Personality

Personality is a concept that we use continuously in our day-to-day routine,

when dealing with people. We talk about people as having a good personality
or a bad personality or arrogant and aggressive personality. Personality can
be reflected in a person’s temperament and is a key factor influencing
individual behaviour in organizations. Often the wrong type of personality of a
superior proves disastrous in terms of worker unrest and protests.
Salvatore Maddi has defined personality as:
“Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine
those commonalities and differences in the psychological behaviour
(thoughts, feelings and actions) of people that have continuity in time and
that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and
biological pressures of the moment.”
There are several aspects of this definition that need to be considered. The
first aspect is that or relative stability of characteristics. These characteristics
account for “consistent patterns” of behaviour.
The second aspect is the “commonalities and differences” in the behaviour of
people. We are interested in understanding as to what an individual has in
common with others as well as what sets that individual apart from others.
Every person is in certain aspects,

• Like all other people

• Like some other people
• Like no other person

Personality Types
There are two types of individual personality Type A and Type B. A person
exhibiting Type A behaviour is generally restless, impatient with a desire for
quick achievement and perfectionism. Type B is much more easy going
relaxed about time pressure, less competitive and more philosophical in
nature. Some of the characteristics of Type A personality are given below.

• Is restless, so that he always moves, walks and eats rapidly.

• Is impatient with the pace of things, dislikes waiting and is impatient with
those who are not impatient.
• Does several things at once.
• Tries to schedule more and more in less and less time, irrespective of
whether everything is done or not.
• Usually does not complete one thing before starting on another.
• Uses nervous gestures such as clenched fist and banging on table.
• Does not have time to relax and enjoy life.
Type B behaviour is just the opposite and is more relaxed, sociable and has a
balanced outlook on life.
Type A behaviour profile tends to be obsessive and managers with such
behaviour are hard driving, detailed-oriented people with high performance
standards.
Five personality traits related to job performance
• Extraversion
• Agreeableness
• Emotional stability
• Openness to experience.
Factors Contributing to Personality
According to Maier, “knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired
and represent important modifications of behaviour. Learned modifications in
behaviour are not passed on to children, they must be acquired by them
through their own personal experience.”
The probable consensus is that heredity and environment jointly affect
personality development. The full potential of a person may or may not be
achieved due to environmental constraints and requirements, but the
potential for development, both physically and psychologically is determined
by the complex set of genes.
The factors affecting personality development are illustrated as follows:

• Heredity
• Culture
• Family
• Environment
• Personality
• Social
• Situational

Personality Dimensions

Some of the more important dimensions of personality that are closely linked
with interpersonal and organizational behaviour are discussed as follows:

Authoritarianism:
Authoritarianism refers to blind acceptance of authority. Authoritarian people
believe in obedience and respect for authority. Because of their beliefs in
hierarchical order, they make good followers; work better under directive
supervision and more productive within authoritarian organizational structure.
A closely related term to authoritarians is “dogmatism” which refers to the
rigidity of a person’s beliefs.

Bureaucratic Personality:
A bureaucratic persons respect for authority is not total and blind, but is
based upon respect for organizational rules and regulations. A bureaucratic
person values subordination, rules, conformity, orderly processes in the
organization and impersonal and formal relationships.

Machiavellianism:
Machiavellianism is a term associated with Niccola Machiavelli, a sixteenth
century author who identified personality profiles of noble men. This
personality merges in manipulating others for purely personal gains and
gaining and keeping control of others. People with Machiavellianims have
high self-confidence and high self-esteem. They are cool and calculating and
have no hesitation in using others or taking advantages of others in order to
serve their own goals.

Problem Solving Style:

Individuals have their own style of making decisions and this style reflects
their personality in certain ways. Some people are very through, meticulous
and detail oriented. Others are impulsive and become easily swayed by what
seems to be obvious.
The problem solving style has two dimensions. One is the information
gathering and the second dimension is evaluation of data and taking of
decisions. Further, there are two styles involved in information gathering.
One is known as Sensation and the second style known as intuitive style,
The evaluation style also has two dimensions. One style involves more
emphasis on feeling while the other involves more emphasis on thinking.
When the two dimensions of information gathering and the two dimensions of
evaluation are combined, it results in four problem-solving styles. These are:
1. Sensation-feeling style. These people are dependable, friendly, social
and approach facts with human concerns. They are pragmatic, methodical
and like jobs that involve human contact and public relations. Some
suitable areas of jobs include teaching customer relations, social workers,
and sales people.
2. Sensation-thinking style. They are practical, logical, decisive, and
sensitive to details they also prefer bureaucratic type organizations. They
are not highly skilled in interpersonal relations and are more suited to such
technical jobs as those of production, accounting, engineering and
computer programming.
3. Intuition-feeling style. These people are enthusiastic, people oriented,
charismatic and helpful. Some of the professions suitable for this style are
public relations, advertising, politics and personnel.
4. Intuition-thinking style. These people are creative, energetic,
ingenious, and like jobs that are challenging in terms of design and
analysis such as system design, law, research and development, top
management and so on.

Locus of Control

Locus of control is the extent to which the individuals believes that:

• They control their own lives, or
• External forces control their lives, which are beyond their control.
A person with a strong “internal locus of control” believes that he controls
events concerning his own life and that his internal traits determine what
happens in given situation. A person with a strong “external locus of control”
feels that outside forces are affecting the events in his life and he is at the
mercy of destiny, chance or other people. He believes that “whatever will be,
will be” and everything happens by the will of God.

Introvert and Extrovert Personalities

Introvert persons are basically shy, they prefer to be alone and have difficulty
in communicating. Extroverts are outgoing, objective, and aggressive they
also relate well with people.
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is the degree of respect a person has for himself. Self-esteem is a
measure of self-confidence and respect for one’s abilities and motivation. It is
also a higher level need in Maslow’s model of hierarchical needs. Self-esteem
is positively related to assertiveness, independence and creativity.

The socialization process

a) Organizational socialization – values, norms, behavior pattern.
b) Characteristics of organizational socialization of employees
• Change of attitude, values and behaviour.
• Continuity of socialization over time.
• Adjustment to new jobs, work groups and organizational practices.
• Mutual influence between new recruits and managers.
• Criticality of early socialization period.

Socializing new employees

• Use of mentor or role model
• Orientation and training program.
• Reward system.
• Career planning.
Successful organizational socialization includes
• Provide a challenging first job
• Provide relevant training.
• Provide timely and consistent feedback.
• Select a good first supervisor to be in change of socialization.
• Design a relaxed orientation program.
• Place new recruits in work groups with high morals
Emphasis on different characteristics.
• Administrative skills
• Work motivation
• Interpersonal skill
• Creativity
• Social dominance
• Maturity
• Independence

Propositions – Chris Argyris

I. There is lack of congruency between the needs of healthy
individuals and the demands of the formal organization.
II. The resultant of this disturbance are frustration, failre, short – time
perspective and conflict.
III. Under certain conditions the degree of frustration, failure, short –
time perspective and conflict will tend to increase.
IV. The nature of the formal principles of the organization cause the
subordinate, at any given level, to experience competition, rivalry,
 inter – subordinate hostility and to develop a focus toward the parts
rather than the whole.
V. The employee adaptive behaviour maintains self – integration and
impedes integration with the formal organization.
VI. The adaptive behaviour of the employees has a cumulative effect,
feedback into the organization and reinforces itself.
VII. Certain management reactions tend to increase the antagonisms
underlying the adaptive behaviour.
VIII. Other management actions can decrease the degree of
incongruence between the individual and formal organization.
IX. Job or role enlargement and employee – centred leadership will not
tend to work to the extent that the adaptive behaviour
(propositions III, IV, V and VI) has embedded in organisational
culture and the self – concept of the individual.
X. The difficulties involved in proposition IX may be minimized by the
use of reality oriented leadership.

Personality Theories
There are several theories but the more prominent among them are: (i) type,
(ii) trait, (iii) psychoanalytic, (iv) social learning and (v) humanistic.
Type Theories
Type theories place personalities into clearly identifiable categories.
Kretschmer and Sheldon are credited with this classification. In type theories
relationship was sought to be established between features of face or body
and personality. Thus, a short, plumb person (endomorph) was said to be
sociable, relaxed, and even tempered; a tall, thin person (ectomorph) was
characterized as restrained, self conscious, and fond of solitude; a heavy set
muscular individual (mesomorph) was described as noisy, callous, and found
of physical activity. Although a person’s physique may have some influence
on personality, the relationship is much more subtle than this sort of
classification implies. Thus classification of personalities on body basis is
subjective.
The second basis to type personalities is psychological factors. Carl Jung,
divided all personalities into introverts and extroverts. These terms are
normally associated with an individual’s sociability and interpersonal
orientation. Extroverts are gregarious, sociable individuals, while introverts
are shy, quiet and retiring.
Trait Theories
Trait theorists assume that a personality can be described by its position on a
number of continuous dimensions or scales, each of which represents a trait.
Thus, we could rate an individual on a scale of intelligence, emotional
stability, aggressiveness, creativeness, or any of a number of other
dimensions.
Psychologists working in a area of trait theory are concerned with (a)
determining the basic traits that provide a meaningful description of
personality, and (b) finding some way to measure them. Psychoanalytic
theory is based on the in-depth study of individual personalities.
Social Learning Theory
There are two ways of learning : Learning through reinforcement – direct
experience and learning by observing others, also called vicarious learning.
For social learning theorists reinforcement is not always necessary for
learning. They believe that since an individual can make use of complex
symbolic processes to code and store his observations in memory, he can
learn by observing the actions of others and by noting the consequences of
those actions.
Some of the person variables that determine what an individual will do in a
particular situation include the following :
• Competencies
• Cognitive strategies
• Outcome expectations
• Subjective value outcome
• Self regulatory systems and plans
The Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach to the study of personality includes number of
theories, although different in some respects, share a common emphasis on
man’s potential for self direction and freedom of choice. Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow are credited with the humanistic theory of personality.
Rogers’ Self Theory
Roger’s approach to personality is described as phenomenological. For
Rogers, behaviour is utterly dependent upon how one perceives the world –
that is, behaviour is the result of immediate events as they are actually
perceived and interpreted by the individual. Such an approach to personality
emphasizes the self and its characteristics. Indeed, this theory is often,
referred to as self theory of personality because the best vantage point for
understanding behaviour is from the internal frame of reference of the
individual himself.
Maslow’s Self-Actualisation Theory
Abraham Maslow is regarded as the spiritual father of humanism in American
psychology. Humanistic psychology of Maslow radically differs from
psychoanalytic and learning or behaviouristic theories. Humanistic
psychology of Maslow, on the other hand, postulates man as self actualiser.
By self-actualisation Maslow meant the development of full individually, with
all parts of the personality in harmony.

Existential philosophy is concerned with man as an individual and each person

alone is responsible for his own existence. This drive of man which is inherent
in him, is called self-actualisation.

* Also refer to “Personality Theories – Ziegler” for Freud’s

Personality theory

Assertiveness

Meaning of Assertiveness
Webster defines “assert” as “to state positively with great confidence”. It is
the extent of forcefulness a person (or leader) uses with a view to express
himself. Assertiveness is a term meant to describe the extent of control; the
leader tries to exercise over both the followers as well as the situation. It
means expressing what you think or feel without endangering the ego of
others. It is saying what you mean and having self-respect and respect for
others. Assertiveness is a skill you can acquire – not a personality trait. It is
an essential skill for a leader.

The Assertive Personality

According to Webster’s Third International Dictionary, the verb “assert”
means “to state or affirm positively, assuredly, plainly or strongly.”

The assertive person possesses four characteristics:

1. He feels free to reveal himself. Through words and actions he makes
the statement “This is me. This is what I feel, think and want.”
2. He can communicate with people on all levels – with strangers,
friends and family. This communication is open, direct, honest and
appropriate.
3. He has an active orientation to life. He pursues what he desires. In
contrast to the passive person who waits for things to happen, he attempts
to make things happen.
4. He acts in a way that he respects himself. Aware that he cannot
always win, he accepts his limitations. However, he always strives to make
the good try so that win, lose or draw, he maintains his self-respect.

Characteristics of Assertive Behaviour

When we are assertive, we tell people what we want, need, or would prefer.
We state our preference clearly and confidently, without belittling others, or
ourselves without being threatening or putting other people down. Assertive
people can initiate conversation, can compliment others and receive
compliments gracefully, can cope with justified criticism – and can give it too.
It is a positive way of behaving, that doesn’t involve violating the rights of
other people. Above all, assertive behaviour is appropriate behaviour. This
can mean that it is appropriate on occasions to be angry, or it can mean
choosing not to be assertive in a particular situation or with a particular
person.

1. Promotes equality in human relationship

• It keeps both parties in all situations on an equal footing.
• It confers personal power and restores balance of power.
• It promotes win - win situations in dyadic relationships.

2. Enabling us to act in our own best interests

It assists us to :
• Make decisions about career, relationships, lifestyles, time schedule.
• Take initiative in starting conversations, activities, groups
• Trust our own judgment
• Set own goals and work to achieve them
• Ask help from others
• Participate socially
3. To stand up for ourselves without undue anxiety
• Saying “No”
• Setting limits on time and energy
• Responding to criticism, put-downs, anger
• Expressing, supporting or defending an opinion

4. To express honest feelings

• To disagree
• To show anger, affection, friendship
• To admit fear or anxiety
• To express agreement or support

5. To exercise personal rights.

• Competency as citizen, consumer, member of an organisation, company,
school, workgroup.
• As participant in public events to express opinions
• To work for change
• To respond appropriately to violations of own or others’ rights.

6. Without denying others’ rights.

• To accomplish the above without unfair criticism of others without hurtful
behaviour towards others, without name-calling, intimidation, manipulation
and controlling.

Assertiveness: Principles
Whatever your problem, there are certain basic principles for being assertive:
• Reveal as much of your personal self as is appropriate to the situation and
the relationship.
• Strive to express all feelings, whether angry or tender.
• Act in ways that increase your liking and respect for yourself.
• Examine your own behaviour and determine areas where you would like to
become more assertive. Pay attention to what you can do differently
rather than how the world can be different.
• Do not confuse aggression with assertion. Aggressiveness is an act against
others. Assertion is appropriate standing up for yourself.
• Realize you may be unassertive in one area, like business, and assertive in
another area, like marriage. Apply the techniques you use successfully in
one area to the other.
• Practice speaking up with trivia. If you can say “Go to the end of the line”
to a woman at the supermarket, you can eventually announce “No I don’t
want to do that” to your spouse.
• Do not confuse glib, manipulatory behaviour with true assertion.
• Understand assertion is not a permanent state. As you change, life
situations change, and you face new challenges and need new skills.
Assertive Behaviours
Assertiveness is a set of congruent behaviours one can learn through
persistence and practice.
1. Think and talk about yourself in a positive way
It may help you take time to compile a list of your qualities, gifts, and
strengths.
2. Feel comfortable expressing honest compliments
You surely appreciate certain things about other people - something they do,
they wear, the way they work, what that say.

3. Accept compliments without embarrassment

Others too appreciate certain things about you, and it is good that they
express their appreciation through honest compliments.

4. Express yourself directly and spontaneously

The feelings you actually experience, and the thoughts you think worth
expressing both positive, as well as negative, with due respect for the other
person.

5. Ask for what you want

Clarify yourself about what you want and express it appropriately either as a
suggestion or a request or a command, depending on the situation

6. State honest disagreement with ease

When you disagree with what someone says, stick to the issue without
attacking the person. If you are deficient in this behaviour, you may begin
with small issues and gradually move on to bigger ones.

7. Be able to say “No”

Specially so if you honestly think others take advantage of you. In saying ‘No’
there is no need to be rude, neither is it necessary to give many explanations.
Make it clear that you are saying ‘No’ to the request, not to the person, and
be ready to be misunderstood.

8. Insist on fair treatment

This will often involve you and a person ‘in charge’. Explore your alternatives:
voicing your dissatisfaction in polite, firm terms may be enough; if it is not,
then increase the forcefulness of your expression. Whatever the outcome
you’ll feel better for having stood up for your rights. And recognise the
limitations of the situation, that is, when you have done all you can, learn to
live peacefully with the results.

9. Keep in touch with friends

Valuable friendships often decline because neither party acts to keep it going.
Waiting for the other to take the initiative does not always have the desired
effect.

10. Take the first step in forming new friendships

Friendships are important. So a reasonable thing to do is to take the first step
when you meet someone you would like to know better. If you wait for them
to act, you assume they are capable of taking risks. Risks are risks no matter
who takes them. Ask no more of others than you ask of yourself.

Components of Assertive Behaviour

You will recognize the following components of assertiveness:

• Giving information
• Seeking information
• Expressing feelings
• Accepting feelings
• Change desired (in self or other)

Assertiveness is a balance between being passive and aggressive. However,

there are different types of assertion; different ways of expressing your own
rights assertively:
State – Your rights: A straightforward statement that stands up for your
rights by clearly and reasonably stating your needs, wants, beliefs, opinions or
feelings.

Ask – The other person: A question or questions designed to clarify where

the other person stands; what are his / her needs, wants, opinions and
feelings.

Empathize – Both parties: This is a behaviour that contains an element of

understanding for the other person as well as a statement of your own needs
and thoughts.

Level – Both parties: A statement that openly explains the adverse effect a
person’s behaviour is having on you. This is the strongest form of assertion
and should only be used when the other types have been tried.

Assertive Behaviour at Work

Assertive behaviour in the workplace gives everyone a better chance of
influencing the system and participating in changes. Relationships are more
open and working climates are more genuine. Overtly aggressive or
manipulative behaviour can bring immediate results, but credibility and
integrity are put at risk. When people feel defensive and have to use their
energy for political maneuvering, everyone in the organisation suffers.

People behaving assertively make good line mangers. They will say clearly
what they want, but equally be supportive of staff and take the needs of
others into account. They can compromise and negotiate. The introduction of
assertive behaviour into the workplace, whether it is a school, an office or
shop floor, will probably involve an intense transition period. Expressing
negative feelings or standing up for your rights can be interpreted as ‘out of
order’ or ‘insubordinate’. Often, unassertive people are ‘institutionalized’ and
need a great deal of support before they can ‘come out from under’ and begin
to value their role and appreciate that their participation is sought. Assertive
behaviour is so important to self-esteem and proactive behaviour that it needs
to be particularly supported and endorsed in young workers or school children
and students.

Advantages of Assertive Behaviour

• Close working relationships: Assertion tends to breed assertion, so

people work more happily with us than against us. We are then, with their
help, more likely to achieve our objectives in a conflict situation.
• Greater confidence in yourself: We develop a strong regard for
ourselves and a high level of self esteem, reducing the chance of
boastfulness (aggression) and hopelessness (passive).
• Greater confidence in others: We have a healthy recognition of the
capabilities and limitations of others as opposed to seeing them as inferior
(aggression) or superior (passive).
• Increased self responsibility: We take responsibility for ourselves, our
wants, opinions, needs etc. rather than blaming others (aggression) or
excusing ourselves (passive)
• Increased self-control: We can channel our thoughts and feelings to
produce the behaviour we want, rather than being controlled by outside
events or people, or inner emotions.
• Savings in time and energy: We can take decisions more swiftly based
on their individual merit and save time when handling disputes. A lot of
time and energy is wasted on worrying and scheming. If we are not
worried about upsetting people (passive) or scheming how not to miss out
(aggression) then we can save ourselves a lot of stress.
• An increased change of everyone winning: Assertiveness increases
the likelihood that all parties will see their needs met, their ideas and
opinions heard and considered and their abilities put to good use.

Blocks Of Assertive Behaviour

Following are some of the blocks in the personality that are

faced by the individual in being assertive:
• The timid soul. You allow yourself to be pushed around, cannot speak
up, and remain passive in all situations. If someone steps on your foot, you
say, “I’m sorry.” No matter how great your timidity and irresolution, there
is always a point from which you can start to change.
• The person with communication difficulties. Assertion processes four
behavioral characteristics. Openness and directness, honesty and
appropriateness. You may be deficient in any or all three of these areas,
but often you lack assertion in just one:
- Indirect Communication. You tend to be wordy, a characteristic often
accompanied by shallowness of feeling, lack of clear-cut desires, and
difficulty with close relationships.
- Dishonest or pseudo assertive communication. You seem to be
open and honest, generally appropriate, often extroverted, but this
seeming assertiveness hides a basic lack of honesty.
- Inappropriate communication. Unaware about the realities of social
relations, you say what you think is the right thing at the wrong time.
• The split assertive. People may fail at one area of assertiveness and
succeed at another. You can be able to openly express your tender
feelings and yet not be able to show your angry feelings – and vice versa.
A man can be the epitome of passivity at the office, and behave like a
tyrant at home. The range for split assertive behaviour can be very
narrow. You may be assertive in a one-to-one relationship, but not in
groups. In general, the narrower the area, the easier it is to change with
Assertiveness Training.
• The person with behavioral deficits. You can’t make eye contact or
small talk, handle a confrontation, or start a conversation. These assertive
skills can be learned.
• The person with specific blocks. You know what you should do, and
have the skill to accomplish it, but your fears of rejection, anger, scrutiny,
criticism, closeness, tenderness, inhibit you from carrying out the action.
• You possess incorrect ideas. You don’t comprehend the difference
between aggression and assertion. You know what and how of what has to
be done, but question your right to do it.
• You have a wrong concept of social reality. You don’t understand
that different kinds of relationships exist with different people. You think
you’re supposed to treat a stranger as a friend. It never occurs to you to
treat the stranger as a stranger and the friend as a friend.
• You have an erroneous idea of psychological reality. You worry
about worrying, become anxious about being anxious, not realizing that
the life situation provides problems where anxiety is the appropriate
reaction.
• You don’t grant independence to other people. You think as long as
you’re being reasonable, the other person should go along with you. But
very often, the other person, because of his own needs, feelings, and hang-
ups, just won’t. You feel that as long as you do the right things, you should
win them all. If you don’t there’s something wrong with you. Reality
doesn’t work that way. You can demand a raise and deserve it, but the
economic state of your firm may prohibit a salary increase.

Assertiveness Techniques

The Three techniques for Assertiveness are:

• Mental Ai-Ki-Do
• Information Building
• Echoing

• Mental Ai-Ki-Do
This technique can help you to accept criticism comfortably without becoming
defensive. Ai-Ki Do is a martial art. Visualize a man holding up his hand in
front of you. He asks that you to hit his upheld hand with your fist. With all
your force, you hit his hand. Since he did not move his hand when you hit it,
he stops the forward motion of your swing.

Again you are asked to hit his hand with your fist. This time, in a split second
before you’re about to punch him, his fingers wrap around your fist. He then
backs his hand away, while still holding on to yours controlling the force you
just threw. He accomplishes two things. First, by offering no resistance to
your job, he feels no pain. Second, by directing the momentum of your
punch, he is in control of what’s happening.

Use mental Ai-Ki-Do (control) when any negative feedback (mental fist) comes
your way. Do not fight the feedback. Instead, accept the feedback by
allowing it to come to you. Stay in control by deciding whether you agree to
what is said. Then you use your focused listening skills. Try your best to stay
even – tempered. Once you explode or hide, you start to lose control by
giving in to the force.

• Information Building
This technique will help you initiate and build relationships by sharing
information about yourself. One of the ways trust is built between associates
is by the amount of knowledge that is shared by and about each other.
Providing information about yourself first will encourage others to share their
thoughts and feelings with you.
You do not have to discuss something of mutual interest. Nor should you
restrict sharing information just because the other person has not disclosed
much during your conversation. Remember, building relationships takes time.
Before meeting with someone, plan what kind of information would be
appropriate to share. After sharing your thoughts and feelings, use humor
and open-ended, non-leading questions to elicit feedback and to keep the
conversation relaxed and flowing.
Depending upon how well you know the person and your own comfort level,
start out with general information and work up to sensitive, need-to-know
information.

• Echoing
This technique will strengthen your ability to say “no” respectfully without
regrets. Use this technique only after exhausting these strategies:
- Inform whoever is requesting your services that you are unable to do
the job as it is not into your priorities.
- Suggest a more suitable person to take on the assignment.
- If appropriate, offer some assistance or time to help with part of the
project or task. Mention other possible ways to complete the work.
If these strategies do not work, and you are still being ordered or intimidated
to handle a request, then use the echoing technique.

The technique is similar to an echo because you repeat what you desire. Stay
composed and state over and over again what you want; in the process, you
will teach others that you are serious and determined.
Some people feel this technique is a rude one because it requires you to be
domineering. The technique certainly is used to get your way, but it should
not be used exclusively. When it is inappropriate for you to budge on a
certain point, the echoing technique will help you hold your ground with an
associate, peer, supervisor, vendor, and even an irate and unreasonable
customer.

Expressing One’s Feelings

The following are some of the points that are taken into
consideration while expressing assertive feelings
1. Know What You Want To Say: You won’t appear confident if you are
unsure of what you want. You could appear foolish by asking of something
that you eventually realize is not what you want.
2. Say It: Don’t hesitate or beat about the bush, come right out with it!
Practise before you say it and check for appropriateness.
3. Be Specific: Say exactly what you want or do not want, so that there can
be no confusion. Begin with the word “I”. No long explanations are
necessary.
4. Say It as Soon as Possible: Do not let too much time pass, as this
builds up apprehension. On the other hand, do not say it at the peak of
your anger. Wait for that to pass.
5. Look the Person in the Eye: People feel more comfortable if you look
directly at them. If you simply look shifty and cannot look them in the eye,
you certainly will not come across as someone who knows what they want.
6. Look Relaxed: You’ll convey anxiety by shifting from one foot to another,
waving your arms around, or conversely being too rigid. Practise looking
relaxed in a mirror – it’s not as contradictory as it sounds!
7. Avoid Laughing Nervously: Smile if it’s appropriate, but if you giggle or
laugh you won’t look as if you mean what you say. This will confuse the
person you are speaking to.
8. Don’t Whine or be Sarcastic: Be direct and honest. Whining and
pleading can either annoy the person or make them feel guilty. It is being
manipulative. Being sarcastic, on the other hand, communicates hostility
as you put the other person down.
Perception
“If everyone perceived everything the same way, things would be a
lot simpler”
-Moorhead &
Griffin

In its simple sense perception is understood as the act of seeing what is there
to be seen. But the perceiver, the object, and the environment influence what
is seen. The meaning of perception will be complete when all the three
aspects are stressed. A few definitions of perception are given below:
“Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environments.”
“Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives
information about his environment – seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and
smelling. The study of these perceptional processes shows that their
functioning is affected by three classes of variables – the objects or events
being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs, and the
individuals doing the perceiving.”
Perceptual Process
Perception, as revealed by the definitions, is composed of six processes, viz.,
receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to
stimuli. These processes are influenced by the perceived and the situation.
Process of Receiving Stimuli
The human organism is structured with five sensory organs, viz., vision,
hearing, smell, touch and tasting. There is the sixth sense about which much
is speculated and nothing is known. We receive stimuli through the organs.
Secondary organs receive not only physical objects; they receive events or
objects that have been repressed. We may not be able to report the existence
of certain stimuli but our behaviour reveals that we are often subject to their
influence. Similarly, stimuli need not be external to us. They may be inside
also.
Process of Selecting Stimuli
Myriads of stimuli seemingly clamour for our attention at any given time. We
need to filter or screen out most of them so that we may deal with the
important or relevant ones. Two sets of factors govern the selection of
stimuli: external and internal.

External Factors Influencing Selection

The external factors influencing selection are:
Nature: By nature we mean, whether the object is visual or auditory, and
whether it involves pictures, people or animals.
Location: The best location of a visual stimulus for attracting attention is
directly in the front of the eyes in the center of a page. When this location is
not possible in a newspaper or a magazine, a position in the upper portion of a
page in more favourable than one in the lower portions, and the left hand side
receives more attention than the right hand side.
Intensity: Stimuli of higher intensity are perceived more than the objects
with low intensity. A loud noise, strong odour, or bright light will be noticed
more than a soft sound, weak odour, or dim light.
Size: Generally objects of larger size attract more attention than the smaller
ones. The maintenance engineering staff may pay more attention to a big
machine than to a small one, even though the smaller one costs as much and
as important to the operation.
Contrast: The contrast principle states that external stimuli which stand out
against the background, or which are not what people are expecting, will
receive their attention.
Movement: The principle of motion states that a moving object receives
more attention than an object that is standing still.
Repetition: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus
is more attention drawing than a single one.
Novelty and Familiarity: The novelty and familiarity principle states that
either a novel or a familiar external situation can serve as an attention getter.
New objects in familiar settings or familiar objects in new setting will draw the
attention of the perceiver.

Internal Factors Influencing Selection

Internal factors influencing selection of stimuli include learning, psychological
needs, age differences, interests, ambivalence, and paranoid perception.
These factors relate to oneself.
Learning: Learning, a cognitive factor, has considerable influence on
perception. It creates expectancy in people. People tend to perceive what
they want to perceive.
Psychological Needs: Needs play a significant role in perceptual selectivity.
Unreal things often look real because of deprived needs.
Age Difference: Older senior executives complain about the inability of the
new young to take tough decisions concerning terminating or resigning people
and paying attention to details and paper work. The young managers in turn
complain about the “old guards” resisting change and using paper and rules
as ends in themselves. Different perceptions of old and young executives are
due to their age differences perceptions.
Interest: The interests of the perceiver unconsciously influence perception.
An architect will notice many details of buildings that he passes only once. It
has been argued that, in their influence on perception, interests cannot be
distinguished from needs. That is, the person with a particular interest has a
need to involve himself in activities pertaining to it. Yet there is some value in
conceiving the two as distinct. Once they have been satisfied, most needs no
longer influence perception. But if the person has a special interest, his
perception is likely to be selective at any time.
Ambivalence: Another factor in perceptual selection is ambivalence or
mixed feelings about a situation.
Paranoid Perception: When the person’s perception is so selective that he
can find little common ground for communication with others, he is likely to
be paranoid.
The Organizing Process
The perceptual selection related to the discussion of external and Internal
factors which helped gain the perceiver’s attention. This aspect of forming
bits of information into meaningful wholes is called the perceptual
organization. There are three dimensions to the perceptual organization, viz.,
figure ground, perceptual grouping, and perceptual constancy.
Figure Ground: Figure ground is considered to be the most basic form of
perceptual organization. The figure ground principle states that the
relationship of a target to its background influences perception. In other
words, according to the principle, perceived objects stand out as separable
from their general background.
Perceptual Grouping: The principles of grouping first defined by gestalt
psychologists include similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity.
Perceptual Constancy: A more subtle part of perceptual organization is
constancy, our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object as
remaining constant, despite variations in the stimuli that provide us with our
information. Such constancy amidst changing stimuli is indispensable if we
are to adjust to our world. There are several aspects of constancy such as
shape, size, colour.
The Process of Interpreting
After the data have been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or
assigns meaning to the information. In fact, perception is said to have taken
place only after the data have been interpreted. Several factors contribute
towards what has been interpreted. More important amongst them are
Perceptual Set
Previously held beliefs about objects influence an individual’s perceptions of
similar objects. This is called perceptual set.
Attribution
Attribution refers to the process by which the individual assigns causes to the
behaviour he conceives. There are critics who argue that perceptual
distortion occurs because of attribution. As too much credit or blame for
behaviour is placed on persons rather than on environment.
Factors such as status, intentions, and consequences influence the attribution
process.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping is the tendency for a person’s perceptions of another to be
influenced by the social group to which the others belong. In perceiving
another, a person is likely to categories the other according to some silent
characteristic such as sex, race, religion, nationality, occupation, or
organizational affiliation. The individual’s experiences with others in the
category in which he has placed them lead him to believe that they have
certain traits in common. Thus, he is ready to perceive the other as
possessing the same trait.
Halo Effect
The halo effect refers to the tendency of perceiving people in terms of good
and bad, and ascribing all good qualities to one who is liked and all bad
qualities to another who is disliked.
Perceptual Context
The context in which an object is placed influences perception. The visual
stimuli by themselves are meaningless. Only when the doodles are placed in
a verbal context do they take on meaning and value to the perceiver.
Perceptual Defence
According to the principle of perceptual defence, an individual is likely to put a
defence when confronted with conflicting, unacceptable or threatening
stimuli. The defence mechanisms put up by the perceiver may assume any of
the four forms: outright denial, modification of the data received, change in
perception but refusal to change, and change in perception itself.

Implicit Personality Theory

In judging and making inferences about others, an individual’s perceptions are
influenced by his belief that certain human traits are associated, with one
another.
Projection
Under certain conditions, people tend to see in another person traits that they
themselves posses. That is, they project their own feelings, tendencies, or
motives into their judgement of others. This may be particularly true
regarding undesirable traits, which the perceiver possesses but fails to
recognize himself.
The Process of Checking
After data have been received and interpreted, the perceiver tends to check
whether his interpretations are right or wrong. One way of checking is for the
person himself to indulge in introspection. He will put a series of questions to
himself and the answers will confirm whether his perception about an
individual or object is correct or not. Another way is to check the veracity
about the interpretation with others.
The Process of Reacting
The last phase in perception is the reaction. The perceiver shall indulge in
some action in relation to his perception. The action depends on whether the
perception is favorable or unfavorable. The action is positive when the
perception is favourable. It is negative when the perception is unfavourable.
Factors Influencing Perception
The perceiver, the perceived and situation are some of the factors that
influence perception.
Characteristics of the Perceiver
A perceiver needs to have, past experience, habits, personality, values, and
attitudes, which may influence the perception process. He should be someone
with a strong need for ego satisfaction.
Characteristics of the Perceived
The physical attributes, appearance, and behaviour of persons in the situation
also influence how a situation is perceived. We tend to notice the physical
attributes of a person in terms of age, sex, height, and weight.
Characteristics of the Situation
The physical, social and organizational settings of the situation or event in
question can influence perceptions.
Perception and Organisational Behaviour
In an interview for the selection of a candidate, the interviewers’ judgement
about the suitability or otherwise of a candidate depends on how his
behaviour is perceived by them. A rejected applicant might feel that he was
wronged by the interview though he deserved selection. But the fact is that
interviewers generally form an early impression that becomes quickly
entrenched. If the inadequacies of the candidate are exposed early, they
weigh against him in the final selection
Specific applications in organization
• Employment interview
• Performance expectations
• Performance evaluation
• Employee effort
• Employee loyalty
Managing the Perception Process
• Have a high level of self-awareness.
• Seek information from various sources to confirm or disconfirm personal
impressions of a decision situation.
• Be empathetic – that is, be able to see a situation, as others perceive it.
• Influence of perceptions of other people when they are drawing incorrect or
incomplete impressions of events in the work setting.
• Avoid common perceptual distortions that biased in our view of people and
situations.
• Avoid inappropriate attributions.
Five reasons why a person misperceives – Zalkind and Costello
• You are influenced by cues below your own threshold i.e., the cues you
don’t know you perceived
• You respond to irrelevant cues to arrive at a judgment.
• You are influenced by emotional factors, i.e., what is liked is perceived
as correct.
• You weigh perceptual evidence heavily if it comes from respectable
sources.
• You are not able to identify all factors, i.e., not realizing how much
weight is given to a single item.
Learning
“ You cannot teach a man anything. You can only help him discover it
within himself.”
- Galileo
Learning can be defined as a “relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience”. There are
two primary elements in this definition that must both be present in order to
identify the process of learning. First is the element that the change must be
relatively permanent. This means that after “learning” our behaviour must be
different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this
experience of learning.
The second aspect of the definition is that this change must occur due to
some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not caused by biological
maturation.

Theories of Learning
There are four general approaches to learning – classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, cognitive learning and social learning.

Classical Conditioning
The most well known experiments on classical conditioning were undoubtedly
conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs, and he established a Stimulus-Response
(S-R) connection. This means that certain responses can be predicted which
continuously result from certain induced stimuli.
Classical conditioning introduces a simple cause-and-effect relationship
between one stimulus and one response. It also makes the response reflexive
or involuntary after the stimulus-response relationship has been established.
This leaves no ground for making choices, which differentiates human beings
from dogs. Under certain situations classical conditioning does explain human
behaviour.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning
occurs as a “consequence” of such change. It is also known as reinforcement
theory and it suggests that behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is
based upon the premise that behaviour or job performance is not a function of
inner thoughts, feelings, emotions or perceptions but is keyed to the nature of
the outcome of such behaviour. This relationship is built around two
principles. First, that behaviour which results in positive rewards tends to be
repeated and behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be
repeated. Second, based upon such consequences, the behviour can be
predicted and controlled. Hence, certain types of consequences can be used
to increase the occurrence of a desired behaviour and other types of
consequences can be used to decrease the occurrence of undesired
behaviour.
From an organizational point of view, any stimulus from the work environment
will elicit a response.
Cognitive Learning
Learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the
problem or situation both intuitively and based upon known facts and
responding in an objective and goal oriented manner. Cognition, in fact, is the
act of knowing an item of information and this knowledge affects the
behaviour of the person so that the information provides cognitive cues
towards the expected goal.

Social Learning
It is recognized that learning does not take place only because of
environmental stimuli (classical and operant conditioning) or of individual
determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of both views. It also
emphasizes that people acquire new behaviour by observing or imitating
others in a social setting. In addition learning can also be gained by discipline
and self-control and an inner desire to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective
of the external rewards or consequences. This process of self-control is also
partially a reflection of societal and cultural influences on the development
and growth of human beings.

Transfer of Learning

Berelson and Steiner suggested that learning can be transferred from one
situation to another and the extent of such transfer is a function of the extent
of similarity in the stimulus or response. If a person experiences a similar
situation that he dealt with before, then some of his previous experience
would be transferred to the new situation and his learning time in the new
situation would be considerably decreased.
There are two concepts that help in explaining the transfer of learning. These
are as follows:
Generalization
No two situations are exactly alike. However, responses to certain situations
can be applied to similar but different situations. Because of the principle of
generalization, the individual can adjust to new learning situations more
smoothly because of the previous learning experiences.
Discrimination
While generalization is a reaction to “similarities” of stimuli or responses,
discrimination is the ability to differentiate between relatively similar stimuli
where generalization would yield negative consequences.

Principle of Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the process by which certain types of behaviours are
strengthened. Thus a “reinforcer” is any stimulus that causes certain
behaviour to be repeated or inhibited. Some reinforcers work by their
application to a situation, while other reinforcers work by their removal from
the situation. Thus these reinforcers work as behaviour modifiers.
Positive Reinforcement

A positive reinforcement is a reward for a desired behaviour. The reward

should be sufficiently powerful and durable so that it increases the probability
of occurrence of desirable behaviour. Money is probably the most powerful
reinforcement for positive behaviour, since money can be used for a number
of other resources too.

Negative Reinforcement

Also known as “escape conditioning” or “avoidance learning”, it is also a

method of strengthening desired behaviour. However, unlike the positive
reinforcement where an employee works hard to gain financial and other
rewards, under avoidance conditioning, the employee works hard to avoid
repercussion, reprimand and other negative aspects of the organizational
environment.

Extinction

This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable ‘behaviour,

especially when such behaviours were previously rewarded. This means that
if rewards were removed from behaviours that were previously reinforced,
then such behaviours would become less frequent and eventually die out.
The method involved is a suitable form of punishment in the form of
withholding the positive enforcement or simply ignoring the undesirable
behaviour.

Punishment

Punishment is the most controversial method of behaviour modification and

involves delivering an unpleasant consequence contingent upon the
occurrence of an undesirable behaviour. The punishment process is similar to
the extinction process in that both have the effect of decreasing and
eliminating the undesirable behaviour, but technically there is a difference. In
the extinction process, we withhold rewards for behaviour that has previously
been rewarded because the behaviour was not undesirable previously. The
punishment process, on the other hand consists of “application” of an
undesirable consequence or “withdrawal” of a desirable consequence for an
undesirable behaviour, which has never been associated with the reward
before.

Schedule of Reinforcement

While it is necessary to know as to which type of reinforcement would be most

effective in a given situation, it is equally important to examine the various
ways or “schedules” of administering these techniques of reinforcement. The
various ways by which the reinforcement can be administered can be
categorized into two groups. These are continuous and partial reinforcement
schedules.
Continuous Schedule

A continuous schedule is the one in which the desirable behaviour is

reinforced every time it occurs and the reinforcement is immediate. This
results in fast acquisition of the desired response and the learning is rapid.
However the behaviour learned by continuous reinforcement strategy tends
not to persist for which such reinforcement is applied less frequently.

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule rewards desirable behaviour at specific

intervals. It is believed that “behaviour tends to be persistent when it is
learned under conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement. There are four
kinds of partial reinforcement schedules. There are:
1. Fixed Interval Schedule
In this type of schedule, a response is reinforced at fixed intervals of time.
2. Variable Interval Schedule
In this type of schedule, the reinforcement is administered at random times
that cannot be predicted by the employee.
3. Fixed-ratio Schedules
In a fixed-ratio schedule, the reinforcement is administered only upon the
completion of a given number of desirable responses.
4. Variable-ratio Schedule
It is similar to fixed-ratio schedule except that the number of responses
required before reinforcement is determined, are not fixed but vary from
situation to situation.
Limitations of Behaviour Modification
While in general, some of the behavioural modification techniques, as
discussed previously are effective in eliciting desirable behaviours from
employees in work situations, there are some limitations that make these
techniques ineffective in certain situations.
1) Behaviour modification is an overall structure and ignores individual
differences.,
2) Behaviour modification programs assume that extrinsic rewards are the
key factors in behaviour modification and they ignore the fact that
employees can be intrinsically motivated.
3) Behaviour modification is that it ignores prevailing work-group norms. It
is important for the management to recognize the power of work-group
norms.

The simple rules of leaning are:

1. The capacities of learners are important in determining what

can be learned and how long will it take to learn it.
2. Te order of presentation of materials to be learned is very
important.
3. Showing errors is how to do something can lead to increase
in learning.
 4. The rate of forgetting tends to be very rapid immediately
after learning.
5. Repetition of identical materials is often as effective in
getting things remembered as repeating the same story but
with variations.
6. Knowledge of results leads to increase in learning.
7. Learning is aided by active practice rather than passive
reception
8. A passage is more easily learned and accepted if it does not
interfere with earlier habits.
9. The mere repetition of a situation does not necessarily lead
to learning. Two things are necessary – “belongingness” and
“satisfaction”.
10. Learning something new can interfere with the
remembering of something learned earlier.

Values, Attitudes and Interest

“When you prevent me from doing anything I want to do, that is persecution;
but when I prevent you from doing anything you want to do, that is law, order
and morals.”
- George Bernard
Shaw

Values

Is capital punishment right or wrong? The answer to this question is value

laden. Some might argue, for example, that capital punishment is right
because it is an appropriate retribution for crimes like murder or treason.
However, others may argue, just as strongly, that no government has the
right to take anyone’s life.

Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end-

state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.” They contain a moral
flavor in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good, or
desirable. Value systems represent a prioritizing of individual values in
relation to their relative importance. In other words, we all have a set of
values that form a value system. This system is identified by the relative
importance we assign to such values as freedom, pleasure, self-respect,
honesty, obedience, equality, and so forth. We all have values and, as you
will see, what we think is important influences our attitudes and our
behaviour.

Importance of Values

Values are important to the study of organizational behaviour because they

lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes, perceptions, personality,
and motivations. Individuals enter an organization with preconceived notions
of what “ought” and what “ought not” to be. Of course, these notions are not
value-free. On the contrary, they contain interpretations of right and wrong.
Further, they imply that certain behaviours or outcomes are preferred over
others.

Types of Values

The most important early work in categorizing values was done by All-port and
his associates. They identified six types of values:

1. Theoretical – Places high importance on the discovery of truth through a

critical and rational approach.
2. Economic – Emphasizes the usefulness and practicality of the situation.
3. Aesthetic – It places the highest value on form and harmony.
4. Social – Here the highest value is given to the love of people.
5. Political – It places emphasis on acquisition of power and influence.
6. Religious – It is concerned with the unity of experience and understanding
of the cosmos as a whole.
More recent research suggests that there is a hierarchy of levels that are
descriptive of personal values and life-styles. One such study identified seven
levels.

Level 1. Reactive. These individuals are unaware of themselves or others

as human beings and react to basic physiological needs. This is most
descriptive of newborn babies.

Level 2. Tribalistic. These individuals are characterized by high

dependence. They are strongly influenced by tradition and the power exerted
by authority figures.
Level 3. Egocentrism. These persons believe in rugged individualism. They
are aggressive and selfish. They respond primarily to power.

Level 4. Conformity. These individuals have a low tolerance for ambiguity,

have difficulty in accepting people whose values differ from their own, and
desire that others accept their values.

Level 5. Manipulative. These individuals are characterized by striving to

achieve their goals by manipulating things and people. They are materialistic
and actively seek higher status and recognition.

Level 6. Sociocentric. These individuals are characterized by striving to

achieve their goals by manipulating things and people. They are materialistic
and actively seek higher status and recognition.

Level 7. Existential. These individuals have a high tolerance for ambiguity

and people with differing values. They are outspoken on inflexible systems,
restrictive policies, status symbols, and arbitrary use of authority.

Attitudes

Attitudes are evaluative statements – either favourable or unfavourable –

concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how one feels about
something. When I say “I like my job,” I am expressing my attitude about
work.

Attitudes are not the same as values. Values are the broader and more
encompassing concept. So attitudes are more specific than values. Values
also contain a moral flavor of rightness or desirability. The statement that
“discrimination is bad” reflects one’s values. “I favor the implementation of
an affirmative action program to recruit and develop women for managerial
positions in our organization” is an attitude.

Source of Attitudes

Attitudes, like values, are acquired from parents, teachers, and peer group
members. In our early years, we begin modeling our attitudes after those we
admire, respect or may be even fear. We observe the way family and friends
behave and we shape our attitudes and behaviour to align with theirs. People
imitate the attitudes of popular individuals or those they admire and respect.
In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behaviour.

Type of Attitudes

But OB focuses our attention on a very limited number of job-related

attitudes. These job-related attitudes tap positive or negative evaluations
that employees hold about aspects of their work environment. Typically,
there are three primary attitudes that are of concerned to us i.e. job
satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment.

Job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitudes toward his or her

job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes
toward the job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds
negative attitudes about the job. When people speak of employee attitudes,
more often then they mean job satisfaction. In fact, the two are frequently
used interchangeably.

The term “job involvement” states that job involvement measures the
degree to which a person identifies with his job, actively participates in it, and
considers his performance important to his self-worth.

Organizational commitment expresses an individual’s orientation toward

the organization by tapping his or her loyalty to, identification with, and
involvement in the organization. Individuals who express high commitment
see their identity as closely attached to that of the organizations.

Attitudes and Consistency

People seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes
and behaviour. This means that individuals seek to reconcile divergent
attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so they appear rational and
consistent. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the
individual to an equilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again
consistent.

Changing attitudes: Some basic techniques

a)
Persuasive messages: Hearing sometimes is believing
i) Comunicator’s Characteristics
• Attractiveness
• Style
• Credibility
ii) Content of persuasive message
• Receiver’s characteristics
• Intelligence
• Self – esteem/ confidence
iii) Enhance persuasion
• Build personal attractiveness
• Enhance credibility
 • Use social pressure
• Design appeal with care
• Repetition can always help
b) Dissonance: when attitude and behaviour don’t match
c) Providing new information
d) Use of fear
e) Influence of family, friends and peers
f) Barriers to changing attitudes

Interest
You are driving your automobile, and the continued roar it makes does not
hold or divert or attract your attention. But presently a new element, perhaps
of relatively low intensity, enters into the complex stimulation, and your
attention is at once attracted; you notice the new sound and begin to wonder
what it means; while your friend by your side, who perhaps is a familiar with
the roar as yourself, fails to notice the new element, even when you ask him
to direct his attention to it. The difference between you (manifested in the
fact that your attention is drawn to the sound, while his is not) is that you are
“interested” in the sounds made by the automobile and he is not.

It is sometimes alleged that “interest” in any object or topic depends upon, or

consists in, the possession of appropriate knowledge or (in terms of the “idea”
theory) of mass or system of “ideas” related to the object or topic.

We are interested only in those things that evoke in us one or other (or
several) of the instinctive impulses. We acquire a great variety of new
interests through the building up of sentiments for a great variety of objects.
“Interest,” being essentially conative, is a matter of the enduring setting of
our conative tendencies or impulses, and is therefore determined by our
instincts and our sentiments. Knowledge about an object is not in itself a
condition of “interest”; though such knowledge favours thus sustaining
attention: without such knowledge our attention to any object, determined by
conative interest, soon wanes; because we quickly exhaust upon it our limited
power of discriminative perception. Thus a naturalist and a layman may
discover some strange plant or animal; it excites the curiosity of both, and
both are interested in it; but the attention of the naturalist is more sustained,
as well as more effective; for he has the knowledge, or cognitive mental
structure, that enables him to examine it systematically and in detail, noticing
a hundred features which entirely escape his companies.

That “interest” is conative rather than cognitive; that it depends upon the
strength of the conative tendencies excited, rather than upon the extent and
variety and systematic organization of the cognitive systems of the mind
( knowledge).

To have an “interest” in any object is, then, to be ready to pay attention to it.
Interest is latent attention; and attention is interest in action. The essential
condition of both interest in and attention to any object is that the mind shall
be so organized, either natively or through experience, that is can think of the
object, and that such thinking shall evoke some impulse or desire which
maintains a train of activity in relation to the object.

Motivation
“Motivation is getting people to do what you want them to do because they
want to do it”
- Dwight D.
Eisenhower
Today, virtually all people including lay people and scholars have their own
definition of motivation. Usually one or more of the following words are
included in the definition: “desires,” “wants,” “wishes,” “goals,” “needs,”
“drives,” “motives,” and “incentives.” Technically, the term motivation can
be traced to the Latin word movere, which means, “to move.” This meaning
is evident in the following comprehensive definition: “A motive is an inner
state that energizes, activates, or moves and that directs or channels
behaviour toward goals. The key to understand motivation, it appears, lies in
the meaning of, and relationship between, needs, drives, and goals.

Needs Drives
Goals
(Deprivation) (Deprivation with direction)
(Reduction of drives)

In a systems sense, motivation consists of three interacting and

interdependent elements: needs, drives and goals.

1. Needs. The best one-word definition of a need is deficiency. In the

homeostatic sense, needs are created whenever there is a physiological
or psychological imbalance.
2. Drives. With a few exceptions drives or motives are set up to alleviate
needs. A drive can be simply defined as a deficiency with direction.
Drives are action-oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward goal
accomplishment. They are at the very heart of the motivational process.
3. Goals. At the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. A goal in the
motivation cycle can be defined as anything, which will alleviate a need
and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining a goal will tend to restore
physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the
drive.
Primary Motives
Physiologists do not totally agree on how to classify the various human
motives, but they would acknowledge that some motivates are unlearned and
physiologically based. Such motives are variously called physiological,
biological, unlearned, or primary. The last term is used here because it is
more comprehensive than the others. The use of the term primary does not
imply that this group of motives always takes precedence over the general
and secondary motives.
General Motives
A separate classification for general motives is not always given. Yet such a
category seems necessary because there are a number of motives, which lie
in the gray area between the primary and secondary classifications. To be
included in the general category, a motive must be unlearned but not
physiologically based. Although not all psychologists would agree, the
motives of competence, curiosity, manipulation, activity, and affection seem
best to meet the criteria for this classification. An understanding of these
general motives is important to the study of human behaviour – especially in
organizations. They are more relevant to organizational behaviour than the
primary motives.

The Competence Motives

While proposed a new conceptualization based upon the assumption that all
organisms, animal and human, have a capacity to interact effectively with
their environment. He called from activities which, though playful and
exploratory in character, at the same time show direction, selectivity, and
persistence in interacting with the environment.” Thus defined, the
competence motive is the most inclusive general drive. The other general
drives of curiosity, manipulation, and activity can be considered more specific
competence drives.

The Curiosity Manipulation, and Activity Motives

It is generally recognized that human curiosity, manipulation, and activity
drives are quite intense; anyone who has reared or been around small
children will quickly support this generalization. Although these drives often
get the small child into trouble, curiosity, manipulation, and activity, when
stifled or inhibited, the total society might become very stagnant.

The Affection Motives

Love or affection is a very complex form of general drive. Part of the
complexity stems from the fact that in many ways love resembles the primary
drives and in other ways it is similar to the secondary drives. For this reason,
affection is sometimes placed in all three categories of motives,
Secondary Motives
Whereas the general drives seem relatively more important than the primary
ones to the study of human behaviour in organizations, the secondary drives
are unquestionably the most important. As a human society develops
economically and becomes more complex, the primary drives, and to a lesser
degree the general drives, give way to the learned secondary drives in
motivating behaviour. With some glaring exceptions that have yet to be
eradicated, the motives of hunger and thirst are not dominant among people
living in the economically developed Western world.

In particular, the learning principle of reinforcement is conceptually and

practically related to motivation. The relationship is obvious when
reinforcement is divided into primary and secondary categories and is
portrayed as incentives. Some writer’s regards reinforcement and motivation
as equivalent. Once again, however, it should be emphasized that although
the various behavioural concepts can be separated for study and analysis, in
reality concepts like reinforcement and motivation do not operate as separate
entities in producing human behaviour. The interactive effects are always
present.

A motive must be learned in order to be included in the secondary

classification. Numerous important human motives meet this criterion. Some
of the more important ones are power, achievement, and affiliation, or as they
are commonly referred to today, n Ach, and n Aff. In addition, especially in
reference to organizational behaviour, security and status are also important
secondary motives.

The Power Motives

It is the need to manipulate other or the drive for superiority over others –
Adler developed the concepts of inferiority complex and compensation.

The Achievement Motive

Characteristic of high achievers.

1. Moderate risk taking. Taking moderate risks is probably the single most
descriptive characteristic of the person possessing high n Ach.
2. Need for immediate feedback. Closely connected to high achievers’
taking moderate risks is their desire for immediate feedback.
3. Satisfaction with accomplishment. High achievers find accomplishing
a task intrinsically satisfying in and of itself, or they do not expect or
necessarily want the accompanying material rewards. A good illustration
of this characteristic involves money, but not for the usual reasons of
wanting money for its own sake or for the material benefits that it can buy.
4. Preoccupation with the task. Once high achievers select a goal, they
tend to be totally preoccupied with the task until it is successfully
completed.

The Affiliation Motive

Affiliation plays a very complex but vital role in human behaviour. Sometimes
affiliation is equated with social motives and / or group dynamics. As
presented here, the affiliation motive is neither as broad as is implied by the
definition of social motives nor as comprehensive or complex as is implied by
the definition of group dynamics.

The Security Motive

One the surface, security appears to be much simpler than other secondary
motives, for it is based largely on fear and is avoidance-oriented.
In reality, security is much more complex than it appears on the surface.
Gellerman notes that this special drive for security is largely unconscious but
that it greatly influences the behaviour of many people.

The Status Motive

Status can be simply defined as the relative ranking that a person holds in a
group, organization, or society.

Three key areas of responsibility

A. Performance definition (Set Objectives)

• Goals
• Measures
• Assessment
Performance facilitation (provide resources)
• Elimination of roadblocks to performance
• Providing means and adequate resources for performance
(finance, material, infrastructure, HR etc.)
• Carefully selecting personnel
Performance encouragement (Provide timely rewards)
• Values of rewards
• Amount of rewards
• Timing of rewards
• Likelihood of rewards
• Fairness of rewards

Various approaches to job design

Appropriately designed job – higher employee satisfaction and quality of
performance

a. Job enrichment – making jobs more meaningful,

interesting and challenging.
b. Job enlargement – adding more tasks to the job for
variety.
c. Job rotation – doing different jobs for variety.
d. Social technical approach – making a group or a team
responsible for the job and balancing social and technical aspects of the
job.
e. Job engineering – concentrates on the efficiency of the job
through time and motion analysis of person – machine interfaces.
f. Goal – setting – building goals, feedback and incentives
into the structure of the job.

Job characteristics approach to Job Design – Hackman & Oldham

Equation
Motivating (MPS) = Skill variety + Task identity + Task Sign x autonomy x
feedback
Potential score 3

Goal Setting theory

• The cognitive based work was given by locke et. al.

• The theoretical background
a. Role of intention in human behaviour.
b. Scientific Management – Talyor – forerunner of goal setting.
c. Importance of values or valence and consequences.
d. Emotions or desires are the ways person experiences values.
e. People strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emotions and
desires.
f. Goals provide direction to behaviour.

Goal – Setting theory

Values and value Emotions and Intentions or Responses
Consequences
Judgments desires goals action or
Feedback or
Performance
reinforcement

• Valid and practical – useful

• No commitment to work – Goal setting will not work.

Theories of Motivation
There is no simple formula to motivate people. But if you look at the
theoretical emphasis of the behavioural scientists who have been
studying motivation, there is a surprising degree of agreement.

Maslow

Hierarchy of Needs or Deficient Theory of Motivation

Needs are arranged in a definite sequence of domination i.e., unless the

needs of lower order are reasonably satisfied, those of the higher order
do not dominate.

Lower/primary order needs includes basic physiological needs & safety

and security. Higher/secondary needs are belonging or social needs,
esteem and self-actualization needs.
Self-actualization
Esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological

McClelland
Achievement Theory of Motivation
• We have three basic social needs: affiliation, power &
achievement.
• Need for achievement : The drive to excel, to achieve in relation
to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
• Need for affiliation : The drive for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships.
• Need for power : The need to make others behave in a way
that they would not have behaved otherwise.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In the first category are Maintenance or Hygiene factors, which are necessary to maintain
a reasonable level of job satisfaction. Absence of these factors may dissatisfy the
employee but will not demotivate them. In the Second category are the Motivators since
they seem to be effective in motivating people to superior performance.

Hygiene/Maintenance Motivators

• Company policy & Adm. • Achievement

• Relationship with Recognition
supervisor • Work
• Working conditions • Responsibility
• Salary • Advancement
• Relationship with peers • Growth
 • Personal life
• Relationship with
subordinates
• Status
• Job security
• Technical supervision

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X emphasizes on discipline, incentive programs, welfare
measures, close supervision, pension and other benefit programs.

Theory Y represents the democratic approach and gives to the

employees scope for creativity and responsibility. It stresses man’s
need for work, responsibility and involvement in serious endeavour;
work force is a reservoir of untapped imagination, intelligence and
commitment.

Team Building

Twenty years ago, the decision of companies to introduce teams into their
production processes made news because no one else was doing it. Today,
it’s just the opposite. It’s the organisation that doesn’t use teams that has
become newsworthy.

Evidence suggests that teams typically outperform individuals when the tasks
being done require multiple skills, judgment, and experience. As
organizations have restructured themselves to compete more effectively and
efficiently, they have turned to teams as a way to better utilize employee
talents. Management has found that teams are more flexible and responsive
to changing events than are traditional departments or other forms of
permanent groupings. Teams have the capability to quickly assemble,
deploy, refocus, and disband.

Why Have Teams Become So Popular?

Effective teams produce outstanding results and succeed in achieving despite

difficulties. Members feel responsible for the output of their team and act to
clear difficulties standing in their way. A team, therefore, is more than a
collection of individuals. It is in part an emotional entity, rooted in the feelings
as well as the thoughts of its members; they actively care about their team’s
well being.

Definition: An energetic group of people who are committed to achieving

common objectives, who work well together and enjoy doing so, and who
produce high quality results.

According to the definition, a team consists of individuals who relate directly

together to get things done. This suggests a practical limitation on size,
because rarely in practice can more than nine people function as single team.

It is imperative to take note of the following key terms to understand the

definition of a team.
• Interdependence, in which each team member makes individual
contributions. Other members depend on those contributions and share
work information with one another.
• Shared responsibility. Responsibility for team’s purpose and goals is
shared and understood by all members.
• All members share outcome, accountability for team outcomes,
which identifies the focus for the team’s activities and includes both
services and products.
The Stages of Team Development

When a group of people come together to achieve an objective they will go

through a series of stages, leading hopefully to a final ‘mature’ stage that
equates to effective team functioning. Woodcock presented “Developmental
model” in his Team Development Manual. The main stages can be
summarized as follows:

Stage 1 - The Undeveloped Team: The ‘Forming’ Stage

The features of this stage are:
• Facilitate ‘getting to know you’ exercise, stimulating greater personal
knowledge.
• Demonstrate openness by example.
• Invite members to share their concerns and problems.
• Encourage consideration of individual strengths and weaknesses.
• Make team activities enjoyable.
• Give maximum support.
Stage 2 - The Experimenting Team: The ‘Storming’ Stage
The features of this stage are:
• Encourage greater openness.
• Begin to involve team members in review of team performance.
• Build bridges between individuals.
• Allow conflicts to surface.
• Question decision making and problem solving methods.
• Find opportunities to experiment.
• Give high level of support.
• Encourage individual team members to ‘air their grievances’.
• Seek common ground.

Stage 3 - The Consolidating Team: The ‘Norming’ Stage

The features of this stage are:
• Develop problem-solving skills.
• Develop decision-making strategies.
• Develop individual skills.
• Develop a capacity for the team to compensate for individual weaknesses.
• Encourage people to share strengths.
• Celebrate successes.
• Clarify objectives.
• Regularly review performance and plan improvements.
• Give moderate support.

Stage 4 - The Mature Team : The ‘Performing’ Team

The features of this stage are:
• Build bridges with other teams.
• Experiment with different forms of leadership
• Allow leadership to change with the needs of the task.
• Clarify values.
• Consider the possibilities of enhanced inputs into the organisation.
• Encourage informal communications.
• Fight insularity.
• Expose team functioning to external scrutiny.
• Give minimal support.

Stage 5 - The Disbanding Team: The ‘Mourning’ Stage

The features of this stage are:
• Competence has been established at a high level.
• Commitment may surge or dip.

Implications
There are certain implications of these five stages.

Forming: awareness of the formation process means encouraging discussion

on issues such as :
• Why are we here?
• What’s our real purpose?
• What holds us firmly together?
• What are we prepared to do and NOT do together?
• What are our rules for working together?
• What do we expect from one another?
• How will people outside this group respond to us?
• What’s the best and worst that could happen if we continue down this
route together?

Storming: during this stage, which can be exciting and difficult, encourage
group communication around issues such as:
• What role is each of us to play?
• Shall we have a formal leader or chairperson?
• Who wants to become the leader? / Whom do we want as leader?
• What powers shall we give our formal leader?
• How do we resolve conflict if several people want to lead?
• Do we encourage disagreement and people expressing a difference of
opinion?
• How will we resolve differences between us - for example by compromise
or formal voting?
• What happens if someone refuses to conform to the group’s wishes?
• How do we deal with strong feelings - for example making space to air
them?

Norming: during this phase contribute to good communications by helping

people realize:
• What are our formal rules?
• What are our usually unspoken rules?
• Who has what formal role?
• How far can people challenge the group in some way?
• How do we deal with differences of opinion?
• How far can an individual follow his or her own interests at the expense of
the group?

Performing: now you can help the communication process by focusing on

• What are our specific targets or goals?
• How are we setting about achieving them?
• Who has what detailed responsibilities and do they understand these?
• Can we make being together more rewarding - for example by having fun
together, socializing, recognizing one another’s successes?
• How best can we support people through difficult times?
• Are we listening to one another properly?
• Does each speaker build on what the previous person has said?
• Do we give each other and the group regular feedback?
• Who is showing high or low commitment to group aims?

Mourning: when the group is ending, help group communication by

encouraging attention to issues such as:
• When do we stop meeting?
• Who should we tell?
• What remains to do before the last meeting?
• Who takes responsibility for post-group matters - for example handling
residual assets or remaining tasks?
• What do people feel about the group coming to an end?
• How do we handle these feelings - for example having a reunion in a
year, organising a final party, sending a final report?
• Could we make the ending into a celebration?
Team Building Process

• Developing Teamwork
• Identify the need
• Know one another
• Form team charter
• Perform team tasks
• Use team tools
• Work Together
• Consensus
• Cooperate with other Teams
• Evaluate Teamwork

Types of Teams

Teams can be classified on the basis of their objective. The three most
common forms of teams in an organisation are problem solving teams, self-
managed work teams, and cross-functional teams.

Problem Solving Teams

They typically are composed of five to twelve employees from the same
department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving
quality, efficiency, and the work environment.

Self-Managed Work Teams

Self-managed work teams are generally composed of ten to fifteen people
who take on the responsibilities of their former supervisors. Typically, these
responsibilities include collective control over the pace of work, determination
of work assignments, and collective choice of inspection procedures. Fully
self-managed work teams even select their own members and have the
members evaluate each other’s performance. As a result, supervisory
positions take on decreased importance and may even be eliminated.

Cross-Functional Teams
Cross-functional teams are made up of employees from about the same
hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to
accomplish a task. Many organisations have used horizontal, boundary-
spanning groups for years. Cross-functional teams are an effective means for
allowing people from diverse areas within an organisation (or even between
organisations) to exchange information, develop new ideas, solve problems,
and coordinate complex projects.

Symptoms of Ineffective Team Work

• As organisations get larger the opportunities for personal expression and

satisfaction often becomes less. Too often the members feel frustrated
because they cannot find a clear way of meeting their own needs and
aspirations.
• Team members lose their inspiration and lack the commitment and
motivation to work, which are the essential ingredients of effective
teamwork.
• Team members often spend a lot of time on retaliation. They do not use
mistakes as opportunities for increased learning and improvements.
Mistakes become an excuse for punishing those who have committed thus
giving a vent to their frustrations.
• The unhealthy competition between team members - they enjoy
backbiting and playing dirty tricks and politics on their own teammates.

• Poor teamwork is indicated by the dull expression, which employees

wear on their faces. Effective team work breeds happiness and the
uninformed visitor often gets an immediate impression of whether work is
a happy place to be or whether he is likely to be ‘killed in the rush’ if he is
around. Work does not have to be a dull and unenjoyable place; it can
easily be rewarding place where people love to be.
• Dishonest statements and the taking of false bargaining stances.
• The low quality of meetings can usually be determined by the way in
which individuals either look forward to or dread the normal weekly or
monthly get together.
• Low quality of relationship between the team members is indicated when
people cannot confide in or trust their leader, where they are fearful
of him or where their conversations are on a superficial or trivial level than
real team work.
• The leader becomes increasingly isolated from his team. He does not
represent their view and they do not subscribe to his.

Avoiding Blowups
Usually team-building sessions are interesting and constructive. Occasionally
they become tedious and dull. Rarely team-building events can blow up with
uncomfortable or hurtful incidents.

If group difficulties and blowups are handled with care, they provide a
potential for significant progress. The following guidelines can help you to
use these team-building materials successfully:

• Voluntary Involvement
• Adequate Discussion Time
• Appropriate Sequence
• Careful Preparation
• Relevant Choices
• Avoid Undue Threat
• Work Through Conflicts and Difficulties

Appraisal of Team Functioning

Following is a checklist for making on-the-spot appraisal of team

functioning by acronym PERFORMS.

Productivity: is the team getting enough done?

Empathy: do the team members feel comfortable with each other?
Roles & goals: do they know what they are supposed to be
doing?
Flexibility: are they open to outside influence and contribution?
Openness: do they say what they think?
Recognition: do they praise each other and publicize
achievement?
Morale: do people want to be in this team?

The most common indicators of problems in any of these areas:

Productivity: a boss in a bad temper.

Empathy: no coffee at team meetings
Roles & goals: puzzled faces
Flexibility: annoyed outsiders talking about the “fortress
mentality”.
Openness: silence
Recognition: backbiting
Morale: everyone’s left!

Benefits of Team Building

The team, potentially the most flexible and competent tool known to
mankind, can support a positive management strategy in the
following ways:
• Management of Complexity. The breadth of resources
available to the team enables complex situations to be creatively
managed.
• Rapid Response. Well-developed teams are capable of
responding quickly and energetically.
• High Motivation. The team feeds the individual’s need to have
personal significance, and team processes encourage activity and
achievement.
• High Quality Decisions. Mature teams are capable of making
better quality decisions than all but the most brilliant individual.
Hence, the use of a team approach improves the overall quality of
decisions. Perhaps more importantly, the level of commitment to
team decisions is much higher.
• Collective Strength. Individuals often feel that it is hard to
influence organisations and make any impact outside their
immediate area. The team changes this as team members extend
their viewpoint to see that they, together, can achieve much.

Team building is time consuming and can be expensive. It is

important to identify how the approach can be used to give useful
benefits.
Conflict
Part of my job is to keep the five guys who hate me away from the five guys
who are undecided.

- Casey Stengel

We define conflict to be a process in which an effort is purposely made by A to

offset the efforts of B by some form of blocking that will result in frustrating B
in attaining his goals or furthering his interests.

Conflict: An Inevitable Product of Change

In its simplest term, conflict is no more than a by – product of growth,
change, or innovation. And like change itself, it’s practically inevitable.
But it’s also something that, when handled correctly can actually
promote better communication, guarantee achieving desired results,
and improve employee morale and productivity.
Conflict can be defined as: “Conflict is a set of divergent behaviours,
aims, or methods.”

Types Of Conflict

Intraindividual Conflict

Within every individual there are

1. A nmber of competing needs and roles,
2. A variety of ways that drives and roles can be expressed,
3. Many types of barriers that can occur between the drive and the goal,
and
4. Both positive and negative aspects attached to desired goals.

Conflict due to Frustration

Frustration occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches
a desired goal. The barrier may be overt (outward, or physical) or covert
(inward, or mental – sociopsychological). Traditionally, psychologists felt that
frustration always led to the defense mechanism of aggression. Frustration
may lead to any of the defense mechanism used by the human organism.
Although there are many such mechanism, they can be grouped according to
four broad categories: aggression, withdrawal, fixation and compromise. The
frustration model can be useful in the analysis not only of behaviour in
general but also the specific aspects of on – the – job behaviour.

Goal Conflict

Another common source of conflict for an individual is a goal that has both
positive and negative features, or two or more competing goals. For ease of
analysis, three separate types of goal conflict are generally identified:
1. Approach – approach conflict, where the individual is motivated to
approach two or more positive but mutually exclusive goals.
 2. Approach – avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to
approach a goal and at the same time is motivated to avoid it.
3. Avoidance – avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to
avoid two or more negative but mutually exclusive goals.

Interpersonal Conflict
Sources of interpersonal conflict
• Personal difference
• Information deficiency
• Role incompatibility
• Environmental stress

Strategies for interpersonal conflict resolution

Lose – lose. In a lose – lose approach to conflict resolution, both parties lose.
One of the more common approaches is to compromise or take the middle
ground in a dispute. A second approach is to pay off one of the parties in the
conflict. A third is to use an outside third party or arbitrator. And finally the
fourth type would be parties involved in conflict resolve to bureaucratic rules
or existing regulations to resolve the conflict.

Win – lose. In the win – lose strategy one party in a conflict situation
attempts to marshal its force to win, and the other party loses.

Win – win. In the win – win strategy of conflict resolution energies and
creativity are aimed at solving the problems rather than beating the other
party. Here the needs of both parties in the conflict situation are met, and
both parties receive rewarding outcomes.

Intergroup behaviour and conflict

Antecedents to intergroup conflict. Several antecedent conditions have
been identified for explaining intergroup conflict.
1. Competition for resources
2. Task interdependence
3. Jurisdictional ambiguity
4. Status struggles.

Features of Conflict
• Conflict is inevitable
• Conflict is neither good / bad
• Conflict is not always caused by trouble makers
• Conflict is part of change
• Conflict is sometime desirable
When to Stimulate Conflict
• When you have “Yes” men around you
• When individuals are afraid to admit ignorance
• When team members create an impression of peace
• When individuals display too much concern
• When individuals believe in popularity
• When individuals lack new ideas
• When individuals offer resistance to change

Five Ways to Sense Conflict

Be Visionary: Visualize how your actions or those of others will cause,
or are causing, conflict. Ask yourself who, what, when, where, how,
and why questions to determine potential, as well as present,
sources of conflict.
1. Give Feedback: The amount, accuracy, and timeliness of
information that you can provide to an individual will help you to
understand that person’s point of view. Sharing your thoughts and
feelings first, in a non-threatening way, often encourages others to
tell you what is on their minds.
2. Get Feedback: Take the time to find out what your associates are
thinking and feeling. Do not wait until the last moment to discover
that trouble is upon you. Probe for more information by asking
questions such as: How so; In what; Why; and Can you tell me more?
3. Define Expectations: Meet on a weekly basis with your associates
to determine priorities for the upcoming week. Any major
discrepancies between your expectations will alert you to potential
conflict.
4. Review Performance Regularly: When supervisors and employees
communicate openly about how they are (or are not) working
together, they reduce serious conflict and build stronger working
relationships.

Ways of Resolving Conflict

• Clarify reporting Relationship
• Eliminate communication gap / misunderstanding
• Restructure the organisation
• Introduce new blood/ new thinking
• Create Competition

Benefits of Dealing with Conflict

Benefits to Individual
Stronger relationships: You will be able to build stronger
relationships as a result of being comfortable expressing your true
thoughts. Fewer mind games will be played resulting in a less stressful
day.
Increased self-respect: You will be able to feel good about yourself
and will learn not to take criticism personally.

Personal development and growth: When you break down some of

your own invisible barriers and become more assertive in resolving or
preventing conflict, you will learn more and gain support from others.

Benefits to Your Organisation

Improved efficiency & effectiveness: Employees will be able to do
their jobs more efficiently and effectively by focusing their efforts where
they will produce the greatest results.
Creative thinking: By encouraging people to make, share, and learn
from their mistakes, the organisation will reap the benefits of creative
thinking.
Synergy or teamwork: Managers and associates will be able to focus
on serving their customers and each other.

Causes of Conflict
For a variety of reasons, many people have difficulty sensing or finding
the causes of conflict. Many factors contribute to the difficulty in
identifying the correct cause of a conflict:
• Personality
• Perceptions
• Exclusive Goals
• Deliberate Behaviour
• Scarce Resources
• Status
• Power
• Rewards
• Membership
• Decision Making

The Five Steps to Successful Conflict Management

Step One: Take Responsibility for Dealing with Conflict
Step Two: Uncover, Define, and Discuss the Real Problem
Step Three: Ask Questions and Listen!
Step Four: Set Goals and Create an Action Plan
Step Five: Follow Up
Fourteen Methods for Dealing with Conflict -
Win / Win

• Be indirect; only hint at the problem

• Find something outside yourself on which to blame situation
• Use sarcasm in talking about the situation with others
• Seek a specific scapegoat
• Make efforts to smooth over tension / live with situation, even if
negative
• Blow up; let off steam; let people know just exactly how you feel
• Hide your feelings, only reveal them later to friends or confidants in
private
• Attempt to seek clarification & information about the situation
• Sublimate your feelings, put energy & attention in unrelated activities/
interests
• Spend time listening & gathering additional info. by talking with those
involved
• Back down under pressure rather than dealing with conflict
• Make an active attempt to compromise
• Complain to others about unfairness of the situation
• Make an effort to seek creative alternatives to the situation

Basic Skills to Resolve Conflict

Intellectual Skills
• Analytical
• Learning Ability
• Judgement
• Planning
• Organising
• Perception
• Conceptualizing
• Objectivity
• Flexibility

Emotional Skills
• Honesty
• Persistence
• Ambition
• Self-discipline
• Result-orientation
• Fast pace
• Initiative
• Enthusiasm
• Assertiveness
Interpersonal Skills
• Persuasiveness
• Gregariousness
• Listening
• Communication
• Writing
• Sensitivity

Managerial Skills
• Gives guidance
• Motivates
• Delegates
• Selects competent people
• Terminates incompetent associates
• Expects Professionalism

Conflict management styles

• Resignation.
• Withdrawal.
• Appeasement.
• Defusion.
• Confrontation.
• Arbitration.
• Compromise.
• Negotiation.

Frustration
Frustration – A Western Overview
Frustration, defined as, blocking ongoing goal directed behaviour that may
operate in a manner similar to provocation and serve both as an instigator
and an external justification for violating normative constraint against
aggression.
Maier and Ellen ( 1955 ) describe frustration in the following manner:

• An insoluble problem.
• Pressure from behind.
• Barriers preventing escape.
• Persistent or severe punishment.
• Consistency or inconsistency of results that conflict with expectations.

In general, they lean toward the generalization that frustrating situation is

frustrating when it involves the experience of failure and this, of course, is a
far cry from the original very rigid definition of a frustrating situation.
Basic Characteristics of Frustration Instigated Behaviour

The Frustration process produces behaviour that is purely an end in itself and
not a means to an end. The behaviour thus elicited is not an expression of
preference since it is not influenced by what it accomplishes. In this sense, the
behaviour is compulsive in nature, and the type of behaviour that is selected
in Frustration is a matter of its availability at the time as well as of a number
of other factors. This type of behaviour is altered most readily by a reduction
in the state of Frustration. When this is not possible, Frustration instigated
behaviour may be directed along different channels by the introduction or
removal of barriers and other forms of restraints or by various forms of
guidance. Thus, aggression induced by economic hardships may be directed
away from government offices and towards food stores or racial groups.

Conquering Frustration
In order to understand how to overcome frustration, it can be tackled at a
personal as well as organizational level.

At a personal level

“Frustration and anger can be evoked when we perceive an inconsistency

between what is expected and what is obtained.” It can be taken care of in
the following methods:

Fight or Flight
People should rethink situations they are confronted with before “blowing up”.
“Poorly managed anger is at the root of many serious physical, social and
emotional problems, from heart disease to neighborhood violence”.

Rethink
It is an acronym developed and used by IMHI in anger management
workshops to help people have new control and power over learning to
channel their anger. It stands for recognize, empathize, think, hear, integrate,
notice and keep.

Reactions of Frustration
The first response to frustration, which needs to be delineated, is the
emotional reaction. Frustration leads to some sort of negative emotional
state. Two important properties are that the emotions are aversive, and that
it produces or results in increased physiological arousal. The aversive nature
means that the individual will be highly motivated or reduced in it. The
increased around tends to increase the vigor or strength of whatever response
is elicited and this arousal is implications for task performance,
On the behavioural end, there are at least four major classes of behaviour,
which can result from frustration. Probably the most common reaction,
especially to mild frustration, is to try a different response or find an alternate
and hopefully unblocked means to the goal. The most troublesome and often
mentioned reaction is aggression, which has received considerable attention
in the laboratory. Another possible response, which can be related to finding
alternative means, is withdrawal from the situation. That is, the individual can
leave the situation entirely, and find another setting in which to achieve the
goal. Alternatively, the individual can abandon the goal entirely and other
leave or remain in the situation. Concerned with either aggression, or the
effects of frustration on task performance.

Effects of Organizational Frustration

There are at least four possible reactions to frustration by individuals, which
have potential effects on organizations. These include the emotional response
of anger and associated increased physiological arousal, and the behavioural
responses of trying alternative course of action, aggression, and withdrawal.
To the extent that it interferes with or blocks task performance, frustration
can be directly harmful to organizations. To the extent it induces increased
physiological arousal, it may facilitate or inhibit task performance depending
upon task complexity. Finally, to the extent it induces aggression or
withdrawal frustration can have damaging effects on organizations.
Arousal itself, as shown previously, differentially affects performance
depending upon the complexity of the task. Frustration can increase task
speed with no additional errors for simple task, but interferes with correct
performance on complex tasks. Although it may be possible that mild
frustration can increase arousal and facilitate task performance with no
additional negative effects in the short run, continued or severe frustration
might result in aggression or withdrawal. Withdrawal can be manifested
temporarily as absenteeism and tardiness, or permanently as turnover.
Aggression can be directed either against other people, or against the
organization itself.
Aggression in organizations can take many forms. It can be directed covertly
against the source of frustration (if a person) either verbally or physically. It
can also be directed covertly against a person; that is, an individual can
secretly perform behaviours, which can hurt another person. Aggression can
also be directed against the organization itself. The organizational aggression
could be overt to covert. Overt acts might include strikes, work slowdowns,
grievances, or lawsuits. Covert acts would include sabotage, secret
withholding of output and stealing. A critical variable causing a person to
choose overt, covert, or no aggression would be expectation of punishment
for the act.
Finally, frustration can lead a person to try alternative courses of action to
achieve goals or fulfill needs. In fact mild frustrations, which interfere rather
than block can add challenge and include greater overall effort. Thus
frustration might have positive, motivating effects.

Change Management

“To improve is to change. To be perfect is to change often”.

 -
Winston Churchill
Change
Change is the name of the game in management today. Market, product and
competitive conditions are rapidly changing. Change is an alteration in the
existing field of forces (external & internal) that tends to affect the
equilibrium of an organisation.

In an era of accelerating change, organization’s degree to excellence is

judged by its ability to cope with these changes. Organizations either
become more adaptive, flexible and anticipative or they become rigid,
stagnant and react to change after the fact, often when it is too late.
Therefore, Managers must do more than just react; they must be able to
anticipate the changing patterns of people, markets, products, services and
technology.

Levels of Change
1. Knowledge Changes
2. Attitudinal Changes
3. Individual Behaviour Changes
4. Group or Organisational Performance Changes

Changes in knowledge tend to be the easiest to make; they can occur as a

result of reading a book or an article or hearing something new from a
respected person. Attitude structures differ from knowledge structures in that
they are emotionally charged in a positive or a negative way. Changes in
individual behaviour seem to be significantly more difficult and time
consuming. While individual behaviour is difficult enough to change, it
becomes even more complicated when you try to implement change within
groups or organisations.

Types Of Changes in Organizations

Macro level
• Change in Structure : e. g., amendments to the Constitution;
nationalisation of banks.
• Change in Methodology : e.g., Automation in industry : irrigation,
chemical fertilizers and crop rotation in agriculture.
• Change in Behaviour : e.g., family planning program; patriotism and social
discipline in time of war or emergencies.
• Change in Assumptions and Values: e. g., desire for socialistic pattern of
society; liberation movements.

Cycles of Change
The levels of change become very significant when you examine two different
change cycles
- Participative Change Cycle
- Directive Change Cycle

Participative Change
A participative change cycle is implemented when new knowledge is made
available to the individual or group. It is hoped that the group will accept the
data and will develop a positive attitude and commitment in the direction of
the desired change. The next step will be to attempt to translate this
commitment into actual behaviour. This step is significantly more difficult to
achieve. An effective strategy may be to identify the informal and formal
leaders among the work group(s) and concentrate on gaining their behavioral
support for the desired change.

Once this is accomplished, organisational change may be effected by getting

other people to begin to pattern their behaviour.

Directive Change
This change cycle begins by change being imposed on the total organisation
by some external force, such as higher management, the community, new
laws. The new contacts and modes of behaviour create new knowledge,
which tend to develop predispositions towards or against the change.

Three Dimensions of Change

1. Logical Dimension: Based on the technical evidence of economics and

science. This evidence needs to be presented to employees so that they can
understand the technical and economic reasons for change.
2. Psychological Dimension: Based on the fact that change is logical on
terms of the human values and feelings in the situation.
3. Sociological Dimension: Based on change logical from the point of
view of social values. Is the change consistent with norms of the group?
Does it maintain group teamwork? These questions need to be resolved
keeping in mind society norms.

Change Process

Managing change means managing the conversation between the people

leading the change effort and those who are expected to implement the new
strategies.
The critical factors of a change process are :
• Skill to identify and analyze the objectives of change (knowledge of
understanding what the problem is & finding solutions to it.)
• Skill to devise successful methods to accomplish the objectives and solve
the problems.
• Skill to enlist the support of people involved and affected by change.

A Model Of Adaptive Orientation

Low

Anticipative Reactive
Management Management
Environmental
Stability
 Satisficing Conservative
Management Management
High
High Low
Adaptive
Orientation

Strategies For Dealing With Change

In some cases where change is forced the new behaviour engaged in creates
the kind of knowledge that develops commitment to the change and
therefore, begins to approximate a participative change as it reinforces the
individual and group behaviour. The hope is that “if people will only have a
chance to see how the new system works they will support it.” Planned
change according to Benne and Chin, can be divided into three basic types of
strategies.

Empirical – Rational Strategies :

The fundamental assumption underlying empirical-rational strategies is that
human beings are rational and will follow their self-interest once this is
revealed to them. This strategy is basically straightforward and
uncomplicated. Since the person is rational and motivated by his self-
interest, he will obviously adopt the proposed change if the logic can be
effectively communicated.

Normative Re-educative Strategies :

The normative re-educative strategies believe that human beings are guided
in their actions by sociocultural norms and their commitment to these norms.
Consequently, change is not exclusively at the cognitive or intellectual level
but is often at a more personal level : habits, attitudes, and values.

Power-Coercive Strategies :
Power-coercive strategies are based on the assumption of compliance of
those with less power to the will of those with more power.

Resistance to Change

Managers in every company must be alert to problems and opportunities,

because the perceived need for change is what sets the stage for subsequent
actions that create a new product or technology. Big problems are easy to
spot. Sensitive monitoring systems are needed to detect gradual changes
that can fool managers into thinking their company is doing fine. An
organization may be in greater danger when the environment changes slowly,
because managers may fail to trigger an organizational response. Failing to
use planned change to meet small needs can place the organization in hot
water, as illustrated in the following passage :

When frogs are placed in a boiling pail of water, they jump out – they don’t
want to boil to
death. However, when frogs are placed in a cold pail of water, and the pail
is placed on a
 stove with the heat turned very low, over time the frogs will boil to death.

Psychologists have studied the phenomenon of resistance to change during

the past few decades. Several explanations have been given for resistance to
change. Some of these are as follows:
1. The change itself produces disequilibrium
2. There exists a deep seated human characteristic to go against change
3. The basic anxieties aroused by the working conditions
4. Insecurity created by the ambiguity related to change

Resistance has a protective function for the individual. All behaviour which
opposes change is not necessarily resistance. Some opposition to change
may be perfectly logical.

Tactics for Overcoming Resistance to Change

Approach When to Use

Communication, • Change is technical.
education • Users need accurate information and
analysis to understand change.
Participation • Users need to feel involved.
• Design requires information from others.
• Users have power to resist.
Negotiation • Group has power over implementation.
• Group will lose out in the change.
Coercion • A crisis exists.
• Initiators clearly have power.
• Other implementation techniques have
failed.
Top management • Change involves multiple departments or
support reallocation of resources.
• Users doubt legitimacy of change.

Techniques for initiating Change

Strategies for overcoming resistance to change typically involve two

approaches: the analysis of resistance through the force field technique and
the use of selective implementation tactics to overcome resistance.
Organisations may be in a state of equilibrium, with forces pushing for change
on one hand and forces resisting change by attempting to maintain the status
quo on the other. Kurt Lewin expressed this phenomenon in his field force
theory, which suggests that an equilibrium is maintained by driving forces
and restraining forces. When a change is introduced, some forces drive it and
other forces resist it. To implement a change, management should analyze
the change forces. By selectively removing forces that restrain change, the
driving forces will be strong enough to enable implementation.

Another approach, and one that is usually more effective, is to reduce or

eliminate the restraining forces and then move to a new level of equilibrium.
In organizations, therefore, a change in policy is less resisted when those
affected by it participate in the change. The change process involves three
steps :
1. unfreezing
2. moving or changing
3. refreezing

The first stage, unfreezing, creates motivation for change. If people feel
uncomfortable with the present situation, they may see the need for change.
However, in some cases an ethical question may arise regarding the
legitimacy of deliberately creating discomfort that may initiate change. The
second stage is the change itself. This change may occur through
assimilation of new information exposure to new concepts, or development of
a different perspective. The third stage, refreezing, stabilizes the change.
Change, to be effective, has to be congruent with a person’s self-concept and
values. If the change is incongruent with the attitudes and behaviors of
others in the organization, chances are that the person will revert back to the
old behaviour. Thus, reinforcement of the new behaviour is essential.