Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Abhishek Sharma, Head of Department of

Electronics & Communication Engineering, for his guidance and support to shape this
paper in a systematic way.

I am also greatly indebted to Mr. Ajay Bhairwa, Department of Electronics &

Communication Engineering for their valuable suggestions in the preparation of the
paper.

In addition I would like to thank all staff members of Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering and all my friends of S8 ECE for their suggestions and
constrictive criticism.

1 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

CONTENTS

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. The Structure Of BCI
4. Sensors, Decoders, and Actuators
5. Macro Scale Sensors:
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging; Near-Infra Red Imaging
6. Principles Of Electroencephalography:
High Temporal Resolution, Low Spatial Resolution
 The Nature Of EEG Signals
 EEG Wave Groups
7. Neuropsychological Signals Used In BCI
 Generation Of EEG Signals
 Common Neuropsychological Signals
8. EEG Signal Pre-Processing
 Classical Method
 EEG Feature Extraction
9. Signal Classification Procedures.
10. Existing BCI Systems
11. Applications Of BCI
12. Pros And Cons
13. Conclusion
14. References

2 Department of ECE,
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Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

ABSTRACT

A Brain-Computer interface is a device which enables people to interact with computer-

based systems through conscious control of their thoughts. BCI is any system which can
derive meaningful information directly from the user’s brain activity in real time.

The current and the most important application of a BCI is the restoration of
communication channel for patients with locked-in-syndrome. Most current BCIs are not
invasive.

The electrodes pick up the brain’s electrical activity and carry it into amplifiers. These
amplifiers amplify the signal approximately ten thousand times and then pass the signal
via an analog to digital converter to a computer for processing.

The computer processes the EEG signal and uses it in order to accomplish tasks such as
communication and environmental control.

3 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

INTRODUCTION

What is a Brain-Computer Interface?

A brain-computer interface uses electrophysiological signals to control remote devices.
Most current BCIs are not invasive. They consist of electrodes applied to the scalp of an
individual or worn in an electrode cap such as the one shown in 1-1 (Left). These
electrodes pick up the brain’s electrical activity (at the microvolt level) and carry it into
amplifiers such as the ones shown in 1-1 (Right). These amplifiers amplify the signal
approximately ten thousand times and then pass the signal via an analog to digital
converter to a computer for processing. The computer processes the EEG signal and uses
it in order to accomplish tasks such as communication and environmental control. BCIs
are slow in comparison with normal human actions, because of the complexity and
noisiness of the signals used, as well as the time necessary to complete recognition and
signal processing.
The phrase brain-computer interface (BCI) when taken literally means to interface an
individual’s electrophysiological signals with a computer. A true BCI only uses signals
from the brain and as such must treat eye and muscle movements as artifacts or noise. On
the other hand, a system that uses eye, muscle, or other body potentials mixed with EEG
signals, is a brain-body actuated system.

Figure : Scheme of an EEG-based Brain Computer Interface with on-line feedback. The
EEG is recorded from the head surface, signal processing techniques are used to extract
features. These features are classified, the output is displayed on a computer screen. This
feedback should help the subject to control its EEG patterns.

4 Department of ECE,
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The BCI system uses oscillatory electroencephalogram (EEG) signals, recorded during
specific mental activity, as input and provides a control option by its output. The obtained
output signals are presently evaluated for different purposes, such as cursor control,
selection of letters or words, or control of prosthesis.
People who are paralyzed or have other severe movement disorders need alternative
methods for communication and control. Currently available augmentative
communication methods require some muscle control. Whether they use one muscle
group to supply the function normally provided by another (e.g., use extraocular muscles
to drive a speech synthesizer) .
Thus, they may not be useful for those who are totally paralyzed (e.g., by amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis (ALS) or brainstem stroke) or have other severe motor disabilities. These
individuals need an alternative communication channel that does not depend on muscle
control.
The current and the most important application of a BCI is the restoration of
communication channel for patients with locked-insyndrome

5 Department of ECE,
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STRUCTURE OF BRAIN-COMPUTER
INTERFACE

The common structure of a Brain-Computer Interface is the following :

1) Signal Acquisition: the EEG signals are obtained from the brain through invasive or
non-invasive methods (for example, electrodes).

2) Signal Pre-Processing : once the signals are acquired, it is necessary to clean them.

3) Signal Classification: once the signals are cleaned, they will be processed and
classified to find out which kind of mental task the subject is performing.

4) Computer Interaction: once the signals are classified, they will be used by an
appropriate algorithm for the development of a certain application.

BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE ARCHITECTURE

The processing unit is subdivided into a preprocessing unit, responsible for artefact
detection, and a feature extraction and recognition unit that identifies the command sent
by the user to the BCI. The output subsystem generates an action associated to this
command. This action constitutes a feedback to the user who can modulate her mental
activity so as to produce those EEG patterns that make the BCI accomplish her intents

6 Department of ECE,
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Sensors, Decoders, and Actuators

Figure 1 summarizes the approach used to construct a BCI. It is worth noting that the
nomenclature in this young field has not yet been settled upon: brain-machine interfaces,
neural prosthetics, brain-communicator interfaces, human neuromotor prostheses, and
other monikers are used somewhat interchangeably. A BCI is actually a system
comprising a sensor, a neural decoder or translator, and some form of actuator to carry
out an action.
The sensor is dedicated to discerning, either indirectly or directly, changes in neural
activity related to the intent to influence (or move) an external device, the actuator
(which, in the noninjured person, is the limb itself). Possible sensors include functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) systems, near-infrared (NIR) systems,
magnetocencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), electrocorticography
(ECoG), and microelectrode-based intracortical neurophysiology.
Proposed actuators include a cursor on a computer screen (to operate the computer and its
software), a motorized wheelchair, a semiautonomous robot, a prosthetic limb, or a
functional electrical stimulation (FES) device that could reanimate a paralyzed limb.
Between the sensor and actuator lies the decoder, which receives neural data recorded by
the sensor, discerns the user’s intention, and converts that intention into a command
signal for the actuator. (The important science of signal processing/decoding is reviewed
elsewhere in this issue). In designing a complete BCI system, the choice of sensor,
decoder, and actuator are interdependent. For example, if the goal is to discern the
intention to turn a switch on or off, the type of sensor and its location in or around the
brain may be different than if the goal is real-time control of a multiarticulated limb while
looking elsewhere and speaking (something humans without paralysis do without
hesitation).
We focus here on sensors being considered for human BCI use, with an emphasis on the
use of intracortical recording technologies, which appear to meet most effectively the
combined need for high fidelity, small size, and the potential to restore independence to
persons with severe paralysis.

7 Department of ECE,
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Macro Scale Sensors: Functional Magnetic

Resonance Imaging; Near-Infra Red Imaging

Blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) functional MRI (fMRI) has provided new

insights into human cerebral function. This technique, which measures the delayed local
hemodynamic response to neural activity (believed to be the result primarily of changes
in local field potentials), has been used to explore cortical and subcortical structures
involved in voluntary movement and motor learning. Real-time BCIs can be constructed
by providing fMRI-based feedback related to the intensity of activation of different
cortical areas. In one fMRI-based BCI study, healthy subjects were trained to imagine
four different mental tasks, the performance of which could be independently classified
by observing BOLD activity throughout the brain. Participants were then able to perform
these four mental tasks in order to control the movement of a cursor in four directions.
However, generation of each cursor movement took more than 2 min. Although this slow
response time, coupled with the current large size, temporal resolution, and indirect
functional correlation of MRI, precludes its use as a practical BCI for persons with
paralysis, fMRI studies may help to guide the location of sensors used in other BCI
applications.
NIR imaging uses light-emitting diodes (optodes) attached to the scalp to record changes
in cortical hemodynamics and oxygenation linked to neural activity. Harnessing
the slow vascular response that can be recorded by NIR systems, a single optode was
recently used to distinguish between two states of motor intention with a temporal
resolution of approximately 20 s. Faster vascular responses (in the range of 100 ms) have
also been explored; it is possible that an extracranial, subdural, or intracortical application
of this technology could be useful in the development of a BCI. More invasive optical
recordings, which provide fast and potentially information-rich neural activity, may be
feasible, though not yet as a portable device.

8 Department of ECE,
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PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY

1 The Nature of the EEG signals.

The electrical nature of the human nervous system has been recognized for more than a
century. It is well known that the variation of the surface potential distribution on the
scalp reflects functional activities emerging from the underlying brain. This surface
potential variation can be recorded by affixing an array of electrodes to the scalp, and
measuring the voltage between pairs of these electrodes, which are then filtered,
amplified, and recorded. The resulting data is called the EEG. Configurations of
electrodes usually follow the International 10-20 system of placement. The 10-20 System
of Electrode Placement, which is based on the relationship between the location of an
electrode and the underlying area of cerebral cortex (the "10" and "20" refer to the 10%
or 20% interelectrode distance).

The extended 10-20 system for electrode placement. Even numbers indicate electrodes
located on the right side of the head while odd numbers indicate electrodes on the left
side. The letter before the number indicates the general area of the cortex the electrode is
located above. A stands for auricular,C for central, Fp for prefrontal, F for frontal, P for
parietal, O for Occipital, and T for temporal. In addition, electrodes for recording vertical
and horizontal electrooculographic (EOG) movements are also place. Vertical EOG
electrodes are placed above and below an eye and horizontal EOG electrodes are placed
on the side of both eyes away from the nose.

Nowadays, modern techniques for EEG acquisition collect these underlying electrical
patterns from the scalp, and digitalize them for computer storage. Electrodes conduct
voltage potentials as microvolt level signals, and carry them into amplifiers that magnify
the signals approximately ten thousand times. The use of this technology depends
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strongly on the electrodes positioning and the electrodes contact. For this
reason,electrodes are usually constructed from conductive materials, such us gold or
silver chloride, with an approximative diameter of 1 cm, and subjects must also use a
conductive gel on the scalp to maintain an acceptable signal to noise ratio.

2 EEG wave groups.

The analysis of continuous EEG signals or brain waves is complex, due to the large
amount of information received from every electrode. As a science in itself, it has to be
completed with its own set of perplexing nomenclature. Different waves, like so many
Radio stations, are categorized by the frequency of their emanations and, in some cases,
by theshape of their waveforms. Although none of these waves is ever emitted alone, the
state of consciousness of the individuals may make one frequency range more
pronounced than others. Five types are particularly important:

BETA. The rate of change lies between 13 and 30 Hz, and usually has a low voltage
between 5-30 V BETA. The rate of change lies between 13 and 30 Hz, and usually has a
low voltage between 5-30 V Beta is the brain wave usually associated with active
thinking, active attention, focus on the outside world or solving concrete problems. It can
reach frequencies near 50 hertz during intense mental activity.

ALPHA. The rate of change lies between 8 and 13 Hz, with 30-50 V amplitude. Alpha
waves have been thought to indicate both a relaxed awareness and also in attention. They
are strongest over the occipital (back of the head) cortex and also over frontal cortex.
Alpha is the most prominent wave in the whole realm of brain activity and possibly
covers a greater range than has been previously thought of. It is frequent to see a peak in
the beta range as high as 20 Hz, which has the characteristics of an alpha state rather than
a beta, and the setting in which such a response appears also leads to the same
conclusion. Alpha alone seems to indicate an empty mind rather than a relaxed one, a
mindless state rather than a passive one, and can be reduced or eliminated by opening the
eyes, by hearing unfamiliar sounds, or by anxiety or mental concentration.

THETA. Theta waves lie within the range of 4 to 7 Hz, with an amplitude usually greater
than 20 V. Theta arises from emotional stress, especially frustration or
disappointment.Theta has been also associated with access tounconscious material,
creative inspiration and deep meditation. The large dominant peak of the theta waves is
around 7 Hz.

DELTA. Delta waves lie within the range of 0.5 to 4 Hz, with variable amplitude. Delta
waves are primarily associated with deep sleep, and in the waking state, were thought to
indicate physical defects in the brain. It is very easy to confuse artifact signals caused by
the large muscles of the neck and jaw with the genuine delta responses. This is because
the muscles are near the surface of the skin and produce large signals whereas the signal
which is of interest originates deep in the brain and is severely attenuated in passing
through the skull. Nevertheless, with an instant analysis EEG, it is easy to see when the
response is caused by excessive movement.
10 Department of ECE,
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GAMMA. Gamma waves lie within the range of 35Hz and up. It is thought that this band
reflects the mechanism of consciousness - the binding together of distinct modular brain
functions into coherent percepts capable of behaving in a re-entrant fashion (feeding back
on themselves over time to create a sense of stream-of-consciousness).

MU. It is an 8-12 Hz spontaneous EEG wave associated with motor activities and
maximally recorded over motor cortex. They diminish with movement or the intention to
move. Mu wave is in the same frequency band as in the alpha wave, but this last one is
recorded over occipital cortex.
Most attempts to control a computer with continuous EEG measurements work by
monitoring alpha or mu waves, because people can learn to change the amplitude of these
two waves by making the appropriate mental effort. A person might accomplish this
result, for instance, by recalling some strongly stimulating image or by raising his or her
level of attention.

11 Department of ECE,
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NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL SIGNALS USED IN

BCI APPLICATIONS

1 Generation of Neuropsychological Signals

Interfaces based on brain signals require on-line detection of mental states from
spontaneous activity: different cortical areas are activated while thinking different things
(i.e. a mathematical computation, an imagined arm movement, a music composition, etc).
The information of these "mental states" can be recorded with different methods.
Neuropsychological signals can be generated by one or more of the following three:
 implanted methods
 evoked potentials (also known as event related potentials)
 operant conditioning
Both evoked potential and operant conditioning methods are normally externally-based
BCIs as the electrodes are located on the scalp. The table describes the different signals in
common use. It may be noted that some of the described signals fit into multiple
categories.

Implanted methods use signals from single or small groups of neurons in order to
control a BCI. In most cases, the most suitable option for placing the electrodes is the
motor cortex region, because of its direct relevance to motor tasks, its relative
accessibility compared to motor areas deeper in thebrain, and the relative ease of
recording from its large pyramidal cells. These methods have the benefit of a much
higher signal-to-noise ratio at the cost of being invasive. They require no remaining
motor control and may provide either discrete or continuous control.

Evoked potentials (EPs) are brain potentials that are evoked by the occurrence of a
sensory stimulus. They are usually obtained by averaging a number of brief EEG
segments time-registered to a stimulus in a simple task. In a BCI, EPs may provide
control when the BCI application produces the appropriate stimuli. This paradigm has the
benefit of requiring little to no training to use the BCI at the cost of having to make users
wait for the relevant stimulus presentation. EPs offer discrete control for almost all users.
Exogenous components, or those components influenced primarily by physical stimulus
properties, generally take place within the first 200 milliseconds after stimulus onset.
These components include a Negative waveform around 100 ms (N1) and a Positive
waveform around 200 ms after stimulus onset (P2). Visual evoked potentials (VEPs) fall
into this category. Uses short visual stimuli in order to determine what command an
individual is looking at and therefore wants to pick. Using VEPs has the benefit of
quicker response than longer latency components. The VEP requires subject to have good
visual control in order to look at the appropriate stimulus and allows for discrete control.
One commonly studied ERP in BCI is a component called the P300.It is a positive peak
in the potential that reaches a maximum of about 300 ms after the stimulus is presented.
The P3 has been shown to be fairly stable in locked-in patients, reappearing even after
severe brain injuries.

12 Department of ECE,
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Figure : (Solid line) The general form of the P3 component of the evoked potential (EP).
The P3 is a cognitive EP that appears approximately 300 ms after a task relevant
stimulus. (Dotted line) The general form of a non-task related response.

Operant conditioning is a method for modifying the behavior (an operant), which
utilizes contingencies between a discriminative stimulus, an operant response, and a
reinforcer to change the probability of a response occurring again in a given situation. In
the BCI framework, it is used to train the patients to control their EEG. As it is presented
in, several methods use operant conditioning on spontaneous EEG signals for BCI
control. The main feature of this kind of signals is that it enables continuous rather than
discrete control. This feature may also serve as adrawback: continuous control is
fatiguing for subjects and fatigue may cause changes in performance since control is
learned.

13 Department of ECE,
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2 Common Neuropsychological Signals Used In BCIs

14 Department of ECE,
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EEG SIGNAL PRE-PROCESSING

One of the main problems in the automated EEG analysis is the detection of the different
kinds of interference waveforms (artifacts) added to the EEG signal during the recording
sessions. These interference waveforms, the artifacts, are any recorded electrical
potentials not originated in brain.
There are four main sources of artifacts emission:
1. EEG equipment.
2. Electrical interference external to the subject and recording system.
3. The leads and the electrodes.
4. The subject her/himself: normal electrical activity from the heart, eye blinking, eyes
movement, and muscles in general.

In case of visual inspections, the artifacts can be quite easily detected by EEG experts.
However, during the automated analysis these signal patterns often cause serious
misclassifications thus reducing the clinical usability of the automated analyzing systems.
Recognition and elimination of the artifacts in real – time EEG recordings is a complex
task, but essential to the development of practical systems.

1 Classical Methods for removing eyeblink artifacts :

 Rejection methods consist of discarding contaminated EEG, based on either

automatic or visual detection. Their success crucially depends on the quality of
the detection, and its use depends also onthe specific application for which it is
used.Thus, although for epileptic applications, it can lead to an unacceptable loss
of data, for others, like a Brain Computer interface, its use can be adequate.

 Subtraction methods are based on the assumption that the measured EEG is a
linear combination of an original EEG and a signal caused by eye movement,
called EOG (electrooculogram). The EOG is a potential produced by movement
of the eye or eyelid. The original EEG is hence recovered by subtracting
separately recorded EOG from the measured EEG, using appropriate weights
(rejecting the influence of the EOG on particular EEG channels).

2 EEG Feature Extraction

For the analysis of oscillatory EEG components, the following preprocessing methods:
1) calculation of band power in predefined, subject-specific frequency bands in
intervals of 250 (500) ms.

2) adaptive autoregressive (AAR) parameters estimated for each iteration with the
recursive least squares algorithm (RLS).

3) calculation of common spatial filters (CSP).

15 Department of ECE,
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Band power at each electrode position is estimated by first digitally bandpass filtering
the data, squaring each sample and then averaging over several consecutive samples.
Before the band power method is used for classification, first the reactive frequency
bands must be selected for each subject. This means that data from an initial experiment
without feedback are required. Based on these training data, the most relevant frequency
components can be determined by using the distinction sensitive learningvector
quantization (DSLVQ) algorithm. This method uses a weighted distance function and
adjusts the influence of different input features (e.g., frequency components) through
supervised learning. When DSLVQ is applied to spectral components of the EEG signals
(e.g., in the range from 5 to 30 Hz), weight values of individual frequency components
according to their relevance for the classification task are obtained.

The AAR parameters, in contrast, are estimated from the EEG signals limited only by the
cutoff frequencies, providing a description of the whole EEG signal. Thus, an important
advantage of the AAR method is that no a priori information about the frequency bands
is necessary . For both approaches, two closely spaced bipolar recordings from the left
and right sensorimotor cortex were used. In further studies, spatial information from a
dense array of electrodes located over central areas was considered to improve the
classification accuracy. For this purpose, the
CSP method was used to estimate spatial filters that reflect the specific activation of
cortical areas during hand movement imagination. Each electrode is weighted according
to their importance for the classification. The method makes a decomposition of EEG
data into spatial patterns which are extracted from two populations (EEG data during left
and right movement imagination) and is based on simultaneous diagonalization of two
covarinance matrices. The pattern maximizes the difference between left and right
population and the only information contained in these patterns is where the variance of
the EEG varies most when comparing two conditions. During on-line operation the EEG
data is filtered with the most important spatial patterns and the variance of the time series
is calculated or several consecutive samples.

16 Department of ECE,
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SIGNAL CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURES

An important step toward real-time processing and feedback presentation is the setup of a
subject-specific classifier. For this, two different approaches are followed:
i) neural network based classification, e.g. a learning vector quantization (LVQ)
ii) linear discriminant analysis (LDA)

Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) has proven to be an effective classification

procedure. LVQ is shown to be comparable with other neural network algorithms for the
task of classifying EEG signals, yielding approximately 80% classification accuracy for
three out of the four subjects tested when differentiating between two different mental
tasks. LVQ was mainly applied to online experiments with delayed feedback
presentation. In these experiments, the input features were extracted from a 1-s epoch of
EEG recorded during motor imagery. The EEG was filtered in one or two subject-specific
frequency bands before calculating four band power estimates, each representing a time
interval of 250 ms, per EEG channel and frequency range. Based on these features, the
LVQ classifier derived a classification and a measure describing the certainty of this
classification, which in turn was provided to the subject as a feedback symbol at the end
of each trial.
In experiments with continuous feedback based on either AAR parameter estimation or
CSP’s, a linear discriminant classifier has usuallybeen applied for on-line classification.
The AAR parameters of two EEG channels or the variance time series of the CSP’s are
linearly combined and a time-varying signed distance (TSD) function is calculated. With
this method it is possible to indicate the result and the certainty of classification, e.g., by a
continuously moving feedback bar. The different methods of EEG preprocessing and
classification have been compared in extended on-line experiments and data analyzes.
These experiments were carried out using a newly developed BCI system running in real-
time under Windows with a 2, 8, or 64 channel EEG amplifier . The installation of this
system, based on a rapid prototyping environment, includes a software package that
supports the real-time implementation and testing of different EEG parameter estimation
and classification algorithms.

17 Department of ECE,
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EXISTING BCI SYSTEMS

1 The Brain Response Interface

Sutter's Brain Response Interface (BRI) is a system that takes advantage of the fact that
large chunks of the visual system are devoted to processing information from the foveal
region. The BRI uses visually evoked potentials (VEP's) produced in response to brief
visual stimuli. These EP's are then used to give a discrete command to pick a certain part
of a computer screen.
This system is one of the few that have been tested on severely handicapped individuals.
Word processing output approaches 10-12 words/min. and accuracy approaches 90%
with the use of epidural electrodes. This is the only system mentioned that uses implanted
electrodes to obtain a larger, less contaminated signal.
A BRI user watches a computer screen with a grid of 64 symbols (some of which lead to
other pages of symbols) and concentrates on the chosen symbol. A specific subgroup of
these symbols undergoes a equiluminant red/green fine check or plain color pattern
alteration in a simultaneous stimulator scheme at the monitor vertical refresh rate (40-70
frames/s). Sutter considered the usability of the system over time and since color
alteration between red and green was almost as effective as having the monitor flicker, he
chose to use the color alteration because it was shown to be much less fatiguing for users.
The EEG response to this stimulus is digitized and stored. Each symbol is included in
several different subgroups and the subgroups are presented several times.
The average EEG response for each subgroup iscomputed and compared to a previously
saved VEP template (obtained in an initial training session), yielding a high accuracy
system.This system is basically the EEG version of an eye movement recognition system
and contains similar problems because it assumes that the subject is always looking at a
command on the computer screen. On the positive side, this .system has one of the best
recognition rates of current systems and may be used by individuals with sufficient eye
control. Performance is much faster than most BCIs, but is very slow when compared to
the speed of a good typist (80 words/min.). The system architecture is advanced. The BRI
is implemented on a separate processor with a Motorola 68000 CPU. A schematic of the
system is shown in Figure.
The BRI processor interacts with a special display showing the BRI grid of symbols as
well as a speech synthesizer and special keyboard interface. The special keyboard
interface enables the subject to control any regular PC programs that may be controlled
from the keyboard. In addition, a remote control is interfaced with the BRI in order to
enable the subject to control a TV or VCR.
Since the BRI processor loads up all necessary software from the hard drive of a
connected PC, the user may create or change command sequences.
The main drawback of the system architecture is that it is based on a special hardware
interface. This may be problematic when changes need to be made to the system over
time.

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Figure: A schematic of the Brain Response Interface (BRI) system

2 P3 Character Recognition

In a related approach, Farwell and Donchin use the P3 evoked potential. A 6x6 grid
containing letters from the alphabet is displayed on the computer monitor and users are
asked to select the letters in a word by counting the number of times that a row or column
containing the letter flashes. Flashes occur at about 10 Hz and the desired letter flashes
twice in every set of twelve flashes. The average response to each row and column is
computed and the P3 amplitude is measured. Response amplitude isreliably larger for the
row and column containing the desired letter.
After two training sessions, users are able to communicate at a rate of 2.3 characters /min,
with accuracy rates of 95%. This system is currently only used in a research setting. A
positive aspect of using a longer latency component such as the P3 is that it enables
differentiating between when the user is looking at the computer screen or looking
someplace else (as the P3 only occurs in certain stimulus conditions). Unfortunately, this
system is also agonizingly slow, because of the need to wait for the appropriate stimulus
presentation and because the stimuli are averaged over trials.

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While the experimental setup accomplishes its main goal of showing that the P3 may be
used for a BCI interface, the subjective experiences of a subject with this system have yet
to be considered. The 10 Hz rate of flashing may fatigue users as Sutter mentions and this
rate of flashing may cause epilepsy in some subjects.

3 ERS/ERD Cursor Control

Pfurtscheller and his colleagues take a different approach.Using multiple electrodes

placed over sensorimotor cortex they monitor eventrelated
synchronization/desynchronization (ERS/ERD). In all sessions, epochs with eye and
muscle artifact are automatically rejected. This rejection can slow subject performance
speeds.As this is a research system, the user application is a simple screen that allows
control of a cursor in either the left or right direction. In one experiment, for a single trial
the screen first appears blank, then a target box is shown on one side of the screen. A
cross hair appears to let the user know that he/she must begin trying to move the cursor
towards the box. Feedback may be delayed or immediate and different experiments have
slightly different displays andprotocols.
After two training sessions, three out of five student subjects were able to move a cursor
right or left with accuracy rates from 89-100%. Unfortunately, the other two students
performed at 60% and 51%. When a third category was added for classification,
performance dropped to a low of 60% in the best case. The architecture of this BCI now
contains a remote control interface that allows controlling the system over a phone line,
LAN, or Internet connection.
This allows maintenance to be done from remote locations. The system may be run from
a regular PC, a notebook, or an embedded computer and is being tested for opening and
closing a hand orthesis in a patient with a C5 lesion. From this information, it appears
that the user application must be independent from the BCI, although it is possible that
two different BCI programs were constructed.

This BCI system was designed with the following requirements in mind:
1. The system must be able to record, analyze, and classify EEG-data in real- time.
2. The classification results must have the ability to be used to control a device on-line.
3. The system must have the ability to have different experimental paradigms and give
multimodal stimulations.
4. The system must display the EEG channels on-line on a monitor.
5. The system must store all data for later off-line analysis.
The system has the ability to record up to 96 channels of EEG simultaneously through the
use of multiple A/D boards. Simulink and Matlab are the two software packages used:
Simulink to calculate the parameters of the EEG state in real-time and Matlab to handle
the data acquisition, timing, and experimental presentation. This design has the benefit of
separating data processing from acquisition and applicationconcerns. This may lead to
greater encapsulation of data and maintainability. This design has the drawback of trying
to use Matlab for both data acquisition and the BCI application. For simple applications
such as the cursor control task, this decision makes sense. When the application becomes
more complex this design decision may lead to problems. Matlab is not an object-
20 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

oriented language and data encapsulation is not necessarily easy to accomplish. This may
lead to poor maintainability. In addition, the system depends on Matlab for all program
capabilities. This is fine for simple graphical interfaces, but may break down when the
programmer wants to communicate with another program or even over the web. For these
cases Matlab may offer several special program extensions, but buying many extensions
becomes problematic and expensive. It would be easier to enable the application creator
to use a variety of languages for the application.

4 A Steady State Visual Evoked Potential BCI

Middendorf and colleagues use operant conditioning methods in order to train volunteers
to control the amplitude of the steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) to florescent
tubes flashing at 13.25 Hz. This method of control may be considered as continuous as
the amplitude may change in a continuous fashion. Either a horizontal light bar or audio
feedback is provided when electrodes located over the occipital cortex measure changes
in signal amplitude. If the VEP amplitude is below or above a specified threshold for a
specific time period, discrete control outputs are generated.
After around 6 hours of training, users may have an accuracy rate of greater than 80% in
commanding a flight simulator to roll left of right. In the flight simulator, the stimulus
lamps are located adjacentto the display behind a translucent diffusion panel. As
operators increase their SSVER amplitude above one threshold, the simulator rolls to the
right. Rolling to the left is caused by a decrease in the amplitude. A functional electrical
stimulator (FES), has been integrated for use with this BCI. Holding the SSVER above a
specified threshold for one second, causes the FES to turn on.
The activated FES then starts to activate at the muscle contraction level and begins to
increase the current, gradually recruiting additional muscle fibers to cause knee
extension. Decreasing the SSVER for over a second, causes the system to deactivate, thus
lowering the limb. Recognizing that the SSVEP may also be used as a natural response,
Middendorf and his colleagues have recently concentrated on experiments involving the
natural SSVEP. When the SSVEP is used as a natural response, virtually no training is
needed in order to use the system. The experimental task for testing this method of
control has been to have subjects select virtual buttons on a computer screen.
The luminance of the virtual buttons is modulated, each at a different frequency to
produce the SSVEP. The subject selects the button by simply looking at it as in Sutter’s
Brain Response Interface. From the 8 subjects participating in the experiment, the
average percent correct was 92% with an average selection time of 2.1 seconds.
Middendorf’s group has advocated using visual evoked potentials, in this manner as
opposed to their previous work on training control of the SSVEP, for multiple reasons.
Using an inherent response means that less time is spent on training.
The main drawback of this group’s approach appears to be that they flicker light at
different frequencies. Sutter solved the problem of flicker-related fatigue by using
alternating red/green illumination. The main frequency of stimulus presentation at 13.25
Hz may also cause epilepsy.

21 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

5 Mu Rhythm Cursor Control

Wolpaw and his colleagues free their subjects from being tied to a flashing florescent
tube by training subjects to modify their mu rhythm. This method of control is continuous
as the mu rhythm may be altered in a continuous manner. It can be attenuated by
movement and tactile stimulation as well as by imagined movement. A subject's main
task is to move a cursor up or down on a computer screen. While not all subjects are able
to learn this type of biofeedback control, the subjects that do perform with accuracy
greater than or equal to 90%.
These experiments have also been extended to two-dimensional cursor movement, but the
accuracy of this is reported as having “not reached this level of accuracy” when
compared to the one-dimensional control .Since the mu rhythm isn't tied to an external
stimulus, it frees the user from dependence on external events for control. The BCI
system consists of a 64-channel EEG amplifier, two 32-channel A/D converter boards, a
TMS320C30-based DSP board, and a PC with two monitors. One monitor is used by the
subject and one by the operator of the system .
Only a subset of the 64-channels are used for control, but the number of channels allows
recognition to be adjusted to the unique topographical features of each subject’s head.
The DSP board is programmable in the C-language, enabling testing of all program code
prior to running it on the DSP board. Software is also programmed in C in order to create
consistency across system modules. The architecture of the system is shown in Figure.
Four processes run between the PC and the DSP board. As signal acquisition occurs, an
interrupt request is sent from the A/D board to the DSP at the end of A/D conversion.
The DSP then acquires the data from all requested channels sequentially and combines
them to derivethe one or more EEG channels that control cursor movement. This is the
data collection process. A second process then takes care of performing a spectral
analysis on the data.
When this analysis is completed, the results are moved to dual-ported memory and an
interrupt to the PC is generated. A background process on the PC then acquires spectral
data from the DSP board and computes cursor movement information as well as records
relevant trial information.

Figure : A schematic of the mu rhythm cursor control system architecture.

The system contains four parallel processes.
22 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

This process runs at a fixed interval of 125 msec. The fourth process handles thegraphical
user interfaces for both the operator and the subjectand records data to disk.The
separation of data collection and analysis enables different algorithms to be inserted for
processing the EEG signals. All algorithms are written in C, which is much easier to
program in than Assembly language, but is not as easy as the commercial Matlab ®
scripting language and environment, which contains many helpful functions for
mathematically processing data.
The third and fourth processes contain design decisions that may make maintenance and
flexibility difficult. The graphical user interface is tied to data storage. Conversion of
EEG signals to cursor control numbers happens over the DSP foreground/background
processes and in the PC background process. This lack of encapsulation promises to
make changing the application and signal processing difficult if such changes are
planned.

6 The Thought Translation Device

As another application used with severely handicapped individuals, the Thought

Translation Device has the distinction of being the first BCI to enable an individual
without any form of motor control to communicate with the outside world. Out of six
patients with ALS, 3 were able to use the Thought Translation Device. Of the other three,
one lost motivation and later died and another discontinued use of the Thought
Translation Device part way through training, and then later was unable to regain control.
The paper implies that users do not want to use the BCI unless they absolutely must, but
does not disambiguate subjective user satisfaction of the system from general user
depression.
The training program may use either auditory or visual feedback. The slow cortical
potential is extracted from the regular EEG on-line, filtered, corrected for eye movement
artifacts, and fed back to the patient. In the case of auditory feedback, the
positivity/negativity of aslow cortical potential is represented by pitch. When using visual
feedback, the target positivity/negativity is represented by a high and low box on the
screen. A ball-shaped light moves toward or away from the target box depending on a
subject’s performance. The subject is reinforced for good performance with the
appearance of a happy face or a melodic sound sequence.
When a subject performs at least 75% correct, he/she is switched to the language support
program. At level one, the alphabet is split into two halves (letter-banks) which are
presented successively at the bottom of the screen for several seconds. If the subject
selects the letter-bank being shown by generating a slow cortical potential shift, that side
of the alphabet is split into two halves and so on, until a single letter is chosen. A “return
function” allows the patient to erase the last written letter. These patients may now write
email in order to communicate with other ALS patients world-wide. An Internet version
of the thought translation device is under construction. The authors comment that patients
refuse to use pre-selected word sequences because they feel less free in presenting their
own intentions and thoughts.

23 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

7 An Implanted BCI

The implanted brain-computer interface system devised by Kennedy and colleagues has
been implanted into two patients. These patients are trained to control a cursor with their
implant and the velocity of the cursor is determined by the rate of neural firing. The
neural waveshapes are converted to pulses and three pulses are an input to the computer
mouse.
The first and second pulses control X and Y position of the cursor and a third pulse as a
mouse click or enter signal.The patients are trained using software that contains a row of
icons representing common phrases (TalkAssist developed at Georgia Tech), or a
standard ‘qwerty’ or alphabetical keyboard (Wivik software from Prentke Romich Co.).
When using a keyboard, the selected letter appears on a Microsoft Wordpad screen.
When the phrase or sentence is complete, it is output as speech using Wivox software
from Prentke Romich Co. or printed text.
There are two paradigms using the Talk Assist program and a third one using the visual
keyboard. In the first paradigm, the cursor moves across the screen using one group of
neural signals and down the screen using another group of larger amplitude signals.
Starting in the top left corner, the patient enters the leftmost icon. He remains over the
icon for two seconds so that the speech synthesizer is activated and phrases are produced.
In the second paradigm, the patient is expected to move the cursor across the screen from
one icon to the other.
The patient is encouraged to be as accurate as possible, and then to speed up the cursor
movement while attempting to remain accurate. In the third paradigm, a visual keyboard
is shown and the patient is encouraged to spell his name as accurately and quickly as
possible and then to spell anything else he wishes.This system uses commercially
available software and thus the BCI implementation does not have to worry about
maintenance of the user application. Unfortunately, the maximum communication rate
with this BCI has been around 3 characters per minute.
This is the same rate as quoted for EMG-based control with patient JR and is comparable
with the rates achieved by externally-based BCI systems. Kennedy has founded Neural
Signals, Inc. in order to help create hardware and software for locked-in individuals and
the company is continually looking for methods to improve control. JR now has access to
email and may be contacted through the email address shown on the company’s web site.

24 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

Non-Invasive Vs Invasive Signal Detection

Non-Invasive

Pros
no surgical risks

Cons
low signal resolution
greater interference from other signals
interfaces must be routinely cleaned and changed

Invasive

Pros
higher resolution recording
less interference from other signals
faster communication possible

Cons
determining which neurons to record from
surgical risks

25 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

APPLICATIONS OF BRAIN-COMPUTER
INTERFACE

Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a system that acquires and analyzes neural signals
with the goal of creating a communication channel directly between the brain and the
computer. Such a channel potentially has multiple uses. The current and the most
important application of a BCI is the restoration of communication channel for patients
with locked-insyndrome.
1) Patients with conditions causing severe communication disorders:
 Advanced Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
 Autism
 Cerebral Palsy
 Head Trauma
 Spinal Injury
The output signals are evaluated for different purpose such as cursor control, selection of
letters or words.

2) Military Uses:
The Air Force is interested in using brain-body actuated control to make faster responses
possible for fighter pilots. While brain-body actuated control is not a true BCI, it may still
provide motivations for why a BCI could prove useful in the future.A combination of
EEG signals and artifacts (eye movement, body movement, etc.) combine to create a
signal that can be used to fly a virtual plane.

3) Bioengineering Applications: Assist devices for the disabled. Control of prosthetic

aids.

4) Control of Brain-operated wheelchair.

5) Multimedia & Virtual Reality Applications:

 Virtual Keyboards
 Manipulating devices such as television set, radio, etc.
 Ability to control video games and to have video games react to actual EEG
signals.

26 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

CONCLUSION

BCI is a system that records electrical activity from the brain and classifies these signals
into different states. Few applications currently being used have been discussed. Since the
BCI enables people to communicate and control appliances with just the use of brain
signals it opens many gates for disabled people.

The possible future applications are numerous. Even though this field of science has
grown vastly in last few years we are still a few steps away from the scene where people
drive brain-operated wheelchairs on the streets.

New technologies need to be developed and people in the neuroscience field need also to
take into account other brain imaging techniques, such as MEG and fMRI, to develop the
future BCI. As time passes BCI might be a part of our every day lives.

Who knows, in twenty years I’ll not have to type this report with my fingers, but just the
conscious control of my thoughts would be enough.

27 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur
Seminar report Brain Computer Interface

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.cs.rit.edu/~jdb/
 bci.epfl.ch/publications/
 www-cdr.stanford.edu/~jack/

28 Department of ECE,
SMCET, Jaipur