t o t h e Phase-locked Loop

Figure C.l-1.- P h y s i c a l loop model

Figure C . l - 1 shows a model of t h e phase-locked loop which i s essen­

t i a l l y a closed loop feedback m u l t i p l i e r . The device c o n s i s t s of a
m u l t i p l i e r , having m u l t i p l i c a t i o n constant
K ' a loop f i l t e r , of t h e
cp'
law-pass type, and a v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r (VCO). The p h y s i c a l
operation of t h e loop may b e s t be explored by assuming a n o i s e l e s s input
signal, s i ( t ) .

The i n p u t s i g n a l i s taken as a n angle modulated sinusoid of ampli­

tude A, frequency W having " e f f e c t i v e " phase modulation c p i ( t ) .
C'

s1

.(t) = A COS bCt+ (Pi(tq

Without l o s s of g e n e r a l i t y , t h e VCO may be considered t o produce

an angle modulated s i n u s o i d of amplitude Av, frequency W having an
C,
e f f e c t i v e phase modulation cp ( t ) , and having negative s i n e phase with
0
respect t o the input signal. Assuming negative s i n e phase and a

c-1

frequency W e x a c t l y e q u a l t o t h e i n p u t s i g n a l frequency i s n o t a re-

C
s t r i c t i o n on g e n e r a l i t y , s i n c e a term l i n e a r i n t and a c o n s t a n t may
be taken i n t h e otherwise unspecified output phase cpo(t).

The output of t h e m u l t i p l i e r m(t) is

It may now be assumed t h a t t h e m u l t i p l i e r i s f u l l y balanced so

t h a t t h e double f'requency term i s r e j e c t e d . Also, t h e low-pass f i l t e r
w i l l not pass double flrequency components. I n any event, t h e desired
low-frequency m u l t i p l i e r output i s given as

The VCO d r i v i n g f u n c t i o n vd(t) i s given as t h e time convolution

of t h e m u l t i p l i e r s i g n a l w i t h t h e impulse response f u n c t i o n h(t) of
t h e low-pass f i l t e r .

Assming zero i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s a t t i m e zero

c-2
I

The output phase cpo(t) of t h e VCO i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e time

i n t e g r a l of t h e d r i v i n g s i g n a l . The p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant i s
Kv

t
= %Jvd(t) d t
0
Thus

Equation (9) i s t h e exact n o n l i n e a r . i n t e g r a 1 equation giving t h e

VCO phase response t o a n i n p u t phase function. Equation (9) shows t h a t
t h e output phase cpo(t) responds t o t h e i n p u t phase cpi(t), b u t t h e
equation does n o t give one an i n t u i t i v e " f e e l " for t h e manner i n which
t h e loop responds.

Suppose, through some unspecified means, over some i n t e r v a l of

time, t h e output phase approaches and remains n e a r t h e i n p u t phase, say
w i t h i n 30". Then t h e s i n e f u n c t i o n of t h e input-output phase d i f f e r e n c e
i s very n e a r l y t h e phase d i f f e r e n c e i t s e l f . Equation (9) may t h e n be
r e w r i t t e n , w i t h good approximation, as

Equation (10) i s l i n e a r and e a s i l y Laplace transformable. First, assum­

i n g t h e integrand i s w e l l behaved, t h e order of i n t e g r a t i o n may be
changed t o g i v e

Defining t h e k p l a c e transform of cp(t) t o be @ ( s ) , equation (11)may

be transformed t o

c- 3
Now the i n t e g r a l over 7 o f t h e loop f i l t e r impulse response i s simply
t h e Laplace transform or t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n of t h e loop f i l t e r which
w i l l be l a b e l e d FL(s). Then

Qo(S) = (14)

Next, a g a i n constant for t h e loop i s defined as

a
K= V&v
2

and equation (13) i s rea.rranged a s

The form of equation (15) i s w e l l known f r o m t h e t h e o r y o f servo­

mechanisms, r e p r e s e n t i n g a l i n e a r servo loop whose output iscp,(t)
subtracted f r o m i t s input vi(t), and having a loop g a i n f u n c t i o n
F, (4
K L. The t r a c k i n g p r o p e r t i e s of servomechanisms a r e w e l l known and
S
w e l l documented (ref. 6). Therefore, once t h e VCO phase of a phase-
locked loop i s brought s u f f i c i e n t l y near t h e i n p u t phase s o that t h e
loop o p e r a t e s l i n e a r l y , then t h e loop o p e r a t e s as a l i n e a r servomechan­
i s m for phase. The loop output phase w i l l "track" t h e input phase
w i t h i n t h e dynamic c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e s e r v o as determined by t h e loop
f i l t e r transfer f u n c t i o n FL( s ) ; hence, t h e name "phase-locked loop.

C.2 The Linearized Model o f t h e Phase-locked Loop

From t h e work i n t h e preceding s e c t i o n , it i s evident t h a t as long

as t h e output phase t r a c k s t h e i n p u t phase c l o s e l y enough, say w i t h i n

c-4

30°, t h e loop may be described for phase by l i n e a r t r a n s f e r functions.

Equation C . l (l?), page C-4, may be w r i t t e n i n an expanded form f r o m
which t h e e q u i v a l e n t l i n e a r model of t h e loop, for phase, may be drawn
by i n s p e c t i o n .

figure C. 2-1. - Linear loop model

I n s p e c t i o n of equation (1)and f i g u r e C . 2 - 1 shows t h a t t h e m u l t i ­

p l i e r has been replaced by a phase s u b t r a c t o r w i t h g a i n constant K
cp'
which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e m u l t i p l i e r g a i n constant K ' and t h e
cp'
amplitudes of t h e i n p u t s i g n a l A and VCO signal %.

C.2.1 The Closed Loop Transfer Functions

From t h e l i n e a r model of t h e loop t h r e e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s of i n t e r e ' s t
may be derived. These t h r e e f u n c t i o n s r e l a t e t h e input s i g n a l phase
Q. ( s ) t o t h e output s i g n a l phase QO( s ) , t h e VCO d r i v i n g s i g n a l V D ( s ) ,
1
and t h e phase e r r o r s i g n a l E(s).

c- 5

 KP[l - G(s]
yrcpFL
1+
S

Equations (l), (2), and ( 3 ) hold f o r any loop f i l t e r . They may be

s p e c i a l i z e d f o r t h e usual loop f i l t e r t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n which has one
each, r e a l , f i n i t e transmission zero, and pole.

where

Kf = f i l t e r constant, a dimensionless number

The closed loop t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n may now be w r i t t e n as

G(s)

A t o t a l g a i n constant
= Iv(tpKf

K
i. 2
+ s(!%%Kf

may nuw be defined as

s - z

- 4 - KJCciKfZ
(5)

The t h r e e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s may be r e w r i t t e n as

G(s) = K
+ s(K
s - z
- p) - Kz I (7)

C-6

 VDW
m,o
1

= K6f
s2
[ -f-
s(s
s(K
- 2)

- p ) - Kz I (9)

It i s seen t h a t the denominators o f t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s a r e of

-the form

D(s) = s2 + 25Wns + wn2 E s2 + s(K - p) - Kz (10)

where

A v a l i d approximation f o r most second o r d e r loops i s that

K>> -p (121

then

and
n
21-25

It i s informative t o d r a w t h e asymptotic Bode diagrams of t h e

steady s t a t e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s . It should be understood t h a t these
diagrams are v a l i d only so long as t h e loop i s locked and i s o p e r a t i n g
l i n e a r l y . The diagrams apply only t o p e r i o d i c input phase f u n c t i o n s .
There are c e r t a i n a p e r i o d i c phase functions which w i l l cause t h e loop
t o become n o n l i n e a r and to unlock. These f u n c t i o n s w i l l be examined
i n a following s e c t i o n .
 ab I

a.

I
(

'
I
IPI
I
I
I

b.
c

C.

a.
C

Figure C. 2.1-1. - Asymptotic Bode p l o t s of t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s

C.2.2 Modulation Tracking Error
It has been s t a t e d t h a t t h e l i n e a r treatment of t h e phase-lock loop
i s v a l i d only so long as t h e instantaneous e r r o r between input phase
p i ( t ) and output phase p 0 ( t ) remains small; say l e s s t h a n 30°. This
s e c t i o n examines t h e e f f e c t s of c e r t a i n input s i g n a l phase f u n c t i o n s on
t h e e r r o r function.

e(t) = vi(t) - cpo(t) (1)

Although t h i s e r r o r a n a l y s i s i s l i n e a r , while t h e very e r r o r it a t t e m p t s

to analyze causes t h e loop t o become n o n l i n e a r , s t i l l , t h e results are
u s e f u l f o r i n f e r e n c e of t h e loop operation. The a n a l y s i s w i l l be c a r r i e d
through by e v a l u a t i n g t h e i n v e r s e Laplace transform of t h e e r r o r f u n c t i o n
f o r each of f o u r i n p u t phase s i g n a l s . The i n p u t s i g n a l s and correspond­
i n g Laplace transforms are given i n t a b l e C.2.2-I.
~ .

Case

2
-
K2
2
S

3 2 35
S

K K K w
4 c n n
U(t) C K~ s i n w n t
n=l n = l s2 + w 2
n
...

TABLE C.2.2-I INPUT FUNCTIONS

U ( t ) i s t h e u n i t s t e p f u n c t i o n , as d e f i n e d as

u(t) = 1;t 2 0

= O ; t < O
Case 1 i s a phase s t e p i n p u t of amplitude K1 r a d i a n s . Case 2 i s a
phase ramp i n p u t w i t h slope K2 radians/second. Case 3 i s a phase
acceleration with acceleration 5 radians/second
2
. Case 4 is a sm­
mation of s i n e waves having amplitudes Kn and f r e q u e n c i e s u)
n'

c-9
 The e r r o r function t o be t r e a t e d i s given as

K S(S - P)
E(s) = mi(s) - B0(s) E Gib) (3)

Case 1:

K1
= -
S

E(s) =
K K (s
Icp
- PI
(3)
s2 + s(k - p) - Kz

where ­

I
1

4 = tan
-1 - 4 - h K z - (K -
(5)

It i s seen t h a t t h e r e i s no steady-state e r r o r , only a t r a n s i e n t . The

peak t r a n s i e n t e r r o r may be found by s e t t i n g t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e of
e ( t ) t o zero.

Case 2:

K2
= 2
s

K2KP(s - P)
E(s) =
[s s 2 i-s(K - p) - Kz] (3)

c-10
 where

It i s seen t h a t t h e r e i s a t r a n s i e n t e r r o r and also a s t e a d y - s t a t e e r r o r

which i s dependent on t h e p o l e frequency p of t h e loop f i l t e r . T h i s
s t e a d y - s t a t e e r r o r i s g e n e r a l l y s m a l l enough t o be neglected.

Case 3:

E(s) =
2K K
3 @
(s - p)
(3)
s2L2 + s ( K - p ) - Kz]

c-11

a
where

-1
JI = 2 tan-' - tan
K - p K + P

It i s seen t h a t t h e r e i s a t r a n s i e n t e r r o r , a s t e a d y - s t a t e e r r o r which i s
an i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n of t i m e , dependent on t h e p o l e frequency, and
two constant s t e a d y - s t a t e e r r o r s , one dependent on t h e p o l e frequency.

Case 4:

K
cI
p.(t) = U(t) c Kn s i n Writ
n=l

K K K
ncpn
(U S ( S - p)
E(s) = C
n=l [I.' + on'] [s2 + S(K - p) - ~4

K
e(t) = C
n=l

c-12
where

- tan
4
- (K - p ) 2 + w + Kz
n -

It i s seen t h a t t h e r e i s a t r a n s i e n t e r r o r and a l s o a s t e a d y - s t a t e
e r r o r which i s a sum of s i n u s o i d s having f r e q u e n c i e s t h e same as t h e
input s i n u s o i d s , and amplitudes and phases which a r e dependent on
s i n u s o i d frequency and l o o p parameters. The s t e a d y - s t a t e peak e r r o r
i n r a d i a n s may be seen t o be
K AVi

e c. (7)
pk i=l
wi wi

K AY,

2
w
i

C.2.3 Loop Phase Noise

I n t h e following s e c t i o n s it w i l l be necessary t o be a b l e t o r e l a t e
t h e phase n o i s e or " j i t t e r " of t h e VCO s i g n a l t o t h e n o i s e accompanying
t h e i n p u t s i g n a l . If t h e i n p u t phase n o i s e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as being
Gaussian and has a f l a t s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y with v a l u e IO,pI, then t h e
variance :SI
or mean squared v a l u e of t h e VCO phase n o i s e may be
w r i t t e n as t h e product of t h e input s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y t i m e s t h e "closed­
l o o p e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e bandwidth" %, For two-sided s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s
w e may w r i t e

C-13

The closed-loop e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e bandwidth may be cmputed i n terms of

g e n e r a l loop parameters, using t h e loop t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n of equation
C.2.1 ( 7 ) , page C-6, and t h e method of appendix H-1.

mob) G(s) = K(s - Z)

"1
=
s2 + s(K - p ) - Kz

where

Then,

It i s seen that t h e only p o l e s i n t h e lef't half plane a r e a t s = A

and s = B, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Define

The r e s i d u e a t s = A i s given a s

The r e s i d u e at s = B i s given as

C-14
The sum of t h e r e s i d u e s i n t h e l e f t half plane i s given as

S u b s t i t u t i n g and reducing, w e have

For t h i s l o o p t h e l a w frequency g a i n i s taken as r e f e r e n c e

Then

2A% = TCK [s]

or

2%
X
=2 [e]
K

For t h e a l t e r n a t e n o t a t i o n ,
u)
n
K = 25w
n ' =-Z

2BN = 2 + 457

C.2.4 Threshold P r e d i c t i o n
A phase-lock loop i s u s e f u l only when it i s locked. A phase-locked
loop which i s o p e r a t i n g a t a high input signal-to-noise r a t i o w i l l
remain locked most of t h e time. A s t h e input signal-to-noise r a t i o i s
lowered t h e l o o p w i l l break lock more f r e q u e n t l y , but w i l l r e g a i n lock
i f t h e signal-to-noise r a t i o i s not t o o low.

c-15
 Perhaps t h e s i m p l e s t way t o t r e a t t h r e s h o l d i s t o d e f i n e the l o o p
as operating above t h r e s h o l d i f it i s i n l o c k a c e r t a i n average percent
of t h e time and d e f i n e it as below t h r e s h o l d i f it i s i n lock less than
t h e r e q u i r e d percent of time. I n t h i s manner loop t h r e s h o l d i s r a t h e r
s u b j e c t i v e and i s dependent on t h e loop's use, which d e f i n e s t h e t h r e s h ­
old i n lock time percentage.

The a n a l y t i c a l methods and assumptions by which t h e s i g n a l , noise,

and loop parameters a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e percent i n l o c k time have provided
a f e r t i l e f i e l d f o r a n a l y s i s . Martin (ref. 7) defined a " p r a c t i c a l "
"absolute" t h r e s h o l d , p r e d i c t a b l e from a l i n e a r loop model, which w a s
reasonably s u b s t a n t i a t e d by l a b o r a t o r y t e s t d a t a . L a t e r work by Develet
( r e f . 8) t r e a t e d t h r e s h o l d w i t h n o n l i n e a r loop models.

It i s t h e purpose of t h i s s e c t i o n t o set down t h e simplest method

of loop treatment which w i l l y i e l d r e s u l t s of t o l e r a b l e accuracy. The
simplest method i s t o d e f i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e l i n e a r loop
model i s v a l i d and t h e n use t h e l i n e a r model t o i n f e r t h e n o n l i n e a r
t h r e s h o l d p r o p e r t i e s of t h e loop.

An assumption which h i g h l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e a n a l y s i s i s t h a t t h e phase

component of t h e i n p u t s i g n a l i s separable i n t o a d i s t i n c t s i g n a l term
and a d i s t i n c t noise term. A second s i m p l i f y i n g assumption i s t h a t t h e
phase noise term r e p r e s e n t s a Gaussian n o i s e process having a f l a t spec­
t r a l d e n s i t y . With t h e s e two assumptions t h e modulation t r a c k i n g e r r o r
o f t h e loop i n response t o t h e i n p u t s i g n a l phase term and t h e VCO phase
j i t t e r i n response t o t h e i n p u t phase n o i s e term may be e a s i l y d e t e r ­
mined by t h e methods s e t f o r t h i n s e c t i o n s C.2.2 and C.2.3.

Wi'ih a knowledge of t h e modulation t r a c k i n g e r r o r , and e s p e c i a l l y

t h e peak t r a c k i n g e r r o r i n r a d i a n s , and a knowledge of t h e standard
em
deviation 0 of t h e VCO phase noise i n r a d i a n s , M a r t i n ' s ( r e f . 7)
cp
t h r e s h o l d c r i t e r i o n may be employed. It i s given a n

where x i s a peak f a c t o r or confidence f a c t o r for t h e VCO phase noise.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e number E may be seen by observation of
2
equation C . l (91, page C-3, t h e nonlinear equation g i v i n g t h e loop re­
sponse t o i n p u t phase. Suppose i n i t i a l l y both cp.(t) and cpo(t) a r e
1

i d e n t i c a l l y zero. Suppose 'pi ( t ) i n c r e a s e s p o s i t i v e l y from zero. Then,

according t o equation (9) c p o ( t ) w i l l increase p o s i t i v e l y t o track
cpi(t). This t r a c k i n g i s caused by t h e e r r o r f u n c t i o n sin ki(t) - To(%],
i n c r e a s i n g as Yi(t) s e p a r a t e s i n value from cp,(t). However, i f
Ti(t) s e p a r a t e s from cp,(t) r a p i d l y enough s o t h a t t h e instantaneous

c-16
value o f cpi(t) - cpo(t) exceeds -
2
JI
radians, then t h e e r r o r f u n c t i o n
sin Fi(t) - cpo(t] w i l l decrease w i t h i n c r e a s i n g phase e r r o r and
To(t) w i l l not t r a c k cpi(t). I n o t h e r words, i f t h e instantaneous value
of Ti(t) - cpo(t) exceeds
JI
-2 f o r a loop which i s i n i t i a l l y locked, t h e
loop w i l l break lock.

Given a peak t r a c k i n g e r r o r emy then t h e s t a t i s t i c a l p r o b a b a b i l i t y

o f - t h e loop breaking lock i s implied by equation (1)above. For Gaussian
phase j i t t e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e loop breaking lock a t t h e time of
peak t r a c k i n g e r r o r em may be determined. I n p r o b a b i l i s t i c notation,
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e locked loop loses lock i s given by

where

Hx(x) = normal d i s t r i b u t i o n function.

I n terms of t h e e r r o r function, which i s t a b u l a t e d , we have

Equations (3) and ( 4 ) show that given a t r a c k i n g e r r o r e the

m’
standard d e v i a t i o n u of t h e VCO phase j i t t e r uniquely determines t h e
cp
p r o b a b i l i t y of l o s s of lock. Given a required p r o b a b i l i t y of l o s s of
lock, t h e confidence value x may be obtained f r m t a b l e s of t h e e r r o r
function.

Table C.2.4-I g i v e s t h e values of x corresponding t o l o s s of l o c k

p r o b a b i l i t i e s f o r f i v e cases.

TABLE C .2.4-1. - CONFIDENCE VALUES VERSUS LOSS-LOCK PROBABILITIES

c-17
 I1 I l l I 1

I n s e c t i o n s C.4 and C . 3 t o folluw, d e t a i l e d t h r e s h o l d r e l a t i o n s

w i l l be derived f o r two s p e c i a l cases of phase-locked loops, r e l a t i e
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l o s s of lock t o t h e i n p u t signal-to-noise r a t i o .

C.3 S i g n a l and Noise C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

P r e l i m i t e d Phase-Locked Loops

The remainder of appendix C w i l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o phase-locked

loops preceeded by a n i d e a l band-pass l i m i t e r . The model i s given i n
f i g u r e C.3-1.

I
CP
S&t) Ideal m(t)
* Loop
5 band-pass
ni(tlo limiter filter
~­ -

vco <

Figure C. 3-1. - Prelimited phase-locked loop

The i n p u t s i g n a l si(t) i s taken as an i d e a l angle modulated

&

s i g n a l from equation A.l (7),page A-2.

The noise i s taken i n t h e form of equation B . l (l), page B-1, as a

sample f u n c t i o n of a Gaussian process, w i t h a f l a t s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y
band-limited t o t h e i n p u t bandwidth of t h e limiter.

n i ( t ) = x ( t ) cos w t
C
- y(t) sin wet (2 1

The l i m i t e r output f u n c t i o n i s taken from equation B.3 (4), page �3-6, as

TT

c-18
where, from equation B . 2 ( 9 ) , page B-4,

For high s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o (SNR) i n t o t h e l i m i t e r t h e output

f u n c t i o n i s approximated, from equation B.3 ( 5 ) , page B-6, as

l(t) = 4 - cos
vL
fl 1WCt +c p p + a1A (5)

For high i n p u t SNR i n t o t h e l i m i t e r , i t . i s seen from equation ( 5 ) t h a t

t h e i n p u t s i g n a l phase f u n c t i o n t o t h e phase-locked loop i s cps(t).
A l s o , frm equation B. 2 (ll), page B-5, t h e phase n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y
a t t h e i n p u t t o t h e loop i s

where

AW = 27tB
i (7)

i s t h e c o n s t a n t value of t h e f l a t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i n t o t h e

l i m i t e r and B i s t h e l i m i t e r input bandwidth.

i

C.3.1 Limiter E f f e c t s on Loop Parameters

Section H . 3 , page H-9, which i s based on D a v e n p o r t ' s ( r e f . 4 ) work,
d i s c l o s e s a property of band-pass l i m i t e r s which a f f e c t s t h e parameters
of a l i m i t e r driven phase-locked loop. A t l o w l i m i t e r SNR t h e amplitude
of t h e s i n u s o i d feeding t h e phase-locked loop i s suppressed by a f a c t o r
ci f r o m i t s value a t high l i m i t e r SNR. M a r t i n ' s ( r e f . 7 ) approximation
L
to ciL i s reproduced here from equation H.3(3), page H-11

where

121 = l i m i t e r input noise-to-signal ratio

c-19
 Equation C . 2 (2), page C-3, shows t h a t t h e phase s u b t r a c t o r con­
stant K i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e amplitude of t h e s i n u s o i d feeding t h e
cp
phase-locked loop. When t h e l i m i t e r suppresses t h e sinusoid, it a l s o
suppresses K
'p
by t h e same f a c t o r y.
The value of K which i s sup­
cp
pressed by t h e limiter a c t i o n w i l l .be denoted by K .
'a
then

K = a K
'pa LcP

The loop parameters derived i n s e c t i o n C . 2 . 1 and C . 2 . 3 may be

modified for l i m i t e r suppression. Since t h e phase s u b t r a c t o r gain i s
reduced, s o i s t h e loop g a i n K. If K i s understood t o be t h e max­
imum loop g a i n for no limiter suppression, t h e n t h e modified g a i n i s

Ka = % K (3)

and

It should be noted t h a t t h e t r a c k i n g e r r o r of t h e loop changes i n a

l i k e manner. The e r r o r s f o r p a r t i c u l a r modulations and p a r t i c u l a r
a l p h a s may be evaluated through use of t h e expressions of s e c t i o n C . 2 . 2 .

C.4 Modulation R e s t r i c t i v e Loop

This s e c t i o n w i l l consider t h e t h r e s h o l d treatment of a s p e c i a l

t y p e of loop known as "modulation r e s t r i c t i v e " . This type loop i s used
t o t r a c k an m o d u l a t e d s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r o r t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r com­
ponent of a narrow-phase modulated s i g n a l . It i s assumed t h a t by s u i t ­
a b l e i n p u t f i l t e r i n g and proper signal design, a modulation r e s t r i c t i v e
loop w i l l see l i t t l e o r no s i g n a l modulation and w i l l operate w i t h
n e g l i g i b l e modulation e r r o r e except for t h a t error caused by Doppler
m
effect.

c-20
 The following treatment w i l l be f o r t h e s p e c i a l case of zero Doppler
e f f e c t . I f Doppler e f f e c t cannot be neglected, loop threshold may be
t r e a t e d easily using t h e results of s e c t i o n C.2.4.

S e v e r a l assumptions are made. First, t h e l i m i t e r bandwidth i s

taken t o be much wider than t h e loop e q u i v a l e n t noise bandwidth. Second,
t h e s t a t i s t i c s of t h e phase n o i s e process passing from t h e l i m i t e r i n t o
t h e loop are assumed t o be approximately Gaussian f o r any l i m i t e r SNR.
The e f f e c t of l i m i t e r suppression i s included i n t h e determination of
t h e closed loop noise bandwidth
BN.
For t h i s s p e c i a l case, t h e t h r e s h o l d d e f i n i n g equation C . 2 . 4 (l),
page c-16, s p e c i a l i z e s t o

where t h e e q u a l i t y d e f i n e s t h e t h r e s h o l d VCO phase j i t t e r . Dividing

equation (1)by x and squaring,

From equation C . 2 . 3 (11, page C-14,

f i o m equation c.3 (61, page C-19,

and

But t h e q u a n t i t y on t h e right-hand s i d e of equation ( 5 ) i s i d e n t i c a l l y

t h e n o i s e - t o - s i g n a l r a t i o i n t o t h e limiter, computed i n t h e loop n o i s e
bandwidth BN.

c-21
then

and

Thus, t h e limiter i n p u t SNR, taken i n t h e l o o p n o i s e bandwidth, has

been r e l a t e d t o t h e confidence value x. F'rom t h e results of t a b l e
C. 2.4-1, page C-171, t h e r e q u i r e d SNR may be t a b u l a t e d f o r v a r i o u s
p r o b a b i l i t i e s of loss of phase-lock. These are as follows;

7.47db 8.62db

TABU C. 4-1. - INPUT SNR VERSUS LOSS-LOCK PROBABILITIES

It should be noted t h a t when making computations involving %,

t h e value of BN used should be t h a t v a l u e a c t u a l l y produced by t h e
limiter i n p u t SNR. The c a l c u l a t i o n of BN i s t r e a t e d i n t h e following
sec tion.

C.4.1 Loop Noise Bandwidth Above Threshold

For a prekimited modulation r e s t r i c t i v e phase-locked loop which
has been optimized ( f o r t h r e s h o l d ) a t some p a r t i c u l a r loop signal-to-noise
r a t i o , it i s necessary t o be a b l e t o determine t h e e f f e c t i v e loop n o i s e
bandwidth f o r signal-to-noise r a t i o s above t h r e s h o l d . The u s u a l assumptions
a r e made t h a t t h e loop i s locked, f e d by an i d e a l l i m i t e r , an unmodulated
s i n u s o i d , and white band-limited Gaussian n o i s e . From equation C.2.3 (15),
page C-15, t h e t w o s i d e d closed loop n o i s e bandwidth i s taken as

where

K = open loop g a i n

c-22
F

z = loop f i l t e r zero frequency

p = loop f i l t e r pole frequency

R e s u l t s w i l l be obtained for a s p e c i a l case which r e p r e s e n t s a wide
c l a s s of loops. The loop f i l t e r parameters w i l l be set such that

] P I <<K

5 = 0.707

where

5 = loop damping f a c t o r

then

z =A z
0
-= - -2 KO

= ao% (3)
where

a = limiter signal v o l t a g e suppression f a c t o r

% = maximum o r high s i g n a l value of loop g a i n

= conditions a t t h e loop d e s i g n t h r e s h o l d
0

Then

Now t h e t h r e s h o l d loop n o i s e bandwidth occurs f o r a E a so that

0’

2BN
0
= 3 a~ % (5)

The r a t i o of bandwidth for any a t o t h r e s h o l d bandwidth i s

This result i s given by Martin (ref. 7).

C-23
 Using M a r t i n ' s ( r e f . 7) approximation t o a as a f u n c t i o n of
limiter i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , we have

a s (7)

or

then

-
2BN = ­1
2%
0

L
+

I
1 (9)

A r e l a t e d problem i s t h a t of determining t h e loop s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o

a t which a loop w a s optimized, given a p l o t of loop bandwidth versus i n p u t
s i g n a l . It i s e a s i l y determinable t h a t

where

= s t r o n g s i g n a l value o f loop n o i s e bandwidth

BNH

C. 5 P r e f i l t e r e d Modulation Tracking Loops

T h i s s e c t i o n will consider t h e t h r e s h o l d treatment of a s p e c i a l
type of loop known as " p r e f i l t e r e d modulation t r a c k i n g . " This type of
loop i s used t o demodulate angle modulated s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r s . For
some t y p e s of s i g n a l modulations it i s p o s s i b l e t o reduce peak modula­
tion tracking error e t o a very s m a l l value by making t h e loop
m

C-24
n a t u r a l r e s o n a n t frequency w very l a r g e compared t o t h e h i g h e s t
n
modulating fkequency. Simultaneously, t o reduce t h e transmission of
phase noise or j i t t e r through t h e loop, t h e i n p u t s i g n a l p l u s noise
may be processed through a sharp cut-off band-pass f i l t e r having a
bandwidth j u s t wide enough t o pass t h e modulated s i g n a l . For high i n ­
put signal-to-noise r a t i o s and l i n e a r loop operation, t h e bandwidth of
t h e e q u i v a l e n t phase n o i s e w i l l be h a l f t h e i n p u t bandwidth. For mod­
u l a t i o n i n d i c e s n o t t o o l a r g e , t h e bandwidth of t h e phase n o i s e w i l l
form, e s s e n t i a l l y , t h e closed loop noise bandwidth. Such a modulation
t r a c k i n g loop i s c a l l e d a p r e f i l t e r e d loop.

Assuming t h e loop n a t u r a l fkequency w i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h e

n
h i g h e s t modulation f’requency, t h e peak modulation t r a c k i n g e r r o P be­
comes n e g l i g i b l y small. The t h r e s h o l d d e f i n i n g equation f o r t h e pre­
f i l t e r e d modulation t r a c k i n g loop then becomes t h e same as f o r t h e
modulation r e s t r i c t i v e loop, s i n c e again e approaches zero.
m
3T
xu = ­
c p 2

then

.2=k]

cp
2

Due t o t h e p r e f i l t e r i n g and t h e assumption t h a t t h e i n p u t bandwidth i s

much less than t h e loop W t h e e f f e c t i v e n o i s e bandwidth of t h e phase
n’
n o i s e i s h a l f t h e i n p u t bandwidth o r Then, from equation C.2.3 (l),
2’
page C-14,

rum equation c.3 (61, page ~ - 1 9 . ~

and

C-2 5
then

where

= n o i s e - t o - s i g n a l r a t i o i n t o t h e l i m i t e r , computed i n t h e
l i m i t e r bandwidth Bi

then

From t h e r e s u l t s of t a b l e C.2.4-I, page C-19, t h e r e q u i r e d SNk i n t o

t h e limiter may be t a b u l a t e d f o r various p r o b a b i l i t i e s of l o s s of
phase-lock. These a r e given as follows:

.- .
.. .

10-3 IO-~ 10-7

... -. - . -- . - - ... . .

2.91ab 4.47db 5.62db

TABLE c.5-I.- INPUT SNR VERSUS LOSS-LOCK PROBABILITIES

It i s seen t h a t f o r t h e lower p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h e l i m i t e r input SNR

i s l o w enough t o v i o l a t e t h e assumption of high S m which w a s used t o
o b t a i n t h e phase n o i s e s p e c t r a l density. Therefore, care should be
exercised i n applying t h e r e s u l t s of t a b l e I f o r t h e lower SNR.

C-26

~~

I , I, I I I, I 1111 IIIIIII I 1111 1111

F

APPEN3IX D

PRODUCT DEMODULA!IT ON

D.l Linear Product Demodulator

Figure D.1-1 shows t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a prod1 z t demodulator, use'

t o coherently d e t e c t phase modulation. This i s t h e product d e t e c t o r of
s e c t i o n B.4.1, page 13-6, followed by an i d e a l output f i l t e r .

1 *
output
filter
BO
- sow

n o w

-sin w t
C

-
Figure D. 1-1. Demodulator c o n f i g u r a t i o n

The output f i l t e r i s d e f i n e d t o be e i t h e r law-pass or band-pass, w i t h

f l a t u n i t y amplitude and phase transmission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , square
frequency c u t - o f f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t r a n s m i s s i o n bandwidth of B 0 cps.

The i n p u t s i g n a l and noise are taken i n t h e u s u a l forms as

where

s i ( t ) = a n g l e modulated s i g n a l w i t h e q u i v a l e n t phase modulation Vs(t)

ni(t) = sample f u n c t i o n of a random Gaussian process

D-1

 n.(t) i s f u r t h e r defined as white and band-limited t o R cps.

1
The n o i s e power s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y at t h e m u l t i p l i e r output i s g1lven
from equation B.4.1 (7),page B-7, as
2

= o ; a l l o t h e r v a l u e s of W (3)

where

I@- 1 = c o n s t a n t value o f t h e i n p u t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y @--

LI
i
(w)

The s i g n a l component, f'rom equation B. 4 . 1 ( 4 ) , page B-7, is

K'

s (t)= .-Y
m 2 A s i n cps(t) (4)

Equation ( 4 ) will be subsequently t r e a t e d for s p e c i f i c signal types.

D.1.1 Detection of S i n u s o i d a l S u b c a r r i e r s
This s e c t i o n t r e a t s demodulation of a c a r r i e r which i s phase modu­
l a t e d by t h e sum of a pseudo-random range code p l u s K s u b c a r r i e r s .
The model of f i g u r e D.l-1 a p p l i e s .

The i n p u t s i g n a l i s taken I n usual form as

K
s . ( t ) = A cos
1
+ Acprct(t) + c ncpi sin (Wit + cpi
i=1

t h e m u l t i p l i e r output i s

2 K
A
m ( t ) SK'c p 2 sin + c .AV,
i=l
sin pit + cp i

Expanding equation ( 2 ) and applying t h e i d e n t i t i e s of' equations A . 3 (3)

and A . 3 (41, page A-7, w e o b t a i n

D-2
 J

The first term of equation ( 3 ) i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s u b c a r r i e r s m u l t i ­

p l i e d by t h e range code and i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l which
i s t h e second term of e q u a t i o n (3).

Then, t h e d e s i r e d m u l t i p l i e r term i s

Using t h e G i a c o l e t t o expansion ( r e f . 1)
I m m K

-
K

sin

Frm equation ( 5 ) t h e jth d e t e c t e d s u b c a r r i e r terms, t h e f i r s t o r d e r

terms having frequency w may be obtained by s e t t i n g
3'
n = O ; i # j
i

D-3

then, for n i = +1

NOW

and

J
-n
(x) = (-lln Jn(x)

then

m.(t) = K'A cos (ATr) J1 (ATj) [.o(ACPd s i n (mjt + CPj) (11)

J CP i=1
i#j

A s i n appendix A, e q u a t i o n (11) holds whether or n o t t h e i n d i v i d u a l

s u b c a r r i e r s are, themselves, a n g l e modulated.

The output s i g n a l f'rom t h e output f i l t e r i s

D.1.2 Detection of A r b i t r a r y Baseband Modulation

This s e c t i o n t r e a t s baseband modulation which i s not a s i n u s o i d o r
sum of s i n u s o i d s . The most workable method i s t o d e s c r i b e t h e a r b i t r a r y
f u n c t i o n by i t s peak phase d e v i a t i o n and by an e m p i r i c a l l y determined
peak t o r m s r a t i o , o r form f a c t o r .

D-4

 The m o d e l of f i g u r e D . l - 1 applies. The i n p u t s i g n a l i s t a k e n as

si(t) = A

where now cps(t) i s a baseband signal, having peak phase d e v i a t i o n Acp, -

The output s i g n a l f'rm t h e output f i l t e r i s

K'
sow = 2 A s i n cps(t) (2)

The peak squared output s i g n a l i s

It i s noted t h a t f o r t h e output s i g n a l t o be a l i n e a r r e p l i c a o f
t h e phase modulation, AT, must be l e s s than about 30". If l i n e a r i t y
i s not of g r e a t consideration, as for clipped speech, ATp may be
increased. I n no case may ATp be g r e a t e r t h a n 90". Residual c a r r i e r
suppression c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w i l l g e n e r a l l y l i m i t ATp t o less than 90".
It i s d e s i r a b l e t o place a bound on t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r remaining
a f t e r modulation s i n c e g e n e r a l l y t h e demodulator r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l i s de­
r i v e d from t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r . For square wave modulation t h e r e m i n ­
ing c a r r i e r i s given by t h e l i m i t i n g case of equation A . 3 (7),page A-8,
for ATi i d e n t i c a l l y zero, as

sC ( t ) = A cos (ATp) c o s (4)

Likewise, f o r s i n u s o i d a l modulation, where ATr i s i d e n t i c a l l y zero,

the residual carrier i s

s,(t) = A Jo (ATp) cos u) t

C

For t h e sake of simple a n a l y s i s , it i s assumed t h a t for a r b i t r a r y base­

band narrow d e v i a t i o n modulation of peak d e v i a t i o n &JP, the residual
c a r r i e r term i s bounded by equations (4) and ( 5 ) .

D- 5

D.l.3 Noise C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The n o i s e spectrum o u t of t h e m u l t i p l i e r i s f l a t w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s
s e t by t h e i n p u t bandwidth B. Therefore, t h e bandwidths Bo of t h e
low-pass o r band-pass f i l t e r s a r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e bandwidths a t
the output.

The output n o i s e powers f o r both t h e band-pass and low-pass c a s e s

a r e given by
N =
0

where

= f l a t amplitude of t h e i n p u t white noise spectrum

jmnil

D.1.4 Output S i g n a l - t o - n o i s e R a t i o s
The r e s u l t s of t h e p r i o r t h r e e s e c t i o n s may now be i n t e g r a t e d t o
g i v e output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o s f o r coherent demodulation of both
s u b c a r r i e r s and a r b i t r a r y baseband modulation.

D.1.4.1 S u b c a r r i e r and band-pass f i l t e r . - The s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o

o u t of t h e i d e a l band-pass f i l t e r Bo c y c l e s wide, f o r t h e jth sub-
c a r r i e r s i g n a l may now be determined.

&omequation D.l.l (12), page D-4, t h e output s i g n a l for t h e j t h

subcarrier i s

ifj

The output s i g n a l power i s then

h r r K

i#j

D-6
From e q u a t i o n D. 1.3 ( 2 ) , page D-6, t h e output n o i s e power i s
-- 12
N = (3)

The output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s then

The q u a n t i t y i n b r a c k e t s i s seen t o be t h e t o t a l i n p u t signal-to-noise

r a t i o computed i n a p h y s i c a l bandwidth B Then
0'

BO
i#j

A s i n appendix A, e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) holds, whether or not t h e s u b c a r r i e r s a r e ,

themselves, angle modulated.

D. 1 . 4 . 2 Baseband modulation and low-pass f i l t e r . - Proceeding as

i n t h e previous s e c t i o n , t h e peak squared output s i g n a l i s taken fYom
e q u a t i o n D . 1 . 2 ( 3 ) , page D-5, as

D-7

 I I I 1 I Ill1 I I1

Again, from equation D. 1.3 ( 2 ) , page D-6, t h e output n o i s e power i s

No
KI

-2

- 2 2Bo I%/
The peak squared s i g n a l to mean-squared n o i s e r a t i o i s then

2
= sin (*'p) (4)
NO

The bracketed q u a n t i t y i s seen t o be t h e t o t a l i n p u t signal-to-noise

r a t i o computed i n a p h y s i c a l bandwidth Bo. Then

If t h e r e e x i s t s a f a c t o r r e l a t i n g t h e peak t o rms s i g n a l voltage

Kp
such t h a t

S =K s (6)
o r.m.s p o peak

then t h e r a t i o of mean squared s i g n a l So to mean squared noise No

may be w r i t t e n

D-8

 .._. - .. . __..
.... -..... . . . . _..... ...-. _.._..-___._­

4­
i
x"
s

D.2 Prelimited Product Demodulators

Results similar to those in the preceding section are obtained for

a product demodulator preceded by a hard band-pass limiter. The con­
figuration is shown in figure D.2-I. This is the detector of sec­
tion �3.4.2, page B-7, followed by an ideal output filter

Figure D.2-1.- Demodulator configuration

The ideal output filter has the same characteristics as in D . 1 ,

page D-1.

The input signal and noise are taken in the usual form as

s.(t) = A cos [wct + cps(t)

1 1

where the signal and noise characteristics are the same as in D.l,
page D-1.

For a high input signal-to-noise ratio into the limiter of, say,
10 db, the multiplier signal may be taken from equation B . 4 . 2 (7),
page B-9, as approximately

For high input signal-to-noise ratios, equation (3) gives output

signal-to-noise ratios identical to those for no prelimiting. However,

for decreasing input signal-to-noise ratios, limiter effects become

pronounced.

Lacking a useful rigorous treatment, the following rough approx­

imation will be made, which highly simplifies the analysis. The

D-9
m u l t i p l i e r output m(t) will be approximated f o r a l l input signal-to­
noise r a t i o s by

where

a = l i m i t e r s i g n a l suppression fac-;;or.
S

Martin's ( r e f . 7) approximation f o r a S w i l l be used.

where

= l i m i t e r i n p u t signal-to-noise r a t i o i n t h e l i m i t e r band­
width BL.

It remains t o determine t h e nature of a This may be determined

n'
by noting t h a t t h e l i m i t e r i s a constant power output device. That is,
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e l i m i t e r output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , t h e t o t a l output
s i g n a l p l u s noise power i s constant. This means t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e
l i m i t output s p e c t r a l composition, t h e t o t a l power a c r o s s t h e spectrum
i s constant. Next, it i s noted t h a t a product d e t e c t o r i s simply a
s p e c t r a l t r a n s l a t o r . It does not change t h e n a t u r e of t h e l i m i t e r out­
put spectrum, b u t merely t r a n s l a t e s it i n f'requency. Therefore, t h e
t o t a l power out of t h e m u l t i p l i e r i s constant. This constancy of m u l t i ­
p l i e r output power Fm w i l l be used to solve f o r a
n'

D-10

 Using equation ( 8 ) , it i s seen t h a t t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o at

t h e m u l t i p l i e r output i s given a s

[#]
Nj BL
(9)

It i s apparent t h a t t h e rough approximation of equations (4) and

(8) has given a p e s s i m i s t i c r e s u l t for output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o
which i s analogous t o Davenport's ( r e f . 4) l i m i t e r r e s u l t at low input
signal-to-noise r a t i o s .

Equation ( 4 ) i s r e w r i t t e n a s

The s i g n a l component and noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y a r e given s e p a r a t e l y

as

It should be emphasized t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l presented above i n sec­

t i o n D.2 i s t h e result of p h y s i c a l reasoning and approximation and i s
n o t mathematically rigorous. This m a t e r i a l should be a p p l i e d with
care.

D-11

 APPENDIX E

DEMODULATION WITH MODULATION TRACKCNG LOOPS

Figure E-1 shows t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a modulation t r a c k i n g phase-

locked loop used to d e t e c t frequency modulatim.

vd(t) OUtPUt
0
Ideal
-band-pass .
l(t) Loop efilter 0
*filter
ni(t) - limiter
- BO no(%)

vco -
The i n p u t s i g n a l i s t a k e n i n u s u a l form as

s i ( t ) = A cos pet + qs(tg

where

cps(t) = "equivalent" phase modulation o f t h e s i g n a l

The input n o i s e i s taken as

n i ( t ) = x ( t ) cos w C t - y(t) sin (uC t (2)

The l i m i t e r output s i g n a l i s t a k e n f'rom e q u a t i m B.3 (4), page B-6, as

with cpi(t) identical t o $ ( t ) of t h e r e f e r e n c e d equation. For suf­

f i c i e n t l y high l i m i t e r s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , V i ( t ) may be s e p a r a t e d
i n t o s i g n a l phase mcdulation, c p s ( t ) , and n o i s e phase modulation, (ppp(t).

E-1

Since a modulation t r a c k i n g loop i s u s e f u l only when o p e r a t i n g r e l a t i v e l y

l i n e a r l y , t h e a s s m p t i o n s a r e made t h a t t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e modulation
t r a c k i n g e r r o r i s l e s s than, say, 30" and t h a t t h e s e t of l i n e a r t r a n s ­
f e r f u n c t i o n s d e r i v e d i n appendix C adequately d e s c r i b e loop operation.

The t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n of i n t e r e s t is t h a t r e l a t i n g t h e VCO d r i v i n g
signal v d ( t ) t o input s i g n a l vi(t). I n transform n o t a t i o n , f i m
equation c.2.1 ( 9 ) , page C-7,

(4)

where

Hi(") = transform of t h e i n p u t signal "equivalent" phase modulation

For s i g n a l s which a r e frequency modulated, t h e transform r e l a t i o n be­

tween VCO d r i v i n g s i g n a l and i n p u t frequency modulation i s given a s

where
vD(
= '
KK
[g2 f s(K
s - z
- p) - 1
Kz

sai(s) = t h e i n t e g r a l of t h e " e q u i v a l e n t " phase modulation o r

frequency modulation

The asymptotic Bode p l o t of t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n d e r i v e d

f'rm equation (3) w a s given i n f i g u r e C.2.1-1, page C-8, and i s repro­
duced here a s f i g u r e E-2.

db

Figure E-2.- Asymptotic Bode p l o t

E-2

 The f i g u r e shows t h a t t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n i s asymp­

t o t i c a l l y f l a t f o r frequency modulation frm zero f'requency out to t h e
region of w = 1.1, t h e loop f i l t e r zero frequency. For a n a l y t i c sim­
p l i c i t y , it may be assumed t h a t most of t h e s i g n a l modulation energy
w i l l be of frequency less than 1.1. This assumption i s n o t s t r i c t l y
necessary, since e q u a l i z a t i o n i n t h e output f i l t e r may be employed i f
t h e modulation frequencies do extend beyond 121. For modulation s a t ­
i s f y i n g t h i s frequency r e s t r i c t i o n , t h e VCO d r i v i n g s i g n a l i s given as

For t h e assumption o f r e l a t i v e l y high i n p u t signal-to-noise r a t i o i n t o

t h e limiter and l i n e a r loop operation, t h e VCO d r i v i n g s i g n a l i s sep­
a r a b l e i n t o i n d i v i d u a l s i g n a l and noise components. Then

The demodulator may be t r e a t e d f o r s i g n a l and f o r n o i s e , s e p a r a t e l y .

E.l Detection of S i n u s o i d a l S u b c a r r i e r s
and A r b i t r a r y Baseband Modulation

This s e c t i o n treats t h e demodulation of a c a r r i e r frequency modu­

l a t e d by a c m p o s i t e f u n c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g of a summation of K sinu­
s o i d a l s u b c a r r i e r s p l u s some a r b i t r a r y baseband f u n c t i o n . Figure E - 1
a p p l i e s.

The i n p u t s i g n a l i s taken as

s1
. ( t ) = A cos bet + Vs(ty
where

cp,(t) = c a r r i e r phase modulation due t o s i g n a l alone

The f u n c t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e instantaneous c a r r i e r f'requency d e v i a t i o n i s

defined as

E- 3

where

f b ( t ) = a r b i t r a r y baseband f u n c t i o n and
th
AW. = peak r a d i a n frequency d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e i
1
subcarrier

The s i g n a l p o r t i o n of t h e VCO d r i v i n g f u n c t i o n i s given by

7
-t-
K
C AW, cos
i=1
Fit + (3)

The output s i g n a l f r o m t h e output f i l t e r (band-pass) f o r t h e jth sub-

c a r r i e r i s given as

Equation (4) holds whether or not t h e s u b c a r r i e r s themselves are angle

modulated.

The peak output s i g n a l frm t h e output f i l t e r (low-pass) for base­

band modulation i s given as

where

hbpeak
= peak r a d i a n frequency d e v i a t i o n due to t h e baseband
modulation

E.2 Noise C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Observation of figure C.2.1-1, page C-8, shows t h a t t h e modulation

t r a c k i n g loop has no f i n i t e output noise bandwidth f o r f l a t i n p u t phase
noise. Output f i l t e r s of t h e law-pass o r band-pass type are used t o
r e s t r i c t t h e output noise. The f i l t e r s are assumed to have i d e a l proper­
t i e s , t h a t is, square frequency c u t - o f f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f l a t t r a n s ­
mission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e pass-band.

For t h e a s s m p t i o n t h a t t h e modulation f r e q u e n c i e s are less than

12 1, then t h e output noise s p e c t r m i s p a r a b o l i c , o r p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
2
w as shown by f i g u r e C.2.1-1, page C-8. Therefore, t h e bandwidths Bo
of t h e output f i l t e r s are not t h e e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e bandwidths a t t h e
output. These w i l l now be computed.

E- 4
 The n o i s e spectrum a t t h e l o o p f i l t e r o u t p u t i s t a k e n as

where

CP ( j w ) = f l a t i n p u t phase n o i s e spectrum.
cp
Equation E.2 (1) follows from e q u a t i o n E ( 6 ) , page E-3.
E.2.1 Low-pass Output F i l t e r
The low-pass o u t p u t f i l t e r i s t a k e n t o have an amplitude transmis­
s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of u n i t y and p h y s i c a l bandwidth B cps which
0
corresponds t o r a d i a n bandwidth

The e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e bandwidth Be i s d e f i n e d as t h a t bandwidth having

a t r a n s m i s s i o n c o n s t a n t of u n i t y which passes t h e same n o i s e power from
f l a t i n p u t s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y iP ( j w ) as i s a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t i n t h e out­
cp
uut. Equating n o i s e powers, we have

where

e = 2nBe (3)

then

'="'e = ­
[ 0 (jw)'d(
jAw jw)
(4)

J
.
-jaw
0

(n'U0)
Awe = (5)
3

E-5

The output n o i s e power i s s e e n t o be

E.2.2 Band-pass Output F i l t e r

The band-pass f i l t e r i s taken t o have an amplitude t r a n s m i s s i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t of u n i t y and p h y s i c a l one-sided bandwidth of B cps which
0
i s symmetric t o a frequency of f cps.
m

I n radian notation,

Aw0 = 2fiBO

w = 2nfm
m

Equating n o i s e powers give

E-6

Where

aW = e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e bandwidth a t t h e output
e

-2 I(wm-9)
j
(ju,)
2
d(jw) = j a w e

ALIIe = nu, (5)

The output noise power due t o a two-sided e q u i v a l e n t phase noise i n p u t

s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y ip ( j w ) i s given as
Cp

or

E- 7
 It i s seen t h a t from equation ( 5 ) an approximation may be made.

2 2 2 >> -
1 B 2
Be = (2n) fm Bo ; fm
12 0

This approximation i s a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n about 5 percent f o r Aw0

approaching 3 om. This approximation i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as as­
suming f l a t n o i s e w i t h s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

P ( j w ) = w 2 @v(jw)
n0 m

a c r o s s t h e bandwidth Bo when Bo i s much less t h a n t h e c e n t e r f r e ­

quency
m'
. Approximately

or

No 2 ($) lPvl2
2(2fl)*BOfm
2

E. 3 Output Signal-to-noise R a t i o s
The r e s u l t s of t h e p r i o r s e c t i o n s a r e now used t o obtain output
signal-to-noise r a t i o s f o r two cases: a r b i t r a r y baseband modulation
w i t h a low-pass f i l t e r , and an i n d i v i d u a l s u b c a r r i e r w i t h a band-pass
filter.

E.3.1 S u b c a r r i e r and Band-pass F i l t e r

We may now determine t h e signal-to-noise r a t i o out of t h e assumed
square band-pass f i l t e r of bandwidth f o r t h e jth subcarrier,
Bo
where t h e input s i g n a l i s assumed t o be frequency modulated by t h e sum
of K s u b c a r r i e r s p l u s a r b i t r a r y baseband modulation. The input
n o i s e i s white, band-limited, and Gaussian.

E- 8

 th
From equation E.l (4), page E-&, t h e output s i g n a l for t h e j
subcarrier i s

The output signal power i s then

From equation E. 2.2 ( g ) , page E-7, t h e output noise power i s

No - - I@v12(2~)2 kj2 + q B o

where

f . = c e n t e r frequency of t h e band-pass f i l t e r
J

The output signal-to-noise r a t i o i s then

2
AW
LA
A
S = . Kv2 _2
(4)

where
The second bracketed q u a n t i t y i n equation ( 5 ) i s seen t o be t h e i n p u t
signal-to-noise r a t i o computed i n a p h y s i c a l bandwidth Bo. Then

S
A =1.
2
NO

where
th
Af2 = peak c y c l i c e e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e j
J subc a r ri e r

Approximately

S
A&
2
NO

for

E. 3 . 2 Baseband Modulation and Low-pass F i l t e r

Proceeding a s i n E . 3 . 1 , t h e peak output s i g n a l from equation E . l
( 5 1 , page E-4, i s

S
ob peak = 7 @'% peak (1)

The peak-squared s i g n a l i s

From equation E . 2 . 1 (9), page E-6, t h e output n o i s e power i s

E-10

The r a t i o of peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-squared noise i s then

where

Llfb = peak c y c l i c f'requency d e v i a t i o n of t h e c a r r i e r by t h e

peak baseband modulation.

The second bracketed q u a n t i t y i s seen t o be t h e input signal-to-noise

r a t i o computed i n a p h y s i c a l bandwidth B Then
0'

If a specification factor K e x i s t s , r e l a t i n g t h e peak t o rms value

P
of t h e baseband modulation, such t h a t

fb (7)
r.m. s. = K Pf i Peak
t h e n t h e mean-squared output signal-to-noise r a t i o may be formed as

- =
NO
[
3KP2 m peak
Bo
l2[dB0

E- 11

 APPENDIX F

SPECIALIZED DETECTORS

F.l Range Clock Receiver and Code C o r r e l a t o r

Re ce i v e r

Figure F.l-1.- Range clock r e c e i v e r

The above f i g u r e shows t h e block diagram of t h e c i r c u i t r y which

recovers t h e received range clock s i g n a l and generates t h e range code
c o r r e l a t i o n s i g n a l . The p h y s i c a l operation of t h i s c i r c u i t r y has been
t r e a t e d i n volume I of t h i s s e r i e s .

Si(t) + n i ( t ) = t h e I F i n p u t s i g n a l p l u s noise

cr (t1 = r e c e i v e r code having only v a l u e s of fl

= product of c ( t ) and t h e I F r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l
s,(t) r
6 ( t )+ n m ( t ) = s i g n a l p l u s noise out of t h e m u l t i p l i e r
m

F-1

 = correlator driving signal

Sk (t = c o r r e l a t o r output s i g n a l

= clock loop d r i v i n g s i g n a l

The operation of t h i s device w i l l be t r e a t e d for an i n p u t signal, phase

modulated by a t r a n s m i t t e d ranging code C , ( t ) , plus K subcarriers.
The i n p u t noise i s assumed Gaussian, f l a t , and band-limited to B cps.
i
F.l.l S i g n a l Treatment

where s.
1
( t ) has t h e same p r o p e r t i e s t r e a t e d i n appendix A. 2.

sr(t) = -cr(t) s i n (2)

(4)

It i s a s s m e d t h a t t h e m u l t i p l i e r produces only t h e d i f f e r e n c e f'requency

term.

then

A
s m ( t )= 5 cr(t) sin (5)

Eguatri.on ( 5 ) may be ex-panded a s i n s e c t i o n D.l.l.

F-2


1-

K co

* cos nipit +
i=1
nl=
O3 nk= OD

(6)

The f i r s t term i n equation (6) i s t h e d e s i r e d term. The second term i s

the interference. Equation (6) holds whether or not t h e s u b c a r r i e r s
themselves are angle modulated. For t h e d i g i t a l l o g i c employed by t h i s
system t h e product o f t h e two analog code wavefoms c r ( t ) and c t ( t )
corresponds t o t h e Boolean modulo two a d d i t i o n , o r "exclusive or",
*
of t h e two codes C
r
and Ct . The r e c e i v e r code output i s programable
i n seven s t e p s . A t each step, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e two codes
changes. This i s shown i n t a b l e I. It can be s h m , e i t h e r algebra­
i c a l l y or w i t h a t r u t h t a b l e , that t h e "exclusive or" of t h e two codes
i n program state P7 i s i d e n t i c a l l y clock, C1. This means t h a t

(t)ct(t) = c l ( t ) (7)
r7
where

c l ( t ) = square wave of u n i t amplitude, having t h e clock fre­

quency w
cl

*
For a d e t a i l e d p h y s i c a l explanation of t h e ranging equipment,
s e e volume I of t h i s series.

F-3

 Transmitter code cT = CI @ X(abvbcvac)

Bit
Program Receive r Component Initial Final length

,
state code acquired correlation correlation

P1
0 I c1 0 50% 0
P2 ,
P3
-X a I X 25% 341
P4 I -Xa I
a 50%
I 75% 341
!
p5 RI b 50% 75% 693
-
P6 xc C j 50% 75% 1 397
-
p7 X(abvbcvac) check a, b, c 75%

,x

cmponent

a
length

11

31
b 63
C 127
 I n terms of F o u r i e r s e r i e s ,

c
r7
( t ) c t ( t ) =: C $F - cos ( p n j s i n pw
cl
t
p=l

where

w = ­TT
cl R

R = clock b i t p e r i o d (9)
Then t h e c o r r e l a t i o n d r i v i n g s i g n a l f o r s t a t e P7 i s

where it has been assumed t h a t t h e band-pass f i l t e r having bandwidth B

passes only t h e fundamental s i n u s o i d a l component of t h e clock square
wave.

F.1.2 Noise Treatment

The input n o i s e i s taken i n t h e u s u a l form as

having an i n p u t noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y Hni(w), band-limited t o Bi.

The noise term from t h e m u l t i p l i e r i s

1
2 c r( t ) y ( t )
nm ( t ) 5 - (3)

We are now i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g "(w), t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e

noise term out of t h e m u l t i p l i e r . We make t h e assumption t h a t cr(t)
and y ( t ) may be r e p r e s e n t e d as sample f u n c t i o n s of independent r a n d m
processes and that

F- 5

where
Bi A AWi
; I w [ < 23-r -=- (5)
2 2

= 0 ; a l l other w

Frm Titsworth and Welch ( r e f . 10) we approximate t h e s p e c t r a l

d e n s i t y of cr(t) i n i t s program s t a t e s g r e a t e r t h a n P2, as t h a t of a
Markov sequence.

Then

@
1sin2
(w) = -
(g)
cr R

where

R = bit r a t e of c,(t)

" 9

L J

Since
nw,
- y) = 2 2 < w - y < 2

AWi
= o ; ( w - Y J ' 2

then
Aw

mY( w - y) = 2 2 2
i

= o ; a l l other y (9)

F-6

It f o l l o w s that

AW,

w + -
I
2 sin2( k)
aW;
1­

w - ­
2

Let

2R = x ; y = 2Rx ; dy = 2Rdx

then

w - ­
2
2R

Qm ( w ) = 121J w - -
nw2
2R
Q
sin2 x
X2
dx

2R
 r 1

-
X

sin 2x
ax

+ 2 \ x x

X
1

1 ­

IX 2 sin2 x
x2
ax = L
2
{$ 1
-1
X
+
2
cos 2x
X
2
2
c o s 2x1

X
1

X
1

where

Si(4 = ("x
J

0
sin x

F-8

 2.R 2R

2
.
w - ­
2

2R

and

+ -R1

Equation (21) i s t h e g e n e r a l expression f o r t h e noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

a t t h e output of t h e m u l t i p l i e r . W e are i n t e r e s t e d i n e v a l u a t i n g t h i s
s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y a t t h e c e n t e r frequency of t h e narrow band-pass f i l t e r .
W e w i l l then assume "(w) to be f l a t a c r o s s t h i s narruw bandwidth.

The frequency of i n t e r e s t i s
The assumption i s a l s o made t h a t t h e i n p u t bandwidth may be l i m i t e d t o

Awi = l O c R (231

U s i n g t h e assumptions s t a t e d above, t h e n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y a t t h e
output o f t h e band-pass f i l t e r B may be w r i t t e n as

(25)

)$nil 10 1 1
@c(")
(- +-
6.rr + -
4.rr + si(18. 85) + Si(12.

Now, t h e n o i s e power a t t h e output o f t h e band-pass f i l t e r i n t h e

bandwidth B i s

(29)

F.l.3 Signal-to-noise R a t i o s
From equations F . l . l ( 1 0 ) and F.1.2 ( 2 7 ) w e may o b t a i n t h e s i g n a l ­
to-noise r a t i o a t t h e output of t h e band-pass f i l t e r of bandwidth B
for program s t a t e P as
7

F-10

("'p.> i=1 ~ o ~ ( * ~ i )

Equation ( 2 ) relates t o t h e i n p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o computed i n a

bandwidth B as

For program s t a t e P t h e product c r ( t ) c t ( t ) i s a square wave

7'
clock s i g n a l 100 p e r c e n t of t h e t i m e . For o t h e r program states
c , ( t ) c t ( t ) i s a s q u a r e wave which r e v e r s e s phase some p e r c e n t of t h e
time, on t h e average, depending on t h e p e r c e n t c o r r e l a t i o n of C
r
w i t h Ct. This behavior, coupled w i t h t h e f i l t e r i n g a c t i o n of t h e band-
pass f i l t e r , i s i n t e r p r e t e d as causing the amplitude of s,(t) t o be
p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e average amount of t i m e cr(t) ct(t) i s constant
phase clock, or p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of C w i t h Ct. A
r
proportionality factor FK,
normalized t o t h e P
7
value of amplitude
of s c ( t ) , i s employed t o account f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n . $4( h a s maximum
value of 1 . 0 i n s t a t e P and minimum value of 0.25 i n s t a t e P3.
7
$ is
defined as a c o r r e l a t i o n l o s s .

Equation (3) may be generaliz,ed as

F-11

 From equation A.3 ( 6 ) , page A-8, it may be determined that the receiver

p2]
input signal-to-noise ratio for the range code component only,

Nir B
is related to the input signal-to-noise ratio for the total

carrier by

It is seen that there has been an effective signal loss due to the

effects of the receiver code on the input noise, given by the factor

2 * 6 2 or 0.835.
Tr
Equation ( 4 ) may be generalized as

where

= .835 is defined as detection loss.

LD
F.1.4 Receiver Threshold
The threshold of the range clock receiver is the threshold of the
clock loop in the receiver. The threshold treatment of the clock loop
is that for a modulation restrictive loop as given in section C . 4 . The
signal-to-noise ratio used for threshold computations is that given by
equation F.1.3 ( 6 ) above, except that it is computed in the clock loop
noise bandwidth. Thus,

YBN
N

where [dB
N
is the total carrier-to-noise ratio at the input to the

range clock receiver, computed in the bandwidth

BN
. The value of
LD
is 0.835. A worst case value of LK is -12 decibels.

F-12

F.1.5 Range Code A c q u i s i t i o n Time

It i s d e s i r a b l e t o r e l a t e t h e time f o r a c q u i r i n g t h e ranging c o d e . t o
t h e s i g n a l and n o i s e parameters a t t h e input t o t h e range clock r e c e i v e r ,
shown i n f i g u r e F.1-1, page F-1. Acquisition time i s defined as being
the t o t a l time t o o b t a i n i n d i c a t i o n s of c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e l o c a l l y
generated code components and t h e received code f o r a given p r o b a b i l i t y
or e r r o r , given p r i o r a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e range clock s i g n a l . Rapid clock
a c q u i s i t i o n i s assured f o r t h e clock l o o p signal-to-noise r a t i o s u f f i c i e n t l y
high.

The code a c q u i s i t i o n process has been p h y s i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d elsewhere

(ref. Zl).. The process i s knuwn as "maxi" l i k e l i h o o d a c q u i s i t i o n , "
and has been t r e a t e d by E a s t e r l i n g (ref. 12). With a s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n
E a s t e r l i n g ' s t r e a t m e n t may be a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y to t h e range clock re­
c e i v e r and code c o r r e l a t o r . The m o d i f i c a t i o n i s t h a t here t h e energy
per b i t i s given by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n c o r r e l a t i o n l e v e l s a t t h e output
of t h e c o r r e l a t o r and n o t by t h e l e v e l s themselves.

F r o m e q u a t i o n s F.l.l (lo), page F-5, and F.1.3 (6), page F-12, it

i s seen t h a t t h e s i g n a l i n t o t h e c o r r e l a t o r i s
K

The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l from t h e clock loop VCO h a s s i n e phase. The s i g ­

n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t o r output term, t h e d i f f e r e n c e term, i s t h e n taken as
K

The d e s i r e d output s i g n a l S
0
( t ) i s t h e change of s,(t) when a
code component i s acquired. The change i s always p o s i t i v e ( r e f . ll),
t h e r e f o r e , S ( t ) i s always p o s i t i v e .
0
6
has only v a l u e s 0.25,
0.50, 0.75, or 1.00 ( r e f . 11). A c q u i s i t i o n o f a component i s s i g n a l e d
by J4( i n c r e a s i n g from i t s i n i t i a l value, s a y 0.50, t o t h e next
h i g h e r value, s a y 0.75. Therefore, t h e e f f e c t i v e output s i g n a l may be
w r i t t e n as

A
s (t) = ­
0 Tr

F-13

where

p2
= correlation value a f t e r a c q u i s i t i o n of a component

pl
= value b e f o r e a c q u i s i t i o n of a component

Theref ore, K

The s i g n a l power a t t h e output of t h e c o r r e l a t o r i s t h e n

The magnitude of t h e assumed f l a t n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y a t t h e

output of t h e c o r r e l a t o r i s

and i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y a t t h e r e c e i v e r i n p u t through
equation F.1.2 (27),page F-10, as

The r a t i o of output s i g n a l power t o n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s next

obtained as

n K

K 1

 K
- ' -0 s i n2 ~'p, J:(A~~)- 'i
l@ol-
6.12 s ( ) i=l I'ni I
The t o t a l code a c q u i s i t i o n time for t h i s system, assuming p r i o r
clock a c q u i s i t i o q m a y be broken i n t o two p a r t s : t h e i n t e g r a t i o n time
r e q u i r e d t o make a d e c i s i o n w i t h h t h e assigned e r r o r p r o b a b i l i t y on a
maximum l i k e l i h o o d b a s i s , and t h e b u i l t - i n machine d e l a y time. The
following d e f i n i t i o n s are made:

Ta = t o t a l code a c q u i s i t i o n tb-3

T =machine d e l a y time between t r i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s

m

T. = i n t e g r a t i o n time p e r t r i a l c o r r e l a t i o n
1

Wi = t h e ith code component

p. = , p e r i o d , i n elements of t h e i
t h component Wi
1
- log2 Pi = number of information b i t s i n W
Ni i

1 = s u b s c r i p t d e s i g n a t i n g longest component
w1
T = i n t e g r a t i o n time p e r information b i t i n
1 w1

t h e machine d e l a y time, i s a b u i l t - i n f i x e d parameter o f t h e

Tm'
ranging d i g i t a l c i r c u i t r y . i s an i m p l i c i t f u n c t i o n of t h e r a t i o of
Tj
c o r r e l a t i o n s i g n a l power t o noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , p r o b a b i l l t y o f
e r r o r , and information content N of t h e code component W.. The
i 1
d i g i t a l ranging system i s implemented such t h a t i s f i x e d during
Ti
any s i n g l e range code a c q u i s i t i o n . Therefore, Ti must be f i x e d t o
a c e m o d a t e t h e code component W1 of g r e a t e s t length, which has t h e
h i g h e s t information content
N1
.

then

T. = N T
1 1 1

F-15

 The i n t e g r a t i o n i s performed s e q u e n t i a l l y on each element of a code

component, and s e q u e n t i a l l y on t h e components themselves. Therefore,
t h e t o t a l a c q u i s i t i o n time may be w r i t t e n as

Ta = Tm IC Pi - 1
1 + TINIC Pi

Since i n usable cases t h e sum of t h e component p e r i o d s i s much g r e a t e r

than unity, t h e approximation holds that

The i n t e g r a t i o n time p e r information b i t may be solved for, as

E a s t e r l i n g ’ s ( r e f . 1 2 ) f i g u r e i s reproduced here as f i g u r e F.1.5-1

with t h e a b s c i s s a units r e l a b e l e d t o conform t o t h i s n o t a t i o n . For a
given e r r o r p r o b a b i l i t y and information content of t h e l o n g e s t code
S
component, a value of T - 0
may be read d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e curve.
I@oI
I ,

Given a requirement for TI, stemming from a requirement for Ta, t h e r e -

SA
q u i r e d output value may be i n f e r r e d .
I,@

F-16

 u
-TJ

_c1

1
r), = 20­
15 -

IO ­
9­
8­
7­

6 ­
5­
4­
3­

2-

I­
1.0 1 IO0

-
Figure F. 1.5-1. Error p r o b a b i l i t y v e r s u s signal-to-no-;e d e n s i -y' r a t i o

F-17

 F.2 PCM Telemetry S u b c a r r i e r Demodulator

This s e c t i o n w i l l develop a n approximate a n a l y s i s f o r t h e demodu­

l a t o r shown i n f i g u r e F.2-1.

Band- l ( t ) Square q(t) Band- c ( t ) Loop

pass
limiter
D law > pass * filter-
device filter
iJL’ BL

Freq.
mult .

F i g u r e F.2-1.- PCM t e l e m e t r y s u b c a r r i e r demodulator

The i n p u t s i g n a l i s t a k e n as p u r e l y phase modulated, of t h e form

. ( t ) = A cos
s1 kCt+ ps(t3

where t h e modulation f u n c t i o n i s biphase

where

c ( t ) = square waveform having only t h e values +1

t
The input n o i s e i s t a k e n as a sample f u n c t i o n of a narrow-band Gaussian
p r o c e s s , band-limited t o t h e l i m i t e r bandwidth, as

. ( t ) = x ( t ) cos w e t - y ( t ) s i n w ct
n1 (3)

F-18

 From e q u a t i o n B . 3 ( 4 ) , page B-6, t h e limiter output l ( t ) i s taken

as

l(t)= 4 -
vL
JI
cos
I+ 1wet $(t) (4)

This t r e a t m e n t w i l l be limited t o r e l a t i v e l y h i g h signal-to-noise

r a t i o s (SNR) i n t h e l i m i t e r . For h i g h l i m i t e r SNR,

l ( t )2 4 -
fl cos
VL

from e q u a t i o n B . 2 (lo), page B-4.

r
c
wet

+ cps(t) + ddj
A
(5)

F. 2 . 1 Output Data Treatment

The l i m i t e r s i g n a l i s demodulated phase c o h e r e n t l y by t h e product
d e t e c t o r having g a i n c o n s t a n t K'p. It i s assumed t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l
sr(t) from t h e VCO i s e s s e n t i a l l y n o i s e l e s s when t h e output d a t a i s
u s a b l e . This i m p l i e s t h a t whenever t h e output d a t a i s u s a b l e , t h e sub-
c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g loop i s w e l l above t h r e s h o l d . The r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l i s
taken as

sr ( t ) = - sin w ct (1)

The output s i g n a l and n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y may be taken d i r e c t l y

frm e q u a t i o n s B . 4 . 2 (8) and (lo), page B-9, as

Using t h e i d e n t i t y o f e q u a t i o n A.3 ( 3 ) , page A-7, e q u a t i o n F.3 (2)

may be s u b s t i t u t e d i n ( 2 ) t o g i v e

s ( t ) =; 2 V K'c ( t ) (4)
0 Lcpt

F-19

 A q u a n t i t y which i s u s e r u l for p r e d i c t i n g d a t a q u a l i t y i -
s the
r a t i o of output d a t a b i t energy-to-noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y - r;

This i s given as t h e b i t rate R times t h e r a t i o of output power t o

I I @no

noise s p e c t r a l density.

4 2K1 2
R-V
E 71
2 L r p
=R
I 'no1

where
n
b
- -i - r a t i o of i n p u t s u b c a r r i e r power to i n p u t noise s p e c t r a l
I@nil density

Equation (7) holds for reasonably high l i m i t e r SNR.

F.2.2 Reference Loop Treatment

The square law device squares t h e l i m i t e r s i g n a l l ( t ) and passes
a l l zonal energy near t h e second harmonic of t h e s u b c a r r i e r frequency
through t h e band-pass f i l t e r t o t h e phase-locked loop. The output of t h e
squaring device i s

q ( t ) = 12( t ) = 8 k]I{' + cos E w c t + 2$(t]}

F-20

The ' d r i v i n g s i g n a l f o r t h e loop i s taken as t h e double frequency term,

c(t) = 8 PI2 cos [.met + 2$(tJ1

For reasonably high limiter SNR, equation ( 2 ) i s w e l l approximated by

c(t) = 8 B2 cos [2wct + 2qs(t) + 2 .i"i

A (3)

Due t o t h e assumed square t e l e m e t r y waveform, t h e s i g n a l term of equa­

tion ( 3 ) is identically

2cp(t) = 51 ct(t) = f 51 (4)

then

2
c ( t ) = -8 7f C O S [2m Ct + 2 91 (5)

Comparison of equation ( 5 ) with equations B.2 ( 1 0 ) and

B.2 (ll), both on page B-4, shows t h a t t h e phase n o i s e s p e c t r a l
d e n s i t y f o r t h e PCM t e l e m e t r y r e f e r e n c e loop i s given by

Since c ( t ) c o n t a i n s no s i g n a l modulation, t h e loop w i l l n o t have mod­

u l a t i o n t r a c k i n g e r r o r , except p o s s i b l y for Doppler e f f e c t s . Neglect­
i n g Doppler, t h e loop phase j i t t e r i s obtained from equation (6) and
equation C.2.3 (l), page C-14, as

CT(P = 4 kIBN
The loop may be t r e a t e d f o r t h r e s h o l d as i n s e c t i o n C.2.4, employ­
ing equation (7) above. Equation (7) i s v a l i d f o r reasonably high
limiter SNR.

F-21

 F.3 The Residual C a r r i e r Tracking Receiver (Ground)

The ground c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g r e c e i v e r , shown below i n f i g u r e F.3-1,
i s a closed loop, phase tracking, double-superheterodyne r e c e i v e r . This
s e c t i o n w i l l determine t h e equivalence between t h e r e c e i v e r and a simple
phase-locked loop as t r e a t e d i n appendix C.

Freq.
mult. 4 b
phase
x3
-
I

I -sin
I s i n wlot

Figure F. 3-1. - Carrier tracking receiver

I n t h e f i g u r e , t h e v a r i o u s K ' s are amplitude transmission c o n s t a n t s .

The numbered s u b s c r i p t s r e f e r t o the nominal c e n t e r frequencies of the
various s i g n a l s . T h a t i s , slO(t) r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n a l whose nominal
c e n t e r frequency i s 10 megacycles. The frequency m u l t i p l i c a t i o n f a c t o r
of t h e network between t h e VCO and t h e f i r s t mixer i s m. The i n p u t
s i g n a l i s taken as i n appendix C.
r 1

F-22

... ,,, , . .. .. -. , . , , , 11.11111 I 8 I II II I 111111 I I

The VCO output voltage i s taken as i n appendix C, as

where i s not e q u a l t o w
C
. The f i r s t mixer i n j e c t i o n s i g n a l i s a
frequency m u l t i p l i e d v e r s i o n of t h e VCO s i g n a l .

so(t) = - A ~
sin (3)
The f i r s t intermediate frequency s i g n a l i s one term of t h e product

I n particular,

(5)
The second intermediate frequency s i g n a l i s one term o f t h e product,

K10K50AAosin
-Klo~50(t) s i n wGOt = 2 + Vi(t) -
1
mcpTJ(t) sin u)
6o
t

In-particular,

slO(t) i s the l i m i t e r input signal. The l i m i t e r output s i g n a l l(t)

has an amplitude constant dependent only on l i m i t i n g l e v e l
vL'
 The m u l t i p l i e r s i g n a l m(t) i s taken as t h e low-frequency term, as i n
appendix C.

or

Equation (10) i s i d e n t i c a l i n form t o equation C.l (51, page C-2. There­

f o r e , t h e VCO output phase f u n c t i o n C p v ( t ) may be w r i t t e n d i r e c t l y as

where

h ( 7 ) = impulse response f u n c t i o n of t h e loop f i l t e r

% = VCO constant

Multiplying both s i d e s o f equation (11)by m, w e o b t a i n

mqv(t) = 2K
0 0
h(7) s i n
r
qi(t - 7) - mqv(t - T] d7dt

Equation (12) i s i d e n t i c a l i n form t o e q u a t i o n C.l ( 9 ) , page C-3.

Therefore, by analogy, equation (12) d e s c r i b e s a simple phase-locked
loop with input Thase function of ( P i ( t ) , output phase f u n c t i o n of
mqv(t), and open loop g a i n ( n e g l e c t i n g loop f i l t e r c o n s t a n t ) of

It i s seen from equation (13) t h a t t h e frequency m u l t i p l i c a t i o n constant

m has been incorporated i n t o t h e loop gain. The presence of t h e limiter
i n t h e loop may be expected t o produce limiter effects, treated i n
s e c t i o n C.3.1, under conditions of low l i m i t e r SUR.

F-24

 The conclusion t o be drawn from the above i s t h a t t h e ground r e s i d ­

u a l c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g r e c e i v e r may be t r e a t e d f o r t h r e s h o l d as a normal
phase-locked loop by t h e methods of s e c t i o n C.4.

F.4 The Residual C a r r i e r Tracking Receiver ( S p a c e c r a f t )

The s p a c e c r a f t c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g r e c e i v e r , shown below i n f i g u r e F.4-1,

i s a closed-loop, phase-tracking, double-superheterodyne r e c e i v e r . This
s e c t i o n w i l l determine t h e equivalence between t h e r e c e i v e r and a simple
phase-locked loop as t r e a t e d i n appendix C.

qF'/i i+
xal
mul;.
xm
-- - .__ __

Figure F. 4-1. - Carrier tracking receiver

I n t h e f i g u r e , t h e v a r i o u s K's a r e amplitude t r a n s m i s s i o n c o n s t a n t s .
The numbered s u b s c r i p t s r e f e r t o t h e nominal c e n t e r f r e q u e n c i e s of t h e
v a r i o u s s i g n a l s . That i s ,
s47 ( t ) r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n a l whose nominal
c e n t e r frequency i s 47 megacycles. and m
m a r e frequency m u l t i p l i ­
1 2
c a t i o n f a c t o r s f o r t h e networks between t h e VCO and t h e mixers.

The i n p u t s i g n a l i s t a k e n as i n appendix C.

F-2 5

I
The VCO output s i g n a l i s taken as

(2)

The VCO s i g n a l i s frequency m u l t i p l i e d by a f a c t o r m2 to obtain

t h e second mixer i n j e c t i o n s i g n a l s
m (t).
2

s
m2
(t)= cos t2%t 1 + m2vv(t)

The second i n j e c t i o n s i g n a l i s frequency m u l t i p l i e d by a f a c t o r "1 to

o b t a i n t h e first m i x e r i n j e c t i o n s i g n a l s (t).
"I
s
ml
( t ) = A~ cos + m1m2'pv( t ) ] (4)

The f i r s t intermediate frequency s i g n a l i s one term o f t h e

product
47 ( t )

(5)
I n particular

The second intermedia-te frequency sigr.al 6 (t) i s one term of t h e

product 9

L -1

F-26

In particular,

s ( t ) i s t h e l i m i t e r input signal. The limiter output s i g n a l l(t) has

9
an amplitude constant dependent only on l i m i t i n g l e v e l vL

l(t) = -
4vL
fl
cos
r9
w t + Vi(t)

The o t h e r i n p u t t o t h e phase d e t e c t o r i s So(t) which i s t h e VCO

(9)

s i g n a l , frequency divided by 2, and phase s h i f t e d by 90".

so(t) = -A 0 s i n

A s i n appendix C, t h e m u l t i p l i e r s i g n a l m ( t ) i s taken as t h e low-

frequency term of t h e product of l ( t )and s o ( t ) .

m(t) =; 2 K'CV P LA O s i n { p1+>) + jqt$

cpi(t) - (11)

Equation (11)i s i d e n t i c a l i n form t o equation C . l (51, page C-2. There­

f o r e , t h e VCO output phase f u n c t i o n Cpv(t) may be w r i t t e n d i r e c t l y a s

h ( 7 ) = impulse response f u n c t i o n of t h e loop f i l t e r

% = VCO constant.

F-27

 W e next obtain

L 2

- ­
h(7) s i n
\
qi(t T)

Equation (13) i s i d e n t i c a l i n form to e q u a t i o n C . l ( 9 ) , page C-3.

Therefore, by analogy, equation (13) d e s c r i b e s a simple phase-lock.ed
qt),
[w]
loop w i t h i n p u t phase f u n c t i o n of output phase f u n c t i o n of

y V ( t ) , and open loop g a i n ( n e g l e c t i n g loop f i l t e r

c o n s t a n t ) of

K =-
2 K'V A %
71 ??Lo

It 5-s seen from e q u a t i o n (14) t h a t t h e frequency m u l t i p l i c a t i m

c o n s t a n t s "1 and m have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e loop gain. A l s o ?
2
t h e presence of t h e l i m i t e r i n t h e loop may be expected t o produce
l i m i t e r e f f e c t s , t r e a t e d i n s e c t i o n C. 3.1, under c o n d i t i o n s of low
l i m i t e r SNR.

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note a d i f f e r e n c e between t h e ground c a r r i e r

t r a c k i n g r e c e i v e r , t r e a t e d i n s e c t i o n F. 3 , and t h e s p a c e c r a f t r e c e i v e r .
I n t h e ground r e c e i v e r , t h e i n p u t and output phase f u n c t i o n s of t h e
e q u i v a l e n t loop were t h e s i g n a l i n p u t phase f u n c t i o n c p . ( t ) and t h e
1

f i r s t mixer i n j e c t i o n signal phase f u n c t i o n mcp,(t). For c o n d i t i o n s of

lock, t h e first mixer i n j e c t i o n s i g n a l t r a c k e d t h e i n p u t s i g n a l phase
e x a c t l y , assuming no s t a t i c phase e r r o r i n t h e e q u i v a l e n t loop. For
t h e s p a c e c r a f t r e c e i v e r , t h e i n p u t and output phase f u n c t i o n s of t h e
e q u i v a l e n t loop a r e t h e s i g n a l i n p u t phase T i ( t ) , and t h e f h c t i o n

cpv(t). This e q u i v a l e n t output phase f u n c t i o n does n o t

a c t u a l l y exist anywhere i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t r e c e i v e r , as may be seen by
examination of e q u a t i o n s (17, ( 3 ) , (4) and (10). However, for t h e case
where t h e e q u i v a l e n t loop i s locked w i t h no loop e r r o r , t h a t i s , where

F-28

it may be e a s i l y seen by s u b s t i t u t i o n of equation (15) i n t o equations

(31, (4), (61, (91, and (lo), t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l phase-locked loop i n
t h e s p a c e c r a f t r e c e i v e r t r a c k s exactly, as does t h e second mixer i n j e c ­
t i o n signal. The f i r s t m i x e r i n j e c t i o n s i g n a l t r a c k s t h e i n p u t s i g n a l
phase somewhat i n e r r o r .

The conclusion t o be drawn from t h e above i s t h a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t

r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r t r a c k i n g r e c e i v e r may be t r e a t e d f o r t h r e s h o l d as a
normal phase-locked loop by t h e methods of s e c t i o n C.4.

F. 5 The Spacecraft Turnaround Ranging Channel

The p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n and operation of t h e s p a c e c r a f t channel

which i s used f o r "turnaround ranging" has been t r e a t e d p r e v i o u s l y
( r e f . 13). This s e c t i o n w i l l develop an approximate treatment for t h e
channel. A r i g o r o u s treatment would be s o complex as t o be p r a c t i c a l l y
unusable.

The turnaround ranging channel, shown i n f i g u r e F.3-1, comprises

an i d e a l ba.ndpass l i m i t e r , a coherent product d e t e c t o r , and a phase
modulator. The up-link range code i s demodulated, along w i t h any sub-
c a r r i e r s and noise i n t h e bandpass of t h e l i m i t e r , and i s remodulated
along with s u b c a r r i e r s and noise onto t h e down-link.

'i
(t) I Ideal 1 I+\

Reference
signal subc a r r i e r s

Figure F. 5-1. - Spacecraft turnaround channel

The output s i g n a l of t h i s channel, s ( t ) , d i f f e r s from t h a t

0
S
assumed i n t h e treatment of d e t e c t i o n , i n appendices D and F due to
s e v e r a l e f f e c t s of t h e channel. The t h e o r y of appendices D and F must
be s l i g h t l y modified t o account f o r t h e s e e f f e c t s . The e f f e c t s a r e an
a d d i t j - o n a l noise spectrum on t h e down-link due t o t i n " - a r o u n d noise,
F-29
 a suppression of t h e d e s i r e d dawn-link s i g n a l due t o remodulated n o i s e ,
a suppression of t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l due to t h e s p a c e c r a f i limiter, and
a suppression of t h e d e s i r e d dawn-link channels due to turned-around
subcarriers.

"he i n p u t signal to t h e l i m i t e r , si (t), i s t a k e n i n normal form

S
as a sinusoid, phase modulated by t h e sum of range code p l u s an a r b i ­
t r a r y number, L, of s u b c a r r i e r s .

si
S
(t)=As COS I. + C t qS[tj

where

The s u b s c r i p t j denotes up-link s u b c a r r i e r s e x p l i c i t l y .

The i n p u t n o i s e i s assumed t o be a sample f u n c t i o n of a Gaussian

noise process, white, and band-limited t o BL ,
t h e p h y s i c a l bandwidth
of t h e l i m i t e r . S

i ( t ) = x s ( t ) cos wC t - y,(t) s i n wC t
S

The s u b s c r i p t s denotes a s p a c e c r a f t q u a n t i t y .

From equation D. 2 (lo), page D-11, the multiplier signal driving

t h e phase modulator i s approximated as

where

a = l i m i t e r signal suppression c o n s t a n t
L
S

F-30

 from equation D.2 ( 5 ) , -page D-10, % i s approximated as

S

2 -- 1
"L (5)
S

where

= spacecraft limiter input noise-to-signal r a t i o

The phase modulator sums t h e ranging channel ( s i g n a l ) w i t h t h e

normal dawn-link s u b c a r r i e r s . A modulation g a i n Gr i s a p p l i e d t.o
t h e ranging channel. The normal s u b c a r r i e r s have phase d e v i a t i o n s &pi.
Then t h e output s i g n a l s
0
( t ) i s given as
S

For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , we may d e f i n e a phase index for t h e turnaround

channel as ATm

2K'V G
'P Ls r
4 (7)
A'Pm - 7(

t h e n t h e phase modulator output i s

F-31

 The i n p u t s i g n a l r e c e i v e d a t t h e ground i s t a k e n as
f

where A d i f f e r s from A according t o t h e s i g n a l g a i n s and attenua­

g 0
S
t i o n s between s p a c e c r a f t and ground.

F.5.l Equivalent Noise

Observation of equation ( 9 ) shows t h a t t h e s i g n a l r e c e i v e d a t t h e
ground c o n t a i n s phase n o i s e of t h e form

The e f f e c t s of t h i s n o i s e a r e two-fold. F i r s t , t h e n o i s e appears a t

t h e ground as n o i s e and lowers t h e e f f e c t i v e ground i n p u t signal-to­
n o i s e r a t i o . Secondly, t h e phase n o i s e removes power from t h e c a r r i e r
and e f f e c t i v e l y suppresses t h e remaining modulation. 'The suppression
e f f e c t has been t r e a t e d by Middleton ( r e f . 1 4 ) .

The assumption i s made t h a t t h e r.m.s. phase d e v i a t i o n of t h e

s i g n a l due t o t h e phase n o i s e i s s m a l l enough s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g
phase n o i s e spectrum i s not spread o r broadened beyond t h a t of t h e
o r i g i n a l s p a c e c r a f t n o i s e . Then an e q u i v a l e n t e x t e r n a l "incremental"
n o i s e f u n c t i o n N ( t ) may be p o s t u l a t e d , which, when summed w i t h an
A
assumed " n o i s e l e s s " r e c e i v e d s i g n a l , g i v e s t h e same phase n o i s e as t h a t
of t h e a c t u a l r e c e i v e d s i g n a l . That i s , an e q u a l i t y i s d e f i n e d as

F-32

where

and
2 2

A(p, a
(4)
02 = 4- LS 2
P I T 2 Ys ( t )
S
AS
2

-avs
e i s t h e power s u p p r e s s i o n f a c t o r o f Middleton ( r e f . 14) due t o
phase modulation by Gaussian n o i s e having an r . m . s . v a l u e of a .
pS

Assuming t h a t t h e modulation bandwidth encompasses a l l t h e n o i s e

passed through t h e s p a c e c r a f t l i m i t e r , equation ( 4 ) may be r e w r i t t e n as

TS

The incremen"a1 n o i s e f u n c t i o n may be r e l a t e d t o t h e phase n o i s e

f u n c t i o n as

From e q u a t i o n (6) t h e n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e incremental n o i s e

f u n c t i o n may be i n f e r r e d as

F-33

 Dividing equation (7) by t h e value of t h e a c t u a l ground system n o i s e

s p e c t r a l density gives

then
rS,
BL

I
Imn,/
pnigj =
4
x m*'
2
"LS
2 S

(9)

and

o f the s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o due t o t h e a c t u a l ground system noise

s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , taken i n a bandwidth e q u a l t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t l i m i t e r .
I f t h e normal thermal i n p u t n o i s e s t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t l i m i t e r and ground
r e c e i v e r a r e assumed t o be uncorrelated, a t o t a l e q u i v a l e n t noise spec­
t r a l d e n s i t y i n t h e ground r e c e i v e r may be p o s t u l a t e d as

F-34

 *L
1 + AT,
2
--- -
si ­
l+x fl - S

-Ni
S-
BL

Equation (12) i s a n approximation usable w i t h i n a bandwidth narrower

t h a n t h e s p a c e c r a f t l i m i t e r bandwidth and centered on t h e ground r e c e i v e d
c a r r i e r eequency.
F.5.2 Equivalent S i g n a l
From equation F . 5 . 1 (2), page F-32, t h e s i g n a l phase f u n c t i o n of t h e
turned-around channel as r e c e i v e d a t t h e ground i s given as

Employing t h e i d e n t i t i e s o f appendix A, t h i s s i g n a l i s seen to be

F-35

 The turned-around signal w i l l be approximated by only t h e primary code

term and t h e f i r s t order s u b c a r r i e r terms. Then

f L

L 7

The e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e l e s s s i g n a l received on t h e ground i s expressed

f i n a l l y as

2
-0.
TS
.
L
s (t) = A e
g g
2
cos t + Acpreff ct(t) + C
j =1
Acp.eff s i n
J iJ
w.t + cp.(t)
5 1

+
K

c
i=1
AT, sin pit
-
+ (4)

where
..

and

h=j

As i n s e c t i o n A.3, t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r term may be w r i t t e n as

F-36

 APPENDIX G

PHASE M O D U L A W SIGNAL DESIGN

This s e c t i o n t r e a t s t h e d e s i g n and o p t i m i z a t i o n of narrow d e v i a t i o n

phase modulated s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r s . The modulation f u n c t i o n s a r e taken
t o be baseband f u n c t i o n s and/or s u b c a r r i e r s . Only t h e determination of
t h e v a r i o u s modulation i n d i c e s i s t r e a t e d , s i n c e s e l e c t i o n of s u b c a r r i e r
f r e q u e n c i e s i s a s e p a r a b l e problem and i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s p e c t r a l ex­
t e n t of t h e modulated s u b c a r r i e r s themselves.

The s i g n a l t o be t r e a t e d i s taken from e q u a t i o n A . 3 (l), page A-6.

s ( t ) = A cos
K
t + ~ v ~ c , ( t+) c nrpi s i n
i =1
kit +
where

A = c a r r i e r amplitude

w = c a r r i e r r a d i a n frequency
C

c t ( t ) = ranging code, having only v a l u e s fl

= peak phase d e v i a t i o n of c a r r i e r by ranging code

ATr
th
= peak phase d e v i a t i o n of c a r r i e r by t h e i subcarrier
ATi
u) = r a d i a n frequency of t h e ith s u b c a r r i e r
i
q i ( t ) = e f f e c t i v e phase modulation on t h e ith s u b c a r r i e r

It i s assumed t h a t t h e r e s t r i c t i o n t o s m a l l phase d e v i a t i o n s i n ­
s u r e s t h a t most of t h e s i g n a l power w i l l be concentrated i n t h e zero
and f i r s t o r d e r s i g n a l products.

It i s assumed t h a t s i g n a l d e t e c t i o n i s performed using phase

coherent product d e t e c t o r s , t r e a t e d i n appendix D, or a s p e c i a l i z e d
ranging r e c e i v e r , t r e a t e d i n . s e c t i o n F. 1.

There are two b a s i c s i g n a l design c r i t e r i a , s u b j e c t t o c e r t a i n .

boundary c o n d i t i o n s on t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r and t h e amount of allowable
i n te m o d u l a t ion.

G-1

 The f i r s t c r i t e r i o n i s a s e t of minimum d e s i g n g o a l s for t h e i n f o r ­

mation channels. These design g o a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y s p e c i f i e d by a minimum
channel signal-to-noise r a t i o and t h e bandwidth i n which it i s taken.
The s i g n a l m u s t be designed s o t h a t as c a r r i e r power i s decreased i n
t h e presence of a d d i t i v e white Gaussian channel noise, t h e m i n i ” de­
s i g n g o a l s are m e t simultaneously.

The second c r i t e r i o n is t h a t when t h e channel d e s i g n g o a l s are

simultaneously achieved, t h e channel s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o s must be max­
imized w i t h i n t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of a v a i l a b l e c a r r i e r power.

A boundary c o n d i t i o n i s that s a t i s f a c t i o n of t h e basic design c r i ­

t e r i a should n o t reduce t h e signal-to-noise r a t i o i n t h e r e s i d u a l car­
r i e r channel below i t s minimum design goal.

A second boundary condition i s t h a t t h e amount of unusable power

or intermodulation products r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of t h e two
design c r i t e r i a should n o t be overly l a r g e .

G. 1 S o l u t i o n for Modulation I n d i c e s

For a coherent product d e t e c t o r , t h e output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o

for t h e jth modulated s u b c a r r i e r , taken i n a bandwidth Bo , i s obtained
3
*an e q u a t i o n D. 1.4.1 (6), page D-7, as

where

= ratio of t o t a l s i g n a l power t o i n p u t n o i s e power i n a

bandwidth Bo
0
J j

For e i t h e r a coherent product d e t e c t o r or for t h e range clock re­

c e i v e r of s e c t i o n F.1, t h e output s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o f o r t h e range
code, taken i n a bandwidth Bo ,
i s taken from e q u a t i o n F.l.3 (6),
m
page F-12, i n t h e form

G- 2
For a product d e t e c t o r
$=%=1
(3)

I n terms of t h e n o t a t i o n used i n s e c t i o n F.1.3,

-N -r -- .
sC 1
Y Bo = B-&j (4)

0 NC r
r 1

Equations (1) and ( 2 ) may be rearranged as

V

Equations ( 5 ) and (6) may be combined as

G-3
I l l l l l I Ill1 I

Equation ( 7 ) may be s i m p l i f i e d t o

I n general, for range code p l u s K s u b c a r r i e r s , t h e r e a r e K equations

of t h e form of equation (8). These may be w r i t t e n i n s m e d form as

0
i

G- 4
.The bandwidths are t r e a t e d as system c o n s t a n t s , and t h e signal-to-noise
r a t i o s as independent v a r i a b l e s . ATi and Acpr a r e dependent v a r i a b l e s .
When t h e bandwidths and signal-to-noise r a t i o s are assigned as m i n i "
design goals, repeated simultaneous s o l u t i o n of t h e K s e t s of equations
y i e l d s s e t s of s o l u t i o n s (ATr, Acpi) s a t i s f y i n g t h e f i r s t design c r i t e r i o n .
The s o l u t i o n s a r e n o t unique as t h e r e a r e an i n f i n i t e number o f s o l u t i o n s .

For a s i g n a l having K s u b c a r r i e r s only, w i t h range code d e l e t e d ,

t h e equations analagous t o equations (9) are

K-1

i =1

(10)

For t h e s p e c i a l case of a s u b c a r r i e r which i s p h a s e - s h i f t keyed

&go0, it i s e a s i l y seen t h a t

BO :[
i No

- BO
=
E
Rm
i

where

R = keying b i t r a t e

E = energy p e r b i t

!@I=
v alue of channel noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

G- 5
 For t h e s p e c i a l case of a quadraphase s u b c a r r i e r which i s phase-
s h i f t keyed by two t e l e m e t r y channels, it may be determined t h a t

where

R and R = t e l e m e t r y b i t rates
X Y
E and E = t e l e m e t r y e n e r g i e s p e r b i t
X Y
IQI = value of channel noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y

For t h e s p e c i a l case of t h e turnaround ranging channel, a r e l a t i o n be­

tween t h e e f f e c t i v e turned-around phase i n d i c e s of t h e range code and
up s u b c a r r i e r s on t h e dawn c a r r i e r may be obtained by d i v i d i n g equa­
t i o n s ~ . 5 . 2(6) by ~ . 5 . 2( 5 ) , page F-36. Then

where

ATj = d e v i a t i o n of t h e jth s u b c a r r i e r on t h e up c a r r i e r

Acpr = d e v i a t i o n of t h e range code on t h e up c a r r i e r

G-6
Subst it u t i o n of equation (14) i n equation (8) g i v e s

where, f o r t h e turnaround channel, c o r r e l a t i o n l o s s 4

( and d e t e c t i o n
loss % are taken as i d e n t i c a l l y unity.

G.2 Maximization of S u b c a r r i e r Channel Signal-to-noise R a t i o s

I n s p e c t i o n of equation G.l (l), page G-2, shows t h a t t h e s i g n a l ­

t o - n o i s e r a t i o i n t h e jth s u b c a r r i e r channel i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o a fulic­
t i o n of modulation i n d i c e s given by

For a s i g n a l composed of K s u b c a r r i e r s and ranging code, maximization

of a l l t h e s u b c a r r i e r channel signal-to-noise r a t i o s i s obtained by
maximizing equation (1) f o r any a r b i t r a r y j , using s e t s of (LITr,
which a r e s o l u t i o n s of equation G . 1 (9), page G-4. Since simultaneous
s a t i s f a c t i o n of equation G . l ( 9 ) s e t s a l l t h e s u b c a r r i e r channel s i g n a l ­
to-noise r a t i o s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o each o t h e r by constants, maximization
of one s u b c a r r i e r channel maximizes a l l s u b c a r r i e r channels.

G.3 Boundary Condition on Residual C a r r i e r

The s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o f o r t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r channel i n i t s
bandwidth B may be determined from equation A . 3 (7),page A-8, t o be
C

G-7

Rearranging equation (1) and equating t o equation G. 1 ( 5 ) , page G-3, we

have

K a

NJ

or

The boundary condition i s obtained by s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t when t h e s i g n a l ­

to-noise r a t i o i n t h e jth s u b c a r r i e r cha.nne1 f a l l s t o i t s design g o a l
t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i n t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r channel should be
e q u a l t o or g r e a t e r than i t s design goal. Then,

-1 (4)

2BC
C

G- 8
 G. 4 Signal Efficiency

From e q u a t i o n s A. 3 (6) and ( 7 ) , page A-8, it may be determined

t h a t t h e powers r e s i d i n g i n t h e r e s i d u a l c a r r i e r component, prime code
component, and f i r s t order s u b c a r r i e r components of t h e modulated s i g n a l
a r e given, r e s p e c t i v e l y , by

P code

; K
P subcarriers = {2 cos2 (ATr)

L- j=1

The t o t a l usable power, or e f f e c t i v e power, iS given as -the sum of t h e

t h r e e component powers as

+ 2 cos
i =1

The percent, or decimal, e f f e c t i v e power, r e f e r r e d to t h e t o t a l c a r r i e r

power i s

% Peff =

The d i f f e r e n c e between e f f e c t i v e power and t o t a l power i s unusable

power composed of o t h e r modulation products. $ Peff may be used as a
boundary c o n d i t i o n on channel maximization.

G-9

 APFEXDIX H

SuPPI;EMENTARY THlCORY

H.l The Equivalent Noise Bandwidth of L i n e a r Networks

Figure H . l - 1 shows a diagram of a two-port l i n e a r network which i s

d e s c r i b e d by an input-output v o l t a g e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n G ( s ) i n t h e
complex v a r i a b l e s .

Figure H . l - 1 . - Linear network model

The t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n i s defined as

where

V ( s ) = u n i l a t e r a l Laplace transform of t h e output

0
voltage function v i ( t )

V.(s)
1
= u n i l a t e r a l Laplace transform of t h e i n p u t
voltage function v o ( t )

Since t h e network i s Linear, t h e p r i n c i p l e of s u p e r p o s i t i o n a p p l i e s and

t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e network f o r n o i s e i n p u t s may be made independently
of c o n s i d e r a t i o n s about t h e presence of s i g n a l .

The i n p u t t o t h e network i s taken as n . ( t ) , a sample M c t i o n of

1

a Gaussian process. n 1

.(t) i s a f u n c t i o n w i t h f i n i t e non-zero power.

That i s ,

where t h e bar denotes "average." It i s assmned t h a t t h e i n p u t n o i s e

H-1

 has some n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , an (jW), which i s a r e a l , even f u n c t i o n

of t h e imaginary v a r i a b l e j w . i

Papoulis ( r e f . 15) has shown t h a t f o r f i n i t e power i n p u t s to l i n e a r

systems, t h e output s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y may be w r i t t e n as

where

The t o t a l n o i s e power out of t h e l i n e a r network i s obtained by i n t e g r a t ­

ing t h e output s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y with r e s p e c t to frequency.

For t h e case where t h e input s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s constant or f l a t

with value
1
'nil
may be r e w r i t t e n as
,
i n t h e regions o f G ( j w ) of interest, the integral

Note t h a t t h e use of t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s which e x i s t f o r p o s i t i v e

and negative frequencies implies t h e use o f i n p u t s p e c t r a l d e n s i t i e s
which are a l s o "two-sided." This i s no cause for alarm and i s merely
a consequence of t h e use of F o u r i e r transforms. The Fourier transform
o f a real-time f u n c t i o n i s always two-sided. I f , i n t h e p h y s i c a l world
where only p o s i t i v e frequencies have meaning, a " r e a l " one-sided spec­
t r a l d e n s i t y N i s given as

N = K T (7)

H-2

where

K .= Boltzmann's constant

T = temperature

then t h e e q u i v a l e n t "two-sided" s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y i s simply

/pnj N -K - T

--
- 2 - 2

rt i s p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e a n e q u i v a l e n t rrsquare" t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n
having c o n s t a n t amplitude Gr, some r e f e r e n c e amplitude of t h e o r i g i n a l
t r a n s f e r function, and a t r a n s m i s s i o n bandwidth (two-sided) of j2A%.
This e q u i v a l e n t t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n i s defined such t h a t t h e power t r a n s ­
m i t t e d through it from a white, Gaussian i n p u t d e n s i t y i s e x a c t l y equal
to t h e power t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e o r i g i n a l t r a n s f e r function. The
equivalence i s made by equating output n o i s e powers

then

The t r e a t m e n t w i l l now be confined to t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s which a r e

r a t i o s of polynominals i n s, of t h e form

G(s) = 5l.3
where t h e degree of Q ( s ) i s a t l e a s t one g r e a t e r t h a n P(s) and a 1 1
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s are real.

The 1ef-t;-hand q u a n t i t y of equation (10) i s c a l l e d t h e "imaginary

two-sided e q u i v a l e n t noise r a d i a n bandwidth.." The r e a l ozle-sided
e q u i v a l e n t noise bandwidth i n c y c l e s i s r e l a t e d a s

H-3

 --
BIT - 2Tc

i s t h e p h y s i c a l square bandwidth through which equal pwer w i l l be

t r a n s m i t t e d as t h a t t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e r e l a t e d t r a n s f e r funetfon.
For t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s of t h e ty-pe s p e c i f i e d , contour i n t e g r a t i o n and
t.he t h e o r y o f r e s i d u e s b y be used to solve equation (10).

-
Figure, H.1-2. Gontoixr o f i n t e g r a t i o n

Along t h e contour shown i n the above ffgure, t h e eqm1f”r;yholds.

For l a r g e I RI the t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s t r e a t e d are of t h e o r d e r of l / s

r-3
and the i n t e g r a n d G(s)G(-&) i s of t h e order l/s‘-. For these t r a n s f e r
functfons and l a r g e 1 R l the i n t e g r a l along path C2 approaches zero-

H- 4

t h e n , by t h e t h e o r y of r e s i d u e s

of G(s)G(-s)

G( jw)G(- j w ) d j w = 27cj
i n t h e left-half

and

of G ( s ) G ( - s )
(1-5)
G i n the l e f t - h a l f plaae
r

or

B
N =%c{-
Residues of G( s ) G ( -S )

i n t h e l e f t - h a l f plane

H. 2 Equivalent Noise Temperature of Linear Systems

E.2.1 S i n g l e Networks
Every l i n e a r network, a c t i v e or p a s s i v e , c o n t r i b u t e s n o i s e t o a
s i g n a l p a s s i n g through it. For purposes o f p r e d i c t i o n , it i s important
t h a t t h e n o i s e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e networks d e a l t w i t h be known.

It i s w e l l known t h a t a r e s i s t a n c e having a p h y s i c a l temperature

TR
produces a white Gaussian one-sided n o i s e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y ( a v a i l a b l e
power). .

joules
mR(f) = mR cycle per second

where

K = Boltzmann s c o n s t a n t

It i s p o s s i b l e t o a t t r i b u t e n o i s e produced by a l i n e a r network t o an
imaginary r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e network i n p u t , matched t o t h e input,and 'co
consider t h e network i t s e l f n o i s e l e s s . The temperature of 'chis imaginary
r e s i s t a n c e which would be r e q u i r e d to produce the network n o i s e i f t h e
network w e r e n o i s e l e s s i s c a l l e d t h e network's " e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e

H-5

 temperature." Since t h e network i s assumed l i n e a r , the presence of a

s i g n a l or o t h e r u n c o r r e l a t e d n o i s e does n o t i n f l u e n c e t h e network s e l f -
generated n o i s e or i t s e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperature.

. + Ni
S1 G so + No
A A
v v

8- (noisy) -

S.1 + Ni G so + No

P
Figure H. 2.1-1. - Equivalent n o i s e temperature o f a n o i s y l i n e a r network

Figure H.2.1-1 shows t h e r e s o l u t i o n of a l i n e a r n o i s y network N

having power g a i n G i n t o a n o i s e l e s s network fed by a r e s i s t o r having
e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperature TN. The summing j u n c t i o n s a r e a concep­
t u a l a i d , i n d i c a t i n g t h e summing of temperatures. They a r e not p h y s i c a l
c i r c u i t s m i n g points.

H- 6

 __­
r

I n f i g u r e H.2.1-1 ( a ) ,

So = GSi
i
where
N
O
= N
N
C GN
i
= N
N
+ GKT. ( p e r cycle of e q u i v a l e n t
1 n o i s e bandwidth)
I
NN = n o i s e c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e n o i s y networks

I n f i g u r e H.2.1-1 ( b ) ,

So = GSi

No = NN + GN
i
- GKTN + GKTi

It i s seen t h a t i n terms of e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperature and on a p e r

cycle e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e basis, t h e r a t i o of i n p u t t o output s i g n a l - t o ­
noise r a t i o s ( n o i s e f i g u r e ) i s given as:

KT
i TN
-Ni
- - =I+- (4)
S GS; T;
GK TN + T
NO (
This r a t i o i s a f i g u r e of m e r i t , which, when equal t o one, i n d i c a t e s a
n o i s e l e s s system.

H. 2.2 Cascaded Networks

There a r e g e n e r a l l y two s i t u a t i o n s where it i s d e s i r a b l e to o b t a i n
an e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperature f o r two or more networks i n cascade.
The f i r s t case i s f o r two n o i s y networks each having power g a i n s g r e a t e r
t h a n u n i t y . It i s d e s i r a b l e t o have an e q u i v a l e n t temperature r e f e r e n c e d
t o t h e i n p u t of t h e f i r s t network. The Second case i s for a n o i s y
network w i t h power g a i n g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y , f e d by a p a s s i v e network
w i t h power g a i n l e s s t h a n u n i t y , f e d by some "input" n o i s e temperature.
It i s d e s i r a b l e t o o b t a i n an e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperature r e f e r e n c e d
t o t h e i n p u t of t h e network w i t h g a i n g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y .

H-7

 I 1 I

Consider two a r b i t r a r y networks i n cascade, having power gains G1

and G 2 and e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperatures, r e f e r r e d to t h e i n d i v i d u a l
network i n p u t s of T1 and T2 ,
respectively.
e e

Figure H. 2.2-1. - Cascaded l i n e a r n o i s y networks

The a v a i l a b l e output noise power i s

No = G KT
2 2
e
+ G2G1KT1
e

[2e + TI]
No = KG2G1 G1

Equation ( 2 ) shows t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e temperature r e f e r r e d t o

t h e i n p u t of t h e cascaded networks i s

T2
T =T1 +- e (47
n.
1. e G1

Equation (3) shows t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t temperature r e f e r r e d t o t h e output

of t h e cascaded networks i s
I- 1
T
n
= G~ + G ~ T ~ ~ ]
0 2e

H- 8

I
.
---
.
-.
,- ...,, ,,.,,.,.,,
I .1,111 I1111 11111111I 1111 1111II 11111I II I 1111 I I I I II
It can be shown (ref. 16) t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t i n p u t n o i s e temperature
of a l i n e a r , b i l a t e r a l , passive network, having power g a i n G whose
P'
p h y s i c a l temperature i s T i s given as
PY

Te' = k - j T p

Case 1: For t h e s p e c i a l case of two n o i s y networks w i t h power

g a i n s g r e a t e r t h a n unity,equation (4) shows t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t n o i s e
i n p u t temperature i s
T, L

Tn = T1 + - e
(7)
i e G1

For G1 s u f f i c i e n t l y high, T1 denotes t h e expression.

Case 2: For t h e s p e c i a l case of a noisy h i - g a i n network, fed by

a l o s s y passive network, fed by some i n p u t temperature Ti, f i g u r e H.2.2-2
applies .
+ GLTi +
Te = T2
e - GdTp

If t h e l o s s y network i s defined by i t s a t t e n u a t i o n or l o s s f a c t o r L
where

then

Te = T2 +Ti
L +E - q T p
e

H-9

 __

GL GN
0 ON
(lossy) (noiseless1 0

Figure H. 2.2-2. - Cascaded p a s s i v e and noisy networks

H.3 The Band-pass Amplitude Limiter

This s e c t i o n s e t s down, i n t h e n o t a t i o n used elsewhere i n t h i s
paper, c e r t a i n p e r t i n e n t r e s u l t s of t h e c l a s s i c a n a l y s i s of Davenport
(ref. 4 ) . The a n a l y s i s w a s performed f o r an i d e a l l l s ~ a - p a c t i o n "l i m i t e r
followed by an i d e a l band-pass f i l t e r . The d r i v i n g s i g n a l w a s t a k e n as
a c o n s t a n t amplitude s i n u s o i d embedded i n narrow-band Gaussian n o i s e .
Narrow-banding of t h e i n p u t n o i s e i s taken t o imply band-pass f i l t e r i n g
a t t h e i n p u t t o t h e l i m i t e r . The model i s shown i n f i g u r e H.3-1.
The output spectrum of t h e l i m i t e r i t s e l f c o n t a i n s s p e c t r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s
centered n o t only a t t h e fundamental i n p u t c e n t e r frequency, b u t a l s o a t
harmonics of t h e i n p u t c e n t e r frequency. The a c t i o n of t h e output band-
pass f i l t e r i s t o allow t r a n s m i s s i o n of only t h e energy centered on t h e

H-10

 Figure H.3-1.- Band-pass l i m i t e r model

fiindamental i n p u t frequency. For an output f i l t e r s u f f i c i e n t l y wide t o

pass a l l t h e zonal energy centered on t h e fundamental frequency, Daven­
p o r t ' s a n a l y s i s shows t h a t t h e output s i g n a l and output noise a r e r e ­
l a t e d t o t h e i n p u t signal-to-noise r a t i o (SNR) by r a t h e r complicated
expressions involving t h e confluent hypergeometric function ( r e f . 17).
The important results are reproduced below. Figure H.3-2 i s a graph o f
output noise power and output s i g n a l power v e r s u s i n p u t SNR.

Observation o f f i g u r e H. 3-2 shows t h a t t h e t o t a l output power of

t h e band-pass f i l t e r i s constant and i s given by

2
Po = s0 + No = 8k]

where

VL = voltage l i m i t i n g l e v e l

A t low i n p u t SNR it i s e v i d e n t from f i g u r e H.3-2 t h a t t h e output

s i g n a l power i s suppressed from t h e value a t high i n p u t SNR. T h i s sup­
pression may be expressed through use of a s i g n a l voltage suppression
f a c t o r aL such t h a t

= a 2 p

so L 0

Martin ( r e f . 7) has approximated

"L by
1

Ni
where - i s the input noise-to-signal r a t i o . The a c t u a l and approx­
s:
imate %* are plotted i n figure H.3-3.

H-11

F i g w e ~.3-2.-L i m i t e r s i g n a l and noise suppression versus input sm

 ~
Y

-20 -15 - 1 -5 0 5 IO 15 20

Si

-
Ni
INTO LIMITER B W , db.

Figure H.3-3. - Exact and approximate s i g n a l suppression

Davenport's a n a l y s i s w a s f o r t h e case o f a n m o d u l a t e d s i n u s o i d a l
s i g n a l . For t h e purpose of s i m p l i o i n g t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s paper, t h e
assumption w i l l be made t h a t t h e results c i t e d above a p p l y e q u a l l y to
a n g l e modulated s i n u s o i d a l s i g n a l s .

H.4 The Range Equation

This s e c t i o n w i l l d e r i v e t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o , computed i n an
a r b i t r a r y bandwidth B a t some r e f e r e n c e p o i n t of a r a d i o r e c e i v e r , due
to t r a n s m i s s i o n of r a d i o energy f r o m a t r a n s m i t t e r which i s p h y s i c a l l y
s e p a r a t e d from t h e r e c e i v e r by a d i s t a n c e R.

Figure H . 4 - 1 shows t h e model of t h e c o m u n i c a t i o n s l i n k to be used

i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n . A t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h output power PT f e e d s an an­
t e n n a w i t h power g a i n through a l o s s y network having power gain
GT
GLT. GLT i s a number l e s s t h e n unity. The energy from t h e t r a n s m c t t i n g
antenna propagates a c r o s s t h e d i s t a n c e R to t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna
which has a power g a i n Only a p o r t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d energy
GR.

H-13

 I
Figure H. 4-1. - Communication l i n k model

i s i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna. This l o s s of power i s a t t r i b ­

uted t o a propagation power g a i n G less t h a n unity. The power
LP
i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e antenna i s passed through a l o s s y network, having
power g a i n t o t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t of t h e r e c e i v e r . Noise i n t h e
G
”
l i n k i s a t t r i b u t e d t o a n e x t e r n a l system n o i s e temperature summed
TS
with the s i g n a l a t the reference point.

The r e f e r e n c e p o i n t f o r determining t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o i s
g e n e r a l l y t h e i n p u t of a s t a g e which has s u f f i c i e n t power g a i n s o t h a t
a d d i t i o n of n o i s e by subsequent s t a g e s i s n e g l i g i b l e .

Figure H. 4-2. - Antenna geometry

Figure H.4-2 d e t a i l s t h e geometry of t h e antenna system. The t r a n s ­

m i t t i n g antenna g a i n i s due t o a bunching of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d energy i n t o
a beam. This beam e f f e c t then r a i s e s t h e area power d e n s i t y of t h e r e ­
c e i v i n g antenna. The e f f e c t i s t h e same as i f a h i g h e r e f f e c t i v e povnr
had been r a d i a t e d by t h e t r a n s m i t t e r .
’e f f

H-14

 The r e c e i v i n g antenna has an e f f e c t i v e r a d i o frequency a r e a

Aeff
which i s t h e a r e a of t h e passing r a d i o wave from which t h e antenna, ex­
t r a c t s a l l energy.

The a r e a power d e n s i t y a t t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna i s given by simple

geometry as

where

G = e f f e c t of propagation loss
LP

The amount of power e x t r a c t e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna i s

- G ~ G ~ Ae
~ f fG ~ P ~
R' - 47rR
2

The e f f e c t i v e area of a n antenna f o r r e c e i v i n g h a s been r e l a t e d t o

t h e power gain f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g by Friis (ref. 18) and others as

where

A = wave l e n g t h of t h e r a d i o energy

then

P R = GLpG LTGTGR [ "I2 PT

The power reaching t h e r e c e i v e r r e f e r e n c e p o i n t i s

r .1 2

H-15

 The loss of power due t o geometry may be a t t r i b u t e d to a "space

l o s s " having power g a i n
GLs'

=b]I&[=
2 2

GLs

where

C = v e l o c i t y of l i g h t

f = r a d i o energy f'requency

then

'i = G ~ p G ~ s G ~ ~ G ~ G ~ G ~ P ~ (9)

The e f f e c t of K d i f f e r e n t power g a i n s may be expressed compactly as

= PT Gi
'i
i=1

The power g a i n s l e s s than u n i t y may be expressed as

then equation (10) may be w r i t t e n

Gi
- i=1
'i - T
' L

The noise behavior of t h e r e c e i v e r may be a t t r i b u t e d to an i n p u t twc­

sided noise s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y mn ( f ) where
i

H-16

I
I 1 I I I II 111 I II I II
 .. .. . . . . ..... .. . -- -

over some frequency range of i n t e r e s t where K i s Boltzman's c o n s t a n t

and Ts i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t system n o i s e temperature. The n o i s e i n an
a r b i t r a r y bandwidth B i s given as

or

NJB = KTsB

The s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o a t t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t i s now w r i t t e n

TB [A]
fiL;
H.5 Antenna P o l a r i z a t i o n Loss

The p o l a r i z a t i o n o f a r a d i o wave i s d e f i r e d according t o t h e space

o r i e n t a t i o n of i t s e l e c t r i c v e c t o r . For an E a r t h bound r e c e i v i n g sta­
t i o n , a r a d i o wave whose e l e c t r i c v e c t o r i s perpendicular t o t h e E a r t h ' s
s u r f a c e i s s a i d to be v e r t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d ; a wave whose e l e c t r i c v e c t o r
i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s h o r i z o n t a l l y polarized. Both a r e
s p e c i a l c a s e s of l i n e a r p o l a r i z a t i o n , wherein t h e e l e c t r i c v e c t o r always
l i e s i n one unique plane which i s p e r p e n d j c u l a r to t h e plane of t h e wave.
A more g e n e r a l type of polaYization i s e l l i p t i c p o l a r i z a t i o n where t h e
e l e c t r i c v e c t o r r o t a t e s i n t h e plane of t h e wave and v a r i e s i n amplitude
as a f u n c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n angle. Figure H . 5 - 1 a p p l i e s .

Figure H . 5 - l shows a plane wave propagating out of t h e page, whose

plane l i e s i n the page. The sense of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c v e c t o r
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of propagation i s clockwise. This i s de­
f i n e d as "right-hand" p o l a r i z a t i o n . The l o c u s of e l e c t r i c v e c t o r
amplitude i s an e l l i p s e , hence t h e name e l l i p t i c p o l a r i z a t i o n . The
r a t i o of minor a x i s l e n g t h t o major a x i s l e n g t h f o r t h e e l l i p s e i s
c a l l e d t h e " a x i a l r a t i o " or " e l l i p t i c i t y r a t i o " . It i s seen t h a t l i n ­
e a r p o l a r i z a t i o n i s a s p e c i a l case of e l l i p t i c a l p o l a r i z a t i o n where t h e
a x i a l r a t i o i s zero. The s p e c i a l case f o r axia.1 r a t i o of one i s c a l l e d
c i r c u l a r polarization.

H-17

I
 Plane of wave
I

Figure H. 5-1. - E l l i p t i c polarization

It can be shown ( r e f s . 19 and 20) t h a t a n antenna which t r a n s m i t s

e l l i p t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d waves can be used t o r e c e i v e energy from an i n c i ­
dent e l l i p t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d wave. If t h e antenna p o l a r i z a t i o n e x a c t l y
matches t h e wave p o l a r i z a t i o n , maximum energy i s e x t r a c t e d from t h e
passing wave. If not, t h e r e i s an e f f e c t i v e power loss or r e f l e c t i o n .
The p o l a r i z a t i o n power loss f a c t o r , which i s e s s e n t i a l l y an e f f i c i e n c y
f a c t o r , i s given as

+4 % + (1 - d(1
P 2 + ( 14T2)(1+ - %’)
+ %2)
cos 2a
(1)

where

= a x i a l r a t i o of t h e i n c i d e n t wave

% = a x i a l r a t i o of t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna

a, = angle between major axes of t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n e l l i p s e s

3- = used for same sense r o t a t i o n

- = used f o r opposite sense r o t a t i o n

K = 1 i n d i c a t e s maximum power e x t r a c t e d from t h e wave. K = 0 indi­

P P
c a t e s no power e x t r a c t e d from t h e wave. It can be e a s i l y shown t h a t

K = 1 for circul-ar p o l a r i z a t i o n w i t h t h e same sense

P or l i n e a r p o l a r i z a t i o n w i t h p a r a l l e l axes. (2)

H-18

4'

K -- f o r c i r c u l a r to l i n e a r p o l a r i z a t i o n .
P - 2 ( 3I

K = 0 f o r c i r c u l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n w i t h opposite sense (4)

P o r l i n e a r p o l a r i z a t i o n w i t h p e r p e n d i c u l a r axes.

H.6 I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y of Clipped Voice

S t u d i e s of t h e i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y of peak c l i p p e d voice waveforms as
a f u n c t i o n of c l i p p i n g depth have been performed by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s and
agencies. The r e s u l t s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s by Shyne ( r e f . 21) and L i c k l i d e r
(ref. 22) have been summarized and manipulated by Kadar of Grumman A i r ­
c r a f t and Engineering Corporation ( r e f . 2 3 ) . It i s not intended to re-
summarize here t h e r e s u l t s of t h e r e f e r e n c e s . Rather, t h e a p p l i c a b l e
r e s u l t s from t h e r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be s t a t e d .

P l o t s of e m p i r i c a l l y derived d a t a r e l a t i n g percent i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y
f o r s i n g l e words and p e r c e n t word a r t i c u l a t i o n t o p o s t d e t e c t i o n peak
speech t o root-mean-squared noise, with peak c l i p p i n g depth a s a param­
e t e r , have been p l o t t e d i n t h e r e f e r e n c e s . The o r d i n a t e s of t h e p l o t s
a r e l i n e a r i n p e r c e n t i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . The a b s c i s s a s are l i n e a r i n
d e c i b e l s , peak speech t o r . m . s . noise. Since t h e d e c i b e l value of a
peak t o r . m . s . r a t i o i s t h e same as t h a t o f a peak-squared t o mean-
squared r a t i o , and s i n c e t h e r a t i o of peak-squared s i g n a l t o mean-
squared noise has been derived f o r s e v e r a l d e t e c t o r s i n appendices D
and E, t h e i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y p l o t s a r e d i r e c t l y useable i n p r e d i c t i n g
t h e performance o f voice channels.

mnned Spacecraft Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Houston, Texas, December 30, 1965

H-19

 REFlERENCES

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Frequency Modulation. Proc. IRE, J u l y 1947, p. 680.

2. Eennett, W i l l i a m R. : E l e c t r i c a l Noise. McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c . ,

1960, p. 234.

3. Davenport, Wilbur B., Jr. ; and Root, W i l l i a m L. : An I n t r o d u c t i o n

t o t h e Theory o f Random Signals and Noise. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
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4. Davenport, W. B., Jr. : Signal-to-Noise R a t i o s i n Band-Pass Limiters.

J o u r n a l of Applied Physics, vol. 24, no. 6, June 1953, p. 720.

5. Middleton, David: A n Introduction t o S t a t i s t i c a l C m u n i c a t i o n

Theory. McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c . , 1960, p. 669.

6. Kuo, Benjamin C. : Automatic Control Systems. Prentice-Hall, I n c . ,

1962, p. 123.

7. Martin, Benn D.: The Pioneer JV Lunar Probe: A Minimum-Power

FM/PM System Design. Tech. Rept. 32-21?, J e t Propulsion Labor­
a t o r y , Pasadena, C a I T f . , March 15, 1962, P. 14­

8. Develet, Jean A. Jr.: An Analytic Approximation of Phase-Lock

Receiver Threshold. Space Technology Laboratories, Inc.,
Redondo Beach, C a l i f . , Apr. LO, 1962.

9. Korn, Granino A , ; and Korn, Theresa M.: Mathematical Handbook f o r

S c i e n t i s t s and Engineers. McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c . , 1961,
p. 18.8-3.

10. Titsworth, R. C . ; and Welch, L. R.: Power Spectra o f S i g n a l s

Modulated by Random and Pseudo Random Sequences. Tech. Rept.
32-140, J e t Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, C a l i f . , Oct. 10,
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11. Martin, Jan W.: Apollo Pseudo-Random Noise Ranging System. To be
published as a NASA TN i n 1965.

12. E a s t e r l i n g , M.; and S c h o t t l e r , P. H: Maximum Likelihood Acquisition

of a Ranging Code. Research Surmnary 36-12, vol. I, J e t Propulsion
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13. P a i n t e r , J. H. ; and Hondros, G.: Unified S-Band T e l e c m u n i c a t i o n s

Techniques for Apollo - Volume I. NASA TN D-2208, 1965.

R-1

14. Middleton, David: An Introduction t o S t a t i s t i c a l C m u n i c a t i o n

Theory. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960, p. 606.

15* Papoulis, Athanansios: The Fourier I n t e g r a l and i t s Applications.

McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c . , 1962, p. 247.

16. Livingston, Marvin L.: The E f f e c t of Antenna C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on

Antenna Noise Temperature and System SNR. IRE Transactions on
Space E l e c t r o n i c s and Telemetry, Sept. 1961, p. 71.

Korn, Granino A , ; and Korn, Theresa M.: Mathematical Handbook f o r

S c i e n t i s t s and Engineers. McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c . , 1961,
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18.
Schelkunoff, S e r g i e A , ; and f i i i s , Harold T.: Antennas, Theory
and P r a c t i c e . John Wiley and Sons, I n c . , New York, 1952, p. 43.

19. Sichak and Milazzo, S.: Antennas f o r C i r c u l a r P o l a r i z a t i o n .

Proc. IRE, vol. 36, Aug. 1948, p. 997.

20.
Rumsey, V. H. ; e t a l : Techniques f o r Handling E l l i p t i c a l l y P o l a r ­
i z e d Waves, w i t h S p e c i a l Reference t o Antennas. Proc. IRE,
~01.39, May 1951, P. 533.

21.
Shyne, N. A,: Speech S i g n a l Processing and Applications t o Single
Sideband. ERL Tech. Rept., Montana S t a t e College, Boseman,
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22. L i c k l i d e r , J. C. R.; and Pollack, I.: E f f e c t s of D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ,

I n t e g r a t i o n , and I n f i n i t e Peak Clipping Upon t h e I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y
of Speech. J o u r n a l o f t h e Acoustical S o c i e t y of America, no. 20,
1948.
23- Kadar, I.: Speech I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y Criteria for Apollo VHF AM
C m u n i c a t i o n Links. L;ED-380-4, G r m a n A i r c r a f t Engineering
Corp., Bethpage, L . I . , Oct. 18, 1963.

R-2 NASA-Langley, 1966 S-89

i

“The aeronautical and space activities of the United States shall be

.
conducted so a to contribute . . to the expansion of human Rnowl­
edge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space. The Administration
shall provide for the widest practicable and appropriate dissemination
of information concerning its activities and the results thereof .”
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