Introduction To Attitude and Motivation

INTRODUCTION TO ATTITUDE AND MOTIVATION
Attitude reflects the general attitude toward school and general motivation for
succeeding in school. The clearer the connection between school and future career, the
easier it
is to maintain a positive attitude for performing the tasks related to success in college.
• Write out specific and global goals and make sure they meet the criteria of good goals:
(specific, measurable, challenging, realistic, and with a completion date).
• Reassess how school fits into your future. Reflect on why you are in college.
• Work with the Academic Planning & Support Services Office in Moody Hall 155
Motivation to perform SPECIFIC tasks is related to academic achievement. It measures
the
degree to which the student accepts responsibility for studying, reading assignments, and
completing homework and papers, etc.
• Practice attributing what happens to you to your own efforts instead of to luck or poor
teachers or lack of ability.
• Reflect on your past successes and the strategies you used.
• Set motivational goals (rewards for timelines and goals accomplished).
• Stay up to date on class assignments; (go to class prepared).
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GET MOTIVATED!
So, getting out of bed in the morning has become a serious challenge. Faced with a blank
page
that is supposed to become your research paper your mind numbs and you get about as
far as the
title page before you give up. You’ve lost all enthusiasm for school work.
Pure, divine motivation is rare. Most of the time it requires constant reinforcement.
• Take a moment to remind yourself why you’re doing what you’re doing. What are you
going to get out of it?
• Reward your accomplishments--no matter how small.
• Get your best friends to give you pep talks when they see you’re down. You might
keep
a handy list of your best qualities, talents, and abilities.
• A healthy diet and regular exercise go a long way towards maintaining energy levels
and
feeling good in general.
• Be willing to risk failure--remember that you risk success too.
Feel overwhelmed by a difficult task?
• Start early, and have a plan. Break up your task into small parts; allow time for
mistakes
and wrong directions. Completing a small part each day helps maintain interest and
forestalls discouragement.
• Working in a comfortable setting helps (comfortable clothes, a few friends around,
familiar surroundings.) Take a break when you get tired.
Easily discouraged?
• Don’t be a perfectionist. Make approaching your goals the source of your satisfaction,
rather than reaching them.
• Don’t worry about or dwell on things that go wrong. Concentrate on your successes.
Remember that little successes build up just as quickly as little failures.
Are you too hard on yourself?
• Who you are is more valuable than what you do. Your worth as a person is not based
on
your intelligence, your grades, or how hard you work. It is enough to be you.
• Realize and value the opinions of others--but realize that ultimately you must respect
and
satisfy yourself.
SETTING GOALS: GOOD EXAMPLES/POOR EXAMPLES
Adapted from Claire E. Weinstein. Executive Control Process in Learning: Why
Knowing About
How to Learn Is Not Enough. NADE Newsletter. Volume 12 No. 2, Fall 1988.
A useful goal contains five key elements. A useful goal is:
d
1) Specific – It describes what you want to accomplish with as much detail as possible.
Poor example – “I want to read better.”
Better example -“I want to increase my reading comprehension score 10% by the end of
this semester.”
3
2) Measurable – A useful goal is described in terms that can be clearly evaluated.
Poor example – “I want to lose weight this year.”
Better example – “I want to lose 10 pounds by my cousin’s wedding two moths from
now.”
3) Challenging – It takes energy, effort, and discipline to accomplish.
Poor example – “I want to get to all of my classes on Thursday.”
Better example – “I want to complete the assignment and be prepared for my classes on
Thursday.”
4) Realistic – A realistic goal is one you are capable of attaining.
Poor example – “I want to become the editor of the student newspaper in my first
semester.”
Better example – “I want to become the editor of the student paper by my last year in
school.”
5) Timely one with a completion date – For long term goals, it may be important to
identify shorter-term goals that lead to the desired endpoint.
Poor example – “I want to do a lot of professional writing in my lifetime.”
Better example – “I want to complete a short story by the end of the semester.”
4
GOAL SETTING AND DECISION MAKING
THE CASE OF SAM
Sam, a sophomore from Houston, is a pre-med major. He plans to specialize in
neurosurgery.
This semester, Sam was placed on academic probation because he made a D in biology,
an F in zoology, and a D in calculus. When Sam went to talk to his friendly academic
counselor,
he said, “I know exactly why I’m on probation. I just don’t like those science classes.
They’re
so technical and narrow that they don’t seem relevant to anything. I usually make C’s in
my
science classes, but last semester I just didn’t feel motivated.”
Sam really respects his father, who is a corporate attorney. His dad expects a lot from
Sam and is disappointed in his probationary status. Ever since Sam was in junior high, his
dad
has told him how important it is to “make something of yourself and to be successful.”
Sam
knows that being a surgeon would bring him respect, status, and a high salary. Sam wants
to be a
success but he sometimes worries that he will not like the stress and long hours involved
in the
medical profession. Sam volunteered at Brackenridge Hospital last summer in the
emergency
room and really enjoyed it. He like talking to the patients and asking them questions, and
he
liked the fast-paced atmosphere.
Sam’s favorite class at SEU so far has been English (expository writing). He has always
been a good writer and in high school he was editor of the yearbook, an activity that he
really
misses now that he’s in college. Sam also enjoyed a history class he took on current
affairs. He
reads Time magazine every week and watches as many new programs and specials as he
can.
This semester, Sam is really feeling burned out. He looks forward to the day when he can
be through with school and be out in the work world. He just doesn’t know what to do…
1) What decision does Sam need to make?
2) What are the possible consequences of his decision?
3) What goals should he set for himself?
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REACHING OUR GOALS
Theme: The ability to live our lives in such a way that we reach our goals.
Quotes are from The Road Less Traveled by M. Scott Peck, M.D., New York, Simon and
Schuster, 1978.
1. Realize the opportunity
“The more clearly we see the reality of the world, the better equipped we are to deal with
the
world. The less clearly we see the reality of the world—the more our minds are befuddled
by
falsehood, misperceptions and illusions—the less able we will be to determine correct
courses of
action and make wise decisions. Our view of reality is like a map with which to negotiate
the
terrain of life. If the map is true and accurate, we will generally know where we are, and
if we
have decided where we want to go, we will generally know how to get there. If the map is
false
and inaccurate, we generally will be lost.”(p. 44)
“…if our maps are to be accurate we have to continually revise them.”(p.45)
“What does a life of total dedication to the truth mean? It means, first of all, a life of
continuous
and never ending stringent self examination.”(p. 51)
“Problems do not go away. They must be worked through or else they remain, forever a
barrier
to the growth and development of the spirit.”(p. 30)
2. Accept responsibility for the opportunity
“…we must accept responsibility for a problem before we can solve it.”(p. 32)
“To willingly confront a problem early, before we are forced to confront it by
circumstances,
means to put aside something pleasant or less painful for something more painful.”(p. 31)
“Sooner or later,…they must learn that the entirety of one’s adult life is a series of
personal
choices, decisions. If they can accept this totally, then they become free people. To the
extent
that they do not accept this they will forever feel themselves victims.”(p. 44)
3. Change the behavior
“Delaying gratification is a process of scheduling the pain and pleasure of life in such a
way as to
enhance the pleasure by meeting and experiencing the pain first and getting it over with.
It is the
only decent way to live.”(p. 19)
“This feeling of being valuable is a cornerstone of self-discipline because when one
considers
oneself valuable one will take care of oneself in all ways that are necessary. Self-
discipline is
self-caring…If we feel ourselves valuable, then we will feel our time to be valuable, and
if we
feel our time to be valuable, then we will want to use it well.”(p. 24)
Shift from external controls over behaviors to internal controls. There are some easy
gratifications to delay; some difficult.
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About Yourself
Who you are is more valuable than what you do. Your worth as a person is not based on
your
intelligence, your grades, or how hard you work. It is enough to be you.
Respect and value the opinions of others—but realize that ultimately you must respect
and satisfy
yourself.
Practice impulse control by imagining the consequences of your actions. How will you
feel
afterwards? Then, act so that you will be satisfied with yourself.
Write out a plan for yourself. Jot down personal and academic goals and priorities, and
reread them
when you’re in a slump.
Don’t worry about or dwell on things that go wrong. Concentrate on your successes.
Remember that
little successes build up just as quickly as little failures.
Give yourself time to change. Forgive yourself for backsliding and making mistakes.
Don’t be a perfectionist Make approaching your goals the basis of your self-respect rather
than
reaching your goals.
Don’t allow feelings of inadequacy get you down. Think about all the things you do have
going for
you.
If you’re feeling down or hopeless, imagine the worst that could happen—exaggerate
your
fantasies—and then laugh at them. Do this to put yourself and your current situation in
perspective.
When you’re down, go to someone whom you know cares for you and ask him or her to
give you a
“pep talk,” reminding you of your good qualities, talents and abilities and/or make a list
of your
good qualities and read them when you need to.
Be willing to risk failure for something you really care about. Be willing to risk success
too!
If you’re irrationally afraid of something, do it a lot; the fear will wear off.
Learn to recognize, sooner, events which are not turning out as they should—and act to
redirect them
to your satisfaction.
About Your Work:
No one else is forcing you to do your work. You’ve decided to take it on. Don’t waste
your energy in
hostility toward others. Accept and live with your own decisions.
Start early. The sooner you start, the sooner you’ll be free to do other activities, the less
worry you’ll
experience, the more time you’ll have to recover from mistakes and wrong decisions.
Expect a certain amount of tension. Use that tension as energy to get yourself moving.
7
Different people have different styles of working. For example, some people need
competition to do
their best, while others work better at their own pace. Respect your work style and
arrange
conditions you need to do well.
If you have a long, hard task, make it as comfortable for yourself as possible. Do it in
short bits (but
stay with it), do it wearing comfortable clothes, among friends, in familiar surroundings,
with
whatever you need to keep your spirits up while you work at it.
Pure, unadulterated motivation is rare (most of the time); you just have to keep plugging
away.
If necessary, pause every now and then to remind yourself of why you have chosen to
take on certain
work, and what you expect to get out of it. Give yourself a pep talk.
When you’ve done something you feel good about, reward yourself with a treat: You
deserve it!
Completed tasks keep interest and motivation at a higher level. Try to complete a task, or
accomplish
a sub-goal before you quit for the day.
8
PERSONAL GOAL SHEET
Instructions: Help motivate yourself to study by setting goals that can be measured: these goals
should be realistic,
measurable, of value to your plans, and have built-in rewards for attainment.
GOAL MOTIVATION
ACHIEVABLE
MEASUREABLE REWARD AFFIRMATION
Yes No Yes No
9
OVERCOMING PROCRASTINATION
Overcoming procrastination is the procrastinator’s greatest challenge because the
behavior you are
trying to change is the very thing that can get in the way of changing your behavior.
Sounds like a no win
situation, but take heart. Summon all your determination and will-power and follow these
guidelines to a
procrastination-free life.
CLARIFY YOUR PERSONAL GOALS
• Make a list of your personal goals and post it where you’ll see it frequently—your
mirror, notebook,
door, etc.
• Outline (on paper) the tasks that will lead to your goal, and be sure a task you think you
“should” do is
one that is really important to meeting your goal. If you aren’t sure what tasks will lead to
your goal, talk
with your parents, professors, or an APSS counselor.
• Prioritize! Put the most unpleasant tasks at the top of your list, and work your way
down to the easier
ones.
MANAGE YOUR TIME EFFECTIVELY
• Time management is a learned skill, and it takes practice to master. If your idea of time
management is
remembering to flip the calendar at the end of each month, it’s a good idea to consult an
APSS counselor
for help or attend a time management workshop.
• Plan out a schedule for working on the tasks that will lead to your goal. Set deadlines
for completing
each step. Blank calendars and weekly schedules are available at Academic Planning &
Support
Services in Moody Hall 155.
• Start early. Allow for “blow off” time, and give yourself time to clarify assignments or
get help if
necessary.
• Get into a routine. Set aside a particular block of time each day to work on your tasks;
if possible, work
during the same time each day.
CHANGE YOUR ATTITUDE
• Do you think you’re unable to meet life’s challenges?
• Do you expect perfection from yourself and others?
• Are you convinced that disaster hinges on your actions?
Lighten up! These are the kinds of irrational, self defeating attitudes and beliefs that hold
you back. Replace
these ideas with more rational, self-enhancing attitudes and beliefs. (Your APSS
counselor can help with
this, too.)
• Whenever you feel the whispering temptation to procrastinate, remember the emotional
and physical
consequences it will have. Also remember the rewards of not procrastinating.
• Don’t approach projects with an “all or nothing” attitude. Concentrate on little bits and
pieces at a time.
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• Visualize yourself as a well-organized non-procrastinator. Imagine how you might
think and behave.
Then behave and think that way, even if only for a few minutes at a time.
• Value your mistakes; don’t judge them. Find something funny, curious, or interesting
about them. Learn
from them.
• Be aware of those tricks you use to avoid or escape tasks—socializing, day-dreaming,
running away,
television—Catch yourself indulging in those tactics and get back on track.
CHANGE YOUR BEHAVIOR
• Use your friends. Make appointments to study with a friend, to get help with a task, or
just to talk. “Let’s
do lunch sometime,” is not an appointment. Set specific times and dates, such as “Lunch,
Tuesday at
noon.”
• Reward yourself for accomplishing something, and/or penalize yourself for not
accomplishing
something.
• Make something you normally do and enjoy contingent upon doing the avoided task:
“I’ll work on my
library research half an hour before going to play racquetball.”
• Use impulsiveness to your advantage. Do something (productive) when you think of it,
instead of
putting it off. Do instant, tiny things.
• Make your working environment conducive to working. Eliminate distractions (TV,
phone, radio, other
people) and have at hand all the tools you’ll need.
ACCEPT YOURSELF
• Give yourself time to change.
• Expect and forgive backsliding.
• Give yourself credit for the things you do.
• Forgive yourself a lot.
11
CAUSES OF PROCRASTINATION
Self Deception—“I can always do it later.” “I work best under pressure anyway.”
“Getting started early doesn’t
help me.” Some folks tend to rationalize their unwillingness to start unpleasant tasks.
Perfectionism—It may seem strange at first that a procrastinator is a perfectionist, but this
is often the case.
Procrastinators often put unrealistic demands on themselves to be perfect—an all or
nothing attitude. Another
perfectionist expectation is that excellence should come with little or no effort. For
example, when it becomes
obvious that not every class in college is fun and interesting, some get discouraged and
just quit attending class
or completing assignments.
Perfectionists are frequently competitive, although it may seem strange that a student
who hands in late
papers would be competitive. In a sense, these folk “choose to lose” so that they never
have to truly test
themselves and/or risk failure.
Inappropriate Commitments—This is the person who is active in all parts of campus and
community life and
stretches him/herself too thin. When all the energy goes into Greek life or athletics,
academics can sometimes
slide. This is a failure to establish priorities.
Tasks That Seem Too Big—Rather than take a major research paper step by step, the
procrastinator “awfulizes”
about how terrible it is that students are required to do so much work. Instead of using
little bits of time to get
started the procrastinator becomes paralyzed by the thought of how much effort/time the
paper will take.
Non-Productive Behaviors—Some students spend too much time “getting ready” to
study. They sharpen
pencils, put on background music, feed the cats, clean off the bed (so they will not be
distracted)—then notice
that an hour has passed and it “must be about time to take a break from studying.”
Lack of organization contributes to wasting time. Procrastinators often have no idea how
to get started,
or what procedures to follow.
Not knowing how to prioritize is another example. Some people spend 3 hours on a
project that is fun,
but may be an elective course. Then, they may spend almost no time studying for a
comprehensive final—in a
course they do not like—which is worth 1/3 of the course grade.
Finally, an unwillingness to say “NO” to friends contributes to procrastination. If you just
can’t turn
down some invitations to socialize, you will be at the mercy to anyone/everyone who
interrupts your studying
12
Procrastination Quotient
Directions: Mark an “X” in the column for your response to each of the twelve items.
Total the
“X”’s in each column, multiply by the weight at the bottom of the column, and add you
products.
Almost Almost
Always Frequently Occasionally Never
1. I find reasons for not acting immediately
on a difficult assignment. _________ _________ _________ _________
2. I know what I have to do but find
that I have done something else. _________ _________ _________ _________
3.I carry my books/work assignments
with me to various places but
do not open them. _________ _________ _________ _________
4. I work best at the “last minute”
when the pressure is really on. _________ _________ _________ _________
5. There are too many interruptions
that interfere with my most important
study goals. _________ _________ _________ _________
6. I avoid setting priorities for the day
and doing the most important tasks first. _________ _________ _________ _________
7. I avoid or delay unpleasant decisions.
_________ _________ _________ _________
8. I have been too tired, nervous, or
upset to get started on my assignment _________ _________ _________ _________
9. I like to get my room in excellent
order before starting a difficult study task. _________ _________ _________ _________
10. I wait for inspirations before
becoming involved in important study/
work tasks. _________ _________ _________ _________
11. I fear failing at my most important
study tasks. _________ _________ _________ _________
12. I demand perfection in my work/
study performance. _________ _________ _________ _________
Total Responses in each column _________ _________ _________ _________
x4 x3 x2 x1
Procrastination is _________ + ________ + _________ + ________
P.Q. below 22 - minor concern
P.Q. 23 to 32 - moderate concern
P.
What is Attitude?
“Attitude” is another word used commonly but loosely. Dictionaries offer two differing definitions. The
first
relates to the inner working of the human mind, where attitude is “state of mind, mental view or disposition
with
regard to a fact or state”. A second equally valid definition describes the positioning of an object in space,
such
as an aircraft, spaceship, or missile, where attitude is said to mean “orientation of axes in relation to some
reference plane, usually the horizontal”.
It is interesting to note that both definitions insist that attitude can only exist in relation to a datum point –
either
a fact towards which one holds a mental disposition, or a reference plane such as the horizon against which
orientation is measured. In this respect “attitude” is similar to “risk”, which is defined in terms of
objectives.
Although at first sight mental views and aircraft positioning do not seem to have much in common, in fact
the
two definitions of attitude are not incompatible or unrelated (Hillson & Murray-Webster, 2005):
Just as the pilot makes a decision on what attitude to adopt for the aircraft in three-dimensional space in
order to position it to execute the desired manoeuvre, so an individual or group can make an attitudinal
choice to lean towards a particular desired response, behaviour or outcome.
The attitude of an aircraft does not in itself result in motion, although it is a direct influence on the
direction
taken. In addition to attitude some force must act on the aircraft to generate motion – analogous to
motivation.
Aircraft attitude needs to be followed by movement if it is to result in execution of a manoeuvre, and
similarly individual or group attitudes must be translated into action if the desired outcome is to be
achieved.
Attitude in space can be described using a number of elements, usually termed “pitch”, “roll” and
“yaw”. It
is also possible to subdivide human attitudes into their component dimensions to enable them to be better
understood and managed.
As the number of degrees of freedom for aircraft movement is almost unlimited within the three
dimensions
of space, so there is a bewildering array of potential attitudes that can be chosen in any given situation.
While there may be a preferred response (initial default positioning), the final outcome remains a matter
of
choice.
As a result of this comparison, the term “attitude” as applied to internal human mental processes and
positioning
is used here to refer to chosen responses to situations. Some attitudes may be deeply rooted, representing
core
values for the individual or group, but they nevertheless represent a choice. Other attitudes may be more
malleable. Attitudes differ from personal characteristics in that they are situational responses rather than
natural
preferences or traits, and chosen attitudes may therefore differ depending on a range of different influences.
Clearly if these influences can be identified and understood, the possibility of changing them is introduced,
allowing individuals and groups to manage their attitudes proactively. Emotional intelligence and
emotional
literacy provide the basis for achieving such attitudinal management and this concept is explored belowQ.
above 32 - major concern Total Score ____________ = P.Q
General goals of teaching to the affective domain
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Book II Affective Domain
citation and bibliographic information (out of print, but available from used
booksellers)
This landmark book outlines the need for and basis of the affective domain in
education, presents a detailed classification scheme for the affective domain,
describes each level in the taxonomy, and offers methods for assessment.
A Structure for the Affective Domain in Relation to Science Education
citation and bibliographic information

This paper establishes a system for considering the affective domain while
teaching science. The author presents a detailed matrix that integrates affective
behaviors with scientific activities, events and inquiry.
Learning and Teaching in the Affective Domain (more info)
This article addresses attitudes and attitude change in students, with a discussion
of several theories of attitude change. The article also features sections on
instructional design for attitude change, with examples and links to lesson plans.
The Art of Possibility

This is the book chosen at 'Boot camp for Profs' to help faculty become aware of
the effects of the imagination and affective domain on their own choices in career
and practice. Many situations in the book are case studies that concern teaching
and learning. All offer rich insights into the awareness of how our affective
domain determines actions, outcomes, and satisfaction that emerge from
challenges to achieve.
Methods for teaching in ways that address the affective domain
A Checklist for Designing Instruction in the Affective Domain

This paper presents a simple model for accomplishing the often complex and
nebulous task of developing instruction for the affective domain.
Increasing Enrollment in Higher-Level Mathematics Classes through the Affective

Domain

The author presents 10 teaching strategies that give attention to affective variables
to increase the likelihood that high school students will continue to enroll in
higher level mathematics courses. Strategies focus on frustration, vocabulary use,
anxiety, confidence, cooperative learning, creativity, remediation, and promoting
mathematics courses.
The Relationship between Teacher Management Communication Style and

Affective Learning

This statistical study measured students' responses to a survey to determine the
amount of affective learning that took place in their class. The factors that had the
most influence on affective learning were nonverbal immediacy, a student-
centered classroom management style, and regular class attendance by the
students themselves.
De Bono's Red Hat on Krathwohl's Head: Irrational Means to Rational Ends

(Microsoft Word 71kB Feb7 07)
by Edward B. Nuhfer, Center for Teaching and Learning, Idaho State University
This article provides useful background on the relationship between the cognitive
and affective domains and encourages faculty to recognize that the affective
domain is "legitimate, powerful, and even useful." The paper describes several
examples of how one's affective teaching can be improved, which may result in
increased self-awareness, a more positive classroom environment and a better
connection with students. This article is from The National Teaching & Learning
Forum, Volume 14, Number 5, September 2005.
Students' View of Intelligence Can Help Grades
This news feature from National Public Radio discusses a new study in the
scientific journal Child Development. The study shows that if you teach students
that their intelligence can grow and increase, they do better in school. The study
was carried out by research psychologist Carol Dweck from Stanford University.
This website contains an interview with Dweck and an audio file of the news
feature that aired on NPR.
Evaluation of affective outcomes

Also see Assessment tools for the affective domain
Techniques for Evaluating Affective Objectives

The paper presents three tools for evaluating the affective domain and gives some
brief examples of how to use each type of evaluation. The assessment tools are
the attitude checklist, the attitude questionnaire, and the projective indicator.
The Affective Domain Related to Science Education and its Evaluation

This review paper discusses several approaches to measuring student outcomes in
the affective domain. Several different authors' representations of attitudes in
science are discussed, and the paper addresses methods to evaluate affective
outcomes and attitudes, pitfalls and recommendations.
Science Motivation Questionnaire
The 30-item questionnaire by Shawn M. Glynn and Thomas R. Koballa, Jr.

assesses six components of students' motivation to learn science in college or high
school courses. The questions assess students' motivation, confidence, and anxiety
along with the relevance of science and the responsibility for learning. This
website includes the questionnaire, scoring keys, and links to references.
Development of an Assessment of Student Conception of the Nature of Science
By Julie Libarkin, Arizona State University

This JGE paper describes a method to determine the effectiveness of science
courses for non-majors using a Likert-scale instrument. Results from 991 students
permitted a statistical analysis of this instrument's validity and reliability. This
evaluation prompted the removal of a number of non-correlated items and
indicated that the test consists of three scales: Attitude towards Learning Science,
Attitude towards Science, and Conception of Science. Examples from two
courses, one laboratory-based and the other grounded in collaborative learning,
are provided to demonstrate the utility of these types of scales in assessing both
prior knowledge and course outcomes.
Science and the Affective Domain
Research on the affective dimensions of science learning
Simpson, R. D., Koballa, T. R., Oliver, J. S., & Crawley, F. E. (1994)

This paper is one chapter in the Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and
Learning citation and bibliographic information .
This volume contains a comprehensive survey of the research in science
education. The content of this volume provides an assessment of the significance
of research, evaluates new developments, and examines current conflicts,
controversies and issues in science pedagogy.
Attitudinal and motivational constructs in science learning
Koballa, T. R., & Glynn, S. M. (in press). Chapter 5 in S. K. Abell & N.

Lederman (Eds.), Handbook for research in science education. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
• Americans fear decline in US performance in math and science

This press release discusses a February 2007 poll about how science and scientists
are perceived by the American public. Selected results show that more than half
of Americans (52%) don't believe the U.S. is performing well in science and math
education compared to other nations, but they know science is very important
(85%). Most (87%) rate being a scientist as one of the most prestigious careers,
yet 75% can't name a living scientist. Sixty-four percent don't think average
Americans are knowledgeable about science, and 76% think it is very important
that young people are encouraged to pursue scientific careers, and that more
opportunities for these careers are created. The poll was conducted by Research!
America.
Some Geoscience Examples
• Journal of Geoscience Education special issue on Student Thinking about the

Earth
A wide range of methodologies that can be used to study learning are represented
here, from case studies to interviews to quantitative approaches. These papers
provide a basis for continued communication between workers in different
disciplines striving to answer the question: "What works in the geoscience
classroom?"
• Qualitative Analysis of College Students' Ideas about the Earth: Interviews
and Open-Ended Questionnaires
This study addresses student conceptual understanding and conceptual changes in
college science courses. Analysis of students' interview responses indicates that
students hold a number of non-scientific ideas about the Earth. Additionally,
students apply a range of ontological categories to geologic phenomena, with
significant implications for teaching geosciences.
• How Students Think: Implications for Learning in Introductory Geoscience
Courses
This paper discusses the way that students in introductory geology courses think
and how this can influence what they learn. Approximately half the students in an
introductory course do not have the skills to understand the abstract scientific
concepts that are traditionally discussed. Many geological concepts will remain
unlearned without appropriate activities that build on a foundation of concrete
examples.
• Developing Geoscience Student-Learning Centered Courses
This article discusses the development of courses that were designed with a focus
on how students learn new content. Specific strategies include establishing clear
objectives for the course, using questionnaires, surveys and discussions
throughout the course, and assigning a variety of different assignments, such as
writing papers, group posters and data analysis projects.
• Fieldwork is Good? The Student Experience of Field Courses (more info)
This site describes the results of a research project that was conducted across
geography, earth science and environmental science disciplines to examine the
effect of fieldwork on students' affective domain. The project aimed to monitor
changes in student's attitudes to learning that occurred as a result of attending
residential field courses. In addition, the changes in how students value the
fieldwork experience were examined and differences in attitudes and values
between different groups of students (for example age and gender) were explored.
• Sense of Place and Place-Based Introductory Geoscience Teaching for
American Indian and Alaska Native Undergraduates (by Steve Semken)
A student's "sense of place" incorporates their affective as well as cognitive
responses to physical places. Students with strong cultural bonds to homelands,
many of whom are underrepresented minorities (such as American Indian
students) may be dissuaded by geoscience teaching that affronts their senses of
place. Place-based geoscience teaching could potentially enhance science literacy
among American Indian, Alaska Native, and other underrepresented minority
students, and bring more of them into the geoscience profession. Five
characteristics of place-based geoscience teaching are identified here and
illustrated with suggestions for implementation in diverse educational settings.
1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

1.1 Consumer Behavior
See also 42, 62, 63, 81, 100, 107, 108, 109, 113, 114, 123, 136,
137, 139, 150, 155, 160, 181, 182, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 207,
209, 211, 229
Food for Thought. Roberta Bernstein, American Demographics,
22 (May 2000), pp. 39–40, 42. [Hispanic and Asian consumers,
Market potentials, Disposable income, Expenditures, Cultural and
language issues, Consumer panels, Shopping behavior, Packagedgoods
industry.] 1
Congestion Ahead. John Fetto, American Demographics, 22 (June
2000), pp. 49–50. [Extreme commuting, Regions, Time spent in
traffic, In-auto activities, Billboards, Radio promotions, Creative,
Examples.] 2
Make Room for Daddy. Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,
22 (June 2000), pp. 34–36. [Trends, Fathers, Market potentials,
Magazine readership, Household spending decisions, Time spent
with children, E-marketing, Statistical data.] 3
The Joy of Empty Nesting. Joan Raymond, American Demographics,
22 (May 2000), pp. 48–52, 54. [Trends, Baby boomers,
Discretionary income, Lifestyles, Affluence, Market strategy,
Quality of life, Techno-savvy, Health concerns, Examples.] 4
Life’s a Beach 101. Nancy Shepherdson, American Demographics,
22 (May 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Echo boomers, Ecommerce,
Customization, Market strategy, Web sites, Surveys,
Recent college grads, Brand loyalty, Jobs, Starting salaries, Investing,
Examples.] 5
The Facilitating Influence of Consumer Knowledge on the
Effectiveness of Daily Value Reference Information. Fuan Li,
Paul W. Miniard, and Michael J. Barone, Journal of the Academy
of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 425–36. [Literature
review, Hypothesis, Experiment, Measures, Trial intention, Attitude,
Healthiness (overall, fat, fiber, sodium), Statistical analysis.]
6
Effects of Absurdity in Advertising: The Moderating Role of
Product Category Attitude and the Mediating Role of Cognitive
Responses. Leopoldo Arias-Bolzmann, Goutam Chakraborty,
and John C. Mowen, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.
35–49. [Literature review; Hypotheses; Experiment; Measures; Ad,
brand, and product attitudes; Comparisons; Nonabsurd ads; Recall;
Statistical analysis; Implications.] 7
An Empirical Test of an Updated Relevance–Accessibility
Model of Advertising Effectiveness. William E. Baker and
Richard J. Lutz, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.
1–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Brand names,
MYRON LEONARD, Editor
Western Carolina University
This section is based on a selection of article abstracts from a comprehensive
business literature database. Marketing-related abstracts from
more than 125 journals (both academic and trade) are reviewed by JM
staff. Descriptors for each entry are assigned by JM staff. Each issue of
this section represents three months of entries into the database.
Each entry has an identifying number. Cross-references appear immediately
under each subject heading.
The following article abstracts are available online from the ABI/INFORM
database, which is published and copyrighted by Bell & Howell Information
and Learning. For additional information about access to the database or
about obtaining photocopies of the articles abstracted here, please call
(800) 521-0600 or write to B&H, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106.
SUBJECT HEADINGS
1.2 Legal, Political, and Economic Issues
1.3 Ethics and Social Responsibility
2. MARKETING FUNCTIONS
2.1 Management, Planning, and Strategy
2.2 Retailing
2.3 Channels of Distribution
2.4 Electronic Marketing
2.5 Physical Distribution
2.6 Pricing
2.7 Product
2.8 Sales Promotion
2.9 Advertising
2.10 Personal Selling
2.11 Sales Management
3. SPECIAL MARKETING APPLICATIONS
3.1 Industrial
3.2 Nonprofit, Political, and Social Causes
3.3 International and Comparative
3.4 Services
4. MARKETING RESEARCH
4.1 Theory and Philosophy of Science
4.2 Research Methodology
4.3 Information Technology
5. OTHER TOPICS
5.1 Educational and Professional Issues
5.2 General Marketing
Marketing Literature
Review
Choice processes (optimizing, satisficing, indifference), Types of
information (evidence of performance superiority, credibility, and
liking), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 8
Customer Satisfaction Cues to Support Market Segmentation
and Explain Switching Behavior. Antreas D. Athanassopoulos,
Journal of Business Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 191–207. [Literature
review, Model presentation, Hypotheses, Survey of banks’
business and individual customers, Measures, Corporate, Innovativeness,
Physical and staff service, Pricing, Convenience, Statistical
analysis, Implications.] 9
Representation of Numerical and Verbal Product Information
in Consumer Memory. Terry L. Childers and Madhubalan
Viswanathan, Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000),
pp. 109–20. [Literature review, Conceptual framework based on
surface versus meaning level processing of information, Hypotheses,
Two experiments, Recognition paradigm, Assessment.] 10
Consumers’ Use of Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects of
Accessibility and Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of an
Influence Agent. Margaret C. Campbell and Amna Kirmani, Journal
of Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 69–83. [Literature
review; Model presentation; Four experiments; When an ulterior
persuasion motive is highly accessible, both cognitively busy targets
and unbusy observers use persuasion knowledge to evaluate a
salesperson; Statistical analysis.] 11
Indexicality and the Verification Function of Irreplaceable Possessions:
A Semiotic Analysis. Kent Grayson and David Shulman,
Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 17–30. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Two studies, Late-adolescent and latemiddle-
age consumers view irreplaceable possessions as being distinct
because of indexicality, Link between verification and
irreplaceable possessions, Statistical analysis.] 12
Determinants of Country-of-Origin Evaluations. Zeynep
Gurhan-Canli and Durairaj Maheswaran, Journal of Consumer
Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 96–108. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Two experiments, Variables, Evaluations, Beliefs,
Information relevance, Total thoughts, Country-of-origin and
attribute-related thoughts, Statistical analysis.] 13
Standing on the Shoulders of Ancients: Consumer Research,
Persuasion, and Figurative Language. William J. McGuire,
review, Early communication (tropes, rhetorical figures),
Impacts, Creative hypothesis-generating phase of research, Assessment.]
14
Children, Advertising, and Product Experiences: A Multimethod
Inquiry. Elizabeth S. Moore and Richard J. Lutz, Journal
review; Model presentation; Hypotheses; Experiment and depth
interviews; Both product trial and advertising have influences, but
interplay of these influences differs between older and younger
children; Statistical analysis.] 15
Consumer Learning and Brand Equity. Stijn M.J. van Osselaer
and Joseph W. Alba, Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June
2000), pp. 1–16. [Literature review, Series of experiments, Strong
blocking effects were found despite a limited number of brand preexposures
and extensive exposure to predictive attribute information.]
16
The Role of Explanations and Need for Uniqueness in Consumer
Decision Making: Unconventional Choices Based on
Reasons. Itamar Simonson and Stephen M. Nowlis, Journal of
Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 49–68. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Series of studies, Explaining decisions shifts the focus
from the choice of options to the choice of reasons. Buyers who
explain their decisions and have high need for uniqueness tend to
Marketing Literature Review / 95
select unconventional reasons and are more likely to make unconventional
choices.] 17
Qualitative Steps Toward an Expanded Model of Anxiety in
Gift-Giving. David B. Wooten, Journal of Consumer Research, 27
(June 2000), pp. 84–95. [Literature review, Model development,
Survey of students and nonstudent adults, Givers become anxious
when they are highly motivated to elicit desired reactions from
their recipients but are pessimistic about their prospects of success.]
18
Understanding the Customer Base of Service Providers: An
Examination of the Differences Between Switchers and Stayers.
Jaishankar Ganesh, Mark J. Arnold, and Kristy E. Reynolds,
Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 65–87. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Two studies, Consumers’ use of banking services,
Impacts, Overall satisfaction, Satisfaction with service
dimensions, Involvement, Customer loyalty, Statistical analysis,
Implications.] 19
Self-Service Technologies: Understanding Customer Satisfaction
with Technology-Based Service Encounters. Matthew L.
Meuter, Amy L. Ostrom, Robert I. Roundtree, and Mary Jo Bitner,
review, Critical incident study (satisfying and dissatisfying),
Sources, Consumer reactions, Comparisons, Interpersonal
encounter satisfaction, Assessment, Managerial implications.] 20
Consumer Response to Negative Publicity: The Moderating
Role of Commitment. Rohini Ahluwalia, Robert E. Burnkrant,
and H. Rao Unnava, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May
2000), pp. 203–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Three experiments,
Consumers who are committed to a brand counterargue
negative information and can resist information that is likely to
induce switching behavior.] 21
A Hierarchical Bayes Model for Assortment Choice. Eric T.
Bradlow and Vithala R. Rao, Journal of Marketing Research, 37
(May 2000), pp. 259–68. [Literature review, Experiment, Set of
eight popular magazines, Effects, Price, Attributes, Features,
Selection, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 22
Impact of Product-Harm Crises on Brand Equity: The Moderating
Role of Consumer Expectations. Niraj Dawar and Madan
M. Pillutla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.
215–26. [Literature review, Expectations–evidence framework,
Hypotheses, Field survey and two laboratory experiments,
Impacts, Consumers’ interpretation of the evidence from firm
response, Managerial implications.] 23
The Evolution of Brand Preferences and Choice Behaviors of
Consumers to a Market. Carrie M. Heilman, Douglas Bowman,
and Gordon P. Wright, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May
2000), pp. 139–55. [Literature review, Logit-mixture model with
time-varying parameters, Consumer panel data, Stages (information
collection, extended to lesser-known brands, information consolidation),
Impacts, Product experience and learning, Statistical
Choosing What I Want Versus Rejecting What I Do Not Want:
An Application of Decision Framing to Product Option Choice
Decisions. C. Whan Park, Sung Youl Jun, and Deborah J. Mac-
Innis, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.
187–202. [Literature review, Model presentation, Hypotheses,
Three studies, Option framing, Psychological reactions, Moderators
(option prices, product category prices, regret anticipation,
product category commitment), Managerial effects.] 25
Assessing a Place to Live: A Quality of Life Perspective. Glen
Riecken, Don Shemwell, and Ugur Yavas, Journal of Nonprofit and
Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 17–29. [Survey of
community leaders, Factors, Weather, Crime, Economy, Education,
Health, Housing, Leisure, Transportation, Arts, Importance/performance
analysis, Policy implications.] 26
Assessing the Effects of Quality, Value, and Customer Satisfaction
on Consumer Behavioral Intentions in Service Environments.
J. Joseph Cronin Jr., Michael K. Brady, and G. Tomas M.
Hult, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 193–218. [Literature
review, Model testing, Hypotheses, Two studies, Multiple
service providers, Direct and indirect effects, Relationships, Statistical
analysis.] 27
1.2 Legal, Political and Economic Issues
See also 51, 102, 151, 176, 188, 198, 199, 203, 227
Ethical and Online Privacy Issues in Electronic Commerce.
Eileen P. Kelly and Hugh C. Rowland, Business Horizons, 43
(May/June 2000), pp. 3–12. [Discussion, Information gathering,
Legal aspects, Freedom of choice, Voluntary and informed consent,
Proposed legislation, Industry reaction, Managerial recommendations.]
28
The Measurement of Intellectual Property Rights Protection.
Robert L. Ostergard Jr., Journal of International Business Studies,
31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp. 349–60. [Discussion, Empirical
research, Comparisons, Countries, Law and enforcement measures,
Protection score analysis (copyright, patent, trademark),
Assessment.] 29
Covenants Not to Compete. Erica B. Garay, Marketing Management,
9 (Summer 2000), pp. 61–63. [Acquisitions and mergers,
Legislation, Court decisions, Enforcing covenants arising in connection
with the sale of a business, Limits to enforcement, Assessment.]
30
U.S. Trust Busters Eye Net Markets. Dan Gottlieb, Purchasing,
128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S67, S69, S72. [Discussion, Net trade
exchanges, Legal aspects, Market power, Major industry players,
Acquisitions and mergers, Anticompetitive effects, Assessment.]
31
See also 28, 151, 210, 228
Representing the Perceived Ethical Work Climate Among
Marketing Employees. Barry J. Babin, James S. Boles, and Donald
P. Robin, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28
(Summer 2000), pp. 345–58. [Literature review, Survey of employees,
Models, Responsibility/trust, Peer behavior, Ethical norms,
Selling practices, Role ambiguity, Role conflict, Job satisfaction,
Organizational commitment, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 32
Crime and Small Business: An Exploratory Study of Cost and
Prevention Issues in U.S. Firms. Donald F. Kuratko, Jeffrey S.
Hornsby, Douglas W. Naffziger, and Richard M. Hodgetts, Journal
of Small Business Management, 38 (July 2000), pp. 1–13. [Literature
review, Survey, Level of concern, Crime prevention actions,
Training provided, Perceptions of crime against business, Annual
cost of crime, Impact of industry type, Statistical anlaysis.] 33
Making Business Sense of Environmental Compliance. Jasbinder
Singh, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.
91–100. [Discussion, Partnerships, Environmental and plant managers,
Savings, Strategies, Review plant operations, Find best times
to install pollution-control equipment and upgrade production
technology, Allocate environmental costs, Integrate business and
environmental decisions, Examples.] 34
Corporate Responsibility Audits: Doing Well by Doing Good.
Sandra Waddock and Neil Smith, Sloan Management Review, 41
(Winter 2000), pp. 75–83. [Vision versus practice, CEO commitment,
Teams, Corporate culture, Mission statement, Stakeholder
elements, Existing policies and practices, Functional areas (human
resources, environmental practices, quality systems, community
relations), Examples.] 35
96 / Journal of Marketing, April 2001
See also 9, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 77, 82,
83, 85, 86, 90, 96, 97, 98, 106, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121,
122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 134, 135, 145, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154,
161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174,
175, 179, 183, 184, 186, 193, 202, 207, 210, 212, 214, 219, 221,
228
Avoiding the Complexity Trap. Alan Brache and Peter M. Tobia,
Across the Board, 37 (June 2000), pp. 42–46. [Sustainable niches,
Problems, Availability of outsourcing, Broadening capability and
plunging price of technology, Workforce mobility, E-commerce,
Impacts, Focus, Critical resources, Information on costs, Examples.]
36
Laying Off Risk. Stan Davis and Christopher Meyer. Across the
Board, 37 (April 2000), pp. 33–37. [Insuring against risk, Riskrelated
rewards, Organizing around risk, Hedging, Core competencies,
Value creation, Examples.] 37
The Negotiation Industry. Lee Edson, Across the Board, 37
(April 2000), pp. 14–20. [Discussion, Use in hiring process, International,
Special training, Educational initiatives, Win–win model,
Examples.] 38
The Secrets of Performance Appraisal. Dick Grote, Across the
Board, 37 (May 2000), pp. 14–20. [Corporate culture, Organizational
expectations, Identification of specific core competencies,
Evaluation, Mastery descriptions, Role of objectivity, Examples.]
39
Condition Critical. Phillip L. Polakoff and David G. Anderson,
Across the Board, 37 (May 2000), pp. 42–47. [Health and safety
programs, Control, Lost time costs, Risk shifting strategies, Helping
employees manage their own care, Assessment, Guidelines.]
40
The Effects of Formal Strategic Marketing Planning on the
Industrial Firm’s Configuration, Structure, Exchange Patterns,
and Performance. Andy Claycomb, Richard Germain, and
Cornelia Droge, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May
2000), pp. 219–34. [Literature review; Survey (Council of Logistics
Managment); Impacts; Use of integrative committees and
mechanisms, specialization, decentralized decision making, and
formal performance measurement (both internal and benchmarking).]
41
Implementing a Customer Relationship Strategy: The Asymmetric
Impact of Poor Versus Excellent Execution. Mark R.
Colgate and Peter J. Danaher, Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 375–87. [Literature review;
Survey of bank customers; Satisfaction, performance, usage of
bank; Personal banker; Good and bad strategies; Switching activity;
Behavioral intentions; Statistical analysis; New Zealand.] 42
Superordinate Identity in Cross-Functional Product Development
Teams: Its Antecedents and Effect on New Product Performance.
Rajesh Sethi, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
28 (Summer 2000), pp. 330–44. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Survey of key informants in cross-functional teams,
Impacts, Special team structure, Traditional team factor, Interaction
effects, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 43
Business Planning Practices in Small Size Companies: Survey
Results. Surendra S. Singhvi, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19
(Summer 2000), pp. 3–4, 6, 8. [Primary objectives for preparing a
plan, Responsibility, Planning horizon, Plan update, Achievement,
Annual budget, Board approval, Financial success, Recommendations.]
44
Journal of Business Research, 47 (January 2000), pp. 3–89. [Eight
articles on dynamics of strategy, Executive pay and UK privatization,
Nonprofit organization responses to anticipated changes in
government support for HIV/AIDS services, Evolving complex
organizational structures in new and unpredictable environments,
Innovation teams, Institutional foundations of success and failure,
Impact of technology policy integration on strategy, Business
transformation, Impact of environmentally linked strategies on
competitive advantage, Many countries.] 45
Relationship of Firm Size, Initial Diversification, and Internationalization
with Strategic Change. Parshotam Dass, Journal of
Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 135–46. [Theoretical discussion,
Hypotheses, Data collection (COMPUSTAT II database),
Variables, Initial and changes in product diversity, Industry performance,
Risk, Slack, Firm size, International diversification, Interactions,
Statistical analysis.] 46
Organizational Values: The Inside View of Service Productivity.
Dawn Dobni, J.R. Brent Ritchie, and Wilf Zerbe, Journal of
Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 91–107. [Literature
review, Survey of service firms, Impacts, Employee mutualism,
Market leadership, Customer intimacy, Operational efficiency,
Organizational preservation, Change aversion, Social responsibility,
Value systems (entrepreneurial, performance-pressured, integrated,
temperate), Statistical analysis, Canada.] 47
Firm Characteristics Influencing Export Propensity: An
Empirical Investigation by Industry Type. Rajshekhar G.
Javalgi, D. Steven White, and Oscar Lee, Journal of Business
Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 217–28. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Survey, Comparisons, Export versus nonexport firms,
Variables, Number of employees, Total sales, Years in business,
International trade activity, Primary industrial classification, Firm
ownership, Statistical analysis.] 48
Benchmarking Cultural Transition. Roger Connors and Tom
Smith, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
10–12. [Corporate culture, The best benchmarks are keyed to
important before-and-after results the organization must achieve
and to the beliefs and actions that produce those results,
Assessment.] 49
Investigation of Factors Contributing to the Success of Cross-
Functional Teams. Edward F. McDonough III, Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 17 (May 2000), pp. 221–35. [Literature
review, Model presentation, Survey of new product development
professionals, Outcome and process reasons for adopting crossfunctional
teams, Interactions, Stage setters, Enablers, Team
behaviors, Performance, Assessment.] 50
Environmental and Ownership Characteristics of Small Businesses
and Their Impact on Development. William B. Gartner
and Subodh Bhat, Journal of Small Business Management, 38 (July
2000), pp. 14–26. [Literature review, Survey, Growth expectations,
Effects, Crime, Neighborhood appearance, Ethnicity of owner,
Legal structure of firm, Firm type and size, Statistical analysis,
Recommendations.] 51
Strategic Planning in the Military: The U.S. Naval Security
Group Changes Its Strategy, 1992–1998. William Y. Frentzell II,
John M. Bryson, and Barbara C. Crosby, Long Range Planning
(UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 402–29. [Discussion, Creating vision,
Middle and top-level management involvement, Stakeholder and
SWOT analyses, Scenario planning, Cognitive and oval mapping,
Assessment.] 52
The Future.org. Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Grant
Miles, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 300–21.
[Collaboration-based organizational model for innovation, Essential
conditions (time, trust, territory), Design principles (selfmanagement,
behavioral protocols, shared strategic intent, equitable
sharing of returns), Barriers (institutional, philosophical,
organizational), Examples.] 53
Business Domain Definition Practice: Does It Affect Organisational
Performance? Jatinder S. Sidhu, Edwin J. Nijssen, and
Harry R. Commandeur, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June
2000), pp. 376–401. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Survey of
managers, Focus, Stable versus turbulent environments, Impacts,
Customer need, Technological competence, Assessment, Implications,
The Netherlands.] 54
Marketing Decision Support Systems for Strategy Building.
Sanjay K. Rao, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp.
15–18. [Pharmaceutical products, Customer and market environments,
System outputs (interaction between pricing and other marketing
mix strategies), Cash flows, Outcomes, Assessment.] 55
What’s in a Name? New CPO Title Reflects Buying’s Strategic
Role. William Atkinson, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 45,
49–51. [Chief procurement officer, Organizational structure, Functions,
Responsibilities, Top management support, Implications for
suppliers, Examples.] 56
Supporting a For-Profit Cause. Guy Kawasaki, Sales and Marketing
Management, (May 2000), pp. S16–S19. [Corporate culture,
Customer focused, Morale, Impacts, Creating a good product and
service, Sense of ownership, Training, Empowerment, Support,
Examples.] 57
A Position of Power. Chad Kaydo, Sales and Marketing Management,
(June 2000), pp. 104–106, 108, 110, 112, 114. [Corporate
image, Product positioning, Product differentiation, Factors, Identify
the difference, Make it relevant, Keep it simple, Watch the
competition, Examples.] 58
Technology Is Not Enough: Improving Performance by Building
Organizational Memory. Rob Cross and Lloyd Baird, Sloan
Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 69–78. [Organizational
learning, Explicit and tacit knowledge, Databases, Social bonding,
Work processes and support systems, Targeting, Structuring,
Embedding, Examples.] 59
Outsourcing Innovation: The New Engine of Growth. James
Brian Quinn, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.
13–28. [Discussion, Basic and early-stage research, Business
processes, New-product introductions, Impacts, Resource limits,
Specialist talents, Multiple risks, Attracting talent, Speed, Examples.]
60
Leading Laterally in Company Outsourcing. Michael Useem
and Joseph Harder, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Winter 2000),
pp. 25–38. [Personal interviews, Senior managers, Leadership
capabilities (strategic thinking, deal making, partnership governing,
managing change), Assessment.] 61
2.2 Retailing
See also 73, 87, 96, 99, 100, 105, 109, 110, 132, 133, 215, 224
A Longitudinal Analysis of Satisfaction and Profitability. Kenneth
L. Bernhardt, Naveen Donthu, and Pamela A. Kennett, Journal
of Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 161–71. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Impacts, Customer
and employee satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,
Fast-food restaurant industry.] 62
Towards Understanding Consumer Response to Stock-Outs.
Katia Campo, Els Gijsbrechts, and Patricia Nisol, Journal of
Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 219–42. [Literature review;
Model estimation; Store intercept; Characteristics (product, consumer,
situation); Costs; Impacts; Item, package size, and store
switching; Purchase deferment and cancellation; Statistical analysis;
Belgium.] 63
Attention, Retailers! How Convenient Is Your Convenience
Strategy? Kathleen Seiders, Leonard L. Berry, and Larry G. Gresham,
Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 79–89.
[Trends; Access, possession, and transaction convenience; Locating
the right product; Integrated approach; Examples.] 64
Customer Relationship Management. Susan Reda, Stores, 82
(April 2000), pp. 33–36. [Target markets, Databases, Software
packages, Consultants, Role of marketing department, Examples.]
65
Real Estate, Customer Research Become Key Tools in Service
Merchandise Revival. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
118, 120, 122. [Discussion, Consultants, Customer profiles, Product
categories, Point-of-sale information, Software packages, Web
site, Internet alliances, Trade area analysis, Case study.] 66
Rethinking the Rules. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
34–35, 38. [Retailing industry, Impacts, Online revolution, Confronting
new realities, More fluid environment, Logistics expertise,
Acquisition strategy, Bricks-and-mortar advantages, Examples.]
67
See also 56, 84, 91, 92, 94, 95, 104, 147, 163, 165, 185, 190
Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (July 2000), pp. 285–386.
[Nine articles on business marketing networks, Implementing programmatic
initiatives in manufacturer–retailer networks, Supplier
relations, Interconnectedness, Strategic alliances, Partner as customer,
Relationship strategy, Quality, Customer retention, Purchasing
behavior, Satisfaction in industrial markets.] 68
On Interfirm Power, Channel Climate, and Solidarity in Industrial
Distributor–Supplier Dyads. Keysuk Kim, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 388–405.
[Literature review, Model estimation, Hypotheses, Survey, Measures,
Supplier and distributor power, Coercive and noncoercive
influence strategy, Trust, Relationship continuity, Solidarity, Statistical
analysis.] 69
A Brand’s Advertising and Promotion Allocation Strategy: The
Role of the Manufacturer’s Relationship with Distributors as
Moderated by Relative Market Share. Kenneth Anselmi, Journal
of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 113–22. [Literature
review; Hypotheses; Survey of manufacturers; As exchange relationships
become more relational, manufacturers increase advertising
allocations; More discrete relationships, increase allocation to
promotion; Market share moderates the influence of exchange relationship
type.] 70
Relationship Marketing Activities, Commitment, and Membership
Behaviors in Professional Associations. Thomas W.
Gruen, John O. Summers, and Frank Acito, Journal of Marketing,
64 (July 2000), pp. 34–49. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Hypotheses, Survey of life insurance agents, Measures, Commitment
(affective, continuance, normative), Impacts, Membership
retention, Exchange-based participation, Cooperatively based
coproduction, Statistical analysis.] 71
Sales Through Sequential Distribution Channels: An Application
to Movies and Videos. Donald R. Lehmann and Charles B.
Weinberg, Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 18–33. [Literature
review, Model structure and analysis, Data from 35 movies,
Exponential sales curves, Optimal release times, Assessment.] 72
Control Mechanisms and the Relationship Life Cycle: Implications
for Safeguarding Specific Investments and Developing
Commitment. Sandy D. Jap and Shankar Ganesan, Journal of
Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 227–45. [Literature
review, Conceptual framework, Hypotheses, Survey of retailers,
Measures, Transaction-specific investments, Relational norms,
Explicit contracts, Supplier’s commitment, Performance, Conflict
level, Relationship satisfaction and phase, Interdependence magnitude
and asymmetry, Statistical analysis.] 73
Organizing Distribution Channels for Information Goods on
the Internet. Rajiv Dewan, Marshall Freimer, and Abraham Seidmann,
Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 483–95. [Electronic
commerce, Electronic publishing, Digital and pricing content,
Internet service providers, Industrial organization, Spatial
competition, Industry structure, Assessment, Managerial implications.]
74
Price Protection in the Personal Computer Industry. Hau L.
Lee, V. Padmanabhan, Terry A. Taylor, and Seungjin Whang, Management
Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 467–82. [Literature review,
Obsolescence-prone market, Single- and two-buying-opportunity
models, Channel coordination, Supply chain management, Incentives,
Numerical example.] 75
Pursuing Risk-Sharing, Gain-Sharing Arrangements. James
B.L. Thomson and James C. Anderson, Marketing Management, 9
(Summer 2000), pp. 40–47. [Customer–supplier relations, Market
strategy, Implementation (assess customer measurement systems,
determine products and services, build historical database, measurement
responsibility, sharing risks and gains, outline specific
actions and initiate the agreement), Case study, Hospital supply
industry.] 76
Distributors: How Good Are They? James P. Morgan, Purchasing,
128 (May 4, 2000), pp. 50–52, 54, 58. [Survey of purchasing
professionals, Percentage of companies’ purchases, Product categories,
Needs priorities, Performance ratings, Use of e-business
tools, Problems (prices, delivery, damage, cost control, e-business,
inventory, personnel, information), Slow implementation, Examples.]
77
See also 3, 5, 28, 31, 67, 74, 77, 128, 132, 133, 151, 179, 184, 213
Beating the Banner Ad. Christine Blank, American Demographics,
22 (June 2000), pp. 42–44. [E-mail campaigns, Target markets,
Entertainment, Multisensory, Interactive, Click-and-play video
messages, Rich media, Costs, Examples.] 78
Mouse-Trapping the Student Market. Rebecca Gardyn, American
Demographics, 22 (May 2000), pp. 30, 32–34. [In-school marketing,
Ad-supported mousepads, Effectiveness, Comparisons,
Internet banner ads, Online sweepstakes, Newspaper ads, Case
study.] 79
Cracking the Niche. Christina Le Beau, American Demographics,
22 (June 2000), pp. 38–40. [Online marketing, Market segments,
Web-based groups with focused interests, Becoming part of a community,
Examples.] 80
Internet: A Vehicle for On-line Shopping.Venkatakrishna V. Bellur,
Finnish Journal of Business and Economics, 49 (No. 2, 2000),
pp. 191–207. [Literature review, Survey of households, Demographic
and socioeconomic profile, Internet access and usage rates,
Impacts, Occupation, Income, Discriminant analysis.] 81
Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp. 84–114.
[Three articles on e-business, Syndication, Roles, Structure, Business-
to-business marketplaces, E-hubs, Integrating virtual and
physical operations, Examples.] 82
How to Acquire Customers on the Web. Donna L. Hoffman and
Thomas P. Novak, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000),
pp. 179–80, 183–86, 188. [Discussion, Banner ads, Affiliate marketing,
Integrated strategy (mass media, online advertising, strategic
partnerships, word of mouth, free links, PR), Examples.] 83
The All-in-One Market. Paul Nunes, Diane Wilson, and Ajit
Kambil, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.
19–20. [Trends, Evolution, Online transactions, Mechanisms, Price
Going Up! Vertical Marketing on the Web. Sunny Baker and
Kim Baker, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
30–33. [Discussion, Mission, Customer needs, Market segments,
Building awareness, E-commerce strategy, Assessment.] 85
The Eight Deadly Assumptions of E-Business. Alan Brache and
Jim Webb, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
13–17. [Discussion, Technology is the answer, Get on the e-business
bandwagon, Expand the customer base, Enables global expansion,
Reengineering will help to better serve e-business needs, Web
sites will ensure more e-business, Delegate development and
implementation to the IT department or to a consultant, Going digital
quickly, Assessment.] 86
Frictionless Commerce? A Comparison of Internet and Conventional
Retailers. Erik Brynjolfsson and Michael D. Smith,
Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 563–85. [Literature
review, Data collection, Competition, Price changes, Menu costs,
Price dispersion, Asymmetrically informed consumers and search
costs, Product and retailer heterogeneity, Assessment.] 87
Debunking the Myths of Web Site Promotion. Joyce Flory, Marketing
Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 31–35. [Discussion,
Site registration, Registration services, Search engines, Specific
types of information, Impacts, Promotion efforts, Awards,
Press releases, Contests and giveaways, Success, Guidelines.] 88
Branding on the Internet. Larry Chiagouris and Brant Wansley,
Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 34–38. [Discussion,
Relationship-building continuum, Impacts, E-branding tactics,
Measurement issues, Examples.] 89
Ride or Drive? Ralph A. Oliva, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer
2000), pp. 58–60. [Web-based hubs, Driving (starting your
own digital marketplace for multiple buyers and sellers), Riding
(signing on to a hub run by another firm), Managing cognitive
spaces, Spin ups, Hub wars, Ride versus drive, Assessment.] 90
Buyers Are Hot on Internet, Wary About E-Procurement. Purchasing,
128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S6–S7, S10, S13. [Survey, Attitudes,
Communications (requests for information and quotes from
suppliers, shipments tracking and expediting, ordering), Costs,
Ease of use, Security, Reliability, Current or projected use, Examples.]
91
E-Auction Model Morphs to Meet Buyers’ Needs. Anne Millen
Porter, Purchasing, 128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S31–S32, S34, S36,
S39, S40, S44, S46. [Discussion, Reverse e-auctions, Bidding
involving many suppliers, Impacts, Profit margins, Consultants,
Software packages, Requirements, Transactions, Markets, Outsourcing,
Examples.] 92
Cashing In. Ginger Conlon, Sales and Marketing Management,
(June 2000), pp. 94–96, 102. [Business growth, Dot-com businesses,
Market potentials, Factors, Understand the audience, Act
quickly, Risk, Stability, Examples.] 93
Why Dealers Must Buy In to the Web. Brent Keltner, Sales and
Marketing Management, (April 2000), pp. 29–30. [Discussion,
Benefits, Strategies, Focus on underperforming products, Integrate
sales and marketing, Offer incentives, Provide technical support,
Examples.] 94
Clicks and Misses. Melinda Ligos, Sales and Marketing Management,
(June 2000), pp. 68–70, 72, 74, 76. [E-business, Problems,
Alienating channel partners, Not focusing on core competencies,
Not integrating customer service systems, Trying to serve mass
market instead of existing customers, Not involving salespeople,
Not knowing when to outsource, Examples.] 95
Finding Sustainable Profitability in Electronic Commerce.
John M. de Figueiredo, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer
2000), pp. 41–52. [E-commerce product continuum, Market strategy
(commodity products, quasi commodity, look and feel goods,
look and feel with variable quality), Incumbents versus new
entrants, Sustaining competitive advantage, Examples.] 96
Fast Venturing: The Quick Way to Start Web Businesses. Ajit
Kambil, Erik D. Eselius, and Karen A. Monteiro, Sloan Management
Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp. 55–67. [Model presentation;
Roles (innovators, equity and operational partners); Stages (illumination,
investigation, implementation); Why, when, and how companies
should fast venture; Venture networks; Examples.] 97
Building Stronger Brands Through Online Communities. Gil
McWilliam, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.
43–54. [Discussion, Traditional user groups, Forum for exchange
of common interests, Attracting new members, Links to other sites,
Brand owner’s control over content, Skills needed to manage
online communities, Examples.] 98
Domain Names Emerge as Key Tools for On-line Retail Marketing.
Jennifer Karas, Stores, 82 (May 2000), pp. 94, 96, 98. [Discussion,
Name by which a company is known on the Internet,
Advantages, Professional and credible Web presence, Name competition,
Examples.] 99
In-Store Interactive Systems Take on Major Role in Drawing
Technology-Savvy Customers. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (May
2000), pp. 44, 46, 48. [Study, Integration of online and in-store
activities (digital signage, electronic messaging, kiosks), Consumer
expectations, Shopping behavior, Examples.] 100
See also 67, 111, 147, 194, 195
Early Supplier Involvement in Customer New Product Development:
A Contingency Model of Component Supplier Intentions.
Douglas W. LaBahn and Robert Krapfel, Journal of Business
Hypotheses, Survey, Customer power advantage, Adherence to
agreements, Customer promise, Supplier intentions, Interdependence,
Statistical analysis, Implications.] 101
An Industry Still in Need of Integration. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,
128 (May 18, 2000), pp. 147, 149–50. [Business growth,
Intermodal transport, Acquisitions and mergers, Government regulation,
Examples.] 102
Service Providers Under Pressure to Control Rates. Brian Milligan,
Purchasing, 128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 113, 116–17, 119,
121. [Transportation, Third-party logistics, Industry growth, Purchasing
managers, Time constraints, Bundled services, Costs,
Internet investments, Software packages, Examples.] 103
Supply Chain Software Moves to the Web. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,
128 (April 6, 2000), pp. 67–68. [Transportation, Impacts,
Business processes, Forecasting shipments, Demand forecasts,
Meeting anticipated transportation requirements, Needed improvements,
Examples.] 104
E-Replenishment System Counters Continuing Problem of
Supermarket Out-of-Stocks. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (April
2000), pp. 70, 72. [Supply chain initiatives, POS system investments,
Scanning data, Software packages, Collaborative planning,
Initialization, Execution, Monitoring, Examples.] 105
2.6 Pricing
See also 55, 75, 84, 87, 103, 113
Industrial Export Pricing Practices in the United Kingdom.
Nikolaos Tzokas, Susan Hart, Paraskevas Argouslidis, and Michael
Saren, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.
191–204. [Literature review, Survey of export marketing directors
from three industrial sectors, High and low competence firms, Pricing
orientations, Objectives, Policies, Methods used, Statistical
analysis, Managerial implications, UK.] 106
Advertised Reference Price Effects on Consumer Price Estimates,
Value Perception, and Search Intention. Bruce L. Alford
and Brian T. Engelland, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May
2000), pp. 93–100. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment,
Plausible and implausible price exposure conditions, Statistical
analysis, Practical implications.] 107
An Investigation of Reference Price Segments. Tridib Mazumdar
and Purushottam Papatla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May
2000), pp. 246–58. [Literature review, Model development, Data
collection (ERIM scanner panel of ACNielsen), Use of internal and
external reference prices, Brand preferences and responses to
marketing-mix variables, Statistical analysis, Managerial
implications.] 108
Insights into Cross- and Within-Store Price Search: Retailer
Estimates vs. Consumer Self-Reports. Joel E. Urbany, Peter R.
Dickson, and Alan G. Sawyer, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer
2000), pp. 243–58. [Literature review, Surveys, Attitudes, Consumer
patronage behavior, Price comparison frequency, Search for
and responsiveness to price specials, Belief discrepancies, Assessment,
Theoretical and managerial implications.] 109
Burden of Frequent Price Changes Spurs Development of
Automated Pricing Systems. Michael Hartnett, Stores, 82 (May
2000), pp. 56, 58. [Retail chains; Software packages; Category
management; Pricing rules can be applied to maintain family group
and parity pricing by item, flavor, size, brand, competitor’s pricing,
margins, and the retailer’s value image.] 110
2.7 Product
See also 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 43, 50, 55, 58, 60,
63, 70, 89, 98, 101, 108, 135, 145, 147, 148, 154, 155, 167, 170,
173, 206
Product Development Partnerships: Balancing the Needs of
OEMs and Suppliers. Morgan L. Swink and Vincent A. Mabert,
Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 59–68. [Discussion,
OEM needs (providers of scarce resources and capabilities, support
of global product strategies, minimized risks), Supplier needs
(rewards for up-front involvement, protected business interests,
shared wealth), Success, Guidelines.] 111
Building an Innovation Factory. Andrew Hargadon and Robert I.
Sutton, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.
157–66. [Knowledge-brokering cycle, Factors, Capturing new
ideas, Keeping ideas alive, Imagining new uses for old ideas,
Putting promising concepts to the test, Examples.] 112
Price and Brand Name as Indicators of Quality Dimensions for
Consumer Durables. Merrie Brucks, Valarie A. Zeithaml, and
Gillian Naylor, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28
(Summer 2000), pp. 359–74. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Hypotheses, Laboratory experiment, Ease of use, Versatility,
Durability, Service ability, Performance, Prestige, Consumers’
judgment processes and inferences, Statistical analysis.] 113
Introducing Short-Term Brands: A New Branding Tool for a
New Consumer Reality. Dan Herman, Journal of Brand Management
(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 330–40. [Changes in consumer preferences
and behavior, Market strategy, Evolving and variety
brands, Planned limited life expectancies, Value added, Examples.]
114
A Survey of Brand Risk Management. Rory F. Knight and Deborah
J. Pretty, Journal of Brand Management (UK), 7 (May 2000),
pp. 353–65. [Discussion; Brand significance and perception; Core
qualities of brands across regions, industry sectors, and organizational
position; Threats; Protection mechanisms; Brand insurance;
Brand valuation; Assessment; Many countries.] 115
Call Branding: Identifying, Leveraging, and Managing New
Branding Opportunities. Kevin M. Waters, Journal of Brand
Management (UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 321–29. [Modifying a brand
to correspond with its verbal identity (Kraft Mayo, FedEx), Partial
declaration and use, Acronyms, Success, Guidelines.] 116
The Incumbent’s Curse? Incumbency, Size, and Radical Product
Innovation. Rajesh K. Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, Journal of
Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 1–17. [Literature review; Data collection
(more than 250 books and 500 articles); Recently, large
firms and incumbents are significantly more likely to introduce
radical innovations than small firms and nonincumbents; Nationality;
Implications.] 117
Impact of a Late Entrant on the Diffusion of a New
Product/Service. Trichy V. Krishnan, Frank M. Bass, and V.
Kumar, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.
269–78. [Model testing, Mathematical equations, Brand-level sales
data in multiple markets, Effects, Market potentials, Diffusion
speed of the category and of incumbent brands, Statistical
analysis.] 118
Customization of Product Technology and International New
Product Success: Mediating Effects of New Product Development
and Rollout Timeliness. George M. Chryssochoidis and
Veronica Wong, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17
(July 2000), pp. 268–85. [Literature review, Model proposal,
Hypotheses, Interviews with managers in multinational companies,
Impacts, Scheduling, Individual country requirements, Statistical
analysis.] 119
Company Competencies as a Network: The Role of Product
Development. Hanne Harmsen, Klaus G. Grunert, and Karsten
Bove, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May 2000),
pp. 194–207. [Literature review, Survey of managers, Rankings,
Perceived success factors and problems, Assessment, Implications.]
120
Harnessing Tacit Knowledge to Achieve Breakthrough Innovation.
Ronald Mascitelli, Journal of Product Innovation Management,
17 (May 2000), pp. 179–93. [Discussion, Model presentation,
Methods, Achieve emotional commitment and personal
involvement from design team members, Use of early and frequent
prototyping, Face-to-face interaction during product development,
Examples, Managerial implications.] 121
Technological Innovativeness as a Moderator of New Product
Design Integration and Top Management Support. Morgan
Swink, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May
2000), pp. 208–20. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Hypotheses, Study of new product development projects, Effects,
Financial performance, Design quality, Time-based performance,
Interactions, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 122
Consumer-Level Factors Moderating the Success of Private
Label Brands. Rajeev Batra and Indrajit Sinha, Journal of Retailing,
76 (Summer 2000), pp. 175–91. [Literature review, Model
estimation, Mall-intercept study, Measures (consequences of purchase
mistake, degree of quality variation in category, search versus
experience nature of category, price consciousness), Statistical
analysis, Managerial implications.] 123
Choosing the Right Branding Expert.Victoria Barkan and Debra
Semans, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 29–31.
[Discussion, Understanding your needs, Approach/methodology,
Objectivity and bias, Experience, Future perspective, Leadingedge
thinking, Benchmark results, Client satisfaction, Stay
involved and visible, Assessment.] 124
Market-Driven Product Development. Stephan A. Butscher and
Michael Laker, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp.
48–53. [Target-costing pricing approach, Definition of target segments,
Competitive advantages and disadvantages, Product positioning,
Fine-tuning product design and pricing, Market simulations,
Target costs, Examples.] 125
Brand Waves: Building Momentum Throughout the Ownership
Cycle. Peter H. Farquhar, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer
2000), pp. 14–21. [Discussion, Ownership cycle, Trigger,
Consideration, Drivers (awareness, relevance, differentiation, quality,
affordability, availability), Conversion, Purchase and confirmation,
Taking credit, Value, Examples.] 126
How to Build a Billion Dollar Business-to-Business Brand. Don
E. Schultz and Heidi F. Schultz, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer
2000), pp. 22–28. [Discussion; Evolution of b-to-b companies;
Product-, distribution-, and customer-driven; Brand structures and
policies; Building and development; Communication; Measuring
results; Example.] 127
2.8 Sales Promotion
See also 70, 75, 88
Redeeming Qualities. Jennifer Lach, American Demographics, 22
(May 2000), pp. 36–38. [Study, Incentives, S&H greenpoints.com,
Online participation, Customer retention, Age groups, Incomes,
Effectiveness, Examples.] 128
An Evaluation of State Sponsored Promotion Programs. Timothy
J. Wilkinson and Lance Eliot Brouthers, Journal of Business
Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 229–36. [Data collection (relationships
between program offerings and state exports), Variables
(direct exports, trade shows, trade missions, foreign offices, market
information activities, population), Statistical analysis,
Implications.] 129
Money Isn’t Everything. Vincent Alonzo, Sales and Marketing
Management, (April 2000), pp. 47–48. [Sweepstakes, Appeals,
Effectiveness, Impacts, Long-term sales, Offering prizes appropriate
for clients, Examples.] 130
The Shows Will Go On. Danielle Harris, Sales and Marketing
Management, (May 2000), pp. 85–88. [Discussion, Trade shows,
Factors, Increasing booth traffic and generating quality leads,
Motivating salespeople, Budgets, Examples.] 131
Internet Retailers Shift Focus from Attracting to Retaining
On-line Customers. Maureen Licata, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
66, 68, 70, 72. [Value-focused customers, Loyalty incentives, Discounts,
Giveaways, Contests, Sweepstakes, Free shipping, Customer
databases, Impacts, Content, Community, Communication,
Examples.] 132
Electronic Coupons Find Growing Uses for Both Stores and ECommerce
Sites. Tony Seideman, Stores, 82 (April 2000), pp.
104, 106. [Target markets, Flexibility, Costs, Customer databases,
Profiles, Effectiveness, Examples.] 133
2.9 Advertising
See also 2, 3, 7, 8, 15, 70, 78, 79, 80, 83, 152, 159, 177, 197, 224
Who’s Next? Richard Linnett, Advertising Age, 71 (May 29,
2000), pp. 12, 15. [Strategic planning, Advertising agencies, Competitive
advantage, Acquisitions and mergers, Impacts, Clients,
Business growth, Examples.] 134
Linking Advertising and Brand Value. Irene M. Herremans,
John K. Ryans Jr., and Raj Aggarwal, Business Horizons, 43
(May/June 2000), pp. 19–26. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Advertising turnover, Marketing investment, Product quality,
Market share, Study of firms, High- and low-efficiency brand
enhancers, Brand deterioration, Future unknown, Neglect,
Examples.] 135
Narrative Music in Congruent and Incongruent TV Advertising.
Kineta Hung, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.
25–34. [Literature review, Content analysis, Experiment, Meanings
associated with ad components and commercials, Textual elaboration,
Assessment.] 136
The Impact of Verbal Anchoring on Consumer Response to
Image Ads. Barbara J. Phillips, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring
2000), pp. 15–24. [Literature review, Experiment, Attitude toward
the ad, Presence and level of verbal anchoring, Comprehension,
Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–52.
[Four articles on creativity; Recall, liking, and creativity in TV
commercials; Creative differences between copywriters and art
directors; Correlates of integrated marketing communications;
Customer/brand loyalty in the interactive marketplace.] 138
Advertising Attitudes and Advertising Effectiveness. Abhilasha
Mehta, Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp.
67–72. [Literature review, Data collection (Magazine Impact
Research Systems), Measures, Attitudinal statements, Intrusiveness/
recall, Persuasion/buying interest, Statistical analysis, Implications.]
139
See also 11, 142, 217, 218
Sales Call Anxiety: Exploring What It Means When Fear Rules
a Sales Encounter.Willem Verbeke and Richard P. Bagozzi, Journal
of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 88–101. [Literature review,
Model testing, Hypotheses, Survey of salespeople, Factors, Negative
self-evaluations, Negative evaluations from customers, Physiological
symptoms, Protective actions, Statistical analysis, The
Netherlands.] 140
Independents Day. Dan Hanover, Sales and Marketing Management,
(April 2000), pp. 64–66, 68. [Independent sales reps, Motivation,
Communication, Support, Rewards, Short-term bonus and
incentives programs, Examples.] 141
See also 57, 93, 95, 130, 131, 140, 141, 147, 213
Comparisons of Alternative Perceptions of Sales Performance.
Paul A. Dion and Peter M. Banting, Industrial Marketing Management,
29 (May 2000), pp. 263–70. [Study of industrial market triads
(salesperson, sales manager, buyer), There were assessment
discrepancies in addition to what constituted good performance,
Gender evaluation, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.]
142
Driving Down Costs. Christine Galea, Sales and Marketing Management,
(May 2000), pp. 102–104, 106, 108, 110. [Corporate
cars, Strategy, Industry, Lease or own, Depreciation, Fuel concerns,
Vehicle duration, Reselling, Buy from one manufacturer,
Managing risk, Examples.] 143
Masterful Meetings. Erin Strout, Sales and Marketing Management,
(May 2000), pp. 68–72, 74, 76. [Discussion, Planning,
Choose destination carefully to set the right tone, Set straightforward
agenda, Stick to budget, Develop postmeeting action
plans.] 144
3.1 Industrial
See also 41, 46, 50, 56, 68, 69, 77, 101, 106, 111, 119, 121, 122,
142, 163, 164, 166, 173, 193, 194, 195, 212, 217
Marketing High Technology: Preparation, Targeting, Positioning,
Execution. Chris Easingwood and Anthony Koustelos, Business
Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 27–34. [Discussion; Market
strategy; Supply to OEMs; Market education; Distribution;
Target innovative adopters, pragmatists, conservatives, current customers,
competitors’ customers; Emphasize exclusivity, low price,
technological superiority; Execution; Examples.] 145
Do Trade-Offs Exist in Operations Strategy? Insights from the
Stamping Die Industry. Mark Pagell, Steve Melnyk, and Robert
Handfield, Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 69–77.
[Study of firms, Performance, Comparisons, Strategic advantages
and disadvantages, Relative fixed costs and lead time, Employee
commitment, Assessment.] 146
Strategic Selling in the Age of Modules and Systems. John W.
Henke, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.
271–84. [Discussion, OEM impediments to module and system
acquisition, Developing a sales strategy, Capabilities and
resources, Cooperation among participating suppliers, Design considerations,
Markup practices, Supply chain management experience,
Case study, Automotive industry.] 147
Differential Effects of the Primary Forms of Cross Functional
Integration on Product Development Cycle Time. J. Daniel
Sherman, William E. Souder, and Svenn A. Jenssen, Journal of
Product Innovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 257–67. [Literature
review; Survey of high-technology firms; Variables; Integration
of knowledge from past projects; R&D/customer, marketing,
manufacturing, supplier integration; Strategic partnership
integration; Statistical analysis; US and Scandinavian firms.] 148
Prepping the Supply Base for Leaner Supply Systems. Tom
Stundza, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 62–64, 66, 68. [Supplier
development programs, Quality control processes, Material
resource planning, Just-in-time delivery, Make or buy studies,
Component kitting, Best supplier evaluations, Outsourcing,
Improving performance, Implementation, Case study, Aerospace
industry.] 149
See also 26, 52, 129, 158, 180, 208
Demographics, Personality Traits, Roles, Motivations, and
Attrition Rates of Hospice Volunteers. Becky J. Starnes and Walter
W. Wymer Jr., Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing,
7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 61–76. [Literature review, Volunteer profile,
Services to patients and families, Religious beliefs, Personal
experiences, Training and expectations, Assessment.] 150
See also 13, 29, 38, 42, 45, 46, 48, 54, 63, 106, 115, 117, 119, 129,
140, 148, 177, 188, 189, 191, 200, 201, 211, 216, 223
Privacy on the Net: Europe Changes the Rules. William J.
Scheibal and Julia Alpert Gladstone, Business Horizons, 43
(May/June 2000), pp. 13–18. [Discussion, Legal aspects, Business
impact, EU privacy directive, Impacts, US, Assessment.] 151
Color Usage in International Business-to-Business Print
Advertising. Irvine Clarke III and Earl D. Honeycutt Jr., Industrial
Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 255–61. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Content analysis, Comparisons, Black/white
ads, Color distribution by magazine, Cultural meanings, Managerial
implications, France, US, Venezuela.] 152
Managing International Joint Venture Relationships: A Longitudinal
Perspective. Akmal S. Hyder and Pervez N. Ghauri,
Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp. 205–18.
[Literature review, Model presentation, In-depth interviews,
Motives, Resources, Learning, Network, Performance, Case studies,
Telecommunications industry, Sweden, India.] 153
Positioned for Success: Branding in the Czech Brewing Industry.
Chris Lewis and Angela Vickerstaff, Journal of Brand Management
(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 341–52. [Literature review,
Brand appeals (function, image and personality), Market strategy,
Price, Quality, Traditional, Modern, Effects, Foreign ownership
and expertise, Case studies.] 154
Country of Branding: A Review and Research Propositions.
Ian Phau and Gerard Prendergast, Journal of Brand Management
(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 366–75. [Literature review, Hypotheses,
Quality perceptions, Brand image, Country of branding versus
country of manufacturing, Luxury brands, Development of country,
High versus low involvement, Assessment, Asia.] 155
Forecasting Practices in the Pharmaceutical Industry in Singapore.
Louis Choo, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer
2000), pp. 18–20. [Survey, Extent of involvement, Purpose of forecasts,
Techniques used, Sources of information, Forecast drivers,
Assessment.] 156
A Systematic Approach to Tourism Policy. Jafar Alavi and Mahmoud
M. Yasin, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.
147–56. [Discussion, Revenues, Model presentation, Mathematical
equations, Effects (areawide, region-mix, competitive, allocation),
Statistical data, Shift-share analysis, Policy implications, Many
countries.] 157
Marketing of a Financial Innovation: Commercial Use of the
Euro by European Companies Prior to Mandatory Adoption.
Yvonne M. van Everdingen and Gary J. Bamossy, Journal of Business
Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 123–33. [Theoretical discussion,
Model presentation, Survey of firms, Measures, Perceived
innovation characteristics, Perceptions of political and business
environment, Organizational characteristics, Internal communication
behavior, Adoption behavior, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.]
158
Effect of a Buy-National Campaign on Member Firm Performance.
Graham D. Fenwick and Cameron I. Wright, Journal of
review, Survey, Comparisons, Nonparticipating firms, Staff member
and domestic sales changes, Statistical analysis, New Zealand.]
159
Global Sourcing, Multiple Country-of-Origin Facets, and Consumer
Reactions. Zhan G. Li, L. William Murray, and Don Scott,
Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 121–33.
[Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Comparisons, Country-
of-design, Assembly, Corporation, Dimensions (functional,
symbolic, overall quality), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 160
New Rules for Global Markets. Richard W. Oliver, Journal of
Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–9. [Discussion;
Competitive strategies; Think and act globally; Focus on ethnic
group, not country; Focus on neighbors first; Focus on the cities;
Culture is an important barrier; Use global market muscle; Focus
south, not east–west; Develop new mind-set.] 161
Mode of International Entry: An Isomorphism Perspective.
Peter S. Davis, Ashay B. Desai, and John D. Francis, Journal of
International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp.
239–58. [Literature review, Model development, Hypotheses, Survey
of firms, Pressures to conform to behavioral norms within
environments, Comparisons, Wholly owned, Exporting, Joint ventures,
Licensing agreements, Statistical analysis.] 162
The Determinants of Trust in Supplier–Automaker Relationships
in the U.S., Japan, and Korea. Jeffrey H. Dyer and Wujin
Chu, Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter
Hypotheses, Personal interviews, Measures, Length of relationship,
Face-to-face communication, Relationship continuity, Assistance
to supplier, Stock ownership, Statistical analysis.] 163
Social Ties and Foreign Market Entry. Paul Ellis, Journal of
International Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp.
443–69. [Literature review, Propositions, Interviews with experienced
members of manufacturing firms, Knowledge of foreign
market opportunities is commonly acquired through existing interpersonal
links rather than through market research, Hong Kong.]
164
Process Standardization Across Intra- and Inter-cultural Relationships.
David A. Griffith, Michael Y. Hu, and John K. Ryans Jr.,
Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter
Hypotheses, Survey of distributors, Measures, Trust, Commitment,
Conflict, Satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,
Canada, Chile, Mexico, US.] 165
Productivity Spillovers from Foreign Direct Investment: Evidence
from UK Industry Level Panel Data. Xia ming Liu,
Pamela Siler, Chengqi Wang, and Yingqi Wei, Journal of International
Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 407–25. [Literature
review, Model presentation, Impacts, Situations in which
host country is developed, Introduction of advanced technology,
The International Biotechnology Industry: A Dynamic Capabilities
Perspective. Anoop Madhok and Thomas Osegowitsch,
2000), pp. 325–35. [International diffusion of technology, Propositions,
Organizational form and geographic flows, Transactions,
Licensing and marketing agreements, Research agreements, Joint
ventures, Acquisition, New subsidiaries, Composite groupings,
Assessment, Implications.] 167
National Culture and Strategic Change in Belief Formation.
Livia Markoczy, Journal of International Business Studies, 31
(Third Quarter 2000), pp. 427–42. [Literature review, Study of
Hungarian organizations recently acquired by Anglo-Saxon partners,
Individual beliefs, Causal relationships, Impacts, Being a
member of the functional area favored by the strategic change, Statistical
analysis.] 168
Synergy, Managerialism or Hubris? An Empirical Examination
of Motives for Foreign Acquisitions of U.S. Firms. Anju
Seth, Kean P. Song, and Richardson Pettit, Journal of International
Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 387–405. [Theoretical
discussion, Testable hypotheses and empirical predictions,
Data collection, Relationship between target gains and acquirer
gains, Total gains, Statistical analysis.] 169
Knowledge Flows in the Global Innovation System: Do U.S.
Firms Share More Scientific Knowledge Than Their Japanese
Rivals? Jennifer W. Spencer, Journal of International Business
Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 521–530. [Discussion,
Hypotheses, Data collection (firms’ publication and citation patterns),
Japanese firms appropriated no more knowledge from the
global community than their US counterparts, Statistical analysis.]
170
The Management Implications of Ethnicity in South Africa.
Adele Thomas and Mike Bendixen, Journal of International Business
Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 507–19. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Interviews with middle managers, Both management
culture and perceived management effectiveness were
found to be independent of both race and the dimensions of culture,
Implications.] 171
A Case for Comparative Entrepreneurship: Assessing the Relevance
of Culture. Anisya S. Thomas and Stephen L. Mueller,
2000), pp. 287–301. [Literature review, Survey of students, Measures,
Innovativeness, Locus of control, Risk-taking, Energy level,
Impacts, Cultural distance, Many countries.] 172
Customer-Driven Product Development Through Quality
Function Deployment in the U.S. and Japan. John J. Cristiano,
Jeffrey K. Liker, and Chelsea C. White III, Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 286–308. [Literature
review; Survey of companies; US companies reported a higher
degree of quality function deployment usage, management support,
cross-functional support, data sources, benefits; Assessment.]
173
Venture Capitalist Involvement in Portfolio Companies:
Insights from South Africa. Michael H. Morris, John W. Watling,
and Minet Schindehutte, Journal of Small Business Management,
38 (July 2000), pp. 68–77. [Literature review, Survey, Types of
companies in which venture capitalists prefer to invest, Factors
influencing involvement, Areas of involvement, Interactions, Statistical
International Competition in Mixed Industries. Roland Calori,
Tugrul Atamer, and Pancho Nunes, Long Range Planning (UK), 33
(June 2000), pp. 349–75. [Discussion, Formation of regional competitive
territories, Dual effect of marketing intensity, Influence of
demand factors, Role of strategic innovators across borders, Examples.]
175
Information Technology and Productivity: Evidence from
Country-Level Data. Sanjeev Dewan and Kenneth L. Kraemer,
Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 548–62. [Discussion,
Production function, Hypotheses, Data collection, Capital investment,
GDP per worker, Asset categories, Developed and developing
countries, Statistical analysis, Policy implications.] 176
3.4 Services
See also 9, 19, 20, 27, 37, 40, 42, 47, 55, 60, 71, 72, 76, 78, 102,
103, 150, 157, 192, 214, 230, 231
Putting the “World” in the World Series. Rebecca Gardyn,
American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 28–30. [Trends,
Multicultural players and fans, International, TV viewers, Radio,
Impacts, Marketers, Prestige, Brand acceptance, Localism,
Examples.] 177
Journal of Business Research, 48 (June 2000), pp. 165–283.
[Eleven articles on health care research, Quality-of-life/needs
assessment model, Internal marketing, Financial management,
Measurement error, Role of nurse practitioners, Market orientation
and organizational performance, Antitrust concerns about evolving
vertical relationships, Measuring service quality, Modeling health
plan choice behavior, Roles of primary and secondary control in
older adulthood, Service quality for inpatient nursing services.]
178
One-to-One Marketing Doesn’t Have to Be Web-Based. Joel R.
Lapointe, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
34–37. [Discussion, Customer relations, Scenarios (hospitality,
professional services, customer service/sales), Impacts, Key role
identification, High performer profiling, Key information accessibility,
Assessment.] 179
Current Resource Constraints and the Role of Marketing in
Health Research Organizations. Dennis R. McDermott, Howard
P. Tuckman, and David J. Urban, Journal of Nonprofit and Public
Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 3–16. [Survey of CEOs representing
national sample of HROs, Attitudes, Fundraising, Revenue
sources, Budget allocations, Strategic, Assessment, Recommendations.]
180
A Comprehensive Framework for Service Quality: An Investigation
of Critical Conceptual and Measurement Issues
Through a Longitudinal Study. Pratibha A. Dabholkar, C. David
Shepherd, and Dayle I. Thorpe, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer
2000), pp. 139–73. [Literature review, Propositions, Consumer survey,
Components and antecedents (reliability, personal attention,
comfort, features), Impacts, Behavioral intentions, Measured disconfirmation
versus perceptions, Statistical analysis, Implications.]
181
Switching Barriers and Repurchase Intentions in Services.
Michael A. Jones, David L. Mothersbaugh, and Sharon E. Beatty,
Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 259–74. [Literature
review, Model testing, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Effects,
Core-service satisfaction, Interpersonal relationships, Switching
costs, Attractiveness of alternatives, Interactions, Statistical analysis,
Implications.] 182
Access to Capital and Terms of Credit: A Comparison of Menand
Women-Owned Small Businesses. Susan Coleman, Journal
review, Model presentation, Data collection (Federal Reserve
Board and Small Business Administration), Firm characteristics,
Most recent loan, Usage of bank credit products, Interest rates,
Collateral, Statistical analysis.] 183
Customer Service: An Essential Component for a Successful
Web Site. Cherryl Carlson, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer
2000), pp. 28–30. [Discussion, E-mail management, Response
(automatic, intelligent agent–aided, intelligent automated), Self
help, Live text chat, Outsourcing, Assessment.] 184
Dissecting the HMO–Benefits Managers Relationship: What to
Measure and Why. James W. Peltier and John Westfall, Marketing
Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 5–13. [Discussion, Survey
of employee benefits managers, Attitudes, Dimensions (financial/
economic, social/responsiveness, structural/partnership),
Overall satisfaction and quality, Relationship commitment/loyalty,
Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 185
Practicing Best-in-Class Service Recovery. Stephen W. Brown,
Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 8–9. [Best practices;
Hiring, training, and empowerment; Service recovery guidelines
and standards; Easy access and effective response; Customer
and product databases; Failure; Companywide recovery; Profits;
Technology; Examples.] 186
See also 74, 75, 87, 118, 169
Bayesian Dynamic Factor Models and Portfolio Allocation.
Omar Aguilar and Mike West, Journal of Business and Economic
Statistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 338–57. [Dynamic linear models,
Exchange rates forecasting, Markov chain Monte Carlo, Multivariate
stochastic volatility, Portfolio selection, Sequential forecasting,
Variance matrix discounting, Assessment.] 187
Modeling the Sources of Output Growth in a Panel of Countries.
Gary Koop, Jacek Osiewalski, and Mark F.J. Steel, Journal
of Business and Economic Statistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 284–99.
[Stochastic production-frontier model, Efficiency levels, Bayesian
inference, Growth decompositions, Technical change, Numerical
implementation.] 188
The Theoretical Foundation for Intercultural Business Communication:
A Conceptual Model. Iris I. Varner, Journal of Business
Communication, 37 (January 2000), pp. 39–57. [Literature
review, Research questions, Impacts, Intercultural communication
strategy, Country-specific and comparative studies, Assessment.]
189
Information, Contracting, and Quality Costs. Stanley Baiman,
Paul E. Fischer, and Madhav V. Rajan, Management Science, 46
(June 2000), pp. 776–89. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Propositions, Internal and external failure, First- and second-best
settings, Contractible decisions, Impacts, Information systems,
Assessment.] 190
Modeling Intercategory and Generational Dynamics for a
Growing Information Technology Industry. Namwoon Kim,
Dae Ryun Chang, and Allan D. Shocker, Management Science, 46
(April 2000), pp. 496–512. [Wireless telecommunications service,
Market potentials, Asymmetry of effect, Bidirectional interrelationship,
Implications, Hong Kong, Korea.] 191
Measuring the Robustness of Empirical Efficiency Valuations.
Ludwig Kuntz and Stefan Scholtes, Management Science, 46 (June
2000), pp. 807–23. [Model extension, Propositions, Data envelopment
analysis, Hospital capacity planning, Monotone oneparameter
perturbations, Assessment.] 192
Behind the Learning Curve: Linking Learning Activities to
Waste Reduction. Michael A. Lapre, Amit Shankar Mukherjee,
and Luk N. Van Wassenhove, Management Science, 46 (May
2000), pp. 597–611. [Literature review, Organizational learning,
Quality, Technological knowledge, Experimentation, Knowledge
transfer, Implications.] 193
The Value of Information Sharing in a Two-Level Supply
Chain. Hau L. Lee, Kut C. So, and Christopher S. Tang, Management
Science, 46 (May 2000), pp. 626–43. [Supply chain management,
Mathematical models, Production planning and inventory
control, Electronic data interchange, Quick response, Analytical
and numerical analyses.] 194
Scheduling Resource-Constrained Projects Competitively at
Modest Memory Requirements. Arno Sprecher, Management
Science, 46 (May 2000), pp. 710–23. [Model presentation, Branchand-
bound algorithm, Rules, Extended and simplified single enumeration,
Local left-shift, Extended global left-shift, Contraction,
Set-based dominance, Nonoptimality, Heuristic, Computational
results.] 195
See also 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 42, 62, 63, 66, 72, 73, 80, 81, 107,
108, 109, 113, 118, 123, 136, 137, 139, 156, 159, 160, 177, 178,
180, 181, 182, 200, 209, 217, 229, 230
American Demographics, 22 (June 2000), pp. 54–56, 58, 60–62,
64–65. [Three articles on our sense of place, Work-at-home labor
force, Desire for complex appliances with simple and easy-to-use
designs, Networking, Shortening the distance between places and
people, Impacts, Neighborhoods, Cities, Emerging markets, Consumer
expenditures, Cities, Statistical data.] 196
What’s on Your Mind? Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,
22 (April 2000), pp. 31–33. [Electroencephalogram technology,
Reading consumers’ brain-wave activity, System testing,
Problems, Data translation, Acceptance, TV content research
applicability, Could be useful in conjunction with focus groups.]
197
Riding High on the Market. Cheryl Russell and Marcia Mogelonsky,
American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 44–46, 48, 50,
52, 54. [Economic expansion, Household incomes, Age groups,
Financial assets, Risks, Stock holdings, Home values, Debt, Net
worth, Saving for retirement, Statistical data.] 198
The Money in the Middle. Alison Stein Wellner, American Demographics,
22 (April 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Economic
expansion, Impacts, Middle class, Definition problems, Role of
immigration, Age groups, Education, Household income, Internet
usage, Statistical data.] 199
The Measurement of Intergenerational Communication and
Influence on Consumption: Development, Validation, and
Cross-Cultural Comparison of the IGEN Scale. Madhubalan
Viswanathan, Terry L. Childers, and Elizabeth S. Moore, Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp.
406–24. [Literature review, Consumer socialization, Three studies,
Components relevant to marketplace transactions (consumer skills,
preferences, attitudes toward marketer supplied information),
Comparisons, Parents, Children, US, Thailand.] 200
Innovation and International Business Communication: Can
European Research Help to Increase the Validity and Reliability
for Our Business and Teaching Practice? Jan Ulijn, Journal
of Business Communication, 37 (April 2000), pp. 173–87. [Literature
review, Quantitative/qualitative, Real life/simulation, Studying
language, Culture (national, corporate, professional), Communication
medium, Assessment.] 201
Debunking Executive Conventional Wisdom. Larry Lapide,
Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer 2000), pp. 16–17.
[Myths about forecasting; Forecasts are always wrong, so why put
any focus on demand planning; All we need is a quantitative
expert; Forecasting software will take care of all forecasting needs;
Process is too expensive; Assessment.] 202
State Demographic Forecasting for Business and Policy Applications.
Jon David Vasche, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19
(Summer 2000), pp. 23, 28–30. [Reliance on a large, multidimensional
matrix modeling system with extensive input vectors aids in
projection of aggregate population and its characteristics.] 203
Journal of Business Research, 48 (April 2000), pp. 5–92. [Ten articles
on replication research, Brand awareness effects on consumer
decision making, Credit card effect, Business turnarounds following
acquisitions, Organizational growth determinants, Impact of
internalization on the diversification–performance relationship,
Advertising complex products, Religious symbols as peripheral
cues in advertising, Market orientation and business profitability,
How salespeople build quality relationships, Conducting marketing
science.] 204
Riding the Wave: Response Rates and the Effects of Time
Intervals Between Successive Mail Survey Follow-Up Efforts.
Cindy Claycomb, Stephen S. Porter, and Charles L. Martin, Journal
review; Experiment; Follow-up mailings sent to each of 20 different
treatment groups, testing follow-up intervals ranging from 3 to
60 days; Assessment; Implications.] 205
Historical Method in Marketing Research with New Evidence
on Long-Term Market Share Stability. Peter N. Golder, Journal
of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 156–72. [Literature
review, Stages, Select topic and collect evidence, Critically evaluate
sources along with evidence, Analyze and interpret, Present
conclusions, Application.] 206
Cast Demographics, Unobserved Segments, and Heterogeneous
Switching Costs in a Television Viewing Choice Model.
Ron Shachar and John W. Emerson, Journal of Marketing
Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 173–86. [Model comparisons, Data
collection (ACNielsen), Examination of strategic programming
and scheduling decisions, Optimal programming decisions, Goodness-
of-fit and ratings predictions, Applications.] 207
The Effectiveness of Survey Response Rate Incentives in a Public
Non-profit Environment. Frank H. Wadsworth and Eldon Little,
Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2,
1999), pp. 53–60. [Literature review, Convenience sample, Treatment
groups, Deadlines, Prepaid and promised monetary and nonmonetary
rewards, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.] 208
See also 53, 59, 78, 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 104, 105, 110,
176, 184, 190, 191, 195, 225
Teens’ Use of Traditional Media and the Internet. Carrie La
Ferle, Steven M. Edwards, and Wei-na Lee, Journal of Advertising
Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 55–65. [Literature review, Survey,
Time spent with media, Media used by activity, Frequency of
Internet use by gender, Location of Internet connection, Source of
information about Web sites, Internet and interpersonal sources of
communication, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 209
Riding Shotgun on the Information Superhighway. Chris Wood,
Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 38–42.
[Internet security, Strategy, Problems, Vulnerability, Costs, Documentation
process, Policies, Adding hardware and software, Success,
Guidelines.] 210
Understanding the Trade Winds: The Global Evolution of Production,
Consumption, and the Internet. Peter R. Dickson, Journal
review, Economic history, Diffusion technologies, Systemsdynamic
perspective, Example.] 211
What Buyers Want in Technology Tools.William Atkinson, Purchasing,
128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 57–58, 61. [Survey, Attitudes,
Software packages, Web-based e-procurement systems, Electronic
data interchange, Benefits, Satisfaction, Company’s internal performance,
Supplier selection, After-sales support from suppliers,
Management support, Examples.] 212
Web Wise. Patricia B. Seybold, Sales and Marketing Management,
(May 2000), pp. S4–S6, 58. [E-business, Customer orientation,
Factors, Streamline customer scenarios, Touchpoints and crosschannel
solutions, Warehousing and logistics, Staffing and training
call/contact center personnel, Managing customer-affecting applications,
Examples.] 213
Information Orientation: People, Technology and the Bottom
Line. Donald A. Marchand, William J. Kettinger, and John D.
Rollins, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.
69–80. [Study of senior managers, Measures of effective information
use (information technology and information management
practices, information behaviors and values), Achieving high information
orientation, Guidelines, Banking industry.] 214
Sophisticated Systems Help Retailers Develop Complete Picture
of Each Customer. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
42, 44. [Customer relationship management, Data strategy, Software
packages, Customer analysis, Data warehousing, E-mail
response management, Modeling and file integration, Examples.]
215
5. OTHER TOPICS
See also 29, 38, 79, 189, 201
The Ivory Chateau. Stuart Crainer and Des Dearlove, Across the
Board, 37 (June 2000), pp. 35–40. [Discussion, INSEAD, Global
classroom, Students, Competitive advantage, MBA program, Jobs,
Web-based businesses, Assessment.] 216
Cross-National Industrial Mail Surveys: Why Do Response
Rates Differ Between Countries? Anne-Wil Harzing, Industrial
review, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professional and
social activities, Work experience, International exposure, Statistical
analysis.] 217
Preparing the Next Generation of Industrial Sales Representatives:
Advice from Senior Sales Executives. Michael R. Luthy,
[Literature review, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professional
and social activities, Work experience, International
exposure, Statistical analysis.] 218
Corporate Universities Crack Open Their Doors. Meryl Davids
Landau, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
18–23. [Discussion, Opening training centers to outsiders, Receiving
a bigger return on investment, Impacts, Traditional universities,
Technology, Assessment.] 219
Publications in Major Marketing Journals: An Analysis of
Scholars and Marketing Departments. Aysen Bakir, Scott J.
Vitell, and Gregory M. Rose, Journal of Marketing Education, 22
(August 2000), pp. 99–107. [Total number of published articles
and a fractional score based on the number of authors of an article,
Faculty size, Comparisons, Previous studies.] 220
Using the Theory of Constraints’ Thinking Processes to
Improve Problem-Solving Skills in Marketing. Marjorie J.
Cooper and Terry W. Loe, Journal of Marketing Education, 22
(August 2000), pp. 137–46. [Identify a list of undesirable effects,
Generate conflict clouds from the list, Construct a generic conflict
cloud, Build a current reality tree that shows the core conflict and
how it leads to the undesirable effects, Classroom implementation.]
221
Relating Pedagogical Preference of Marketing Seniors and
Alumni to Attitude Toward the Major. Richard Davis, Shekhar
Misra, and Stuart Van Auken, Journal of Marketing Education, 22
(August 2000), pp. 147–54. [Literature review, Learning styles,
Motivation, Attitudinal enhancement, Survey, Variables, In-class
exercises, Lectures, Cases, Association between in-class activities
and overall attitude toward the marketing major.] 222
Study Abroad Learning Activities: A Synthesis and Comparison.
Charles R. Duke, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August
2000), pp. 155–65. [Discussion, Effectiveness, Criteria (location,
tour integration with academic credit, time spent on tour), Activities
(lecture and test, company visits, journals, treasure hunt, projects,
simulation), Assessment.] 223
Improving Students’ Understanding of the Retail Advertising
Budgeting Process. Myron Gable, Ann Fairhurst, Roger Dickinson,
and Lynn Harris, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August
2000), pp. 120–28. [Survey of retailing educators; Favorite technique
is objective and task; Requires the use of methods of both
prioritizing alternative expenditures and setting a cutoff point;
These points are often neglected by academics, including textbook
writers; Recommendations.] 224
Development of a Web-Based Internet Marketing Course.
Shohreh A. Kaynama and Garland Keesling, Journal of Marketing
Education, 22 (August 2000), pp. 84–89. [Seven-step systems
model; Define purpose of course; Analyze appropriate knowledge,
skills, and abilities; Determine what the students should learn and
ensure that the learning takes place; Development; Implementation;
Assessment; Evaluation.] 225
Determinants of Student Evaluations of Global Measures of
Instructor and Course Value. Ronald B. Marks, Journal of Marketing
Education, 22 (August 2000), pp. 108–19. [Literature
review; Model development; Structural paths; Student evaluations
may lack discriminant validity, the extent to which a measure does
not correlate with other constructs it is not supposed to measure
(e.g., expected/fairness of grading does have a large impact on ratings
of teaching ability).] 226
Teaching Marketing Law: A Business Law Perspective on Integrating
Marketing and Law. Ross D. Petty, Journal of Marketing
Education, 22 (August 2000), pp. 129–36. [Literature review, Marketing
law organized by 4 Ps and defined by protected interests,
Topics distributed by course, Teaching methods, Assessment.] 227
Introducing Marketing Students to Business Intelligence Using
Project-Based Learning on the World Wide Web. Carolyn F.
Siegel, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August 2000), pp.
90–98. [Discussion, Intelligence process, Business espionage,
Overview, Projects, Advantages, Disadvantages, Assessment.] 228
Consumer Primacy on Campus: A Look at the Perceptions of
Navajo and Anglo Consumers. Dennis N. Bristow and Douglas
Amyx, Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No.
2, 1999), pp. 31–51. [Literature review, Marketing lens model,
Hypotheses, Survey, Importance ratings among educational attributes,
Anticipated preparation after graduation, Satisfaction with
educational product, Statistical analysis, Managerial recommendations.]
229
See also 220
An Exploration of the Meaning and Outcomes of a Customer-
Defined Market Orientation. Dave Webb, Cynthia Webster, and
Areti Krepapa, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.
101–12. [Literature review, Models, Hypotheses, Survey of bank
clients, Relationships, Service quality, Satisfaction, Statistical
analysis.] 230
The Four “P”s of Marketing Are Dead. Joel English, Marketing
Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 21–23. [Discussion, Shifts
in channel dynamics within health care, New model (relevance,
• response, relationships, results), Assessment.] 231

•

See also 42, 62, 63, 81, 100, 107, 108, 109, 113, 114, 123, 136,
137, 139, 150, 155, 160, 181, 182, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 207,
209, 211, 229
Food for Thought. Roberta Bernstein, American Demographics,
22 (May 2000), pp. 39–40, 42. [Hispanic and Asian consumers,
Market potentials, Disposable income, Expenditures, Cultural and
language issues, Consumer panels, Shopping behavior, Packagedgoods
industry.] 1
Congestion Ahead. John Fetto, American Demographics, 22 (June
2000), pp. 49–50. [Extreme commuting, Regions, Time spent in
traffic, In-auto activities, Billboards, Radio promotions, Creative,
Examples.] 2
Make Room for Daddy. Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,
22 (June 2000), pp. 34–36. [Trends, Fathers, Market potentials,
Magazine readership, Household spending decisions, Time spent
with children, E-marketing, Statistical data.] 3
The Joy of Empty Nesting. Joan Raymond, American Demographics,
22 (May 2000), pp. 48–52, 54. [Trends, Baby boomers,
Discretionary income, Lifestyles, Affluence, Market strategy,
Quality of life, Techno-savvy, Health concerns, Examples.] 4
Life’s a Beach 101. Nancy Shepherdson, American Demographics,
22 (May 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Echo boomers, Ecommerce,
Customization, Market strategy, Web sites, Surveys,
Recent college grads, Brand loyalty, Jobs, Starting salaries, Investing,
Examples.] 5
The Facilitating Influence of Consumer Knowledge on the
Effectiveness of Daily Value Reference Information. Fuan Li,
Paul W. Miniard, and Michael J. Barone, Journal of the Academy
of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 425–36. [Literature
review, Hypothesis, Experiment, Measures, Trial intention, Attitude,
Healthiness (overall, fat, fiber, sodium), Statistical analysis.]
6
Effects of Absurdity in Advertising: The Moderating Role of
Product Category Attitude and the Mediating Role of Cognitive
Responses. Leopoldo Arias-Bolzmann, Goutam Chakraborty,
and John C. Mowen, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.
35–49. [Literature review; Hypotheses; Experiment; Measures; Ad,
brand, and product attitudes; Comparisons; Nonabsurd ads; Recall;
Statistical analysis; Implications.] 7
An Empirical Test of an Updated Relevance–Accessibility
Model of Advertising Effectiveness. William E. Baker and
Richard J. Lutz, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.
1–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Brand names,
MYRON LEONARD, Editor
Western Carolina University
This section is based on a selection of article abstracts from a comprehensive
business literature database. Marketing-related abstracts from
more than 125 journals (both academic and trade) are reviewed by JM
staff. Descriptors for each entry are assigned by JM staff. Each issue of
this section represents three months of entries into the database.
Each entry has an identifying number. Cross-references appear immediately
under each subject heading.
The following article abstracts are available online from the ABI/INFORM
database, which is published and copyrighted by Bell & Howell Information
and Learning. For additional information about access to the database or
about obtaining photocopies of the articles abstracted here, please call
(800) 521-0600 or write to B&H, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106.
SUBJECT HEADINGS
1.2 Legal, Political, and Economic Issues
2.2 Retailing
2.6 Pricing
2.7 Product
2.8 Sales Promotion
2.9 Advertising
3.1 Industrial
3.4 Services
5. OTHER TOPICS
Journal of Marketing
Vol. 65 (April 2001), 94–106
Marketing Literature
Review
Choice processes (optimizing, satisficing, indifference), Types of
information (evidence of performance superiority, credibility, and
liking), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 8
Customer Satisfaction Cues to Support Market Segmentation
and Explain Switching Behavior. Antreas D. Athanassopoulos,
Journal of Business Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 191–207. [Literature
review, Model presentation, Hypotheses, Survey of banks’
business and individual customers, Measures, Corporate, Innovativeness,
Physical and staff service, Pricing, Convenience, Statistical
Representation of Numerical and Verbal Product Information
in Consumer Memory. Terry L. Childers and Madhubalan
Viswanathan, Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000),
pp. 109–20. [Literature review, Conceptual framework based on
surface versus meaning level processing of information, Hypotheses,
Two experiments, Recognition paradigm, Assessment.] 10
Consumers’ Use of Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects of
Accessibility and Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of an
Influence Agent. Margaret C. Campbell and Amna Kirmani, Journal
review; Model presentation; Four experiments; When an ulterior
persuasion motive is highly accessible, both cognitively busy targets
and unbusy observers use persuasion knowledge to evaluate a
salesperson; Statistical analysis.] 11
Indexicality and the Verification Function of Irreplaceable Possessions:
A Semiotic Analysis. Kent Grayson and David Shulman,
review, Hypotheses, Two studies, Late-adolescent and latemiddle-
age consumers view irreplaceable possessions as being distinct
because of indexicality, Link between verification and
irreplaceable possessions, Statistical analysis.] 12
Determinants of Country-of-Origin Evaluations. Zeynep
Gurhan-Canli and Durairaj Maheswaran, Journal of Consumer
Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 96–108. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Two experiments, Variables, Evaluations, Beliefs,
Information relevance, Total thoughts, Country-of-origin and
attribute-related thoughts, Statistical analysis.] 13
Standing on the Shoulders of Ancients: Consumer Research,
Persuasion, and Figurative Language. William J. McGuire,
review, Early communication (tropes, rhetorical figures),
Impacts, Creative hypothesis-generating phase of research, Assessment.]
14
Children, Advertising, and Product Experiences: A Multimethod
Inquiry. Elizabeth S. Moore and Richard J. Lutz, Journal
review; Model presentation; Hypotheses; Experiment and depth
interviews; Both product trial and advertising have influences, but
interplay of these influences differs between older and younger
children; Statistical analysis.] 15
Consumer Learning and Brand Equity. Stijn M.J. van Osselaer
and Joseph W. Alba, Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (June
2000), pp. 1–16. [Literature review, Series of experiments, Strong
blocking effects were found despite a limited number of brand preexposures
and extensive exposure to predictive attribute information.]
16
The Role of Explanations and Need for Uniqueness in Consumer
Decision Making: Unconventional Choices Based on
Reasons. Itamar Simonson and Stephen M. Nowlis, Journal of
Consumer Research, 27 (June 2000), pp. 49–68. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Series of studies, Explaining decisions shifts the focus
from the choice of options to the choice of reasons. Buyers who
explain their decisions and have high need for uniqueness tend to
select unconventional reasons and are more likely to make unconventional
choices.] 17
Qualitative Steps Toward an Expanded Model of Anxiety in
Gift-Giving. David B. Wooten, Journal of Consumer Research, 27
(June 2000), pp. 84–95. [Literature review, Model development,
Survey of students and nonstudent adults, Givers become anxious
when they are highly motivated to elicit desired reactions from
their recipients but are pessimistic about their prospects of success.]
18
Understanding the Customer Base of Service Providers: An
Examination of the Differences Between Switchers and Stayers.
Jaishankar Ganesh, Mark J. Arnold, and Kristy E. Reynolds,
review, Hypotheses, Two studies, Consumers’ use of banking services,
Impacts, Overall satisfaction, Satisfaction with service
dimensions, Involvement, Customer loyalty, Statistical analysis,
Implications.] 19
Self-Service Technologies: Understanding Customer Satisfaction
with Technology-Based Service Encounters. Matthew L.
Meuter, Amy L. Ostrom, Robert I. Roundtree, and Mary Jo Bitner,
review, Critical incident study (satisfying and dissatisfying),
Sources, Consumer reactions, Comparisons, Interpersonal
encounter satisfaction, Assessment, Managerial implications.] 20
Consumer Response to Negative Publicity: The Moderating
Role of Commitment. Rohini Ahluwalia, Robert E. Burnkrant,
and H. Rao Unnava, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May
2000), pp. 203–14. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Three experiments,
Consumers who are committed to a brand counterargue
negative information and can resist information that is likely to
induce switching behavior.] 21
A Hierarchical Bayes Model for Assortment Choice. Eric T.
Bradlow and Vithala R. Rao, Journal of Marketing Research, 37
(May 2000), pp. 259–68. [Literature review, Experiment, Set of
eight popular magazines, Effects, Price, Attributes, Features,
Selection, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 22
Impact of Product-Harm Crises on Brand Equity: The Moderating
Role of Consumer Expectations. Niraj Dawar and Madan
M. Pillutla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.
215–26. [Literature review, Expectations–evidence framework,
Hypotheses, Field survey and two laboratory experiments,
Impacts, Consumers’ interpretation of the evidence from firm
response, Managerial implications.] 23
The Evolution of Brand Preferences and Choice Behaviors of
Consumers to a Market. Carrie M. Heilman, Douglas Bowman,
and Gordon P. Wright, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May
2000), pp. 139–55. [Literature review, Logit-mixture model with
time-varying parameters, Consumer panel data, Stages (information
collection, extended to lesser-known brands, information consolidation),
Impacts, Product experience and learning, Statistical
Choosing What I Want Versus Rejecting What I Do Not Want:
An Application of Decision Framing to Product Option Choice
Decisions. C. Whan Park, Sung Youl Jun, and Deborah J. Mac-
Innis, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.
187–202. [Literature review, Model presentation, Hypotheses,
Three studies, Option framing, Psychological reactions, Moderators
(option prices, product category prices, regret anticipation,
product category commitment), Managerial effects.] 25
Assessing a Place to Live: A Quality of Life Perspective. Glen
Riecken, Don Shemwell, and Ugur Yavas, Journal of Nonprofit and
Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 17–29. [Survey of
community leaders, Factors, Weather, Crime, Economy, Education,
Health, Housing, Leisure, Transportation, Arts, Importance/performance
analysis, Policy implications.] 26
Assessing the Effects of Quality, Value, and Customer Satisfaction
on Consumer Behavioral Intentions in Service Environments.
J. Joseph Cronin Jr., Michael K. Brady, and G. Tomas M.
Hult, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 193–218. [Literature
review, Model testing, Hypotheses, Two studies, Multiple
service providers, Direct and indirect effects, Relationships, Statistical
analysis.] 27
1.2 Legal, Political and Economic Issues
See also 51, 102, 151, 176, 188, 198, 199, 203, 227
Ethical and Online Privacy Issues in Electronic Commerce.
Eileen P. Kelly and Hugh C. Rowland, Business Horizons, 43
(May/June 2000), pp. 3–12. [Discussion, Information gathering,
Legal aspects, Freedom of choice, Voluntary and informed consent,
Proposed legislation, Industry reaction, Managerial recommendations.]
28
The Measurement of Intellectual Property Rights Protection.
Robert L. Ostergard Jr., Journal of International Business Studies,
31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp. 349–60. [Discussion, Empirical
research, Comparisons, Countries, Law and enforcement measures,
Protection score analysis (copyright, patent, trademark),
Assessment.] 29
Covenants Not to Compete. Erica B. Garay, Marketing Management,
9 (Summer 2000), pp. 61–63. [Acquisitions and mergers,
Legislation, Court decisions, Enforcing covenants arising in connection
with the sale of a business, Limits to enforcement, Assessment.]
30
U.S. Trust Busters Eye Net Markets. Dan Gottlieb, Purchasing,
128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S67, S69, S72. [Discussion, Net trade
exchanges, Legal aspects, Market power, Major industry players,
Acquisitions and mergers, Anticompetitive effects, Assessment.]
31
See also 28, 151, 210, 228
Representing the Perceived Ethical Work Climate Among
Marketing Employees. Barry J. Babin, James S. Boles, and Donald
P. Robin, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28
(Summer 2000), pp. 345–58. [Literature review, Survey of employees,
Models, Responsibility/trust, Peer behavior, Ethical norms,
Selling practices, Role ambiguity, Role conflict, Job satisfaction,
Organizational commitment, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 32
Crime and Small Business: An Exploratory Study of Cost and
Prevention Issues in U.S. Firms. Donald F. Kuratko, Jeffrey S.
Hornsby, Douglas W. Naffziger, and Richard M. Hodgetts, Journal
review, Survey, Level of concern, Crime prevention actions,
Training provided, Perceptions of crime against business, Annual
cost of crime, Impact of industry type, Statistical anlaysis.] 33
Making Business Sense of Environmental Compliance. Jasbinder
Singh, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.
91–100. [Discussion, Partnerships, Environmental and plant managers,
Savings, Strategies, Review plant operations, Find best times
to install pollution-control equipment and upgrade production
technology, Allocate environmental costs, Integrate business and
environmental decisions, Examples.] 34
Corporate Responsibility Audits: Doing Well by Doing Good.
Sandra Waddock and Neil Smith, Sloan Management Review, 41
(Winter 2000), pp. 75–83. [Vision versus practice, CEO commitment,
Teams, Corporate culture, Mission statement, Stakeholder
elements, Existing policies and practices, Functional areas (human
resources, environmental practices, quality systems, community
relations), Examples.] 35
See also 9, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 77, 82,
83, 85, 86, 90, 96, 97, 98, 106, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121,
122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 134, 135, 145, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154,
161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174,
175, 179, 183, 184, 186, 193, 202, 207, 210, 212, 214, 219, 221,
228
Avoiding the Complexity Trap. Alan Brache and Peter M. Tobia,
Across the Board, 37 (June 2000), pp. 42–46. [Sustainable niches,
Problems, Availability of outsourcing, Broadening capability and
plunging price of technology, Workforce mobility, E-commerce,
Impacts, Focus, Critical resources, Information on costs, Examples.]
36
Laying Off Risk. Stan Davis and Christopher Meyer. Across the
Board, 37 (April 2000), pp. 33–37. [Insuring against risk, Riskrelated
rewards, Organizing around risk, Hedging, Core competencies,
Value creation, Examples.] 37
The Negotiation Industry. Lee Edson, Across the Board, 37
(April 2000), pp. 14–20. [Discussion, Use in hiring process, International,
Special training, Educational initiatives, Win–win model,
Examples.] 38
The Secrets of Performance Appraisal. Dick Grote, Across the
Board, 37 (May 2000), pp. 14–20. [Corporate culture, Organizational
expectations, Identification of specific core competencies,
Evaluation, Mastery descriptions, Role of objectivity, Examples.]
39
Condition Critical. Phillip L. Polakoff and David G. Anderson,
Across the Board, 37 (May 2000), pp. 42–47. [Health and safety
programs, Control, Lost time costs, Risk shifting strategies, Helping
employees manage their own care, Assessment, Guidelines.]
40
The Effects of Formal Strategic Marketing Planning on the
Industrial Firm’s Configuration, Structure, Exchange Patterns,
and Performance. Andy Claycomb, Richard Germain, and
Cornelia Droge, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May
2000), pp. 219–34. [Literature review; Survey (Council of Logistics
Managment); Impacts; Use of integrative committees and
mechanisms, specialization, decentralized decision making, and
formal performance measurement (both internal and benchmarking).]
41
Implementing a Customer Relationship Strategy: The Asymmetric
Impact of Poor Versus Excellent Execution. Mark R.
Colgate and Peter J. Danaher, Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 375–87. [Literature review;
Survey of bank customers; Satisfaction, performance, usage of
bank; Personal banker; Good and bad strategies; Switching activity;
Behavioral intentions; Statistical analysis; New Zealand.] 42
Superordinate Identity in Cross-Functional Product Development
Teams: Its Antecedents and Effect on New Product Performance.
Rajesh Sethi, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
28 (Summer 2000), pp. 330–44. [Literature review,
Hypotheses, Survey of key informants in cross-functional teams,
Impacts, Special team structure, Traditional team factor, Interaction
effects, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 43
Business Planning Practices in Small Size Companies: Survey
Results. Surendra S. Singhvi, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19
(Summer 2000), pp. 3–4, 6, 8. [Primary objectives for preparing a
plan, Responsibility, Planning horizon, Plan update, Achievement,
Annual budget, Board approval, Financial success, Recommendations.]
44
Journal of Business Research, 47 (January 2000), pp. 3–89. [Eight
articles on dynamics of strategy, Executive pay and UK privatization,
Nonprofit organization responses to anticipated changes in
government support for HIV/AIDS services, Evolving complex
organizational structures in new and unpredictable environments,
Innovation teams, Institutional foundations of success and failure,
Impact of technology policy integration on strategy, Business
transformation, Impact of environmentally linked strategies on
competitive advantage, Many countries.] 45
Relationship of Firm Size, Initial Diversification, and Internationalization
with Strategic Change. Parshotam Dass, Journal of
Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 135–46. [Theoretical discussion,
Hypotheses, Data collection (COMPUSTAT II database),
Variables, Initial and changes in product diversity, Industry performance,
Risk, Slack, Firm size, International diversification, Interactions,
Organizational Values: The Inside View of Service Productivity.
Dawn Dobni, J.R. Brent Ritchie, and Wilf Zerbe, Journal of
review, Survey of service firms, Impacts, Employee mutualism,
Market leadership, Customer intimacy, Operational efficiency,
Organizational preservation, Change aversion, Social responsibility,
Value systems (entrepreneurial, performance-pressured, integrated,
temperate), Statistical analysis, Canada.] 47
Firm Characteristics Influencing Export Propensity: An
Empirical Investigation by Industry Type. Rajshekhar G.
Javalgi, D. Steven White, and Oscar Lee, Journal of Business
Hypotheses, Survey, Comparisons, Export versus nonexport firms,
Variables, Number of employees, Total sales, Years in business,
International trade activity, Primary industrial classification, Firm
ownership, Statistical analysis.] 48
Benchmarking Cultural Transition. Roger Connors and Tom
Smith, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
10–12. [Corporate culture, The best benchmarks are keyed to
important before-and-after results the organization must achieve
and to the beliefs and actions that produce those results,
Assessment.] 49
Investigation of Factors Contributing to the Success of Cross-
Functional Teams. Edward F. McDonough III, Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 17 (May 2000), pp. 221–35. [Literature
review, Model presentation, Survey of new product development
professionals, Outcome and process reasons for adopting crossfunctional
teams, Interactions, Stage setters, Enablers, Team
behaviors, Performance, Assessment.] 50
Environmental and Ownership Characteristics of Small Businesses
and Their Impact on Development. William B. Gartner
and Subodh Bhat, Journal of Small Business Management, 38 (July
2000), pp. 14–26. [Literature review, Survey, Growth expectations,
Effects, Crime, Neighborhood appearance, Ethnicity of owner,
Legal structure of firm, Firm type and size, Statistical analysis,
Recommendations.] 51
Strategic Planning in the Military: The U.S. Naval Security
Group Changes Its Strategy, 1992–1998. William Y. Frentzell II,
John M. Bryson, and Barbara C. Crosby, Long Range Planning
(UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 402–29. [Discussion, Creating vision,
Middle and top-level management involvement, Stakeholder and
SWOT analyses, Scenario planning, Cognitive and oval mapping,
Assessment.] 52
The Future.org. Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Grant
Miles, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June 2000), pp. 300–21.
[Collaboration-based organizational model for innovation, Essential
conditions (time, trust, territory), Design principles (selfmanagement,
behavioral protocols, shared strategic intent, equitable
sharing of returns), Barriers (institutional, philosophical,
organizational), Examples.] 53
Business Domain Definition Practice: Does It Affect Organisational
Performance? Jatinder S. Sidhu, Edwin J. Nijssen, and
Harry R. Commandeur, Long Range Planning (UK), 33 (June
2000), pp. 376–401. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Survey of
managers, Focus, Stable versus turbulent environments, Impacts,
Customer need, Technological competence, Assessment, Implications,
The Netherlands.] 54
Marketing Decision Support Systems for Strategy Building.
Sanjay K. Rao, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp.
15–18. [Pharmaceutical products, Customer and market environments,
System outputs (interaction between pricing and other marketing
mix strategies), Cash flows, Outcomes, Assessment.] 55
What’s in a Name? New CPO Title Reflects Buying’s Strategic
Role. William Atkinson, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 45,
49–51. [Chief procurement officer, Organizational structure, Functions,
Responsibilities, Top management support, Implications for
suppliers, Examples.] 56
Supporting a For-Profit Cause. Guy Kawasaki, Sales and Marketing
Management, (May 2000), pp. S16–S19. [Corporate culture,
Customer focused, Morale, Impacts, Creating a good product and
service, Sense of ownership, Training, Empowerment, Support,
Examples.] 57
A Position of Power. Chad Kaydo, Sales and Marketing Management,
(June 2000), pp. 104–106, 108, 110, 112, 114. [Corporate
image, Product positioning, Product differentiation, Factors, Identify
the difference, Make it relevant, Keep it simple, Watch the
Technology Is Not Enough: Improving Performance by Building
Organizational Memory. Rob Cross and Lloyd Baird, Sloan
Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 69–78. [Organizational
learning, Explicit and tacit knowledge, Databases, Social bonding,
Work processes and support systems, Targeting, Structuring,
Embedding, Examples.] 59
Outsourcing Innovation: The New Engine of Growth. James
Brian Quinn, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.
13–28. [Discussion, Basic and early-stage research, Business
processes, New-product introductions, Impacts, Resource limits,
Specialist talents, Multiple risks, Attracting talent, Speed, Examples.]
60
Leading Laterally in Company Outsourcing. Michael Useem
and Joseph Harder, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Winter 2000),
pp. 25–38. [Personal interviews, Senior managers, Leadership
capabilities (strategic thinking, deal making, partnership governing,
managing change), Assessment.] 61
2.2 Retailing
See also 73, 87, 96, 99, 100, 105, 109, 110, 132, 133, 215, 224
A Longitudinal Analysis of Satisfaction and Profitability. Kenneth
L. Bernhardt, Naveen Donthu, and Pamela A. Kennett, Journal
of Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 161–71. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Impacts, Customer
and employee satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,
Fast-food restaurant industry.] 62
Towards Understanding Consumer Response to Stock-Outs.
Katia Campo, Els Gijsbrechts, and Patricia Nisol, Journal of
Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 219–42. [Literature review;
Model estimation; Store intercept; Characteristics (product, consumer,
situation); Costs; Impacts; Item, package size, and store
switching; Purchase deferment and cancellation; Statistical analysis;
Belgium.] 63
Attention, Retailers! How Convenient Is Your Convenience
Strategy? Kathleen Seiders, Leonard L. Berry, and Larry G. Gresham,
Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp. 79–89.
[Trends; Access, possession, and transaction convenience; Locating
the right product; Integrated approach; Examples.] 64
Customer Relationship Management. Susan Reda, Stores, 82
(April 2000), pp. 33–36. [Target markets, Databases, Software
packages, Consultants, Role of marketing department, Examples.]
65
Real Estate, Customer Research Become Key Tools in Service
Merchandise Revival. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
118, 120, 122. [Discussion, Consultants, Customer profiles, Product
categories, Point-of-sale information, Software packages, Web
site, Internet alliances, Trade area analysis, Case study.] 66
Rethinking the Rules. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
34–35, 38. [Retailing industry, Impacts, Online revolution, Confronting
new realities, More fluid environment, Logistics expertise,
Acquisition strategy, Bricks-and-mortar advantages, Examples.]
67
See also 56, 84, 91, 92, 94, 95, 104, 147, 163, 165, 185, 190
Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (July 2000), pp. 285–386.
[Nine articles on business marketing networks, Implementing programmatic
initiatives in manufacturer–retailer networks, Supplier
relations, Interconnectedness, Strategic alliances, Partner as customer,
Relationship strategy, Quality, Customer retention, Purchasing
behavior, Satisfaction in industrial markets.] 68
On Interfirm Power, Channel Climate, and Solidarity in Industrial
Distributor–Supplier Dyads. Keysuk Kim, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp. 388–405.
[Literature review, Model estimation, Hypotheses, Survey, Measures,
Supplier and distributor power, Coercive and noncoercive
influence strategy, Trust, Relationship continuity, Solidarity, Statistical
analysis.] 69
A Brand’s Advertising and Promotion Allocation Strategy: The
Role of the Manufacturer’s Relationship with Distributors as
Moderated by Relative Market Share. Kenneth Anselmi, Journal
review; Hypotheses; Survey of manufacturers; As exchange relationships
become more relational, manufacturers increase advertising
allocations; More discrete relationships, increase allocation to
promotion; Market share moderates the influence of exchange relationship
type.] 70
Relationship Marketing Activities, Commitment, and Membership
Behaviors in Professional Associations. Thomas W.
Gruen, John O. Summers, and Frank Acito, Journal of Marketing,
64 (July 2000), pp. 34–49. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Hypotheses, Survey of life insurance agents, Measures, Commitment
(affective, continuance, normative), Impacts, Membership
retention, Exchange-based participation, Cooperatively based
coproduction, Statistical analysis.] 71
Sales Through Sequential Distribution Channels: An Application
to Movies and Videos. Donald R. Lehmann and Charles B.
Weinberg, Journal of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 18–33. [Literature
review, Model structure and analysis, Data from 35 movies,
Exponential sales curves, Optimal release times, Assessment.] 72
Control Mechanisms and the Relationship Life Cycle: Implications
for Safeguarding Specific Investments and Developing
Commitment. Sandy D. Jap and Shankar Ganesan, Journal of
Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 227–45. [Literature
review, Conceptual framework, Hypotheses, Survey of retailers,
Measures, Transaction-specific investments, Relational norms,
Explicit contracts, Supplier’s commitment, Performance, Conflict
level, Relationship satisfaction and phase, Interdependence magnitude
and asymmetry, Statistical analysis.] 73
Organizing Distribution Channels for Information Goods on
the Internet. Rajiv Dewan, Marshall Freimer, and Abraham Seidmann,
Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 483–95. [Electronic
commerce, Electronic publishing, Digital and pricing content,
Internet service providers, Industrial organization, Spatial
competition, Industry structure, Assessment, Managerial implications.]
74
Price Protection in the Personal Computer Industry. Hau L.
Lee, V. Padmanabhan, Terry A. Taylor, and Seungjin Whang, Management
Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 467–82. [Literature review,
Obsolescence-prone market, Single- and two-buying-opportunity
models, Channel coordination, Supply chain management, Incentives,
Numerical example.] 75
Pursuing Risk-Sharing, Gain-Sharing Arrangements. James
B.L. Thomson and James C. Anderson, Marketing Management, 9
(Summer 2000), pp. 40–47. [Customer–supplier relations, Market
strategy, Implementation (assess customer measurement systems,
determine products and services, build historical database, measurement
responsibility, sharing risks and gains, outline specific
actions and initiate the agreement), Case study, Hospital supply
industry.] 76
Distributors: How Good Are They? James P. Morgan, Purchasing,
128 (May 4, 2000), pp. 50–52, 54, 58. [Survey of purchasing
professionals, Percentage of companies’ purchases, Product categories,
Needs priorities, Performance ratings, Use of e-business
tools, Problems (prices, delivery, damage, cost control, e-business,
inventory, personnel, information), Slow implementation, Examples.]
77
See also 3, 5, 28, 31, 67, 74, 77, 128, 132, 133, 151, 179, 184, 213
Beating the Banner Ad. Christine Blank, American Demographics,
22 (June 2000), pp. 42–44. [E-mail campaigns, Target markets,
Entertainment, Multisensory, Interactive, Click-and-play video
messages, Rich media, Costs, Examples.] 78
Mouse-Trapping the Student Market. Rebecca Gardyn, American
Demographics, 22 (May 2000), pp. 30, 32–34. [In-school marketing,
Ad-supported mousepads, Effectiveness, Comparisons,
Internet banner ads, Online sweepstakes, Newspaper ads, Case
study.] 79
Cracking the Niche. Christina Le Beau, American Demographics,
22 (June 2000), pp. 38–40. [Online marketing, Market segments,
Web-based groups with focused interests, Becoming part of a community,
Examples.] 80
Internet: A Vehicle for On-line Shopping.Venkatakrishna V. Bellur,
Finnish Journal of Business and Economics, 49 (No. 2, 2000),
pp. 191–207. [Literature review, Survey of households, Demographic
and socioeconomic profile, Internet access and usage rates,
Impacts, Occupation, Income, Discriminant analysis.] 81
Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp. 84–114.
[Three articles on e-business, Syndication, Roles, Structure, Business-
to-business marketplaces, E-hubs, Integrating virtual and
physical operations, Examples.] 82
How to Acquire Customers on the Web. Donna L. Hoffman and
Thomas P. Novak, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000),
pp. 179–80, 183–86, 188. [Discussion, Banner ads, Affiliate marketing,
Integrated strategy (mass media, online advertising, strategic
partnerships, word of mouth, free links, PR), Examples.] 83
The All-in-One Market. Paul Nunes, Diane Wilson, and Ajit
Kambil, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.
19–20. [Trends, Evolution, Online transactions, Mechanisms, Price
Going Up! Vertical Marketing on the Web. Sunny Baker and
Kim Baker, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
30–33. [Discussion, Mission, Customer needs, Market segments,
Building awareness, E-commerce strategy, Assessment.] 85
The Eight Deadly Assumptions of E-Business. Alan Brache and
Jim Webb, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
13–17. [Discussion, Technology is the answer, Get on the e-business
bandwagon, Expand the customer base, Enables global expansion,
Reengineering will help to better serve e-business needs, Web
sites will ensure more e-business, Delegate development and
implementation to the IT department or to a consultant, Going digital
quickly, Assessment.] 86
Frictionless Commerce? A Comparison of Internet and Conventional
Retailers. Erik Brynjolfsson and Michael D. Smith,
Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 563–85. [Literature
review, Data collection, Competition, Price changes, Menu costs,
Price dispersion, Asymmetrically informed consumers and search
costs, Product and retailer heterogeneity, Assessment.] 87
Debunking the Myths of Web Site Promotion. Joyce Flory, Marketing
Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 31–35. [Discussion,
Site registration, Registration services, Search engines, Specific
types of information, Impacts, Promotion efforts, Awards,
Press releases, Contests and giveaways, Success, Guidelines.] 88
Branding on the Internet. Larry Chiagouris and Brant Wansley,
Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 34–38. [Discussion,
Relationship-building continuum, Impacts, E-branding tactics,
Measurement issues, Examples.] 89
Ride or Drive? Ralph A. Oliva, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer
2000), pp. 58–60. [Web-based hubs, Driving (starting your
own digital marketplace for multiple buyers and sellers), Riding
(signing on to a hub run by another firm), Managing cognitive
spaces, Spin ups, Hub wars, Ride versus drive, Assessment.] 90
Buyers Are Hot on Internet, Wary About E-Procurement. Purchasing,
128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S6–S7, S10, S13. [Survey, Attitudes,
Communications (requests for information and quotes from
suppliers, shipments tracking and expediting, ordering), Costs,
Ease of use, Security, Reliability, Current or projected use, Examples.]
91
E-Auction Model Morphs to Meet Buyers’ Needs. Anne Millen
Porter, Purchasing, 128 (June 15, 2000), pp. S31–S32, S34, S36,
S39, S40, S44, S46. [Discussion, Reverse e-auctions, Bidding
involving many suppliers, Impacts, Profit margins, Consultants,
Software packages, Requirements, Transactions, Markets, Outsourcing,
Examples.] 92
Cashing In. Ginger Conlon, Sales and Marketing Management,
(June 2000), pp. 94–96, 102. [Business growth, Dot-com businesses,
Market potentials, Factors, Understand the audience, Act
quickly, Risk, Stability, Examples.] 93
Why Dealers Must Buy In to the Web. Brent Keltner, Sales and
Marketing Management, (April 2000), pp. 29–30. [Discussion,
Benefits, Strategies, Focus on underperforming products, Integrate
sales and marketing, Offer incentives, Provide technical support,
Examples.] 94
Clicks and Misses. Melinda Ligos, Sales and Marketing Management,
(June 2000), pp. 68–70, 72, 74, 76. [E-business, Problems,
Alienating channel partners, Not focusing on core competencies,
Not integrating customer service systems, Trying to serve mass
market instead of existing customers, Not involving salespeople,
Not knowing when to outsource, Examples.] 95
Finding Sustainable Profitability in Electronic Commerce.
John M. de Figueiredo, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer
2000), pp. 41–52. [E-commerce product continuum, Market strategy
(commodity products, quasi commodity, look and feel goods,
look and feel with variable quality), Incumbents versus new
entrants, Sustaining competitive advantage, Examples.] 96
Fast Venturing: The Quick Way to Start Web Businesses. Ajit
Kambil, Erik D. Eselius, and Karen A. Monteiro, Sloan Management
Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp. 55–67. [Model presentation;
Roles (innovators, equity and operational partners); Stages (illumination,
investigation, implementation); Why, when, and how companies
should fast venture; Venture networks; Examples.] 97
Building Stronger Brands Through Online Communities. Gil
McWilliam, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Spring 2000), pp.
43–54. [Discussion, Traditional user groups, Forum for exchange
of common interests, Attracting new members, Links to other sites,
Brand owner’s control over content, Skills needed to manage
online communities, Examples.] 98
Domain Names Emerge as Key Tools for On-line Retail Marketing.
Jennifer Karas, Stores, 82 (May 2000), pp. 94, 96, 98. [Discussion,
Name by which a company is known on the Internet,
Advantages, Professional and credible Web presence, Name competition,
Examples.] 99
In-Store Interactive Systems Take on Major Role in Drawing
Technology-Savvy Customers. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (May
2000), pp. 44, 46, 48. [Study, Integration of online and in-store
activities (digital signage, electronic messaging, kiosks), Consumer
expectations, Shopping behavior, Examples.] 100
See also 67, 111, 147, 194, 195
Early Supplier Involvement in Customer New Product Development:
A Contingency Model of Component Supplier Intentions.
Douglas W. LaBahn and Robert Krapfel, Journal of Business
Hypotheses, Survey, Customer power advantage, Adherence to
agreements, Customer promise, Supplier intentions, Interdependence,
Statistical analysis, Implications.] 101
An Industry Still in Need of Integration. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,
128 (May 18, 2000), pp. 147, 149–50. [Business growth,
Intermodal transport, Acquisitions and mergers, Government regulation,
Examples.] 102
Service Providers Under Pressure to Control Rates. Brian Milligan,
Purchasing, 128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 113, 116–17, 119,
121. [Transportation, Third-party logistics, Industry growth, Purchasing
managers, Time constraints, Bundled services, Costs,
Internet investments, Software packages, Examples.] 103
Supply Chain Software Moves to the Web. Brian Milligan, Purchasing,
128 (April 6, 2000), pp. 67–68. [Transportation, Impacts,
Business processes, Forecasting shipments, Demand forecasts,
Meeting anticipated transportation requirements, Needed improvements,
Examples.] 104
E-Replenishment System Counters Continuing Problem of
Supermarket Out-of-Stocks. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (April
2000), pp. 70, 72. [Supply chain initiatives, POS system investments,
Scanning data, Software packages, Collaborative planning,
Initialization, Execution, Monitoring, Examples.] 105
2.6 Pricing
See also 55, 75, 84, 87, 103, 113
Industrial Export Pricing Practices in the United Kingdom.
Nikolaos Tzokas, Susan Hart, Paraskevas Argouslidis, and Michael
Saren, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.
191–204. [Literature review, Survey of export marketing directors
from three industrial sectors, High and low competence firms, Pricing
orientations, Objectives, Policies, Methods used, Statistical
analysis, Managerial implications, UK.] 106
Advertised Reference Price Effects on Consumer Price Estimates,
Value Perception, and Search Intention. Bruce L. Alford
and Brian T. Engelland, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May
2000), pp. 93–100. [Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment,
Plausible and implausible price exposure conditions, Statistical
analysis, Practical implications.] 107
An Investigation of Reference Price Segments. Tridib Mazumdar
and Purushottam Papatla, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May
2000), pp. 246–58. [Literature review, Model development, Data
collection (ERIM scanner panel of ACNielsen), Use of internal and
external reference prices, Brand preferences and responses to
marketing-mix variables, Statistical analysis, Managerial
implications.] 108
Insights into Cross- and Within-Store Price Search: Retailer
Estimates vs. Consumer Self-Reports. Joel E. Urbany, Peter R.
Dickson, and Alan G. Sawyer, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer
2000), pp. 243–58. [Literature review, Surveys, Attitudes, Consumer
patronage behavior, Price comparison frequency, Search for
and responsiveness to price specials, Belief discrepancies, Assessment,
Theoretical and managerial implications.] 109
Burden of Frequent Price Changes Spurs Development of
Automated Pricing Systems. Michael Hartnett, Stores, 82 (May
2000), pp. 56, 58. [Retail chains; Software packages; Category
management; Pricing rules can be applied to maintain family group
and parity pricing by item, flavor, size, brand, competitor’s pricing,
margins, and the retailer’s value image.] 110
2.7 Product
See also 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 43, 50, 55, 58, 60,
63, 70, 89, 98, 101, 108, 135, 145, 147, 148, 154, 155, 167, 170,
173, 206
Product Development Partnerships: Balancing the Needs of
OEMs and Suppliers. Morgan L. Swink and Vincent A. Mabert,
Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 59–68. [Discussion,
OEM needs (providers of scarce resources and capabilities, support
of global product strategies, minimized risks), Supplier needs
(rewards for up-front involvement, protected business interests,
shared wealth), Success, Guidelines.] 111
Building an Innovation Factory. Andrew Hargadon and Robert I.
Sutton, Harvard Business Review, 78 (May/June 2000), pp.
157–66. [Knowledge-brokering cycle, Factors, Capturing new
ideas, Keeping ideas alive, Imagining new uses for old ideas,
Putting promising concepts to the test, Examples.] 112
Price and Brand Name as Indicators of Quality Dimensions for
Consumer Durables. Merrie Brucks, Valarie A. Zeithaml, and
Gillian Naylor, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28
(Summer 2000), pp. 359–74. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Hypotheses, Laboratory experiment, Ease of use, Versatility,
Durability, Service ability, Performance, Prestige, Consumers’
judgment processes and inferences, Statistical analysis.] 113
Introducing Short-Term Brands: A New Branding Tool for a
New Consumer Reality. Dan Herman, Journal of Brand Management
(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 330–40. [Changes in consumer preferences
and behavior, Market strategy, Evolving and variety
brands, Planned limited life expectancies, Value added, Examples.]
114
A Survey of Brand Risk Management. Rory F. Knight and Deborah
J. Pretty, Journal of Brand Management (UK), 7 (May 2000),
pp. 353–65. [Discussion; Brand significance and perception; Core
qualities of brands across regions, industry sectors, and organizational
position; Threats; Protection mechanisms; Brand insurance;
Brand valuation; Assessment; Many countries.] 115
Call Branding: Identifying, Leveraging, and Managing New
Branding Opportunities. Kevin M. Waters, Journal of Brand
Management (UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 321–29. [Modifying a brand
to correspond with its verbal identity (Kraft Mayo, FedEx), Partial
declaration and use, Acronyms, Success, Guidelines.] 116
The Incumbent’s Curse? Incumbency, Size, and Radical Product
Innovation. Rajesh K. Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, Journal of
Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 1–17. [Literature review; Data collection
(more than 250 books and 500 articles); Recently, large
firms and incumbents are significantly more likely to introduce
radical innovations than small firms and nonincumbents; Nationality;
Implications.] 117
Impact of a Late Entrant on the Diffusion of a New
Product/Service. Trichy V. Krishnan, Frank M. Bass, and V.
Kumar, Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp.
269–78. [Model testing, Mathematical equations, Brand-level sales
data in multiple markets, Effects, Market potentials, Diffusion
speed of the category and of incumbent brands, Statistical
analysis.] 118
Customization of Product Technology and International New
Product Success: Mediating Effects of New Product Development
and Rollout Timeliness. George M. Chryssochoidis and
Veronica Wong, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17
(July 2000), pp. 268–85. [Literature review, Model proposal,
Hypotheses, Interviews with managers in multinational companies,
Impacts, Scheduling, Individual country requirements, Statistical
analysis.] 119
Company Competencies as a Network: The Role of Product
Development. Hanne Harmsen, Klaus G. Grunert, and Karsten
Bove, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May 2000),
pp. 194–207. [Literature review, Survey of managers, Rankings,
Perceived success factors and problems, Assessment, Implications.]
120
Harnessing Tacit Knowledge to Achieve Breakthrough Innovation.
Ronald Mascitelli, Journal of Product Innovation Management,
17 (May 2000), pp. 179–93. [Discussion, Model presentation,
Methods, Achieve emotional commitment and personal
involvement from design team members, Use of early and frequent
prototyping, Face-to-face interaction during product development,
Examples, Managerial implications.] 121
Technological Innovativeness as a Moderator of New Product
Design Integration and Top Management Support. Morgan
Swink, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 17 (May
Hypotheses, Study of new product development projects, Effects,
Financial performance, Design quality, Time-based performance,
Interactions, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 122
Consumer-Level Factors Moderating the Success of Private
Label Brands. Rajeev Batra and Indrajit Sinha, Journal of Retailing,
76 (Summer 2000), pp. 175–91. [Literature review, Model
estimation, Mall-intercept study, Measures (consequences of purchase
mistake, degree of quality variation in category, search versus
experience nature of category, price consciousness), Statistical
analysis, Managerial implications.] 123
Choosing the Right Branding Expert.Victoria Barkan and Debra
Semans, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 29–31.
[Discussion, Understanding your needs, Approach/methodology,
Objectivity and bias, Experience, Future perspective, Leadingedge
thinking, Benchmark results, Client satisfaction, Stay
involved and visible, Assessment.] 124
Market-Driven Product Development. Stephan A. Butscher and
Michael Laker, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp.
48–53. [Target-costing pricing approach, Definition of target segments,
Competitive advantages and disadvantages, Product positioning,
Fine-tuning product design and pricing, Market simulations,
Target costs, Examples.] 125
Brand Waves: Building Momentum Throughout the Ownership
Cycle. Peter H. Farquhar, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer
2000), pp. 14–21. [Discussion, Ownership cycle, Trigger,
Consideration, Drivers (awareness, relevance, differentiation, quality,
affordability, availability), Conversion, Purchase and confirmation,
Taking credit, Value, Examples.] 126
How to Build a Billion Dollar Business-to-Business Brand. Don
E. Schultz and Heidi F. Schultz, Marketing Management, 9 (Summer
2000), pp. 22–28. [Discussion; Evolution of b-to-b companies;
Product-, distribution-, and customer-driven; Brand structures and
policies; Building and development; Communication; Measuring
results; Example.] 127
2.8 Sales Promotion
See also 70, 75, 88
Redeeming Qualities. Jennifer Lach, American Demographics, 22
(May 2000), pp. 36–38. [Study, Incentives, S&H greenpoints.com,
Online participation, Customer retention, Age groups, Incomes,
Effectiveness, Examples.] 128
An Evaluation of State Sponsored Promotion Programs. Timothy
J. Wilkinson and Lance Eliot Brouthers, Journal of Business
Research, 47 (March 2000), pp. 229–36. [Data collection (relationships
between program offerings and state exports), Variables
(direct exports, trade shows, trade missions, foreign offices, market
information activities, population), Statistical analysis,
Implications.] 129
Money Isn’t Everything. Vincent Alonzo, Sales and Marketing
Management, (April 2000), pp. 47–48. [Sweepstakes, Appeals,
Effectiveness, Impacts, Long-term sales, Offering prizes appropriate
for clients, Examples.] 130
The Shows Will Go On. Danielle Harris, Sales and Marketing
Management, (May 2000), pp. 85–88. [Discussion, Trade shows,
Factors, Increasing booth traffic and generating quality leads,
Motivating salespeople, Budgets, Examples.] 131
Internet Retailers Shift Focus from Attracting to Retaining
On-line Customers. Maureen Licata, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
66, 68, 70, 72. [Value-focused customers, Loyalty incentives, Discounts,
Giveaways, Contests, Sweepstakes, Free shipping, Customer
databases, Impacts, Content, Community, Communication,
Examples.] 132
Electronic Coupons Find Growing Uses for Both Stores and ECommerce
Sites. Tony Seideman, Stores, 82 (April 2000), pp.
104, 106. [Target markets, Flexibility, Costs, Customer databases,
Profiles, Effectiveness, Examples.] 133
2.9 Advertising
See also 2, 3, 7, 8, 15, 70, 78, 79, 80, 83, 152, 159, 177, 197, 224
Who’s Next? Richard Linnett, Advertising Age, 71 (May 29,
2000), pp. 12, 15. [Strategic planning, Advertising agencies, Competitive
advantage, Acquisitions and mergers, Impacts, Clients,
Business growth, Examples.] 134
Linking Advertising and Brand Value. Irene M. Herremans,
John K. Ryans Jr., and Raj Aggarwal, Business Horizons, 43
(May/June 2000), pp. 19–26. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Advertising turnover, Marketing investment, Product quality,
Market share, Study of firms, High- and low-efficiency brand
enhancers, Brand deterioration, Future unknown, Neglect,
Examples.] 135
Narrative Music in Congruent and Incongruent TV Advertising.
Kineta Hung, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring 2000), pp.
25–34. [Literature review, Content analysis, Experiment, Meanings
associated with ad components and commercials, Textual elaboration,
Assessment.] 136
The Impact of Verbal Anchoring on Consumer Response to
Image Ads. Barbara J. Phillips, Journal of Advertising, 29 (Spring
2000), pp. 15–24. [Literature review, Experiment, Attitude toward
the ad, Presence and level of verbal anchoring, Comprehension,
Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–52.
[Four articles on creativity; Recall, liking, and creativity in TV
commercials; Creative differences between copywriters and art
directors; Correlates of integrated marketing communications;
Customer/brand loyalty in the interactive marketplace.] 138
Advertising Attitudes and Advertising Effectiveness. Abhilasha
Mehta, Journal of Advertising Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp.
67–72. [Literature review, Data collection (Magazine Impact
Research Systems), Measures, Attitudinal statements, Intrusiveness/
recall, Persuasion/buying interest, Statistical analysis, Implications.]
139
See also 11, 142, 217, 218
Sales Call Anxiety: Exploring What It Means When Fear Rules
a Sales Encounter.Willem Verbeke and Richard P. Bagozzi, Journal
of Marketing, 64 (July 2000), pp. 88–101. [Literature review,
Model testing, Hypotheses, Survey of salespeople, Factors, Negative
self-evaluations, Negative evaluations from customers, Physiological
symptoms, Protective actions, Statistical analysis, The
Netherlands.] 140
Independents Day. Dan Hanover, Sales and Marketing Management,
(April 2000), pp. 64–66, 68. [Independent sales reps, Motivation,
Communication, Support, Rewards, Short-term bonus and
incentives programs, Examples.] 141
See also 57, 93, 95, 130, 131, 140, 141, 147, 213
Comparisons of Alternative Perceptions of Sales Performance.
Paul A. Dion and Peter M. Banting, Industrial Marketing Management,
29 (May 2000), pp. 263–70. [Study of industrial market triads
(salesperson, sales manager, buyer), There were assessment
discrepancies in addition to what constituted good performance,
Gender evaluation, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.]
142
Driving Down Costs. Christine Galea, Sales and Marketing Management,
(May 2000), pp. 102–104, 106, 108, 110. [Corporate
cars, Strategy, Industry, Lease or own, Depreciation, Fuel concerns,
Vehicle duration, Reselling, Buy from one manufacturer,
Managing risk, Examples.] 143
Masterful Meetings. Erin Strout, Sales and Marketing Management,
(May 2000), pp. 68–72, 74, 76. [Discussion, Planning,
Choose destination carefully to set the right tone, Set straightforward
agenda, Stick to budget, Develop postmeeting action
plans.] 144
3.1 Industrial
See also 41, 46, 50, 56, 68, 69, 77, 101, 106, 111, 119, 121, 122,
142, 163, 164, 166, 173, 193, 194, 195, 212, 217
Marketing High Technology: Preparation, Targeting, Positioning,
Execution. Chris Easingwood and Anthony Koustelos, Business
Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 27–34. [Discussion; Market
strategy; Supply to OEMs; Market education; Distribution;
Target innovative adopters, pragmatists, conservatives, current customers,
competitors’ customers; Emphasize exclusivity, low price,
technological superiority; Execution; Examples.] 145
Do Trade-Offs Exist in Operations Strategy? Insights from the
Stamping Die Industry. Mark Pagell, Steve Melnyk, and Robert
Handfield, Business Horizons, 43 (May/June 2000), pp. 69–77.
[Study of firms, Performance, Comparisons, Strategic advantages
and disadvantages, Relative fixed costs and lead time, Employee
commitment, Assessment.] 146
Strategic Selling in the Age of Modules and Systems. John W.
Henke, Industrial Marketing Management, 29 (May 2000), pp.
271–84. [Discussion, OEM impediments to module and system
acquisition, Developing a sales strategy, Capabilities and
resources, Cooperation among participating suppliers, Design considerations,
Markup practices, Supply chain management experience,
Case study, Automotive industry.] 147
Differential Effects of the Primary Forms of Cross Functional
Integration on Product Development Cycle Time. J. Daniel
Sherman, William E. Souder, and Svenn A. Jenssen, Journal of
Product Innovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 257–67. [Literature
review; Survey of high-technology firms; Variables; Integration
of knowledge from past projects; R&D/customer, marketing,
manufacturing, supplier integration; Strategic partnership
integration; Statistical analysis; US and Scandinavian firms.] 148
Prepping the Supply Base for Leaner Supply Systems. Tom
Stundza, Purchasing, 128 (June 1, 2000), pp. 62–64, 66, 68. [Supplier
development programs, Quality control processes, Material
resource planning, Just-in-time delivery, Make or buy studies,
Component kitting, Best supplier evaluations, Outsourcing,
Improving performance, Implementation, Case study, Aerospace
industry.] 149
See also 26, 52, 129, 158, 180, 208
Demographics, Personality Traits, Roles, Motivations, and
Attrition Rates of Hospice Volunteers. Becky J. Starnes and Walter
W. Wymer Jr., Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing,
7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 61–76. [Literature review, Volunteer profile,
Services to patients and families, Religious beliefs, Personal
experiences, Training and expectations, Assessment.] 150
See also 13, 29, 38, 42, 45, 46, 48, 54, 63, 106, 115, 117, 119, 129,
140, 148, 177, 188, 189, 191, 200, 201, 211, 216, 223
Privacy on the Net: Europe Changes the Rules. William J.
Scheibal and Julia Alpert Gladstone, Business Horizons, 43
(May/June 2000), pp. 13–18. [Discussion, Legal aspects, Business
impact, EU privacy directive, Impacts, US, Assessment.] 151
Color Usage in International Business-to-Business Print
Advertising. Irvine Clarke III and Earl D. Honeycutt Jr., Industrial
review, Hypotheses, Content analysis, Comparisons, Black/white
ads, Color distribution by magazine, Cultural meanings, Managerial
implications, France, US, Venezuela.] 152
Managing International Joint Venture Relationships: A Longitudinal
Perspective. Akmal S. Hyder and Pervez N. Ghauri,
[Literature review, Model presentation, In-depth interviews,
Motives, Resources, Learning, Network, Performance, Case studies,
Telecommunications industry, Sweden, India.] 153
Positioned for Success: Branding in the Czech Brewing Industry.
Chris Lewis and Angela Vickerstaff, Journal of Brand Management
(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 341–52. [Literature review,
Brand appeals (function, image and personality), Market strategy,
Price, Quality, Traditional, Modern, Effects, Foreign ownership
and expertise, Case studies.] 154
Country of Branding: A Review and Research Propositions.
Ian Phau and Gerard Prendergast, Journal of Brand Management
(UK), 7 (May 2000), pp. 366–75. [Literature review, Hypotheses,
Quality perceptions, Brand image, Country of branding versus
country of manufacturing, Luxury brands, Development of country,
High versus low involvement, Assessment, Asia.] 155
Forecasting Practices in the Pharmaceutical Industry in Singapore.
Louis Choo, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer
2000), pp. 18–20. [Survey, Extent of involvement, Purpose of forecasts,
Techniques used, Sources of information, Forecast drivers,
Assessment.] 156
A Systematic Approach to Tourism Policy. Jafar Alavi and Mahmoud
M. Yasin, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.
147–56. [Discussion, Revenues, Model presentation, Mathematical
equations, Effects (areawide, region-mix, competitive, allocation),
Statistical data, Shift-share analysis, Policy implications, Many
countries.] 157
Marketing of a Financial Innovation: Commercial Use of the
Euro by European Companies Prior to Mandatory Adoption.
Yvonne M. van Everdingen and Gary J. Bamossy, Journal of Business
Research, 48 (May 2000), pp. 123–33. [Theoretical discussion,
Model presentation, Survey of firms, Measures, Perceived
innovation characteristics, Perceptions of political and business
environment, Organizational characteristics, Internal communication
behavior, Adoption behavior, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.]
158
Effect of a Buy-National Campaign on Member Firm Performance.
Graham D. Fenwick and Cameron I. Wright, Journal of
review, Survey, Comparisons, Nonparticipating firms, Staff member
and domestic sales changes, Statistical analysis, New Zealand.]
159
Global Sourcing, Multiple Country-of-Origin Facets, and Consumer
Reactions. Zhan G. Li, L. William Murray, and Don Scott,
Journal of Business Research, 47 (February 2000), pp. 121–33.
[Literature review, Hypotheses, Experiment, Comparisons, Country-
of-design, Assembly, Corporation, Dimensions (functional,
symbolic, overall quality), Statistical analysis, Implications.] 160
New Rules for Global Markets. Richard W. Oliver, Journal of
Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 7–9. [Discussion;
Competitive strategies; Think and act globally; Focus on ethnic
group, not country; Focus on neighbors first; Focus on the cities;
Culture is an important barrier; Use global market muscle; Focus
south, not east–west; Develop new mind-set.] 161
Mode of International Entry: An Isomorphism Perspective.
Peter S. Davis, Ashay B. Desai, and John D. Francis, Journal of
International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter 2000), pp.
239–58. [Literature review, Model development, Hypotheses, Survey
of firms, Pressures to conform to behavioral norms within
environments, Comparisons, Wholly owned, Exporting, Joint ventures,
Licensing agreements, Statistical analysis.] 162
The Determinants of Trust in Supplier–Automaker Relationships
in the U.S., Japan, and Korea. Jeffrey H. Dyer and Wujin
Chu, Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (Second Quarter
Hypotheses, Personal interviews, Measures, Length of relationship,
Face-to-face communication, Relationship continuity, Assistance
to supplier, Stock ownership, Statistical analysis.] 163
Social Ties and Foreign Market Entry. Paul Ellis, Journal of
International Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp.
443–69. [Literature review, Propositions, Interviews with experienced
members of manufacturing firms, Knowledge of foreign
market opportunities is commonly acquired through existing interpersonal
links rather than through market research, Hong Kong.]
164
Process Standardization Across Intra- and Inter-cultural Relationships.
David A. Griffith, Michael Y. Hu, and John K. Ryans Jr.,
Hypotheses, Survey of distributors, Measures, Trust, Commitment,
Conflict, Satisfaction, Statistical analysis, Managerial implications,
Canada, Chile, Mexico, US.] 165
Productivity Spillovers from Foreign Direct Investment: Evidence
from UK Industry Level Panel Data. Xia ming Liu,
Pamela Siler, Chengqi Wang, and Yingqi Wei, Journal of International
Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 407–25. [Literature
review, Model presentation, Impacts, Situations in which
host country is developed, Introduction of advanced technology,
The International Biotechnology Industry: A Dynamic Capabilities
Perspective. Anoop Madhok and Thomas Osegowitsch,
2000), pp. 325–35. [International diffusion of technology, Propositions,
Organizational form and geographic flows, Transactions,
Licensing and marketing agreements, Research agreements, Joint
ventures, Acquisition, New subsidiaries, Composite groupings,
Assessment, Implications.] 167
National Culture and Strategic Change in Belief Formation.
Livia Markoczy, Journal of International Business Studies, 31
(Third Quarter 2000), pp. 427–42. [Literature review, Study of
Hungarian organizations recently acquired by Anglo-Saxon partners,
Individual beliefs, Causal relationships, Impacts, Being a
member of the functional area favored by the strategic change, Statistical
analysis.] 168
Synergy, Managerialism or Hubris? An Empirical Examination
of Motives for Foreign Acquisitions of U.S. Firms. Anju
Seth, Kean P. Song, and Richardson Pettit, Journal of International
Business Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 387–405. [Theoretical
discussion, Testable hypotheses and empirical predictions,
Data collection, Relationship between target gains and acquirer
gains, Total gains, Statistical analysis.] 169
Knowledge Flows in the Global Innovation System: Do U.S.
Firms Share More Scientific Knowledge Than Their Japanese
Rivals? Jennifer W. Spencer, Journal of International Business
Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 521–530. [Discussion,
Hypotheses, Data collection (firms’ publication and citation patterns),
Japanese firms appropriated no more knowledge from the
global community than their US counterparts, Statistical analysis.]
170
The Management Implications of Ethnicity in South Africa.
Adele Thomas and Mike Bendixen, Journal of International Business
Studies, 31 (Third Quarter 2000), pp. 507–19. [Literature
review, Hypotheses, Interviews with middle managers, Both management
culture and perceived management effectiveness were
found to be independent of both race and the dimensions of culture,
Implications.] 171
A Case for Comparative Entrepreneurship: Assessing the Relevance
of Culture. Anisya S. Thomas and Stephen L. Mueller,
2000), pp. 287–301. [Literature review, Survey of students, Measures,
Innovativeness, Locus of control, Risk-taking, Energy level,
Impacts, Cultural distance, Many countries.] 172
Customer-Driven Product Development Through Quality
Function Deployment in the U.S. and Japan. John J. Cristiano,
Jeffrey K. Liker, and Chelsea C. White III, Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 17 (July 2000), pp. 286–308. [Literature
review; Survey of companies; US companies reported a higher
degree of quality function deployment usage, management support,
cross-functional support, data sources, benefits; Assessment.]
173
Venture Capitalist Involvement in Portfolio Companies:
Insights from South Africa. Michael H. Morris, John W. Watling,
and Minet Schindehutte, Journal of Small Business Management,
38 (July 2000), pp. 68–77. [Literature review, Survey, Types of
companies in which venture capitalists prefer to invest, Factors
influencing involvement, Areas of involvement, Interactions, Statistical
International Competition in Mixed Industries. Roland Calori,
Tugrul Atamer, and Pancho Nunes, Long Range Planning (UK), 33
(June 2000), pp. 349–75. [Discussion, Formation of regional competitive
territories, Dual effect of marketing intensity, Influence of
demand factors, Role of strategic innovators across borders, Examples.]
175
Information Technology and Productivity: Evidence from
Country-Level Data. Sanjeev Dewan and Kenneth L. Kraemer,
Management Science, 46 (April 2000), pp. 548–62. [Discussion,
Production function, Hypotheses, Data collection, Capital investment,
GDP per worker, Asset categories, Developed and developing
countries, Statistical analysis, Policy implications.] 176
3.4 Services
See also 9, 19, 20, 27, 37, 40, 42, 47, 55, 60, 71, 72, 76, 78, 102,
103, 150, 157, 192, 214, 230, 231
Putting the “World” in the World Series. Rebecca Gardyn,
American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 28–30. [Trends,
Multicultural players and fans, International, TV viewers, Radio,
Impacts, Marketers, Prestige, Brand acceptance, Localism,
Examples.] 177
Journal of Business Research, 48 (June 2000), pp. 165–283.
[Eleven articles on health care research, Quality-of-life/needs
assessment model, Internal marketing, Financial management,
Measurement error, Role of nurse practitioners, Market orientation
and organizational performance, Antitrust concerns about evolving
vertical relationships, Measuring service quality, Modeling health
plan choice behavior, Roles of primary and secondary control in
older adulthood, Service quality for inpatient nursing services.]
178
One-to-One Marketing Doesn’t Have to Be Web-Based. Joel R.
Lapointe, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
34–37. [Discussion, Customer relations, Scenarios (hospitality,
professional services, customer service/sales), Impacts, Key role
identification, High performer profiling, Key information accessibility,
Assessment.] 179
Current Resource Constraints and the Role of Marketing in
Health Research Organizations. Dennis R. McDermott, Howard
P. Tuckman, and David J. Urban, Journal of Nonprofit and Public
Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2, 1999), pp. 3–16. [Survey of CEOs representing
national sample of HROs, Attitudes, Fundraising, Revenue
sources, Budget allocations, Strategic, Assessment, Recommendations.]
180
A Comprehensive Framework for Service Quality: An Investigation
of Critical Conceptual and Measurement Issues
Through a Longitudinal Study. Pratibha A. Dabholkar, C. David
Shepherd, and Dayle I. Thorpe, Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer
2000), pp. 139–73. [Literature review, Propositions, Consumer survey,
Components and antecedents (reliability, personal attention,
comfort, features), Impacts, Behavioral intentions, Measured disconfirmation
versus perceptions, Statistical analysis, Implications.]
181
Switching Barriers and Repurchase Intentions in Services.
Michael A. Jones, David L. Mothersbaugh, and Sharon E. Beatty,
Journal of Retailing, 76 (Summer 2000), pp. 259–74. [Literature
review, Model testing, Hypotheses, Consumer survey, Effects,
Core-service satisfaction, Interpersonal relationships, Switching
costs, Attractiveness of alternatives, Interactions, Statistical analysis,
Implications.] 182
Access to Capital and Terms of Credit: A Comparison of Menand
Women-Owned Small Businesses. Susan Coleman, Journal
review, Model presentation, Data collection (Federal Reserve
Board and Small Business Administration), Firm characteristics,
Most recent loan, Usage of bank credit products, Interest rates,
Collateral, Statistical analysis.] 183
Customer Service: An Essential Component for a Successful
Web Site. Cherryl Carlson, Marketing Health Services, 20 (Summer
2000), pp. 28–30. [Discussion, E-mail management, Response
(automatic, intelligent agent–aided, intelligent automated), Self
help, Live text chat, Outsourcing, Assessment.] 184
Dissecting the HMO–Benefits Managers Relationship: What to
Measure and Why. James W. Peltier and John Westfall, Marketing
Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 5–13. [Discussion, Survey
of employee benefits managers, Attitudes, Dimensions (financial/
economic, social/responsiveness, structural/partnership),
Overall satisfaction and quality, Relationship commitment/loyalty,
Statistical analysis, Managerial implications.] 185
Practicing Best-in-Class Service Recovery. Stephen W. Brown,
Marketing Management, 9 (Summer 2000), pp. 8–9. [Best practices;
Hiring, training, and empowerment; Service recovery guidelines
and standards; Easy access and effective response; Customer
and product databases; Failure; Companywide recovery; Profits;
Technology; Examples.] 186
See also 74, 75, 87, 118, 169
Bayesian Dynamic Factor Models and Portfolio Allocation.
Omar Aguilar and Mike West, Journal of Business and Economic
Statistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 338–57. [Dynamic linear models,
Exchange rates forecasting, Markov chain Monte Carlo, Multivariate
stochastic volatility, Portfolio selection, Sequential forecasting,
Variance matrix discounting, Assessment.] 187
Modeling the Sources of Output Growth in a Panel of Countries.
Gary Koop, Jacek Osiewalski, and Mark F.J. Steel, Journal
of Business and Economic Statistics, 18 (July 2000), pp. 284–99.
[Stochastic production-frontier model, Efficiency levels, Bayesian
inference, Growth decompositions, Technical change, Numerical
implementation.] 188
The Theoretical Foundation for Intercultural Business Communication:
A Conceptual Model. Iris I. Varner, Journal of Business
Communication, 37 (January 2000), pp. 39–57. [Literature
review, Research questions, Impacts, Intercultural communication
strategy, Country-specific and comparative studies, Assessment.]
189
Information, Contracting, and Quality Costs. Stanley Baiman,
Paul E. Fischer, and Madhav V. Rajan, Management Science, 46
(June 2000), pp. 776–89. [Literature review, Model presentation,
Propositions, Internal and external failure, First- and second-best
settings, Contractible decisions, Impacts, Information systems,
Assessment.] 190
Modeling Intercategory and Generational Dynamics for a
Growing Information Technology Industry. Namwoon Kim,
Dae Ryun Chang, and Allan D. Shocker, Management Science, 46
(April 2000), pp. 496–512. [Wireless telecommunications service,
Market potentials, Asymmetry of effect, Bidirectional interrelationship,
Implications, Hong Kong, Korea.] 191
Measuring the Robustness of Empirical Efficiency Valuations.
Ludwig Kuntz and Stefan Scholtes, Management Science, 46 (June
2000), pp. 807–23. [Model extension, Propositions, Data envelopment
analysis, Hospital capacity planning, Monotone oneparameter
perturbations, Assessment.] 192
Behind the Learning Curve: Linking Learning Activities to
Waste Reduction. Michael A. Lapre, Amit Shankar Mukherjee,
and Luk N. Van Wassenhove, Management Science, 46 (May
2000), pp. 597–611. [Literature review, Organizational learning,
Quality, Technological knowledge, Experimentation, Knowledge
transfer, Implications.] 193
The Value of Information Sharing in a Two-Level Supply
Chain. Hau L. Lee, Kut C. So, and Christopher S. Tang, Management
Science, 46 (May 2000), pp. 626–43. [Supply chain management,
Mathematical models, Production planning and inventory
control, Electronic data interchange, Quick response, Analytical
and numerical analyses.] 194
Scheduling Resource-Constrained Projects Competitively at
Modest Memory Requirements. Arno Sprecher, Management
Science, 46 (May 2000), pp. 710–23. [Model presentation, Branchand-
bound algorithm, Rules, Extended and simplified single enumeration,
Local left-shift, Extended global left-shift, Contraction,
Set-based dominance, Nonoptimality, Heuristic, Computational
results.] 195
See also 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 42, 62, 63, 66, 72, 73, 80, 81, 107,
108, 109, 113, 118, 123, 136, 137, 139, 156, 159, 160, 177, 178,
180, 181, 182, 200, 209, 217, 229, 230
American Demographics, 22 (June 2000), pp. 54–56, 58, 60–62,
64–65. [Three articles on our sense of place, Work-at-home labor
force, Desire for complex appliances with simple and easy-to-use
designs, Networking, Shortening the distance between places and
people, Impacts, Neighborhoods, Cities, Emerging markets, Consumer
expenditures, Cities, Statistical data.] 196
What’s on Your Mind? Rebecca Gardyn, American Demographics,
22 (April 2000), pp. 31–33. [Electroencephalogram technology,
Reading consumers’ brain-wave activity, System testing,
Problems, Data translation, Acceptance, TV content research
applicability, Could be useful in conjunction with focus groups.]
197
Riding High on the Market. Cheryl Russell and Marcia Mogelonsky,
American Demographics, 22 (April 2000), pp. 44–46, 48, 50,
52, 54. [Economic expansion, Household incomes, Age groups,
Financial assets, Risks, Stock holdings, Home values, Debt, Net
worth, Saving for retirement, Statistical data.] 198
The Money in the Middle. Alison Stein Wellner, American Demographics,
22 (April 2000), pp. 56–58, 60, 62, 64. [Economic
expansion, Impacts, Middle class, Definition problems, Role of
immigration, Age groups, Education, Household income, Internet
usage, Statistical data.] 199
The Measurement of Intergenerational Communication and
Influence on Consumption: Development, Validation, and
Cross-Cultural Comparison of the IGEN Scale. Madhubalan
Viswanathan, Terry L. Childers, and Elizabeth S. Moore, Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (Summer 2000), pp.
406–24. [Literature review, Consumer socialization, Three studies,
Components relevant to marketplace transactions (consumer skills,
preferences, attitudes toward marketer supplied information),
Comparisons, Parents, Children, US, Thailand.] 200
Innovation and International Business Communication: Can
European Research Help to Increase the Validity and Reliability
for Our Business and Teaching Practice? Jan Ulijn, Journal
of Business Communication, 37 (April 2000), pp. 173–87. [Literature
review, Quantitative/qualitative, Real life/simulation, Studying
language, Culture (national, corporate, professional), Communication
medium, Assessment.] 201
Debunking Executive Conventional Wisdom. Larry Lapide,
Journal of Business Forecasting, 19 (Summer 2000), pp. 16–17.
[Myths about forecasting; Forecasts are always wrong, so why put
any focus on demand planning; All we need is a quantitative
expert; Forecasting software will take care of all forecasting needs;
Process is too expensive; Assessment.] 202
State Demographic Forecasting for Business and Policy Applications.
Jon David Vasche, Journal of Business Forecasting, 19
(Summer 2000), pp. 23, 28–30. [Reliance on a large, multidimensional
matrix modeling system with extensive input vectors aids in
projection of aggregate population and its characteristics.] 203
Journal of Business Research, 48 (April 2000), pp. 5–92. [Ten articles
on replication research, Brand awareness effects on consumer
decision making, Credit card effect, Business turnarounds following
acquisitions, Organizational growth determinants, Impact of
internalization on the diversification–performance relationship,
Advertising complex products, Religious symbols as peripheral
cues in advertising, Market orientation and business profitability,
How salespeople build quality relationships, Conducting marketing
science.] 204
Riding the Wave: Response Rates and the Effects of Time
Intervals Between Successive Mail Survey Follow-Up Efforts.
Cindy Claycomb, Stephen S. Porter, and Charles L. Martin, Journal
review; Experiment; Follow-up mailings sent to each of 20 different
treatment groups, testing follow-up intervals ranging from 3 to
60 days; Assessment; Implications.] 205
Historical Method in Marketing Research with New Evidence
on Long-Term Market Share Stability. Peter N. Golder, Journal
of Marketing Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 156–72. [Literature
review, Stages, Select topic and collect evidence, Critically evaluate
sources along with evidence, Analyze and interpret, Present
conclusions, Application.] 206
Cast Demographics, Unobserved Segments, and Heterogeneous
Switching Costs in a Television Viewing Choice Model.
Ron Shachar and John W. Emerson, Journal of Marketing
Research, 37 (May 2000), pp. 173–86. [Model comparisons, Data
collection (ACNielsen), Examination of strategic programming
and scheduling decisions, Optimal programming decisions, Goodness-
of-fit and ratings predictions, Applications.] 207
The Effectiveness of Survey Response Rate Incentives in a Public
Non-profit Environment. Frank H. Wadsworth and Eldon Little,
Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No. 2,
1999), pp. 53–60. [Literature review, Convenience sample, Treatment
groups, Deadlines, Prepaid and promised monetary and nonmonetary
rewards, Statistical analysis, Recommendations.] 208
See also 53, 59, 78, 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 104, 105, 110,
176, 184, 190, 191, 195, 225
Teens’ Use of Traditional Media and the Internet. Carrie La
Ferle, Steven M. Edwards, and Wei-na Lee, Journal of Advertising
Research, 40 (May/June 2000), pp. 55–65. [Literature review, Survey,
Time spent with media, Media used by activity, Frequency of
Internet use by gender, Location of Internet connection, Source of
information about Web sites, Internet and interpersonal sources of
communication, Statistical analysis, Implications.] 209
Riding Shotgun on the Information Superhighway. Chris Wood,
Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp. 38–42.
[Internet security, Strategy, Problems, Vulnerability, Costs, Documentation
process, Policies, Adding hardware and software, Success,
Guidelines.] 210
Understanding the Trade Winds: The Global Evolution of Production,
Consumption, and the Internet. Peter R. Dickson, Journal
review, Economic history, Diffusion technologies, Systemsdynamic
perspective, Example.] 211
What Buyers Want in Technology Tools.William Atkinson, Purchasing,
128 (April 20, 2000), pp. 57–58, 61. [Survey, Attitudes,
Software packages, Web-based e-procurement systems, Electronic
data interchange, Benefits, Satisfaction, Company’s internal performance,
Supplier selection, After-sales support from suppliers,
Management support, Examples.] 212
Web Wise. Patricia B. Seybold, Sales and Marketing Management,
(May 2000), pp. S4–S6, 58. [E-business, Customer orientation,
Factors, Streamline customer scenarios, Touchpoints and crosschannel
solutions, Warehousing and logistics, Staffing and training
call/contact center personnel, Managing customer-affecting applications,
Examples.] 213
Information Orientation: People, Technology and the Bottom
Line. Donald A. Marchand, William J. Kettinger, and John D.
Rollins, Sloan Management Review, 41 (Summer 2000), pp.
69–80. [Study of senior managers, Measures of effective information
use (information technology and information management
practices, information behaviors and values), Achieving high information
orientation, Guidelines, Banking industry.] 214
Sophisticated Systems Help Retailers Develop Complete Picture
of Each Customer. Susan Reda, Stores, 82 (June 2000), pp.
42, 44. [Customer relationship management, Data strategy, Software
packages, Customer analysis, Data warehousing, E-mail
response management, Modeling and file integration, Examples.]
215
5. OTHER TOPICS
See also 29, 38, 79, 189, 201
The Ivory Chateau. Stuart Crainer and Des Dearlove, Across the
Board, 37 (June 2000), pp. 35–40. [Discussion, INSEAD, Global
classroom, Students, Competitive advantage, MBA program, Jobs,
Web-based businesses, Assessment.] 216
Cross-National Industrial Mail Surveys: Why Do Response
Rates Differ Between Countries? Anne-Wil Harzing, Industrial
review, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professional and
social activities, Work experience, International exposure, Statistical
analysis.] 217
Preparing the Next Generation of Industrial Sales Representatives:
Advice from Senior Sales Executives. Michael R. Luthy,
[Literature review, Survey, Attitudes, Undergraduate courses, Professional
and social activities, Work experience, International
exposure, Statistical analysis.] 218
Corporate Universities Crack Open Their Doors. Meryl Davids
Landau, Journal of Business Strategy, 21 (May/June 2000), pp.
18–23. [Discussion, Opening training centers to outsiders, Receiving
a bigger return on investment, Impacts, Traditional universities,
Technology, Assessment.] 219
Publications in Major Marketing Journals: An Analysis of
Scholars and Marketing Departments. Aysen Bakir, Scott J.
Vitell, and Gregory M. Rose, Journal of Marketing Education, 22
(August 2000), pp. 99–107. [Total number of published articles
and a fractional score based on the number of authors of an article,
Faculty size, Comparisons, Previous studies.] 220
Using the Theory of Constraints’ Thinking Processes to
Improve Problem-Solving Skills in Marketing. Marjorie J.
Cooper and Terry W. Loe, Journal of Marketing Education, 22
(August 2000), pp. 137–46. [Identify a list of undesirable effects,
Generate conflict clouds from the list, Construct a generic conflict
cloud, Build a current reality tree that shows the core conflict and
how it leads to the undesirable effects, Classroom implementation.]
221
Relating Pedagogical Preference of Marketing Seniors and
Alumni to Attitude Toward the Major. Richard Davis, Shekhar
Misra, and Stuart Van Auken, Journal of Marketing Education, 22
(August 2000), pp. 147–54. [Literature review, Learning styles,
Motivation, Attitudinal enhancement, Survey, Variables, In-class
exercises, Lectures, Cases, Association between in-class activities
and overall attitude toward the marketing major.] 222
Study Abroad Learning Activities: A Synthesis and Comparison.
Charles R. Duke, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August
2000), pp. 155–65. [Discussion, Effectiveness, Criteria (location,
tour integration with academic credit, time spent on tour), Activities
(lecture and test, company visits, journals, treasure hunt, projects,
simulation), Assessment.] 223
Improving Students’ Understanding of the Retail Advertising
Budgeting Process. Myron Gable, Ann Fairhurst, Roger Dickinson,
and Lynn Harris, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August
2000), pp. 120–28. [Survey of retailing educators; Favorite technique
is objective and task; Requires the use of methods of both
prioritizing alternative expenditures and setting a cutoff point;
These points are often neglected by academics, including textbook
writers; Recommendations.] 224
Development of a Web-Based Internet Marketing Course.
Shohreh A. Kaynama and Garland Keesling, Journal of Marketing
Education, 22 (August 2000), pp. 84–89. [Seven-step systems
model; Define purpose of course; Analyze appropriate knowledge,
skills, and abilities; Determine what the students should learn and
ensure that the learning takes place; Development; Implementation;
Assessment; Evaluation.] 225
Determinants of Student Evaluations of Global Measures of
Instructor and Course Value. Ronald B. Marks, Journal of Marketing
Education, 22 (August 2000), pp. 108–19. [Literature
review; Model development; Structural paths; Student evaluations
may lack discriminant validity, the extent to which a measure does
not correlate with other constructs it is not supposed to measure
(e.g., expected/fairness of grading does have a large impact on ratings
of teaching ability).] 226
Teaching Marketing Law: A Business Law Perspective on Integrating
Marketing and Law. Ross D. Petty, Journal of Marketing
Education, 22 (August 2000), pp. 129–36. [Literature review, Marketing
law organized by 4 Ps and defined by protected interests,
Topics distributed by course, Teaching methods, Assessment.] 227
Introducing Marketing Students to Business Intelligence Using
Project-Based Learning on the World Wide Web. Carolyn F.
Siegel, Journal of Marketing Education, 22 (August 2000), pp.
90–98. [Discussion, Intelligence process, Business espionage,
Overview, Projects, Advantages, Disadvantages, Assessment.] 228
Consumer Primacy on Campus: A Look at the Perceptions of
Navajo and Anglo Consumers. Dennis N. Bristow and Douglas
Amyx, Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 7 (No.
2, 1999), pp. 31–51. [Literature review, Marketing lens model,
Hypotheses, Survey, Importance ratings among educational attributes,
Anticipated preparation after graduation, Satisfaction with
educational product, Statistical analysis, Managerial recommendations.]
229
See also 220
An Exploration of the Meaning and Outcomes of a Customer-
Defined Market Orientation. Dave Webb, Cynthia Webster, and
Areti Krepapa, Journal of Business Research, 48 (May 2000), pp.
101–12. [Literature review, Models, Hypotheses, Survey of bank
clients, Relationships, Service quality, Satisfaction, Statistical
analysis.] 230
The Four “P”s of Marketing Are Dead. Joel English, Marketing
Health Services, 20 (Summer 2000), pp. 21–23. [Discussion, Shifts
in channel dynamics within health care, New model (relevance,
response, relationships, results), Assessment.] 231
Perceived Attitude and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
establishment: Why households’ characteristics matters in
Coastal resources conservation initiatives in Tanzania.
J. K. Sesabo a, b, c, , H. Lang d, R. S. J. Tol b, e, f
a
International Max-Planck Research School for Maritime Affairs, Hamburg University, Mittelweg 187,
20148,Germany
b
Research Unit Sustainability and Global Change, Hamburg University and Center for Marine and
Atmospheric Science, Bundesstrasse 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
c
Department of Economics, Mzumbe University, P.O. Box 5 ,Morogoro, Tanzania
d
Institute for Ethnology, Hamburg University, Rothenbaumchaussee 67/69, 20148 Hamburg
e
Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
f
Engineering and Public Policy, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Working Paper FNU-99
Abstract
In recent years, conservation initiatives through Marine Protected Area (MPAs) in many
developing countries have been molded to win the support and participation of local
communities. Increasingly, studies have been undertaken to enhance the understandings of the
characteristics of rural communities. In the case of Tanzania, the level of compliance with marine
and coastal resources management is constrained by lack of knowledge regarding coastal
communities’ behavior and characteristics. Indeed, it is hypothesized that the knowledge about
rural coastal communities will lead to an increase in compliance of conservation initiatives.
Therefore, this paper provides an empirical assessment of households’ perceived attitudes
towards proposed MPA establishment in two Tanzanian coastal villages (Mlingotini and
Nyamanzi) and their vicinity. Based on survey data, the results indicate that 50.23% of
households had favorable attitudes towards the introduction of MPA, out of which 34% belonged
to the poor class. Moreover, a majority of households indicate that there is a need of public
participation in planning and implementation of MPA.
Subsequently, Probit regression, which featured in the analysis revealed that perceived costs and
benefits accruing from MPAs establishment, awareness of MPAs objectives and rules that govern
the use of marine and coastal resources, dependency on marine and coastal-based activities,
perceived fishery conditions, wealth and location variables have a significant influence on
perceived attitudes towards establishing of new MPA. Based on the findings, it can be concluded
that conservation initiatives through the establishment of MPAs may be more beneficial and more
effective when policy makers understand the characteristics and behavior of coastal communities.
In addition, conservation initiatives should be based on the consensus building and participation
of all stakeholders.
1
1. Introduction
Economies of the western Indian Ocean coastal countries states depend on the
existence and abundance of marine and coastal resources to satisfy their needs and
demands. These include; recreational, aesthetic and economic dimensions (Ngoile
et al, 2001). At the same time, marine and coastal ecosystems are also paramount
for critical life support functions and play a significant role in balancing the extremes
of climatic conditions. Therefore, just like in other countries located along the coastal
region, Tanzania’s marine and coastal resources support the life of about 25% of the
country’s population for the provision of employment and food (TCMP, 2003;
Francis and Bryceson, 2001). However, there are significant challenges such as
conflict over and competition for limited marine and coastal resources as well as
escalating environmental deterioration (Masalu, 2000).
According to different studies conducted in Tanzania, human impact is the primary
threat of marine and coastal resources. (Francis and Bryceson, 2001; Masalu,
2000). In addition, poverty has also emerged as a major problem, particularly in the
Tanzanian coastal villages where average yearly income in most of these villages does
not exceed US$ 100 (per person) (TCMP, 2001). Thus, poverty, human pressure
and poor understanding of marine and coastal resource management have lead to a
number of problems. These problems include excessive exploitation of fishery
resources, careless cutting of mangrove, use of illegal fishing methods, destruction of
coral reefs, sand mining, and pollution (IUCN, 2001). Consequently, the severity of
marine and coastal ecosystem degradation does not only increasingly societies deny
the goods and services necessary for life but it also puts the lives of coastal
communities at risk. For example diminishing fishery resources entail a risk of mal-
nutrition and threaten the source of livelihood for an estimated 25% of Tanzanian
coastal population. In addition, it affects the long-term sustainability of any
development strategy among coastal communities. It is therefore imperative that
measures be undertaken to stop and reverse this negative trend.
2
Specifically, conserving and sustaining use of marine and coastal resources are
among the means by which we can ensure the survival of coastal communities.
However, it is therefore necessary to ensure a balance between stimulating economic
growth at the coast while maintaining environmental quality. This balance should be
made with the sole aim of reducing poverty among the coastal communities.
In response to the growing cumulative threats to marine and coastal resources as
well as coastal environmental degradation, the Tanzanian government established
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the 1990s (Levine 2004). Hence, the
implementation of the conservation initiatives through MPAs was designed to
protect the marine and coastal resources with the aim of ensuring not only their
sustainability but also to improve life of the coastal communities. However, even
though the conservation initiatives through MPAs are impressive in terms of their
ecological and economical point of view, the successful conservation initiatives need
to be acceptable by the communities living near and/or around conservation sites.
This is necessary as most of the households in the target areas are poor and rely on
marine and coastal resource-based activities. As a result, MPAs must be able to
provide benefits through the creation of non-consumptive activities (e.g. tourism and
recreation) in order to support rural coastal households’ livelihood. In coastal
communities, households have different views and react differently to conservation
initiatives. For example the socio-economic factors promoting household to support
and engage in management, should be involved in planning and implementation
process. These factors vary between households, cultures, and will certainly be
different whether households utilize these resources in order to meet subsistence or
commercial needs. In particular, the acceptance of a certain conservation measure
(e.g. MPA) within communities can be severely hindered if some understanding of
key factors such as perceived needs and benefits are not realized (Jeffrey 2000).
3
Therefore, to achieve and maintain successful operation of MPAs, arguments have
been put forward that the decision-making process should include both social and
economic factors in MPAs planning as well as their implementation. (Sumaila,
1998). In addition, there was an increased recognition that local communities must
be actively involved in conservation and that their needs and aspiration have to be
considered in initial establishment process in order to ensure their sustainability
(Howe (2001)). The overriding reason for local communities inclusion is manifold:
(i) local communities influence the stock and trend in marine and coastal resources,
important when managing a MPA; (ii) local communities can provide a relative
comparison between the state of coast environment between the present and future;
and finally communities setups and culture determine largely the possibilities in
designing successful management plans (Brown and Pomeroy 1999; Jentoft
2000; Howe 2001). In most of the developing countries recognition of local
community participation has been resulted to formation of various programs, which
promote public participation in planning, decision-making, and management of
different conservation initiatives including protected areas. However, the success of
individual conservation measure or program depends on its effect to individual
households or communities (e.g see Wapole and Godwin 2001). Thus, the
attitude and perception of communities towards conservation initiatives are
important for sustainable management of natural resources.
In Tanzania, despite the importance of societal heterogeneity in rural communities
as well as their participation in the conservation process were not taken into account
during planning and in implementing of MPAs. In particular, the role of socio-
economic and cultural factors in decision-making process of coastal communities
regarding marine and coastal resources use and management were neglected. One of
the reasons for this is that most of these MPAs were initiated through the efforts of
external organizations and they were fully or partially supported and/or managed by
external/foreign agencies rather than the government or local communities
themselves (Levine, 2004). In order to design and implement new MPAs, marine
resource managers need to
4
develop an understanding of coastal communities’ values, attitude and behavior.
They furthermore need to understand the way coastal communities value and use
marine resources; as well as social, economic, and political dimensions of resource
use (Cocklin, et al. 1998). The failure to take communities’ opinion regarding
MPAs establishment into account led to poor public relations, less widely accepted
decisions and lower levels of compliance (Wolfenden et al. 1994; Salz and
Loomis 2005). Therefore, the inclusion of socio-economic and cultural factors of
coastal communities into all decisions making processes (or by the organs)
pertaining MPAs establishment from their design and implementation to everyday
management is very crucial.
Although studies considering the heterogeneity in coastal communities and
attitudinal surveys could provide guidance for policy and management decision as
well as baseline data to access the efficacy of conservation initiatives, they have been
lacking in Tanzanian coastal areas. The conservation initiatives such as MPA to
perform a dual goal (conserving marine and coastal resources as well as improving
the life of coastal communities) requires an understanding of coastal communities’
dynamics behavior in terms of their attitudes towards introduction of MPA. Based on
this argument, this paper uses household data from Mlingotini and Nyamanzi
Village, seeking to address the following questions: what is the pattern of households’
perceived attitude towards the establishment of MPAs in the study area? What are
the factors that influence this pattern? Therefore, the aim of this analysis lies in
understanding the views of coastal households regarding conservation through
MPAs establishment as well as identifying factors that facilitate or obstruct
households to support MPA by using econometric methods. In addition, it is our
hope that this evaluation will shed light on further need for local peoples’
involvement in terms of decision-making processes when establishing MPAs and
other conservation initiatives in the coastal regions.
5
2. Conceptual framework and hypotheses
The decisions made in the course of management of natural resources (e.g. marine
and coastal resources) cannot be evaluated outside the human context. Thus, the
resources-use theory by Firey’s (1960) indicates that ecological, economic,
ethnological or cultural factors play a role in determining local perception towards
resources management initiatives as well as their fate. In addition, rural households
differ in their needs, perceptions and attitudes towards conservation initiatives.
Ajzen (1988), using the theory of reasoned action, argued that behavior is best
predicted by the intention of a populace, which in turn is affected by the members’
attitudes and other’s influence on their intentions to act. Hence, different rural
coastal households within their own framework of reference view coastal resources
differently. They differ in their needs, perceptions, and attitudes towards resource
use and management initiatives (for example the existence of Marine Protect Areas).
Socio-economic research has revealed that rural households’ behavior regarding
natural resource management is influenced by demographic and socio-economic
factors (Pomeroy et al., 1996, Wright and Shindler, 2001). However, there is
growing empirical evidence in support of the thesis that local people’s support for
natural resource management (especially through establishment of Protected Areas)
depends mainly on the tangible benefits and costs of living in or around such areas
against the background of socio-economic and demographic consideration (Ite,
1996; Allendorf, 1999). Figure 1 provides a simple schematic framework for
studying perceived attitudes of households in this study. The framework provided in
Figure 1 forms the basis for selecting relevant variables influencing perceived
attitudes towards MPAs establishment.
Based on this conceptual framework and socio-economic researches, the factors used
in this study to explain variation in perceived attitudes towards MPAs establishment
include: perceived costs and benefits associated with MPAs establishment,
awareness of MPAs objectives, presence of rules and regulations
6
governing use of marine and coastal resources, potential of marine and coastal
resourced-based activities, perceived condition of marine and coastal resources (in
particular fisheries), welfare of coastal communities and location of the community.
Our hypotheses about how these factors may influence rural households’ perceived
attitude towards MPAs introduction are drawn from literature on the attitude of local
communities living near, within or around protected areas (see for example, Mehta
and Kellert 1998; McClanahan et al., 2005; Shymsudar and Kramer 1997;
Holmes, 2003; Jim and Xu 2002).
Socio-economic and Demographic variables•Household structure•Age•Education•Livelihood sourcesRegulations and Resources•Informal rules•Formal rules•EnforcementCosts from
MPAs•Denied access to the important livelihood source•Revenue is not used to compensate the loosers•No participation of local communitiesThe outcome of the management option and
sustainability of the marine and coastal resourcesATTITUDE TOWARD CONSERVATION OPTIONSBenefits from MPAs•Increase of resources in the future•Employment creation
trough Tourism•Protect the marine and coastal ecosystemOther factors•Location•Resource trend
Figure 1 Conceptual relationships among factors that shape the attitude of households towards
marine and coastal conservation initiatives (developed based on Mehta (2001); Buer (2003); Holmes
(2003); Jim and Xu (2003))
In order to promote the use of MPAs as a conservation initiative there have been
repeated efforts to implement policies that will give benefits to the rural households
living near or around the protected areas. For instance, Mehta (2001) and Buer
(2003) suggested that provision of direct and indirect benefits would promote
incentives for people to perceive conservation positively.
7
Based on these results, it is expected that households who perceive that introduction
of MPA may give some of benefits are more supportive about the introduction of
MPAs near or around their local vicinity than households who do not expect any
benefits from MPAs.
However, the management of coastal resources through establishment of MPAs most
often limit or prohibit extractive activities inside their boundaries in order to
regulate users’ behavior (see for example Mehta and Kellert, 1998) In this case it
is hypothesized that the existence of Marine protected areas may pose problems in
meetings the resource needs of some rural coastal households and thereby
influencing their attitudes toward coastal resource conservation initiatives.
In addition, the awareness of rules and regulations and objectives of MPAs also play
a critical role in influencing households’ attitude towards establishment of MPAs.
The existence of regulations and rules on marine and coastal resources management
(informal and formal rules which are enforced) depends on the awareness of rural
households regarding resources management. In addition, the households’
knowledge about the reasons behind establishing MPAs depends on the
understanding of the objectives of MPA. In our context, awareness is what a person
thinks and understands about the reality affecting his attitude and decision towards
policy and management. We hypothesize that households who are more aware of the
existence of rules and regulations, which govern the use of marine and coastal
resources at village level, will hold more favorable attitudes towards MPAs
establishment than households without such knowledge. In the same way, we
hypothesize that households who are aware of the objectives of MPAs will be more
supportive to MPAs establishment than households without such awareness.
Moreover, the natural resource condition may influence the rural households’
perception towards MPAs establishment. In this study, we consider fisheries trend to
follow general trends in marine and coastal resources. The declining
8
pattern in fisheries resources acts as an incentive for households to support
conservation initiative with the aim of improving their livelihood opportunities. We
hypothesized that households who believe the fisheries resources are in poor shape
(i.e. declining) will hold more favorable attitudes towards MPAs establishment than
those households who believe the resources are in good shape (i.e. not declining).
We also examine the influence of socio-economic and demographic factors on local
attitudes. Socio-economic and demographic factors such as affluence, age or
experience, education and level of dependence on natural resources have previously
been defined as influencing attitudes in the literature, although not consistently (e.g
Heinen 1993; Solecki 1997). For example Mordi (1987) proposed that
education could make rural households more conscious and less utilitarian in their
attitude towards conservation. In this study we hypothesized that educated
households will be more favorable attitude towards the introduction of MPAs.
The influence of wealth on conservation attitudes is not straightforward. Infield
(1988) and Hackel (1999) showed that rural households with more resources in
terms of land, labor, and materials at their disposal could better afford conservation.
This implies that these households have the ability to absorb short-term costs of
conservation as a result of realizing long-term benefits. This stands in contrast to
poor households who depend mostly on natural resource-based activity for their
survival (see Ruttan and Borgerhoff Mulder, 1999). As a result, wealthier
households tend to support the conservation initiatives more than poorer
households. Conversely, poor households may be highly motivated to support
conservation measures since they depend more on common and open access
resources than wealthier households.
In addition, the dependency on marine and coastal resource-based activities has
mixed effects on the perceived attitude towards MPAs establishment. On one hand,
households who rely more on marine and coastal resources for their
9
livelihood may be more concerned with conservation initiatives (if they hope this will
lead to an increase or security of resources for livelihood sustenance) than those
households who have other sources of livelihood. Therefore, rural households with
higher income share from marine and coastal resources based activities may hold
favorable attitudes regarding MPAs establishment. On the other hand, relying more
on marine and coastal resources make it difficult to achieve compliance with
conservation initiatives as the opportunity cost of following restriction rules is high.
As a result, rural households who depend more on marine and coastal resources for
their income may hold negative attitudes about MPAs establishment.
3. Methodology
3.1 Data and Descriptive Analysis
Among Tanzanian coastal villages the utilization of marine and coastal resources as
well as the attitudes towards conservation of these resources is heterogeneous (For
example see Andersonn and Ngazy, 1998; Sesabo and Tol 2005).
Understanding households’ heterogeneity is important in predicting the likely
success of any conservation measure. In order to examine the factors, which
influence households’ perceived attitude, we used data from a survey conducted
between January and March 2004 in two coastal villages (see Figure 1). The
questionnaire was administered in two districts of Tanzania (Bagamoyo and West).
In Bagamoyo district, data was collected from Mlingotini village located close to
Bagamoyo district headquarters (12 km) and about 56 km north of the capital city
Dar-es-salaam. The village is more affected with migrants from nearby areas and
there is no any area within or nearby the village, which is protected so as to ensure
sustainable use of marine and coastal resources. In West district, data was collected
in Nyamanzi village 16 km from Zanzibar Stone Town. Marine protected areas and
an open Forest area (known as Free Economic Zone) are close to Nyamanzi village.
Most of the households in this area were reported to have existed as fishing villages
more than 30 years ago. Both villages are situated in the tropical humid climate of
the coastal belt. They enjoy both
10
short rains (October-November) and long (March-May) rains, which characterize the
East African coast.
Important to note is that a total of 250 households were randomly selected from the
two villages. Of these around 13% did not answer the background questions and
these questionnaires were eliminated from the database (Mlingotini = 117;
Nyamanzi=100). In the collection of data, structured interviews were conducted with
each of the head of household. The questionnaire was designed to solicit information
on households’ demographic structure, income sources, sales of outputs, access to
markets, problems inherent in coastal resources and attitude towards management
of coastal resources. Household income from agriculture, fishing, seaweed-farming,
and other activities was estimated according to the reported production (for
consumption or sale) at the prices that prevail in the local market. Fishing, transport
and other assets were valued subjectively by respondents as equivalent to current
resale value.
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the respondents. The respondents were
predominantly male (84%) between the ages of 21-69 with an average of 46.01 years.
The households’ size ranged from 1 member to 12 members with an average of 1.7
dependant members and 4.6 adult members. The average number STUDY
AREAFigure 2. The map of the study area
11
of adult members with primary education was 1.7. In terms of their livelihood
improvement, half of households (50.60%) reported a worse life than before. The
majority of households (73.27%) were directly engaged in coastal resource based
activities (shells collection, fishing, and seaweed farming). The others were farmers,
traders or participating in other non-farm employment opportunities. On average,
the household heads participating in fishing activities had 17.86 years of experience.
The majority of households (66.36%) were classified to be poor. This classification
was not based on an absolute scale. Consequently, households who reported to own a
larger size of agricultural land, a good quality house, endowed with production assets
(e.g fishing assets, transport assets etc) were classified as wealthy household whereas
those with similar but few assets and of poor quality were classified as poor.
Table 1 Descriptive variables

Variables description Variable name Mean or Percent Stan
Gender of Household Head (1 if male and 0 GENDER 84%

otherwise)
Age of Household head (years) HHAGE 46.01
Household head fishing experience EXPF 17.86
Number of Adult members ADULT 2.66
Number of dependants DEPEND 1.7
Average education of adult members ADULTEDU 1.73
Size of Household HHSIZE 4.36
Income / livelihood condition (1 if worst and 0 CONDITION 50.60%
otherwise)
Welfare index (1 if poor and 0 otherwise) WEALTH 66.63%
Percent of fishing income in total household FISH INCOME RATIO 0.48
income (in US$)
Support the MPAs establishment (1 if YES and ATTITUDE 50.23%
0 otherwise)*
Perceived costs COSTS 38.71%
Perceived benefits BENEFITS 47.93%
Perceived Fisheries resources trend RESOURCE TREND 35.94%
objective of MPAs ( 1 if aware of objectives and OBJECTIVES 37%
0 otherwise)
Rules RULES 41.01%
A Study and Analysis of Management
Training
Techniques for the Heads of SMEs,
particularly
Using the Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs)
Final Report
22nd December 2000
Contract DGENT 99/C/A3/31 S12.128934
Funded by DG Enterprise of the European Commission
ii
NJM European, Economic and Management Consultants Ltd.
Contents
Section Page
1
Schematic Presentation
Executive Summary
v
1
2 Introduction 6
3 Expertise Needs of Heads of SMEs: a review of
existing knowledge
8
3.1 Approach 8
3.2 Characteristics of SMEs 8
3.3 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs 10
3.4 EU Policy concerning SMEs and ICT development 11
3.5 General Usage of ICTs by SMEs 14
3.6 Summary of position for heads of SMEs 15
4 The Use of Information and Communication
Technologies in Training
16
4.1 What is ICT Based Training 16
4.2 A Virtual Learning Environment 18
4.3 Current Position of ICTBT 19
5 Research into Priorities of Heads of SMEs 21
5.1 Composition of sample 24
5.2 General use of ICTs 28
5.3 Experience of ICT-based training 31
iii
5.4 Training preferences of SME managers 38
5.5 The effect of size 51
5.6 Analysis of effect of sex of respondent 57
5.7 Learning styles of SME managers 61
5.8 Requirements of Heads of SMEs 62
6 Analysis of Best Practice in the European Union 63
6.1 Interviews with training providers 63
6.2 Evidence of size differentiation 63
6.3 What training programmes are being offered? 63
6.4 Evidence of quality and involvement of SMEs 64
6.5 What networks do the training providers belong to? 65
6.6 Evidence of best practice in delivery - traditional
techniques
66
6.7 Evidence of best practice in delivery - ICT techniques 67
6.7.1 How is ICT being used? 67
6.7.2 What advantages does ICT offer for training
SME managers?
68
6.7.3 What are the problems in using ICT in training? 70
6.7.4 What would make it easier to deliver ICT-based
training?
72
6.8 Identifying best practice: focus group results 75
6.9 Conclusions regarding best practice from the European
Union
77
iv
7 Identifying Best Practice in the United States 79
7.1 E-learning 79
7.2 US Small Business Administration 80
7.3 The virtual university 80
7.4 Best practice from EU-US collaboration 81
7.5 Best practice in traditional techniques 82
7.6 Conclusions - Best Practice from the United States 83
8 Conclusions 85
8.1 Demand from Heads of SMEs 85
8.2 Preferences of Heads of SMEs 85
8.3 Use of ICTBT by Heads of SMEs 86
8.4 Provision of Management Training 86
8.5 Bridging training and consultancy 87
8.6 Priorities of Heads of SMEs 89
8.7 Good Practice in Course Development 89
8.8 The ICTBT Opportunity 90
8.9 Problems and Constraints in providing Management
Training to Heads of SMEs
90
9 Recommendations 92
Heads of SMEs Section 1: Executive Summary
1
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The study has investigated management training techniques for the heads of
SMEs.
This has involved:
_ assessing training requirements of a sample of Heads of SMEs within seven
EU
Member States (Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and United
Kingdom).
_ examination of the use of ICTs by Heads of SMEs in their management role
and
within the context of training
_ review of current practices in the EU and USA with respect to SME
management
training and use of ICT in training
_ development of best practice recommendations regarding training for
Heads of
SMEs, with particular reference to the use of ICTs
The Role and Characteristics of the SME Manager
As the chief decision-maker, the head of an SME has to respond quickly to
changes
in all areas of business. There is a focus on problem solving across all
business
areas and managing time in the short term. He or she is constantly moving
from
the exercise of one management skill to another. The rounded
entrepreneurial role
is different from that of a manager in a large company. To be relevant
training needs
to deal with immediate tasks and real problems.
Training Provision for the SME Manager
Within the regions surveyed there is a low level of management training
directed
specifically at SMEs. This is particularly the case for micro firms. Training
provision
suffers from defects of content, access, flexibility and cost. Trainers often
lack
experience in SMEs. SMEs are also concerned about quality of training and
getting
information about training.
In terms of delivery of training, the majority of managers want training at
their
request. They have preferences for short courses, group work and one to one
advice or mentoring. However, there is a variety of demand determined by
the
nature of the firm and the character of the manager. A variety of provision
needs to
respond to this.
There is a lack of use of ICT for training among managers. There is also a lack
of
appropriate material available in ICT form. Furthermore, there are concerns
over
quality and relevance of existing material. Managers have some negative
opinions
about ICT for training and there is a lack of knowledge about the technology
and
techniques of ICT based learning. This is partly a reflection of the still
undeveloped
state of ICT supported training, where good practice has yet to be fully
developed.
Recognised good practice in training of all groups with ICT support involves a
balance of human interaction and ICT elements. The former has been
underestimated in the entire domain. This element is particularly important
to the
SME manager, and has been a major reservation in taking up ICT supported
training.
Existence of Good Practice
Good practice in meeting the needs of Heads of SMEs exists in Europe. It is
also
growing. There are three main elements concerning the design process,
delivery and
use of ICT. Design needs to take account of the needs of the manager and
firm.
These include sector-specific material, differentiation in provision between
small and
2
medium firms and regular feedback and evaluation from managers of SMEs.
Delivery
can involve a variety of mechanisms within the training programme to
increase
interest and flexibility. Best practice delivery techniques include: groupwork,
mentoring, problem solving, use of SME case studies, networking and use of
ICT
support tools. ICT does represent an opportunity for managers and training
providers
to overcome a number of barriers to the delivery of training. The advantages
include: access at any time and place; proceeding at one’s own tempo;
access to a
variety of sources; interactivity, good teacher contact and individual support
through
email; instant response and the ability to update and customise the material.
Recommendations
Realising the potential of heads of SMEs requires action at Member State and
European levels. The weight of the actions falls on the Member States with
the
Commission playing a supportive role.
More support is needed for heads of SMEs that meets their requirements in
terms of
content and delivery. To do this the distinctive differences within the SME
market
need to be recognised, especially the different requirements of micro and
small
firms. Provision needs to bridge the division between training and
consultancy to
meet the practical needs of SME managers. The Commission should play a
role to
ensure the development of quality standards and exchange of expertise.
ICTBT presents an enormous opportunity to overcome the hurdles of time
and place
in the provision of support to SMEs. However, development costs put it
outside the
range of most SMEs. Member States should provide services through ICTBT to
overcome this problem. Again, the Commission should play a co-ordinating
role,
encouraging exchanges and the development of quality standards. EU
programmes
such as Leonardo da Vinci and the Structural Funds can play a significant role
to
these ends.
To overcome lack of trainers with expertise in either ICTBT or SME delivery,
the
training of trainers with these skills should be supported at a Member State
level.
The Commission should support these activities through Concerted Actions.
At a European level, the benchmarking of provision in Member States is
important to
support the above three recommendations. This activity should involve
quantitative
benchmarking to determine the actual access heads of SMEs have to
provisions and
qualitative benchmarking of provision through the development of quality
standards.
3
1.1 Summary of New Findings
The need for further investigation in certain crucial areas surrounding the
needs of
heads of SMEs in terms of training and access to expertise is itemised. The
principal
ways in which this study has met that need is set out below.
About Heads
of SMEs
Heads of SMEs are different from employees. They exhibit
activist and pragmatist learning styles, prefer learning by doing
and favour problem-centred approaches that offer flexibility.
Requirements
for training of
heads of SMEs
For more formal courses, heads of SMEs expressed six priorities:
_ Relevance to real business situation
_ Problem solving
_ Short duration
_ Flexible delivery
_ Networking
_ Quality assurance
However, the requirements of the managers was for provision,
which bridged consultancy and training. The three crucial elements
are individualised support, focus on the SME itself and interaction.
Size of company is a factor in preferences, with managers of micro,
small and medium firms often having different requirements.
There is a lack of training provision for micro firms.
Opinions of
heads on
available
training
Constraints to take up of training include: time and place, cost and
quality. There is a difficulty in finding information on the nature of
the training available. The credibility of the deliverer for an SME
audience is important.
Suggested mechanisms for overcoming constraints include: better
access and flexibility, grants and information on the nature and
quality of training.
Usage and
expertise in
ICT
Use has grown fast, and many managers are competent in
standard applications. The sample showed a high general use of
ICTs, with nearly 90% of managers using email and Internet. 92%
are using ICT for financial management and 40-50% are using it
for other types of management. 25% have used e-commerce.
The sample is therefore likely to be one of early adopters of ICT
solutions
Experience of
ICT supported
training
About a quarter of managers have used ICTBT, with most common
forms being CD-ROM, email and Internet search.
Attitudes to
ICT supported
training
Managers like the potential for immediacy, up-to-date material and
learning at own pace offered by ICTBT.
Problems exist regarding lack of human support, poor presentation
and unreliability of technology.
There is a need to develop quality assurance and reduce the cost
of access.
Recommendation from other SMEs is a factor in use of ICTBT.
4
Training
provision
Nature of
training for
heads of SMEs
There is a lack of specific training for heads of SMEs. The SME
training that is provided tends to serve either start-ups or medium
sized firms. Executive training at business schools is often targeted
at larger companies, and demands fairly strict timetables.
There is a lack of best practice/expertise for training SME managers.
There are no guides or standards as to how training providers should
deliver quality training to SME managers.
Constraints on
providers
Attitudes of
providers
SME managers are not a remunerative market. It is therefore
difficult to justify the costs for the specialised provision. It is also
difficult to recruit trainers with appropriate backgrounds in SMEs.
Although the SME market is not a prime market for training
providers, both EU and US bodies active in the field held interaction
and, dealing with real problems to be important elements of
provision. The survey of training providers identified good practice
in the process of development and delivery of management training
for heads of SMEs.
_ Research or market analysis
_ Involvement of SMEs in design, to enable a client-centred
approach – involves building relationships with SMEs or groups of
SMEs
_ On-site initial assessment of the needs of the SME manager
_ Expertise and experience of trainers in SMEs
_ Generation of entrepreneur networks for participants
_ Evaluation and feedback
Use of ICT in
training
delivery for
SMEs
ICT is used as a support tool in training delivery to SME managers by
several providers. Much provision is low quality, ‘books on the
screen’. However, this is changing fast. E learning companies exist
in the USA and EU.
North America has a much larger e learning industry. However,
provision is predominantly corporate or academic, with little
provision for SMEs.
The North American industry has developed the technology and
many of the delivery techniques, which are being imported into
Europe. However, there remains a large need for content.
Constraints in
ICT delivery
Constraints on ICTBT are pedagogical, technical and commercial
Pedagogical Disadvantages include:
_ Rigidity in navigation through the material
_ Lack of human interaction with trainer and other trainees
Technical Disadvantages include:
_ Prior Knowledge of ICT techniques
_ Appropriate ICT Infrastructure
_ Delivery Speed inadequate for the use of sound and motion
video, because of inadequate bandwith.
_ Security: Internet usage involves a security risk to published
materials as well as raising the possibility of viral attack
5
Commercial Disadvantages focus on cost. Creation of materials
involves the use of expensive labour. It may not be economical for
those with only a minority interest. This has a direct implication for
SMEs, as their training needs are often very specific.
Attitudes of
providers to
ICT delivery
Providers had positive attitudes to ICTBT. The most common were
_ Time saving
_ Easier to give individual advice
_ Overcoming distance and time barriers
_ Ability of trainee to organise his or her learning better
_ ICT offers a good way of getting information
_ Trainees become more familiar with the technologies that are
now important for e-commerce
_ Personalising of training
_ Repetition is easier
However, there were concerns over cost, less to do with
development of sites and materials, but more to do with maintaining
adequate tutor support at a distance.
Heads of SMEs Section 2: Introduction
6
2. INTRODUCTION
This document forms the final report of Contract DGENT 99/C/A3/31
S12.128934.
"A Study and Analysis of Management Training Techniques for the Heads of
SMEs,
particularly Using the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)"
All work presented in this study has been carried out by a project consortium
comprising the main contractor:
NJM European, Economic and Management Consultants Ltd
and the following organisations:
Tampere Technology Centre Ltd FINLAND
Bretagne Innovation FRANCE
Technologie Transfer Zentrum GERMANY
Thessaloniki Technologi Park GREECE
CSEA ITALY
ISQ PORTUGAL
CRE Group Ltd UNITED KINGDOM
Details of these organisations are presented as Appendix 4 to this report.
2.1 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study were to:
_ Assess training requirements of a sample of Heads of SMEs within seven EU
Member States (Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and United
Kingdom).
_ Examine the use of ICTs by Heads of SMEs in each of the seven Member
States
in (a) their management role and (b) within the context of training
_ Review current status in the EU and USA with respect to (a) management
training, (b) SME-specific training and (c) use of ICT in training
_ Develop, based on the findings of the previous objectives, best practice
recommendations regarding training for Heads of SMEs, with particular
reference
to the use of ICTs
_ Obtain feedback on best practice recommendations from Heads of SMEs
and
training providers
_ Present best practice recommendations in the context of (a) relevant EU
policy
and programmes and (b) future actions for support at an EU level
By fulfilling these objectives, the study has been able to present empirical
data
regarding the current status of management training and use of ICTs in
training in
seven Member States. It has developed a set of recommendations for action
and
support at an EU level.
Heads of SMEs Section 2: Introduction
7
2.2 Structure of the work undertaken
The work took the following pattern.
_ Review of literature
_ Bringing together an expert team
_ Survey of heads of SMEs in seven European regions
_ Identification of heads of SMEs needs & demands
_ Identification of suppliers in seven European regions
_ Review of North American provision
_ Selection of best practice cases for interview
_ Interviews with providers
_ Production of initial elements of good practice
_ Feedback from heads of SMEs & providers on the elements of good practice
_ Recommendations
A description of the methodology applied and examples of the information
collection
tools are provided as appendices to this report.
2.3 The contents of this report
The main body of this report comprises the following sections:
_ Expertise needs of heads of SMEs: a review of existing knowledge
_ The Use of ICTBT: a review of the current position of ICTBT
_ Research into Priorities of Heads of SMEs: findings of research into the
use of ICTBT and training preferences of heads of SMEs
_ Identification of best practice providers: the methods and techniques
used to identify best practice and its providers. An analysis of EU and US
practices
_ Conclusions: summary of good practice using both traditional and ICT
techniques and constraints in delivery.
_ Recommendations
Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads of
SMEs.
8
3 EXPERTISE NEEDS OF HEADS OF SMES: a review of existing knowledge
3.1 Approach
The first component of the study was an initial assessment of the current
status in Europe
and the US regarding:
(a) Management training, with specific reference to training Heads of SMEs
(b) Use of ICT in training, again with specific reference to training Heads of
SMEs
(c) The nature of SMEs and their development
This work took the form of a literature survey, making use of the following
sources:
_ Reviews of research reports and studies
_ Reviews of reports relating to projects undertaken through LEONARDO DA
VINCI, ADAPT,
Framework IV
_ Reviews of relevant EU policy documentation
_ Web searches
_ Informal discussions with training providers
_ Attendance at conferences
Initial searches were updated throughout the lifetime of the project to ensure
relevance of
material.
3.2 Characteristics of SMEs
The challenge in designing management training for SMEs is to gain an
understanding of the
needs and difficulties they face and to design training which responds to
these needs in terms of
both content and means of delivery.
There are over 19 million small and medium sized firms in the European
Union. They amount to
over 99 per cent of non-primary private enterprises and employ almost twice
as many people (77
million) as large firms. The notion of a 'typical' SME is misleading. The group
of firms is very
heterogeneous.
It is convenient to classify firms by size1.
size no of enterprises average no of employees labour productivity
very small 18,040,000 2 30,000
small 1,130,000 20 50,000
medium 160,000 90 95,000
While very small and small firms have a lower labour productivity than large
firms (90,000),
medium sized firms do better. Furthermore, profitability in small firms was
the highest of all size
classes.
Beyond the simple size categories, SMEs display large differences in other
ways. The
CEDEFOP report2 considered the views of a number of SME experts. Low
managerial
1 source The European Observatory for SMEs, Sixth Report, December 1999
2“Improving SME access to training: strategies for success – A report on best practice in EC
Member States” –
European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (1994).
SMEs.
9
qualifications, poor quality management, limited quality control, poor
prospects and a negative
attitude to training were considered to exist in SMEs by 10 out of 12 experts.
However the SME category also encompasses numbers of dynamic fims
which have a high
capacity for growth. They exhibit characteristics, such as above average pay
and a particular
concern with training3, the very high educational background of managers of
New Technology
Based Firms4, human resource managerial skills and a concern with quality5.
As firms grow, they demand different skills of management. Firms may be
classified into
three main types, in terms of the workload of the entrepreneur. These are:
owner manager with a few assistants, who fits in administration on top of
delivering
work
owner manager, who largely supervises staff, while undertaking both delivery
and
administrative duties
manager, who delegates many tasks to responsible other members of staff6.
Managers in the three positions are likely to have different training demands.
The ability to
negotiate the transitions between such positions is seen as a crucial skill7.
However, divisions
such as stages are an inevitable simplification.
Storey shows through the results of a number of studies that factors such as
the nature of the
firm, chosen business strategy and the nature of the entrepreneur are all
crucial for business
growth.8 The management training needs for SMEs in the same size bracket
may still be very
different.
Although the SME group is heterogeneous, SMEs do share a number of
characteristics, which
may be important, when looking at the need to develop expertise. The size of
the firm
ensures that it functions in different way from larger firms. Informality and
the performance
of multiple tasks characterise the management style of a SME. The pressures
on the SME
have been characterised by Henri Mahé de Boislandelle9, as the effects of
magnification,
which itself can be broken down into three elements:
l' effet papillon, (the butterfly effect), whereby small factors, such as the
loss of
one member of staff, may disrupt business greatly. For many SMEs, the
business situation is
inherently unstable.
l'effet de microcosme, (the effect of small scale), through which the
unstable
business situation brings both short term flexibility and short term focus.
Hence there is a
lack of planning.
l'effet d' egotrophie, (the effect of one person focus) whereby the manager
tends
to centralise all decision making in his or her own hands to cope with
unstable situation.
There is thus a barrier to growth beyond a point through an inability to
delegate.
3 http://www.eim.nl/docum/observat.htm
4 European Innovation Monitoring System Publication 31, New Technology Based Firms in
Europe, European
Commission, 1997.
5 ‘Europe’s 500: Dynamic Entrepreneurs: the job creators’ A preliminary summary of the
major findings.
Gent, Belgium, November 16-18, EFER (1995)
6 The Entrepreneurial Middle Class, Scase, R., and Goffee, R., (1982), Croome Helme, London
7 European Innovation Monitoring System Study 42, Review of studies on innovative fast
growing SMEs, European
Commission, 1997.
8 ‘Understanding the Small Business Sector’ Storey, D.J. (1994), Routledge, London
9 Gestion des resources humaines dans les PME, Economica 2e éd, 1998

SMEs.
10
Although an 'ideal type' classification, the above picture represents
challenges, which the
managers of small and medium sized firms must confront, and overcome in
order to prosper.
Thus delegation is an essential element in high growth firms10. However,
Storey has pointed
out that 4 per cent of new firm foundations will eventually provide 50 per
cent of all
employment created by new firms. Therefore the number of firms
overcoming these barriers
may be small.
3.3 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurs vary as much as their firms. The main motivations for owner
management
involve those of independence, desire for a secure family income, and the
lack of an
alternative job opportunity. Most have no higher education, and have fewer
management
qualifications than managers in larger firms. In this respect, the SME survey
for this study
does not present a ‘typical’ SME manager as 78% are educated to degree
level or higher (see
section 5 figure 4).
Most entrepreneurs never intend to run high growth firms. For many it is
simply a means of
earning a living, and aggressive competition in the market place is something
they wish to
avoid. This is true of NTBFs as well as of more traditional sectors.
Furthermore founders of
NTBFs have a tendency to concentrate on the technology, rather than the
business, and such
an approach is consistent with their priorities. UK studies also indicate the
managers are
very reluctant to lose control of the firms. This is not simply a European
phenomenon,
studies of Canadian owner managers also indicate a great reluctance to gain
external capital
to grow, if this means losing complete control of the businesses11. The strong
importance
placed on independence in setting up a small firm is reflected in a reluctance
to allow the firm
to grow beyond the point, where such independence can be maintained.
There have been a number of studies examining the characteristics of
successful
entrepreneurs, i.e. those with high growth companies, or several successful
businesses. An
archetype innovative fast-growing SME is about 10-20 years old, employing
about 100 people
with a turnover of about € 20 million.
The SME Observatory indicates that managers of rapidly growing SMEs are
open minded,
value training, are market oriented and experienced, and can delegate
responsibilities. This
picture of a person with balanced skills is confirmed by the EIMS 42 and EFER
studies.
Studies do indicate the crucial importance of the personality of the
entrepreneur in the
development of the firm. Rae and Carswell indicate that the learning style
and approach of
the entrepreneur are key factors, rather than any formal learning of
management or business
techniques. Inculcating attitudes to openness and opportunity and techniques
to achieve
these may be more important than specific content in training programmes.
Hence the need
for programmes to include entrepreneurial skills. It is suggested in EIMS 42
that innovative
entrepreneurship relies on building, nurturing and maintaining an extensive
and diverse set of
network relationships in order to gather intelligence, supplement internal
resources and
provide moral support.
10 Understanding entrepreneurial learning’ Rae & Carswell, ISBA, 1999
11Feeney, L., Haines, G., Riding, A.., SME owners awareness and acceptance of equity capital,
presented at The
small capital conference, Warwick, April 1999.
SMEs.
11
SMEs of all sizes present a consistent picture of the conditions, under which
they will
undertake training. These involve: quality; timing; and location12. Quality is
understood to
include training, which is directly relevant to the business, as well as
involving trainers, who
can understand, what it is like to run an SME.
Many managers are self-taught and hold no management qualifications.
Many may recognise
the value of training but have difficulty in identifying their specific needs.
Thus self-diagnosis
skills may be important. The Curren13 study shows that 47% of owner
managers rely on
themselves and other members of the firm for training, supported by
technical literature.
Equipment suppliers, private sector companies and trade bodies were also
used.
Many SMEs are reluctant to take up outside training offers. The CEDEFOP
experts' study
indicates causes such as : negative attitudes to training, poor and unqualified
management,
few staff, and the individualism of the manager. The difficulty of releasing
staff is confirmed
by Temple in firms with positive attitudes to training. This applies particularly
to heads of
firms, who face the heaviest cost in releasing themselves (COM(98)222).
3.4 EU policy concerning SMEs and ICT development
This section looks at the EU policy that will determine the priorities for future
training of
SMEs. A key policy document, which is central to many of the programmes
and policy areas
discussed in this section, is the European Commission Competitiveness White
Paper. Amongst
the priorities cited within this document are promotion of the use of IT and
development of
training in new technologies.14 More specifically, the Paper points out not only
that
“Managers need specific training to make them aware of the potential of
ICTs,” but also that
“insufficient attention has been given so far to the application of new
technologies in training
and education systems.”15 As such, this study has its basis within the
Competitiveness White
Paper. Of particular relevance to this work are the Multiannual Programme for
Enterprise and
Entrepreneurship (2001-2005)16, the eEurope17 initiative, and the BEST
Report18. These policy
areas are outlined in the following paragraphs.
Multiannual Programme for Enterprise and Entrepreneurship
The first of the policy areas listed above, the Multiannual Programme for
Enterprise and
Entrepreneurship, has five objectives:
_ Promotion of entrepreneurship as a valuable and productive lifeskill, based
on customer
orientation and a stronger culture of service;
12 Cost effectiveness of open learning for small firms’ Hilary Temple, DfEE, 1995, London
13 Establishing small firms training practices, needs, difficulties and use of industry training
organisations, Curran,
J., Blackburn. R., Kitching, J., and North, J, 1997, DfEE, London.
14 European Commission, Growth, Competitiveness, Employment, The Challenges and Ways
Forward into the 21st
Century. White Paper, P24, Luxembourg 1994
15 Ibid P113.
16 COM (2000) 256, Brussels 26.04.2000
17 eEurope An Information Society for All, Progress Report, Lisbon, March 2000
18 Report on the Business Environment Simplification Task Force, Volumes I & II, Office for
Official Publications of
the European Communities, 1998
SMEs.
12
_ Encouraging a regulatory and business environment that takes account of
sustainable
development, and in which research, innovation and entrepreneurship can
flourish;
_ Improving the financial environment for SMEs;
_ Enhance the competitiveness of SMEs in the knowledge-based economy;
_ Ensure that business support networks and services to enterprises are
provided and coordinated.
This study has the potential to provide business support service providers
with information
about the needs and preferences of heads of SMEs.
The eEurope Initiative
The eEurope initiative (as described in “eEurope An Information Society for
All”)19 has three
key objectives:
_ It should bring every citizen, school, business and administration online and
into the
digital age.
_ Create a digitally literate Europe
_ Ensure that the whole process is socially inclusive.
This report presents information regarding current use of ICTs by SME
managers, what the
perceived barriers to use of ICTs are, and what would encourage managers to
make more use
of ICTs. This information may be useful in determining how these objectives
can be realised
in the case of SME heads.
The BEST Report
The BEST Report presents a number of recommendations and findings that
are related to this
study regarding SME support, education of training and the use of ICTs in
training. A
summary of these findings and recommendations are provided below:
1) Mentoring and Business Angels: BEST suggests the need for incentive
schemes to
catalyse mentoring by experienced individuals. Introduction to business
angels to raise
finance should be facilitated by organising easily accessible networks.
2) The Education and Training of Entrepreneurs:
- Training needs to take greater account of the special needs of SMEs.
- Training for entrepreneurship needs to be developed.
- There is a need for more emphasis on business management skills,
including the
application of business computer software.
- It should be easier to find out about the content and structure of training
measures for
professional skills and business administration in other Member States.
- Exchange of business experience between experienced entrepreneurs and
young
entrepreneurs is to be commended.
- There should be financial incentives for entrepreneurs to participate in
further training
- There should be promotion of training to assist women to become
entrepreneurs.
3) The use of ICTs in Education and Training:
- The need to support tele and distance learning methods, reducing time
spent in
training institutions.
- These methods should supplement practical training
- There is a need for a stronger integration of innovative technologies into the
different
training methods.
19 www.ispo.cec.be/basics/i_europe.html
SMEs.
13
4) The need to improve the quality and visibility of support services
for
businesses: The Action Plan to Promote Entrepreneurship and
Competitiveness proposes
a dedicated Internet site for exchange of information to improve support
services. A
directory of web information services for small businesses called “Screen” is
also
proposed. There is a need to support businesses in the growth phase.
These areas of the BEST Report have been considered in order to present
recommendations,
which complement previous EU policy and developments.
The Business Education Network of Europe (BENE)
Linked to the BEST recommendations and the Evaluation of the Third
Multiannual Programme
for SMEs is the setting up of BENE, the business education network of
Europe. This will link
up institutions specialised in entrepreneurial training to stimulate the
exchange of best
practice throughout Europe. BENE will be evaluating best practice from
business training
institutions. There are clear links with Phase 2 of this study. BENE will be
making
assessments in the following areas: quality of provision; how the Internet is
used for training;
use of training methods for entrepreneurs; mode of training; field of training;
development of
personal skills.
Summary of areas highlighted by policy documents regarding
training for SMEs
In addition to the three policy areas highlighted above a number of policy
documents and
reports of research on ICTs and development of SMEs has been published in a
number of
documents, including: COM (99) 319, evaluating the Third Multiannual
Programme for SMEs;
the European Commission Action Plan to Promote Entrepreneurship and
Competitiveness,
1999; COM (1999) 569 on concerted action in the field of enterprise policy;
COM (2000) 2320;
Multimedia Educational Software Observatory, 1998; the Prometeus
Initiative.21
From these reports and the three documents highlighted in the previous sub-
sections, a
number of conclusions emerge about training for SMEs. They can be
summarised as follows
_ The need for tailor-made training. SMEs are highly heterogeneous. Training
needs to be
sensitive to the different stages of development of a firm. There are different
types of
enterprise depending on size, sector, management style, technology and
growth potential.
Training needs to have a high practical relevance. The priority areas for
training are
business management skills including marketing, international business
procedures,
quality and control and application of business computer software.
_ The need for a client-oriented training. This means that there is a need for
co-operation
with SMEs in setting up services and designing training. Better networks for
SMEs are
needed. Exchange mechanisms for mentoring and business angels need to
be set up.
20 Designing Tomorrow’s Education Promoting Innovation with New Technologies, European
Commission, 2000.
21 ‘PROMETEUS promotes multimedia access,’ in CORDIS RTD-NEWS, European Commission
2000, The Prometeus
initiative was established under the European Commission’s Telematics Application
Programme, to bridge the gap
between research and use of learning technologies, content and services.
SMEs.
14
_ Quality assurance and standards of training for SMEs. This is associated
with the need for
rationalisation of services. SMEs have difficulty finding out about training.
This is partly
because there are many providers and training programmes and a lack of
consensus on
what the core services should be and what training is the most useful.
_ Promoting entrepreneurship throughout a firm’s entire lifecycle.
Globalisation,
technological change and the new economy generate greater competition.
This implies a
need for change in management strategy. Generating and encouraging
entrepreneurs
requires the generation of more sophisticated training measures.
_ The need to overcome the North/South divide in Europe in terms of
penetration of ICTs
and price differences. Need for more SMEs to incorporate the Internet
throughout their
production and distribution chain to assist growth. General need to raise
awareness of ICT
techniques for training, especially using Internet, electronic mail and
videoconferencing
3.5 General Usage of ICTs by SMEs
The use of ICT in management training may be able to overcome barriers
such as cost, timing
and location. However if usage of ICT is not at a sufficiently high level for
managers, then
there are further technology barriers which need to be overcome.
The TELEMAN22 study investigated the use of ICT for training in SMEs
surveyed 1000 firms
with between 10 and 250 employees. TELEMAN found that most companies
have only one
terminal connected to the Internet and one email address. Overall 52% of
firms had ISDN
connection and 77% had a modem.
A recent study of the use of IT in the G7 nations23 examined the
‘connectivity’24 of firms by
size. Of firms employing up to 250 people, those in the size range of 1-9
employees showed
the lowest degree of connectivity. German firms showed the highest levels of
usage in this
size range (28% of firms showing connectivity) and France and the UK the
lowest (15% of
firms in each country). The highest level of usage is seen in companies
employing 100-250
people, with the UK performing best (70% of firms). Whilst 88% of large
companies25 used
email in 1999, this percentage dropped to 66% for SMEs and 40% for micro-
firms. The use
of Electronic Data Interchange followed a similar trend, running at 49% for
large companies,
23% for SMEs and 10% for micro-firms. 25% of large companies used
videoconferencing in
1999 compared to 5% of SMEs and 2% of micros.
Whilst this information is a snapshot of ICT usage in European SMEs, it
indicates many of
them, particularly micro-firms, do not have the prerequisites to take full
advantage of ICTBT.
22Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium,
September 1998. The
project was carried out from June 1997 to August 1998.
23 Moving into the Information Age – An International Benchmarking Study 1999
The countries surveyed were: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK and USA.
24 Connectivity was measured as the use of at least one of three technologies (a) websites, (b)
frequent use of
external email and (c) frequent use of EDI (electronic data interchange)
25 These figures consider all countries in the study: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, USA, UK and
Canada. Since
ICT usage is more widespread in the USA and Canada than in Europe (Massey, Jane: How
Digital Learning Differs
in Europe, March 2000, www.learningcircuits.org) it can safely be assumed that figures given
in this section are
higher rather than lower.
SMEs.
15
3.6 Summary of current knowledge concerning heads of SMEs
Section 3 has given an overview of the current literature relevant to this
study.
The nature of training demanded by heads of SMEs involves:
_ Client-orientated design involving SMEs
_ Need for tailor-made training for SMEs which responds to their
heterogeneity
_ Need for a problem-solving approach
_ Need for quality assurance
However, heads of SMEs face constraints in the following:
_ Cost and time
_ ICT use and connectivity barriers
_ Lack of understanding of ICTBT
The need for further investigation
There was a lack of information in crucial areas surrounding the needs of
heads of SMEs in
terms of training and access to expertise. These are summarised below.
About Heads of SMEs About Providers
_ Requirements for training of heads of
SMEs
_ Nature of training for heads of
SMEs
_ Opinions of heads on available
training
_ Constraints on providers
_ Attitudes of providers
_ Usage and expertise in ICT _ Use of ICT in training delivery for
SMEs
_ Experience of ICT supported training _ Constraints in ICT delivery
_ Attitudes to ICT supported training _ Attitudes of providers to ICT
delivery
Heads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT
16
4 THE USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
IN TRAINING
The rapid development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
presents a real opportunity for the design and delivery of training material.26
This
has an impact on policy making on a national, European and worldwide
level.27 In
1997, over one million pages were already registered on Internet search
engines and
200 million people are expected to be online by the end of this year,28
demonstrating
that web-based training plays a fundamental role in distance education.2930
4.1 What is ICT Based Training?
To assess the relevance of Information and Communications Technology
Based
Training (ICTBT) for SME managers, it is necessary to define what we
understand by
ICTBT. The following sub-section describes some of the technologies and
terminologies used in this report. It is important to differentiate between
ICTBT and
‘distance learning’. ICTBT is a set of techniques based on ICT, sometimes
used
together, sometimes singly. It may facilitate learning at a distance, for
example
through an on-line course delivered using the Internet. It may also be used as
a tool
to enhance training taking place at a training provider’s location. ‘Distance
learning’
is not necessarily ICT-based. For example the Open University in the UK,
uses
mainly paper-based text-books, work-books and learning guides to offer
training at a
distance. The learner works mainly from home.
In Mainstreaming Learning Technologies, Mark Van Buren gives a detailed
breakdown of the technologies used in training presentation and delivery
methods:31
Presentation Methods Delivery Methods
_ Electronic Text
_ CBT
_ Interactive Multimedia
_ Interactive TV
_ Teleconferencing
_ GroupWare
_ Virtual Reality
_ Audio
_ Video
_ Electronic Performance Support System
_ Cable TV
_ CD-ROM
_ Electronic mail (email)
_ Extranet
_ Internet
_ Intranet
_ Local Area Network (LAN)
_ Satellite TV
_ Simulator
_ Wide area networks (WAN)
_ World Wide Web (WWW)
Using the categories proposed by Mark Van Buren a search for examples of
how
these technologies are currently being used was carried out. The examples
are not
all concerned with management training but relate to the technology that
might be
used in the future to train SME managers.
26 For an example see: Mudge, Stephen, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the
Internet, in
Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol. 36.1, P11.
27 Examples are PROMETEUS – Promoting Multimedia Access to Education and Training in the
European
Society, www.prometeus.org; and the IMS Global Learning Consortium, www.imsproject.org.
28 Eberl, Ulrich, “Where the Web is Going,” Siemens Research and Innovation, 2/97, pp.9-15
29 Khan, B.H. (ed.), Web-Based Instruction, Educational Technology Publications, 1997 (480
pp.).
30 Bethoney, Herb, ‘Computer Based Training on the web,’ PCWeek, August 1998.
31 Mainstreaming Learning Technologies - Mark Van Buren available at:
http://www.astd.org/CMS/templates/index.html?template_id=1&articleid=11599
17
Presentation Methods
Electronic Text – ISTUD, an Italian training provider, disseminates electronic text in
management
training programmes. The distance learning courses are aimed at SME managers and cover
traditional
management areas such as sales strategy and marketing. The course materials and exercises
are sent
to participants via email.32
CBT – The TRANSMETE project,33 created under the Telematics for Education and Training
Programme,
developed and delivered courses on telematic applications for SMEs. A CD-ROM was
developed, used as
a stand-alone training aid for SMEs. In the evaluation report, the CD-ROM, which (as stand-
alone)
equates to CBT, was generally positively received.
Interactive Multimedia – The Telematics Centre at the School of Education, University of
Exeter, has
developed an Internet based multimedia training course for teachers ‘Telematics in Teacher
Training.’
This combines text, graphics, and video, and enables the user to control the sequence of the
content.34
Teleconferencing - Initially developed and most commonly used for communication within a
business
setting, videoconferencing has been identified by a number of educators as having strong
potential in
educational settings. A recent project funded under SOCRATES is establishing
videoconferencing as a
mechanism for training of SME managers.35
GroupWare – The Metä Institute Silva36 uses a collaborative document sharing system to train
employees during on-the-job apprenticeship periods. Senior co-ordinators set students written
tasks.
The student carries out the task and sends the answer back as an attachment for correction.
After
approval, the student saves the answer into an online learning diary. A workplace-based
mentor also
has access to the diary to check technical details in the answer.
Audio – The CLEAR project develops computer-supported environments, which facilitate co-
operative
and distributed learning in organisations. As part of this project, the VITAL learning
environment
prototype has been developed. This uses the metaphor of virtual rooms and integrates audio
conferencing as well as email and chat tools to provide support for communication processes
essential
for co-operative learning.37
Video - the use of video as a training aid forms an integral part of established distance
learning courses
such as those delivered by the Open University in the United Kingdom.38
Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) – The Benchmarking Forum of the
American
Society for Training and Development has been seeking best practice since 1994. One of these
examples is the California State Automobile Association. The company improved customer
service by
using an online guide holding information on products and services, made available to relevant
staff.39
This EPSS dramatically reduced time staff needed to access necessary information and is
constantly
revised and updated.
Virtual Reality – A number of business simulations are beginning to emerge combining
virtual reality
settings with traditional case method teaching. One example is the Business Navigator Method
developed by CALT.40 Business Navigator develops a virtual interactive business environment
(VIBE) in
a realistically simulated business context (e.g. a company) which the learner is invited to
explore. It is
also likely more advanced packages incorporating pedagogical agents will become available,
although
these are not currently part of mainstream provision.41 Such agents track progress through the
simulation.
32 www.sviluppoimpresa.com
33 www.eurocom.gr/EurPrj/transmete/transmete/uk/Index.html
34 http://www.ex.ac.uk/education/frames/telematics.htm
35 Carried out by TEMPO and partners: http://www.tempo-tc.com
36 Experiences in Using Internet Based Learning Environment in Paper Industry. ICEE 2000
Conference,
August 14-16, 2000, Grand Hotel, Taipei, August 17-18, 2000, National Cheng Kung University,
Tainan.
37 www.darmstadt.gmd.de/concert/activities/internal/clear.html
38 http://www.open.ac.uk
39 Lucadamo, Lisa and Cheney, Scott , Learning From the Best, www.astd.org
40 Described in Anghern, A, and Nabeth, T: ‘Leveraging Emerging Technologies in
Management
Education: Research and Experiences’ in European Management Journal, 1997, Vol. 15,
No 3,
pp275 – 285.
41 Recent research at the ‘Centre for Advanced Research in Technology for Education’ –
University of
Southern Carolina, has developed two virtual instructors Steve and Adele for use in training:
http://www.isi.edu/isd/carte
18
Delivery Methods
Cable/Satellite TV – the EuroPACE project, which is developing a virtual university for Europe,
Uses satellite transmission on both a pre-recorded and live/interactive basis, for its Open Fora
series and
Ph.D. programme.42 EuroPACE finds satellite TV a useful way of contacting people throughout
Europe,
but has progressed beyond using it as a sole means of communication, also employing Internet
technologies, ISDN-videoconferencing, and CD-ROM.
CD-ROM – CD-ROM based training is common throughout Europe.43 The MASTRI ADAPT
project, aimed
at SMEs in the textile sector, produced a CD-ROM for management training.44 This focuses on
topics
such as Personal Development, Organisational Change and Culture and Strategic Management
and
Planning. It uses multimedia to convey its message, combining video, audio, animations and
text.
Email – The YOUANDI Communication Network made use of email within its TIDE Learning
Organisation
ADAPT Project.45 This project developed, implemented and evaluated a training concept for
SME staff.
It found the best courses use a combination of delivery techniques. Email was used as an
offlinetutoring
tool together with other tools such as CD-ROM, videoconferencing, traditional media and
faceto-
face intensive workshops.
E-mentoring – Use is widespread in USA, with a good example being provided by the
Mentornet, which
pairs women studying engineering with mentors in large companies.46
LAN/WAN – The Telematics Learning Project, conducted by Suffolk College, provides one
example of a
LAN used for training.47 Students in rural areas were given the opportunity to participate in a
Local
History course. Four learning centres were established in rural Suffolk with ISDN links to the
main
College server, enabling students to complete the course from a distance. They used the
Internet,
videoconferencing and email (including group email conferencing). However, the use of these
latter two
methods was limited due to technological problems.
Simulator - The Conglomerate virtual business game offered by Mbagames.com48 simulates a
commercial environment in which managers run a small multi-national company and make
realistic team
decisions. Teams compete against one another, over a period of up to two months and
decisions made
impact upon one another. They are set certain decisions online, discuss the best response, and
key in
their answer online.
World Wide Web (WWW) including Internet Intranet/Extranet – There are an increasing
number of internet-based training programmes available for SME managers including the ICM
Business
School by Internet.49 The ICM MBA is based on Action Learning and students use email and
web-forums
to communicate with their tutor and one another. Intranet based training lends itself to
academic
provision. The Human-Computer Interaction module at the University of Teeside50 makes
extensive use
of Intranet and Internet technologies. Course materials (including augmented online lectures
and selfmanaged
study assignments) are made available on the Intranet for students to access at a time of their
choice.
4.2 A Virtual Learning Environment
A Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) aims to overcome many of the
problems
associated with ICTBT. VLEs take the form of web based GroupWare for
42 www.europace.be/info/ideas/telematics.html
43 CD-ROM and Internet/Intranet based training are leading the Education and Training
Multimedia
Market – Multimedia Educational Software Observatory (MESO) – European Overview 1998.
44 CD-ROM entitled “Management: TC 2001, Achieving Business Growth in the Textile and
Clothing
Industry through Training and Development.”
45 YOUANDI Communication Network GmbH, The Tide Learning Organisation, January 2000.
46 http://mentornet.net National electronic industrial mentoring network for women in
engineering and
science (US). Pairing of students with industrial scientists. Mentoring relationships via e-mail.
Non-profit
sponsored by: AT&T and Intel Foundations, US Department of Education, IBM, Cisco Systems,
Ford
Motor Company, Microsoft, Hewlett Packard, IEEE Foundation, SPIE, Texaco, SAP LABS and Los
Alamos
National Laboratory
47 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views From the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the
Value of
Telematics-Supported Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational Technologies International
1999, Vol 36.3,
P177-184.
48 www.mbagames.com
49 http://www.internet-mba.com – MBA offered by BSN International entirely via the internet.
BSN
International has been accredited by several Accrediting Commissions such as the Distance
Education
and Training Council and CEDEO.
50 Barker, Philip, University of Teeside, UK, ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’
in
Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.1, P3-9.
19
collaborative learning.51 A VLE can provide a complete framework for online
course
delivery, including course management. One example is LearnLoop52
(currently still
in development). For access to LearnLoop, the user requires an Internet
browser
and the comprehensive manual offers user-friendly instructions. Users of
LearnLoop
may participate in the following actions:
_ Take part in and begin discussions, either sequential or threaded.
_ Participate in and construct Quizzes or surveys
_ Peer Review of documents
_ List private or course resources
_ Use personal and course calendars
_ Read and send email
LearnLoop aims to encourage user participation through allowing users to
edit and
add to courses as well as course administrators.
Whilst VLEs are currently largely used in the academic environment,53 their
use in the
business environment is growing. One example is the Business Navigator
method,54
which combines the case study and business simulation methods. Business
Navigator comprises a virtual interactive business environment (VIBE), in a
simulated
business context (e.g. a company) which the learner explores. Whilst VIBEs
can be
used on a stand-alone basis, the better option involves a multi-user
dimension,
allowing interaction with other learners and experts. For example the INSEAD
Executive Education World55 allows virtual meetings and lectures to be
conducted.
4.3 Current Position of ICTBT
ICTBT is a set of techniques based on ICT, sometimes used together,
sometimes
used singly. Where the techniques are used together this may constitute a
virtual
learning environment.
Virtual Learning Environment Single Applications
_ Use of GroupWare _ CD-ROM - multimedia resource
combining video, audio, text
_ on-line interaction, management and
administration
_ e-mentoring
_ student private resource area,
document resource area
_ on-line Internet and Intranet
based courses
_ assessments, group forums,
document sharing, whiteboard,
_ email as a tutoring tool
_ bulletin board, chat-room, _ simulation/ virtual reality -
decision-making games
51 An description of a GroupWare solution (WebCT) as described by Marshall University (USA) is
given in
Appendix 2, together with a comparison of different GroupWare products by Arizona State
University
(USA).
52 www.learnloop.org
53 For examples see: www.hull.ac.uk/merlin; www.comentor.ac.uk
54 Angehrn, Albert and Nabeth Thierry: ‘Leveraging Emerging Technologies in Management
Education:
Research and Experiences,’ in the European Management Journal, Vol 15, No 3, June 1997.
55 http://www.insead.fr/CALT/VirtualWorlds/

20
ICTBT offers many potential advantages in reaching heads of SMEs because
of its
ability to offer support at any time and place.
However, there is currently a lack of literature, which gives a full picture of
the views
of SME heads on the issue of ICT Based Training (ICTBT). There is also
evidence of
a disparity in the views of representatives of SMEs and the agencies that
serve
them56 57.
ICTBT is an area which is changing very fast. There is a need for further
investigation concerning the requirements and experience of heads of SMEs
and the
current position of training providers. These areas are explored through this
study
by interviewing heads of SMEs and training providers.
56 ‘Training for entrepreneurship and new businesses’ Klofsten, M. (1999) Industry &
Higher
Education, December 1999
57‘Building Business – Management Training for Small Firms’ Creagh, Barrow & Morrow,
1998,
Cranfield University School of Management
Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities of
Heads of SMEs
21
5 RESEARCH INTO PRIORITIES OF HEADS OF SMES
Design of questionnaires - Interview questionnaire
In order to collect data regarding Heads of SMEs two questionnaires were
designed,
for delivery face-to-face. The first of these, an interview questionnaire was
designed to address the nature of SME heads, their business approach and
their
attitude to and experience of training and ICT use. The areas presented in
Table 1
were included.
The questionnaire was piloted in organisations in the UK. This resulted in
some
amendments to the wording of questions, inclusion of further questions to
examine
reasons for negative attitude towards use of ICT based techniques in
management
training. A copy of the final interview questionnaire for SME heads is shown in
full in
Appendix 1.
Main areas of inquiry with heads of SMEs
Degree of ICT penetration _ Which ICTs are being used by
managers and by the company as a
whole?
_ Which ICTs are being used in
different management areas?
_ Which ICT techniques are used to
gain expertise and management
training?
Level of ICT proficiency _ Managers’ level of existing ICT
expertise
_ Managers’ ICT training needs
Attitudes to different management
training techniques
_ How managers view current ICTbased
training from their experiences
(benefits and barriers)
_ Preferences for use of ICT versus
traditional training delivery
_ Reasons for not wanting ICTBT
Practical issues _ Relationship between small business
problems and management training
_ How barriers to training can be overcome
_ Who should provide training, when is
most suitable and where
Design of questionnaires - Learning styles questionnaire
A second questionnaire, a learning styles questionnaire (see Appendix 1),
was
also delivered to SME managers to determine whether there is an indication
of a
preferred learning style among SME managers. While there is no evidence
that SME
managers, as a group, have particular learning preferences, there is some
indication
that some sub groups do so, e.g. those running New Technology Based Firms.
Heads of SMEs
22
Furthermore, many authorities do assert that the personality of the
entrepreneur is
paramount in determining the success of the SME.
Four styles of learning have been proposed based on Honey & Mumford
(198658) to
analyse the preferences of people for learning in particular ways. These are:
_ Activists, who learn by trying things out
_ Reflectors, who learn by observing, collecting data and analysing it
_ Theorists, who think logically, and follow logical rules.
_ Pragmatists, who learn by experimentation.
Although people combine the above approaches, they do show distinct
preferences
for one or two of the approaches. To achieve optimum results, a training
programme
for each of the above groups would be designed differently.
An evaluation of the learning style preferences is relevant in determining,
what
techniques of training might be most appropriate to the target group of
entrepreneurs. This is particularly appropriate given the opportunities offered
by the
new media in training, which allow for interaction and virtual
experimentation, as
well as on line evaluation.
Sampling and Delivery
A total of 175 firms across seven EU countries were sought for interview.
Firms were
targeted with regard to (i) size (ii) sector and (iii) Objective region. A
sampling frame
was drawn up as shown in Appendix 1. This was used to inform partners in
the
construction of a database of 1000 companies across the partner countries.
The sample for interview mainly covered firms who had some previous
contact with
the partner organisations delivering the project. Thus the firms are more
likely to
show a positive attitude towards business support and management training
than
the general population of SMEs. It is also likely that they have a more positive
approach to ICTs. They thus form a typical cross section of firms who are
likely to be
early adopters of new training offers.
Analysis of Results
In total, 168 completed interview questionnaires were received. Most
were
delivered face-to-face apart from 18 Italian questionnaires which were
delivered over
the telephone. Results were compiled and analysed using SPSS for Windows
and
Excel 97 to derive frequencies of responses and interrelationships. Responses
to
questions were coded and inputted into a program created for this analysis.
The
results of analysis of the interview questionnaires are presented as Section 4
of this
report.
Completed learning styles questionnaires were received from four
countries
(Finland, France, Greece and the United Kingdom). Learning style preferences
were
compiled for each manager based on their responses to the questionnaire
using the
framework presented in Appendix 1.
58 The manual of learning styles, Honey, P., and Mumford, M., Maidenhead, 1986.
Heads of SMEs
23
Results of Research into Priorities of Heads of SMEs
Sections 5.1-5.6 present the findings from a survey of 168 SME managers
from
seven different EU countries: Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
Portugal and
United Kingdom. A copy of the questionnaire is provided in Annex 1 to this
report.
The findings are presented as follows:
_ Composition of sample - composition of the sample according to
several personal and company attributes
_ General use of ICTs - overview of previous use of ICTs by managers
_ Experience of ICT-based - overview of which ICTs have been used previously
training in training and views of this form of training
_ Training preferences - how managers prefer training to be delivered and
what they want to learn
_ Effect of size - relationship between size of company and other
factors
_ Analysis of effect of sex of - - relationship between sex and other factors
respondent
Section 5.7 presents the results of a Learning Styles questionnaire in four of the
Member
States involved in this study: Finland, France, Greece and UK. This assesses the
learning
types of managers and as such can be useful in the design of appropriate training.
Section
5.8 provides a summary of the requirements of Heads of SMEs.
Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities –
Composition of Sample
24
5.1 Composition of sample
Results
Factors such as industry, size (by number of employees and turnover) and level of
education
of managers are important considerations when examining the data relating to this
study.
The type of industry of a company could have an impact on the level of ICT used,
previous
educational experiences of an SME head could inform their attitudes to training and
size of
company could dictate the freedom to dedicate resources to training and the ability
to
implement new technologies. As such, the sample group needs to be clearly defined
to make
results meaningful and to give them a context.
Figure 1 Composition of Sample by Industry
In the figure above, slices define the industry group to which companies belong: (a) manufacturing -
manufacturing,
(b) technical/business - technical/business services, (c) distribution - distribution, (d) other services - other
services
and (e) missing - missing data. Within the sample, 2 managers failed to provide data, this is equivalent to
1.2% of
the total sample.
SME heads were asked to classify their area of business as one of four categories:
manufacturing, technical/business services, distribution and other services. The
sample
exhibits a split roughly into thirds comprising one third manufacturing (32% [54
companies]);
one third technical/business services (39% [66 companies]) and the remaining third
combining distribution and other services (15% and 13% [25 companies and 21
companies]
respectively). There are certain differences within the sample between countries, for
example
manufacturing is highly represented in the UK (44%), whilst technical and business
services
are highly represented in Greece and Italy (48% and 52%).
other ser vices
distribution
technical / bus iness
manufac turing
Missing
25
Figure 2 Composition of sample by size of company (number of employees)
In the figure above slices represent the number of employees in the company of interviewees.
"Missing" relates to missing data. Two of the sample failed to provide a response to this
question. This
is equivalent to 1.2% of the total sample .
The figure above illustrates the breakdown of sample according to size, as defined by
number
of employees. Managers were asked to classify size of company as one of three
categories
according to number of employees (a) 10 and fewer (micro-businesses); (b) 11-50
(small
firms) and (c) 51-249 (medium sized firms). As can be seen from the figure, the
sample
comprises mainly companies employing up to 50 people (77%). Micro businesses
comprise
42% of companies, small businesses 36% and medium sized businesses 21%.
Distribution
amongst countries is subject to some variation, with France having 40% of its
companies in
the 51-249 employees categories and Portugal having no companies in this size
bracket.
The composition of the sample has also been examined with regard to turnover.
Company
size shows a positive correlation which is significant at the 0.01 level. The majority of
firms
(69%) have turnover of €2,500,000 or less. Again, there are differences in distribution
between countries, with 84% of the Portuguese SMEs interviewed having a turnover
of
€250,000 or less compared with the French and German samples which comprised
52% and
43% with turnovers exceeding €2,500,000.
51 to 249
11 to 50
10 and fewer
Missing
26
Figure 3 Composition of sample by management position
In the figure above, slices represent specific management roles.
The majority of respondents identified themselves to be managers/directors (86%
[144
people]) with a few identifying specialised areas of management (marketing 7% [11],
finance
5% [8] and technical 3% [5]). There are no major differences in distribution between
countries.
A final factor used to define the sample is level of education of the manager.
Interviewees
were asked to describe their level of education as (a) school certificate, (b)
university, (c)
postgraduate education or (d) professional training. As can be seen in Figure 4, the
majority
of managers have either a university level or higher education (78% [131
managers]), with
the most common level of education being a university first degree (42% [70
managers]).
There are differences in levels of education, with Italy and UK exhibiting a high
number of
managers with school certificates (44% [11 managers] and 32% [8], respectively).
Whilst,
Germany and Greece exhibit a high number of managers with a postgraduate
education
(48% [11 managers] and 40% [10], respectively). The countries exhibiting the
highest levels
of professional training within the sample are UK and Finland (16% [4 managers] and
19%
[4], respectively).
technical manager
finance manager
marketing manager
manager/director
27
Figure 4 Composition of sample by level of educational qualification
In the figure above, slices represent different levels of education as follows: (a) school
certificate -
manager holds a school certificate, (b) university - manager is educated to first degree level,
(c)
postgraduate educati - manager holds a masters or doctoral degree, (d) professional
education -
manager holds a relevant professional qualification e.g. MBA and (e) Missing - manager has
failed to
provide a response. Seven managers have failed to provide a response, this corresponds to 4%
of the
total sample.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the data regarding the nature of the
sample
group of SMEs:
_ Firms are drawn mainly from the manufacturing and technical/business
services
sectors.
_ A high proportion of the sample (approximately two thirds) have 50 or fewer
employees
_ The majority of managers do not associate their role with a specific
management
type (for example, financial manager). Differentiation between management types is
greater in larger companies within the sample.59
_ The sample is also educated to a high level, with more than three-quarters
possessing a
minimum of a university education.
59Cross-tabulation of management position against size of company show that 7.1% of
managers in
micro-firms and 8.3% of managers in small firms classify themselves as a "type" of manager,
compared
with 38.9% of managers in medium sized firms (data not shown).
Missing
professional trainin
pos tgraduate educati
univ ersity
school certificate
General Use of ICT
28
5.2 General Use of ICTs
Results
This subsection gives a baseline for managers' previous experience of using ICT. It
provides
an indication of what ICTs they have used, their levels of ICT competence, and in
which
areas of management their companies use ICT. This provides a background regarding
the
ICT skills level of managers, allowing a judgement of what ICTs managers are familiar
with.
Figure 5 ICTs used by managers in the workplace
The figure above illustrates the number of managers using a variety of ICTs in the workplace.
Of the
questionnaires gathered, there were 151 valid cases, with 17 managers not responding to this
question.
As might be expected, the ICTs used by managers most frequently are those which
are
considered to be most established. The most commonly used ICTs are email (133
managers
[88%]), Internet (130 [86%]), CD-ROM (118 [78%]) and basic software packages (116
[77%]). Similarly, more specialised packages with distinct applications are less well
used, for
example CAD (26 managers [17%]), CAE (15 [10%]), and CIM (10 [7%]).
Managers were also asked to identify the use of ICTs by different managers within
their
company. They were asked to identify whether ICTs were used routinely in: (a)
Financial
management, (b) Strategic and production management, (c) Marketing and
international
management and (d) Human resources management. Figure 6 shows the number of
companies in which ICT is routinely used by each role.
Financial Management is the area in which ICT is most frequently used, with 131 of
the
companies using ICT in financial management (92%)59. Just under half the companies
involved in the survey use ICT for strategic and production management and
marketing and
international management (69 [49%] and 64 [45%] respectively).
59 Percentage has been calculated as number of companies as a proportion of valid
cases 1.e.
as a percentage of 151 companies.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Email
Internet
CD ROM
Excel/Word/Access
Website
Presentations
Intranet
Statistics
Firewall
Extranet
Ecommerce
Inventory
Statistical Process
Control
CAD
Video conferencing
CAE
CIM
Type of ICTs
No. of Managers
General Use of ICT
29
Figure 6 Use of ICTs within different management roles
The figure above shows the number of companies, which make use of ICTs in four different
areas of
management (a) financial management, (b) strategic and production management, (c)
marketing and
international management and (d) human resources management. The data presented is
based on 142
valid cases, in 26 of the questionnaires, responses had not been given to this question.
ICT uptake appears to be lowest in the area of human resources management, with
only 52
companies (37%) using ICT routinely in this role.
Finally, managers were asked to identify what they felt to be their own level of ICT
expertise,
from a pre-set list of levels. Levels used were: (a) none, (b) occasional use, (c) regular
use of
basic software packages (d) regular use of email, (e) regular use of the Internet, (f)
specialist
use or (g) expert. Figure 7 shows the distribution of expertise. The most common
responses
were "Regular use of email" (108 managers), "Regular use of basic packages" (107)
and
"Regular use of the Internet" (103). Only 7 managers responded that they had no ICT
experience, whilst 23 managers considered themselves to be experts. Within the
sample,
almost one quarter of managers are involved in specialist use of ICT (41 managers).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Financial Management Strategic and Production
Management
Marketing and International
Management
Human Resources
Management
Management Role
Number of Companies
General Use of ICT
30
Figure 7 Level of ICT expertise of managers
The figure above illustrates the level of ICT expertise of managers questioned in the survey.
The
frequency/type of usage are as follows: (a) none - no ICT expertise, (b) occasional - occasional
use of
ICTs, (c) Regular use of basic packages - regular use of basic packages, for example MS Office
applications, (d) Email - regular use of email, (e) Internet - regular use of the Internet, (f)
Specialist
packages - specialist packages such as CAD, CIM, CAE and (g) expert - expert in use of ICT.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the data presented in this section:
_ There is a high usage of established ICTs, with a small number of managers using
specialist packages.
_ The majority of managers use basic packages, email and Internet regularly.
_ Use of eCommerce by managers is low.
_ Differences between use of ICT in different management roles are apparent.
_ Highest use of ICT occurs in financial management and the lowest in human
resources management.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
None Occasional Regular use of
basic packages
E-mail Internet Specialist
Packages
Expert
Frequency/Type of Usage
No of Managers
Experience of ICT-based training
31
5.3 Experience of ICT-based training
In discussing best practice in delivery of training to managers using ICT, it is essential
to find
out level of awareness of ICT, what previous experience managers have had of this
type of
training and what they thought of it. In order to do this, the questionnaire
incorporated
questions regarding (a) what ICTs have been used previously by managers for
training, (b)
the good and bad experiences of managers in using these ICTs, (c) reasons for
managers not
having used ICTs for training and (d) what factors would influence managers to use
ICT
based training in the future.
Figure 8 ICTs used by managers in previous training
The figure above shows the level of use of different ICTs by managers. Columns represent
types of
ICTs, with shading representing the frequency of use, from the following list: (a) never heard
about -
the respondent has never heard about the technology / its use for training, (b) never used -
respondent has never used the technology for training, (c) tried a little - respondent has tried
using
the technology a few times, (d) used occasionally - the respondent uses ICTs for training on an
occasional basis, and (e) use a lot - respondent uses ICTs on a regular basis for training.
From the figure above, awareness of existence of ICT-based training is high. In three
of the
ICT technologies, CD ROM, Internet Searches and email, the combined figure for all
those
using ICT - "tried a little", "used occasionally", "use a lot" - outweighs the number of
respondents who have not heard of or used technologies. The distribution is as
follows: CD
ROM - 54% of managers have used, Internet Search - 56% of managers have used,
email -
51% of managers have used. The use of each of the three technologies shows a
positive
correlation with managers' use of the same technologies in the workplace.61
61 Correlation shows significance to the 0.01 level using a bivariate Pearson product-
moment
correlation.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
CD ROM Internet
Searches
Email Internet
Training
Video for
training
Video
conferencing
Virtual Reality Ementoring
Type of ICT
Number of People
Never heard about Never used Tried a little Used occasionally Use a lot
32
Managers were then asked about their experiences of using ICTs for training: both
good and
bad. The findings are presented in Figures 9, 10a and 10b.
Figure 9 Good and bad aspects of using ICTs in training - Overview
The figure above shows a breakdown of the good and bad aspects of ICT-based training
defined by
managers. The top chart shows good aspects of ICT-based training as a percentage of total
responses
received. The categories were presented within the questionnaire: (a) up to date info - the ICT
used
enables more up to date information to be used, (b) immediate - use of ICTs makes training
more
immediate (c) Own pace - use of ICTs allows learning at own pace, (d) relevant - training was
relevant
and (e) better retention - the manager felt that training resulted in better retention of
information. The
bottom chart shows bad aspects as a percentage of total responses received, again categories
were
presented in the questionnaire: (a) out of date information - information presented was out of
date,
(b) Lack of human support - lack of human support (c) Unreliable (tech.) - unreliability of the
technology, (d) irrelevant - training was irrelevant, (e) time consuming - training is time
consuming
and (f) poor presentation - training material was poorly presented.
From Figure 9, it can be seen that the most common aspects regarded as attributes
of ICTbased
training are: the immediacy it offers, the flexibility for the learner to work at their
own
pace, and that material is up to date. In terms of negative aspects, the lack of human
support appears to be a major problem, along with poor presentation of information
and
Good Aspects
23%
18% 31%
12%
11%
5%
Up to date info
Immediate
Own Pace
User interaction
Relevant
Better retention
Bad Aspects
13%
39%
13%
7%
11%
17%
Out of date info
Lack of Human Support
Unreliable (tech.)
Irrelevant
Time consuming
Poor Presentation
33
concerns over reliability of technology. Out of date information was cited as problem.
It is
possible, that this complaint draws on ICT-specific issues such as lack of updating of
websites
and CD-ROMs.
Figure 10a Good aspects of using ICTs in training
The figure above gives a breakdown of the good aspects of a number of different methods
used for ICT
training. Respondents were asked to pick responses to describe the good aspects of ICT based
training
that they had used. Each bar represents a single technology and the divisions within these,
the good
aspects. The categories were presented within the questionnaire: (a) up to date info - the ICT
used
enables more up to date information to be used, (b) immediate - use of ICTs makes training
more
immediate (c) Own pace - use of ICTs allows learning at own pace, (d) relevant - training was
relevant
and (e) better retention - the manager felt that training resulted in better retention of
information.
From Figure 10a, it can be seen that the largest number of responses coincide with
the most
commonly used ICTs of email, Internet and CD-ROM. Although the distribution of
good
aspects is fairly even within each type of technology, certain technologies appear to
have
particular advantages. Internet searches, email contact and e-mentoring are felt to
have the
greatest potential for providing up to date information, with this good aspect
accounting for
33%, 33% and 32% of responses associated with the respective technologies. With
respect
to immediacy Internet searches, email contact and e-mentoring are strong
performers (35%,
38% and 36% respectively). Use of virtual reality and video-conferencing are felt to
give
good user-interactivity (30% and 50% respectively) and to lead to good retention of
knowledge (23% and 19% respectively).
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
internet searches
CD-Rom based
training/reference
email contacts
use of internetbased
training
use of video for
training
virtual reality/game
scenario training
e-mentoring
use of videoconferencing
for
training
Method of training
Number of citations
Up to date info Immediate Own Pace User interaction Relevant Better retention
34
Figure 10b Bad aspects of using ICTs in training
The figure above gives a breakdown of the bad aspects of a number of different methods used
for ICT
training. Respondents were asked to pick responses to describe the bad aspects of ICT based
training
that they had used. Each bar represents a single technology and the divisions within these,
the bad
aspects. The categories were presented within the questionnaire: (a) out of date information -
information presented was out of date, (b) Lack of human support - lack of human support (c)
Unreliable (tech.) - unreliability of the technology, (d) irrelevant - training was irrelevant, (e)
time
consuming - training is time consuming and (f) poor presentation - training material was
poorly
presented.
As with the good aspects, the frequently used technologies of CD-ROM and Internet
searches
feature heavily in the responses. However, the number of responses regarding email
is
reduced and the use of video for training features more heavily. Again responses
tend to
show a similar distribution between categories, but there are some distinctions.
Concerns
over reliability of technology account for 57% of responses relating to video-
conferencing,
much higher (in terms of number and proportion) than for more established
technologies
such as CD-ROM and Internet searches (5% and 7% respectively).
It was also felt important, given the fact that some had no experience, to examine
managers'
reasons for not making use of ICT based training. Managers were asked to identify
reasons
from the following list: (a) lack of knowledge, (b) lack of quality assurance, (c) cost of
technology, (d) not available in my language, (e) no suitable computer, (f) poor
telecommunications infrastructure. The responses to this question are presented in
Figure 11.
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
internet searches
CD-Rom based
training/reference
email contacts
use of internetbased
training
use of video for
training
virtual reality/game
scenario training
e-mentoring
use of videoconferencing
for
training
Method of training
Number of citations
Out of date info Lack of Human Support Unreliable (tech.) Irrelevant Time consuming Poor Presentation
35
It can be seen that the most common barrier to use of ICT appears to be a lack of
knowledge. This to some extent contrasts with the results presented in Figure 9,
which
appear to suggest that people are aware of the use of ICTs in training.62
On further reflection, it appears that this question may have been interpreted in a
number of
ways. Lack of knowledge covers a range of areas including provision and personal
knowledge
in the use of ICT for training.
Figure 11 Reasons for not using ICTs in training
The figure above shows reasons chosen by managers to explain why they had not previously
used ICT
based training. Managers were asked to select as many responses from the following as were
appropriate: (a) lack of knowledge - lack of knowledge about ICT based training, (b) lack of
quality
assurance - lack of quality assurance of ICT based training, (c) cost of technology - the cost of
the
technology required to use ICT based training, (d) not available in my language - a lack of ICT
based
training material on offer in managers' first language, (e) no suitable computer - a lack of the
equipment needed to take part in ICT based training, (f) poor telecommunications
infrastructure -
company/individual does not have a sufficiently developed telecommunications infrastructure.
Managers suggested improvements that would increase their use of ICT for training
in the
future (Figure 12). Quality assurance was the most important factor (81 managers
[48%]),
followed by cheaper access (61 managers [36%]). However, these suggestions do not
directly address the barriers of lack of knowledge, which suggests some uncertainty
about
what is wanted, but may also suggest that lack of knowledge has been interpreted as
a lack
of personal knowledge about ICT. Similarly, cost of technology was only identified by
10
managers as a barrier to using ICT based training, yet 61 managers have identified
the need
for a cheaper access. This may also refer to the cost of courses themselves.
62Responses indicate a very small number of people (total of 10 distributed across all
technologies) had
not heard of the ICT technologies presented. In some cases, for example email, no
respondents stated
chose the "never heard of " response.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Lack of Knowledge Lack of Quality
Assurance
Cost of Technology Not available in my
language
No Suitable
Computer
Poor
Telecommunications
Infrastructure
Reasons
Number of people
36
Some managers identified additional factors, which have not been included in Figure
12. It is
not possible to predict accurately what level of response these factors would have
attracted if
they had been included, but it is likely that they would have been identified by more
managers. Two managers identified greater flexibility and one manager identified the
use of
discussion groups.
Figure 12 Factors that would encourage managers to use ICT based training
in the future.
The figure above shows factors that would encourage managers to use ICT based learning in
the
future.Managers were asked to select factors from the following: (a) Quality assurance –
quality
assurance (b) Cheaper access - reduction in the cost of access, (c) Recommendation from other
SMEs -
recommendation from other SMEs, (d) Accreditation - better accreditation of courses, (e)
Quality
websites - higher quality websites, and (f) Provision in language - provision in first language of
the
manager. Some managers identified additional factors, which are discussed in the text.
Conclusions
From the results presented in this section, the following conclusions can be drawn
regarding
perception and experience of ICT-based training:
_ There appears to be a good awareness of the technologies associated with ICT-
based
learning but a relatively low take-up.
_ Perceived advantages of ICT based learning are providing up-to-date
information,
flexibility and immediate training.
_ ICT also has a number of perceived disadvantages, in particular lack of human
support
and poor presentation.
_ There is a concept of different ICTs having different advantages:
CD-ROM based training is good for learning at mangers' own pace
Internet searches are immediate and provide up-to-date information
_ Specific ICTs are also associated with particular disadvantages:
Internet based training is seen as lacking human support
Use of video-conferencing is seen as being technically unreliable
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Quality Assurance Cheaper Access Recommendation
from other SMEs
Accreditation Quality Websites Provision in
Language
Factors
Number of Citations
37
_ The major barrier to take-up of ICT based learning is lack of knowledge. It is likely
that this factor combines a lack of personal ICT skills, particularly in areas such as
Internet-based training and virtual reality which have low usage and a lack of
knowledge
regarding available training.
_ The biggest factor that would influence managers to use ICT based training is
greater
quality assurance, with cheaper access and recommendations from other
SMEs
also being considerations.
Training preferences of SME Managers
38
5.4 Training preferences of SME managers
Results
In order to define best practice and determine the most effective way to deliver
training to
SME managers, it is necessary to examine how managers prefer training to be
delivered, for
example timing, location and by whom, and also what they wish to learn. Responses
to these
questions provide an indication of where resources and assistance should be
focussed to
serve SME managers' needs.
Firstly managers were asked a series of questions regarding whom they preferred to
receive
training from, where they prefer to receive training and at what time they prefer to
receive
training. The responses are presented in Figures 13 - 18 respectively.
Figure 13 Who managers prefer to receive training from
The figure above shows the training providers preferred by SME managers. Managers were
asked to
select their preferred training providers from the following: (a) private training providers -
private
training providers, (b) universities - universities, (c) local public - local public training
providers, (d)
trade associations - trade associations and (e) networks - shared experience networks. In
some cases,
managers have indicated more than one training provider. Some managers identified other
training
providers; these are discussed in the text below.
It can be seen that the sample of managers interviewed showed a strong preference
for
private training provision (80 managers [48%]). This was followed by university-
based
training provision (52 managers [31%]) and local public training providers (50
managers
[30%]). In addition to the training providers shown above, managers identified other
training
providers, but the low responses given may not reflect their actual importance and as
such
these responses are not shown in the figure above. Eight managers highlighted the
need for
training to be provided by people with SME Expertise, that is practical experience of
running a
small business. Four managers indicated that a range of providers was preferable,
and two
managers indicated a preference for training organised by professional bodies. One
manager
highlighted other managers as a preferred training source.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Private Training
Providers
Universities Local Public Trade Associations Networks
Training Providers
No of Citations
39
There appear to be differences in preferences between countries, as shown in Figure
14. The
overall preference for private training providers does not reflect the preferences of a
number
of the countries. In the cases of Germany, Greece, and Italy, there is a preference for
this
type of training provider (17 managers, 19 managers and 12 managers respectively).
However both France and the UK show a preference for local public providers (12
managers
and 8 managers respectively). SME managers in Finland appear to favour university
provision
(12 managers) whilst Portugal shows an even split between private training providers
and
university training (13 managers apiece).
Figure 14 Preference for providers by country
The figure above illustrates the preferences of managers for different training providers by
country.
Bars represent 100% responses from countries, with the divisions showing the % contribution
that
each type of training provider makes to the whole response. Managers have selected
preferences from
the following: (a) private training providers - private training providers, (b) universities -
universities,
(c) local public - local public training providers, (d) trade associations - trade associations and
(e)
networks - shared experience networks. In some cases, managers have indicated more than
one
training provider.
Figure 15 shows responses gathered from managers regarding their preferred
location in
which to receive training. It can be seen from the figure that the preferred location
for
training of the sample is in the company (79 managers [47%]), followed by a special
location
(74 managers [44%]). Under a quarter of managers expressed a preference for
receiving
training by computer (39 managers [24%]). Again, there are differences in
preferences when
responses are compared between countries. Training in a special location is preferred
by SME
managers in France, Germany, Greece and the United Kingdom (18 managers, 10
managers,
17 managers and 12 managers respectively). SME managers in Finland, Italy and
Portugal
show a preference for training delivered in the company (9 managers, 14 managers
and 17
managers respectively).
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Finland France Germany Greece Italy Portugal United kingdom
Country
Contribution
Private Training Providers Universities Local Public Trade Associations Networks
40
Figure 15 Where managers want training
The figure above shows the preferred location for receiving training. Managers were asked to
chose
their preferred location from the following: (a) in the company - training delivered on / to
company
premises, (b) special location - training delivered at a special location, (c) on the computer -
training
delivered using computers, (d) home - training delivered to the home, and (e) social location -
training
which is combined with a social event. Managers did not provider any other responses.
Figure 16 Preferences for location of training broken down by country
The figure above shows a breakdown of preferences regarding location of training by country.
Bars
represent 100% responses from countries, with the divisions showing the % contribution that
each
location makes to the whole response. Managers were asked to chose their preferred location
from the
following: (a) in the company - training delivered on / to company premises, (b) special
location -
training delivered at a special location, (c) on the computer - training delivered using
computers, (d)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
In the Company Special Location On the Computer Home Social Location
Location
Number of Citations
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Country
Contribution
In the Company Home Special Location Social Location On the Computer
41
home - training delivered to the home, and (e) social location - training which is combined with
a
social event.
In addition to identifying preferred providers and locations, managers were asked to
identify
their preferred timing for training. Preferences are presented as an overview of the
sample
and on a country-by-country basis in figures 17 and 18 respectively.
Figure 17 When managers prefer to be trained
The figure above shows the preferred timing for receiving training. Managers were asked to
chose
their preferred location from the following: (a) at my request - training delivered on request,
(b)
evening sessions - training delivered through evening training sessions, (c) instant access -
training
which can be accessed instantaneously, (d) weekend sessions - training delivered through
sessions
held at the weekend, and (e) day sessions - delivered during the day. Managers did not
provide any
other responses, some managers provided more than one response.
It can be seen from the figure above that the most popular timing for training is at
the
manager's request (92 managers [55%]). This suggests that flexibility in timing of
training is
important to managers. There is a low preference for day sessions (8 managers
[5%]).
As with location and choice of training provider, there is a difference in preferences
between
countries, illustrated in Figure 18. In all countries except Portugal, the preference is
for
training delivered at the manager's request. SME managers in Portugal show a slight
preference for training to be carried out during evening sessions (10 managers
[40%]).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
At My Request Evening Sessions Instant Access Weekend Sessions Day Sessions
Timing of Training
Number of Citations
42
Figure 18 Managers' preference for timing of training by country
The figure above illustrates the preferences of managers for timing of training by country.
Bars
represent 100% responses from countries, with the divisions showing the % contribution that
each
timing makes to the whole response. Managers were asked to chose their preferred location
from the
following: (a) at my request - training delivered on request, (b) evening sessions - training
delivered
through evening training sessions, (c) instant access - training which can be accessed
instantaneously,
(d) weekend sessions - training delivered through sessions held at the weekend, and (e) day
sessions -
delivered during the day. Managers did not provide any other responses, some managers
provided
more than one response.
In addition to identifying preferences for provider, location and timing, managers
were asked
to identify how they felt barriers to training could be overcome, the results are
presented in
Figure 19. The most popular method for overcoming barriers to training is improved
access
(100 managers [60%]), followed by the provision of grants for training (70 managers
[42%]). Interestingly, despite identifying lack of knowledge as the main barrier to use
of ICT
based training, lack of information does not appear to be such a large factor in
training as a
whole.60
When responses are considered on a country-by-country basis, some differences
appear:
SME managers from Finland, France Germany and Italy state that improved access to
and
flexibility of training is the best way of overcoming barriers to training (17 managers,
10
managers, 17 managers and 11 managers respectively). Managers from the United
Kingdom
identified provision of grants for training as the best way of overcoming barriers (16
managers), whilst managers from Greece gave both access and grants equal
importance (13
managers apiece). Managers from Portugal also identified better access as an
important
factor, with provision of good information ranking as equally important (17 managers
apiece).
60 see Figure 11 for comparison
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Country
Contribution
Evening Sessions Weekend Sessions Instant Access At My Request Day Sessions
43
Figure 19 Suggested methods for overcoming barriers to training
The figure above shows the responses of managers concerning methods of overcoming
barriers to
training. Managers were asked to identify responses from the following: (a) access - better
access and
flexibility, (b) grants - grants to undertake training, (c) information - an information guide on
what
training is available and where, (d) variety - better variety of relevant training, and (e) trade
associations - provision from trade associations. Some managers identified additional factors,
these
are discussed in the text.
Figure 20 Methods of overcoming barriers to training by country
The figure above shows the responses of managers concerning methods of overcoming
barriers to
training, by country. Managers were asked to identify responses from the following: (a) access
- better
access and flexibility, (b) grants - grants to undertake training, (c) information - an
information guide
on what training is available and where, (d) variety - better variety of relevant training, and
(e) trade
associations - provision from trade associations.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Access Grants Information Variety Trade Associations
Suggested methods
Number of People
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Country
Contribution
variety trade associations grants information access
44
Figure 21 Rationale for making training choices
The figure above shows the rationale between different training choices made by managers.
Divisions
within bars show the composition according to the benefits offered by the type of training: (a)
problem
solving - the approach is good for problem solving, (b) immediate use - the method allows
immediate
access, (c) proceed at own pace - the approach allows the learner to proceed at their own
pace, (d)
tried and tested - the approach is tried and tested and (e) other. Value axis shows percentage
of
respondents.
Managers were asked their rationale for making training choices. Problem solving
was the
predominant reason for most areas of training, from the choice of short course to in
company
experimentation. Also important was ‘immediate use’, followed by ‘proceed at own
pace’. A
preference for the ‘tried and tested’ was also shown by some managers. Responses
on
problems with previous training were much fewer, ‘theoretical’ and ‘not relevant’
being the
two most common responses.
Managers were also asked to identify preferred methods of delivery in four major
areas of
management: financial management, strategic and production management,
marketing and
international management and human resources management. The questionnaire
provided a
mixture of 'traditional' and ICT-based training methods and managers were asked to
record
their first five choices for each kind of management. Figures 22-25 present the first
and
second choices for each type of management.
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
Training Course
Experience
Mentoring
Consultancy
Business Advisors
Text Books
Networking
Copying
Experimentation
Other
Type of training
Percentage of managers
Problem Solving Immediate Use Proceed at Own Pace Tried and Tested other
45
Figure 22 Preferred methods of delivery of management training in
financial
management
The figure above shows the first and second preferences of managers for method of delivery
of
training in financial management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, with the
divisions
representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second choice. It
should be
noted that response rate was low: 46 managers failed to provide first choices and 58 did not
provide
second choices.61
As can be seen from the figure above, the most preferred method of delivery is a
short
training course, with 45 managers choosing this delivery as their first choice and 10
managers choosing it as their second choice. There seems to be general preference
for
traditional methods of delivery. The ICT-based methodology showing the highest
combined
ranking was on-line advice via email (first choice of five managers and second choice
of six
managers). This was only the ninth most popular choice of managers.
As with the case of training in financial management, short training courses are the
preferred
method of delivery for the sample for training in strategic and production
management, with
29 managers identifying it as their first choice of delivery and 10 managers
identifying it as
their second choice. Again there is a preference for traditional methods of delivery,
but with
group workshops and consultancy featuring more highly (22 managers and 21
managers
respectively). Games scenarios / virtual reality is the eighth most popular delivery
method
(seven managers' first choice, three managers' second choice).
61 Lack of response was of three kinds: (i) individuals failing to provide any choices, (ii)
managers
providing a first choice but no second choice and (iii) responses which could not be counted
due to
errors in recording (a number of choices were highlighted with no ranking or "tied choices" -
for
example two first choices - were indicated)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
short training course
one day seminar
one-to-one sessions
group workshops
mentoring
consultancy
longer training at college/university
text books and manuals
on-line advice via email
business exchange networks
interactive web-site
CD-ROM
use of game scenario/virtual reality
video-conferencing
video-cassette
telephone help-line
Method of Delivery
Number of Managers
First Choice Second Choice
46
strategic
and production management
of
training in strategic and production management. Each bar represents a single delivery
method, with
the divisions representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or
second choice.
Response rate was low - 61 managers failed to provide a first choice and 70 managers failed to
provide
a second choice.
marketing
and international management
The figure above shows the first and second preferences of managers for method delivery of
training in
marketing and international management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, with
the
divisions representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second
choice.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
group workshops
consultancy
mentoring
one-to-one sessions
one day seminar
CD-ROM
video-cassette
video-conferencing
telephone help-line
Method of delivery
Number of People
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
one day seminar
one-to-one sessions
consultancy
group workshops
mentoring
video-conferencing
CD-ROM
video-cassette
telephone help-line
Method of Delivery
Number of People
47
provide
a second choice.
Once again, short training courses are favoured in delivery of human resources
management
training (32 managers' first choice and nine managers' second choice). There is also
a strong
preference for one-to-one sessions (19 managers' first choice and nine managers'
second
choice). The most popular form of ICT based delivery is CD-ROM delivery (seven
managers).
Figure 25 Preferred methods of delivery of management training in human
resources management
of
training in human resources management. Each bar represents a single delivery method, with
the
divisions representing number of people identifying delivery method as their first or second
choice.
provide
a second choice.
In summary, there is a preference for traditional methods of training delivery,
regardless of
management area. In all cases, short courses are the preferred method of delivery
and the
top eight choices comprise: [short courses], one-day seminars, one-to-one sessions,
group
workshops, mentoring, consultancy and longer training. There are some differences
between
preferences for each of these traditional delivery methods between management
areas. For
example, one-to-one sessions rank second in preference for human resources
training, whilst
they only rank sixth for production management; group workshops and consultancy
are felt
to be more relevant to production management than the other types of
management.
With regard to ICT-based delivery, there appears to be low demand. Again, there are
differences between preferences for training in each of the management areas.
Although the
numbers involved are low, it is interesting to note both the contribution of ICT-based
training
to preferences for each management area and the differences in preference for ICT
delivery
types between management training areas. These differences are illustrated in
Figure 26.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
one-to-one sessions
one day seminar
consultancy
mentoring
group workshops
CD-ROM
video-conferencing
video-cassette
telephone help-line
Type of Delivery
Number of People
48
Figure 26 Breakdown of preferences for ICT based delivery by area of
management training
The figure above shows the preference for different types of ICT based training delivery by
area of
management training. Divisions within bars show the composition according to area of
management
training: (a) financial management, (b) strategic and production management, (c) marketing
and
international management and (d) human resources management. Value axis shows relative
contribution, which is an adjusted figure that takes into account the different response rates
between
different areas of management.62
Across the board, there is a low preference for the use of ICT based training in human
resource management. It can be seen that the more established delivery methods of
CD-ROM
and on-line advice via email are the most preferred categories overall. However, with
the
exception of human resources management, the most preferred technology of
different
management types do not align with these overall preferences.
The use of game scenario/ virtual reality is felt to be particularly appropriate to
strategic and
production management. Use of video-conferencing and interactive websites are felt
to be
particularly appropriate to training in marketing and international management. In
financial
management the first preference is for on-line advice, but the second is for use of an
interactive website.
62 Relative
contribution = (number of managers/total number of responses within management
type)
expressed as a %. For example 11 managers stated a preference for on-line advice, out of a
total
response rate of 232, giving a relative contribution of 3%.
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
18%
CD-ROM on-line advice via
email
interactive web-site use of game
scenario/virtual
reality
video-conference video-cassette
Type of ICT Delivery
Relative Contribution
Financial Strategic and production Marketining and international Human Resources
49
Figure 27 Priority areas for management training
The figure above shows the areas of training which managers identified as a priority for
training.
Managers were asked to select priorities for training from a list. Managers were able to select
more
than one training priority. The priorities from the list were grouped into categories as follows
to ease
comparison of data: (a) human resources management - recruitment and development, time
management and delegation, employment legislation, (b) marketing - exporting and
internationalisation, networks and collaborative working, customer relations, languages, (c)
financial
management - value analysis, financial planning, turnover ratio, (d) entrepreneurship -
fostering
intrapreneurship and greater entrepreneurship, (e) organisational management - total quality
management, (f) ICT - ICT based decision support (g) eCommerce - electronic data interchange
, and
(h) Production - production management . Managers identified additional areas of training;
these are
discussed in the text.
Figure 26 shows that managers of SMEs in this sample consider human resources
management as their major priority for training (114 managers [68%]). The second
priority
of managers as shown above is marketing (94 managers [56%]), followed by financial
management (68 managers[41%]). Very few managers identified eCommerce as a
priority
area for training.
Our results can be compared with the results of the TELEMAN63 study. This study
surveyed
1000 SMEs across Europe. In terms of delivery of training 76% preferred the modality
of
‘part attendance’ . This indicates the desire for some face-to-face interaction with the
tutor
or other participants. 64% of companies preferred tailor-made courses rather than
standardised. Teleman comments on the need for specific courses for their special
problems
which are directly applicable to their practical cases. Content of a distance course
has to be
more detailed as there is not the possibility of classroom explanations. In terms of
delivery of
training the following results were obtained:
_ 65% of the companies prefer group training.
_ 93% of companies want trainer assistance.
_ 82% have a preference for an official certificate at the end of the course.
_ 65% want flexibility
_ 70% want training on demand rather than scheduled training
63 op.cit.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Human resources management
Marketing
Financial management
Entrepreneurship
Organisational management
ICT
eCommerce
Production
Area of training
Number of managers
50
_ 91% want direct contact with experts to support the course
Conclusions
From the results presented above we draw the following conclusions:
_ Private training providers are the preferred deliverers of training. This is subject
to
differences between countries.
_ The preferred location for training is either in the company or at a special
location
_ Managers prefer to receive training at their request.
_ Most popular methods for overcoming barriers to training are improvements in
access
and grants for training.
_ There are some differences in preferences for method of training delivery between
management positions, but traditional methods of delivery are preferred over ICT
based methods.
_ Within the ICT based delivery methods investigated, the overall preference is for
more
established technologies such as CD-ROM and on-line advice services by email.
_ There is also some evidence for the usefulness of less established technologies in
specific
management roles. For example:
Virtual reality may have a potential application in strategic and production
management
Video-conferencing may have potential in marketing and international
management
_ Priority areas for training are human resources management, marketing and
financial management.
_ Entrepreneurship is also seen as a priority, whereas ICT and eCommerce do not
rate
highly. The lack of emphasis on ICT training may be due to the fairly high current
usage
of ICTs by the sample group.
The effect of size
51
5.5 The Effect of Size
Much of the literature regarding SME development and management points to a
specific
difference in the nature of firms employing 1-10 people (micro-firms) compared with
those
within the small (11-50) and medium sized (51-249) categories. In order to examine
the
effect of size on responses, a series of cross-tabulations have been performed. This
subsection examines the relationship between size of company64 and:
_ Use of ICT in training
_ Suggested methods for overcoming barriers to management training
_ Training preferences
It has been suggested that investment in ICTs and levels of connectivity show a
positive
relationship with size of company65. Three cross-tabulations have been performed to
examine
this relationship within our sample. These are presented in Tables 1-3.
Table 1 Use of ICT in different areas of management
Size of Company Total
1-10 11-50 51-249
FM 52 74% 50 83% 28 78% 130
SPM 26 37% 28 47% 15 42% 69
MIM 27 39% 23 38% 14 39% 64
HRM 19 27% 21 35% 12 33% 52
124 122 69 315
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of use of ICT in different areas of
management
with size of company: (a) FM - financial management, (b) SPM - strategic and production
management, (c) MIM - marketing and international management and (d) HRM - human
resources
management. In each case, the number of companies appears in the first column and the
percentage
that this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number of companies in
size
range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data includes two
missing values
for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.
From Table 1 it can be seen that all sizes of company show highest adoption of ICT by
financial managers. In general, use of ICT is lowest in the micro firm bracket, as
might be
expected. However, marketing and international management is an exception, where
microfirms
share highest usage with large firms. Difference in use in this area between size
brackets is not large, but micro-firms showing a comparable usage to other
categories,
suggests that micro-firms appreciate the potential of ICT as a marketing tool.
Small firms show the highest level of adoption in the other categories of
management. The
higher proportion of small firms operating in the technical and business services
sector (40%)
within our sample compared with medium firms (31%) may account for this.
64 In the text references to micro, small and medium sized firms, should be taken to
refer to
"managers in…"
65 For example "Moving into the Information Age - An International Benchmarking
Study"
1999.
The effect of size
52
Table 2 Managers' level of expertise in the use of ICT
1-10 11-50 51-249
NONE 3 4% 2 3% 2 6% 7
OCC 10 14% 6 10% 6 17% 22
REG 41 59% 42 70% 24 67% 107
EMAIL 46 66% 37 62% 24 67% 107
INT 41 59% 35 58% 26 72% 102
SPE 15 21% 17 28% 9 25% 41
EXP 13 19% 7 12% 3 8% 23
169 146 94 406
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of level of ICT expertise of managers
with size
of company: (a) NONE - no experience of use of ICT, (b) OCC - occasional use of basic
packages, (c)
REG - regular use of basic packages, (d) EMAIL - regular use of email, (e) INT - regular use of
the
Internet, (f) SPE - use of specialist packages and (g) EXP - expert in use of ICT. In each case,
the
number of companies appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of
the whole
sample (number of companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the
second
column. It should be noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the
percentages
quoted may include an error of up to 1%.
From the table above, it can be seen that most managers use ICT regularly in all
sizes of
firm. It can also be seen that use of the Internet is much higher in the larger
companies in
the sample group, with medium sized companies having much higher use (72% of
managers)
compared with micro and small firms (59% and 58% respectively). This may reflect a
lack of
technology within these firms or a limitation of access. Interestingly, managers in
micro-firms
appear more likely to classify themselves as "ICT experts" than those in small and
medium
firms. Within micro-firms it is possible that the manager's role is more "hands-on"
and this
necessitates a greater technical expertise.
Table 3 ICTs used by managers in previous training
1-10 11-50 51-249
INTS 29 41% 24 40% 16 44% 69
CD-ROM 28 40% 20 33% 16 44% 64
EMAIL 21 30% 24 40% 11 31% 56
VID 16 23% 12 20% 10 28% 38
INTT 12 17% 13 22% 8 22% 33
VIRT 8 11% 9 15% 8 22% 25
VC 8 11% 10 17% 6 17% 24
EMENT 6 9% 8 13% 6 17% 20
128 120 81 329
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of use of ICTs in previous training with
size of
company: (a) INTS - Internet searches, (b) CD-ROM - CD-ROM, (c) EMAIL - email, (d) VID - use of
video, (e) INTT - Internet based training, (f) VIRT - virtual reality, (g) VC - video-conferencing
and (h)
EMENT - ementoring. In each case, the number of companies appears in the first column and
the
percentage that this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number of
companies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data
includes
two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.
Table 3 illustrates the previous use of ICTs by managers in training. As expected from
previous studies, the use of ICTs for training is generally most frequent in medium
sized
firms. This is particularly striking in the case of newer and potentially more expensive
or
resource intensive approaches such as virtual reality and ementoring.
The effect of size
53
Table 4 Methods for overcoming barriers to management training
1-10 11-50 51-249
ACC 44 63% 32 53% 23 64% 99
GRANTS 29 41% 25 42% 16 44% 70
INFO 28 40% 24 40% 11 31% 63
VAR 19 27% 25 42% 13 36% 57
TRADE 8 11% 14 23% 5 14% 27
128 120 68 316
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of methods for overcoming barriers to
management training with size of company: (a) ACC - improved access, (b) GRANTS - grants to
SMEs
for training, (c) - INFO - information, (d) VAR - variety of methods, and (e) TRADE - greater
involvement of trade associations. In each case, the number of companies appears in the first
column
and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total
number of
companies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data
includes
two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.
The table above shows the differences in suggestions for overcoming barriers to
training.
Information appears to be more of a problem for small and micro firms than medium
firms. It
is also interesting to note that small firms wish to see an increased presence of trade
associations and greater variety in training providers.
Table 5 When managers prefer to receive training
1-10 11-50 51-249
REQ 32 46% 35 58% 23 64% 90
EVE 23 33% 19 32% 7 19% 49
INS 8 11% 12 20% 6 17% 26
WEND 15 21% 4 7% 2 6% 21
DAY 2 3% 2 3% 4 11% 8
80 72 42 194
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred timing of training with
size of
company: a) REQ - at my request, (b) EVE - evening sessions, (c) INS - instant access, (d)
WEND -
weekend sessions, and (e) DAY - day sessions. In each case, the number of companies appears
in the
first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample (number of
companies/total
number of companies in size range) is presented in the second column. It should be noted that
the
data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may include an error of
up to
1%.
From Table 5, it can be seen that there is a strong preference for training provision at
managers' request in all sizes of SME. It is interesting to note that micro and small
firms show
a higher preference for out of hours training in evenings (33% and 32% respectively),
than
medium sized firms (19%) and that micro-firms also show a willingness to participate
in
training at weekends (21%, compared with 7% and 6% for small and medium firms
respectively). This may be in part due to the documented difficulties in providing
cover for
staff attending training during working hours.
The effect of size
54
Table 6 Where managers prefer to receive training
1-10 11-50 51-249
COMP 30 43% 31 52% 17 47% 78
SPEC 30 43% 24 40% 19 53% 73
COMPU 12 17% 17 28% 10 28% 39
HOME 14 20% 7 12% 2 6% 23
SOC 3 4% 3 5% 2 6% 8
89 82 50 221
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred location of training with
size of
company: (a) COMP - in the company, (b) SPEC - special location, (c) COMPU - on the computer,
(d)
HOME -training delivered to the home, and (e) SOC - social location. In each case, the number
of
companies appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole
sample
(number of companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the second
column. It
should be noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages
quoted may
include an error of up to 1%.
From the table above, it can be seen that demand for training using a computer is
not as
popular with micro-firms (17%) than small and medium sized firms (28% each). This
may be
related to the lower level of use of ICT seen in management areas or in lower levels
of
regular use of ICTs by micro-firm managers.
Table 7 Who managers prefer to receive training from
1-10 11-50 51-249
PRIV 31 44% 30 50% 18 50% 79
UNI 24 34% 17 28% 11 31% 52
LOCPUB 25 36% 16 27% 9 25% 50
TRADE 17 24% 17 28% 12 33% 46
NET 21 30% 14 23% 9 25% 44
118 94 59 271
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred training providers with
size of
company: (a) PRIV - private training providers, (b) UNI - universities, (c) LOCPUB - local public
training providers, (d) TRADE - trade associations, and (e) NET - networks. In each case, the
number of
companies appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole
sample
(number of companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the second
column. It
should be noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages
quoted may
include an error of up to 1%.
There also appear to be differences between size categories regarding preferred
training
providers. There is a stronger preference for private training providers in small and
medium
firms (50% in each case) than micro firms (44%), although this is the top choice for
all size
categories. Micro firms appear to have a greater preference for university or local
public
providers than shown by small or medium firms. They also have a higher preference
for
network-based training.
With regard to encouraging managers to use ICT based training, the most prominent
factor
is quality assurance, regardless of size. However, there seem to be specific problems,
which
affect micro firms and small firms, which are less significant for medium sized firms.
Micro
The effect of size
55
and small firms see reduction in cost of ICT based training and recommendation from
other
SMEs as more significant factors than medium sized companies do.
Table 8 Factors which would encourage managers to use ICT based training
in the future.
1-10 11-50 51-249
QUALASS 33 47% 30 50% 16 44% 79
COST 28 40% 24 40% 8 22% 60
REC 27 39% 21 35% 8 22% 56
ACC 18 26% 13 22% 7 19% 38
QUAL 13 19% 8 13% 3 8% 24
LANG 9 13% 9 15% 5 14% 23
127 105 47 283
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of factors encouraging use of ICTs with
size of
company: (a) QUALASS - quality assurance (b) COST - cheaper access, (c) REC
-Recommendation from
other SMEs, (d) ACC - Accreditation, (e) QUAL - Quality websites (f) LANG -provision in my
language.
In each case, the number of companies appears in the first column and the percentage that
this
represents of the whole sample (number of companies/total number of companies in size
range) is
presented in the second column. It should be noted that the data includes two missing values
for size,
thus the percentages quoted may include an error of up to 1%.
Table 9 illustrate the priorities for management training identified by managers.
Although
priorities are broadly similar between different management types, there appears to
be a
distinction between micro firms and the remainder of the sample. Entrepreneurship
appears
to be of greater importance to managers in small or medium sized firms. This may
reflect a
number of factors regarding the position of these size categories relative to firms'
growth
cycles and managers' stage in their employment. In the case of small firms, it is likely
that
they will be reaching a stage where new product development is becoming
increasingly
necessary to maintain growth, thus entrepreneurship training may be seen as a way
of
increasing innovation and stimulating new product development.
Table 9 Priorities for management training
1-10 11-50 51-249
HR 36 51% 42 70% 36 100% 114
MAR 34 49% 38 63% 20 56% 92
FIN 29 41% 19 32% 19 53% 67
ENT 17 24% 33 55% 15 42% 65
OM 11 16% 17 28% 5 14% 33
ICT 8 11% 12 20% 10 28% 30
ECOM 5 7% 9 15% 9 25% 23
PROD 6 9% 8 13% 4 11% 18
146 178 118 442
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of priorities for management training
with size
of company: (a) HR - human resources management, (b) MAR - marketing, (c) FIN - financial
management, (d) ENT - entrepreneurship, (e) OM - organisational management, (f) ICT - ICT (g)
ECOM
- eCommerce, and (h) PROD - production management. In each case, the number of companies
appears in the first column and the percentage that this represents of the whole sample
(number of
companies/total number of companies in size range) is presented in the second column. It
should be
noted that the data includes two missing values for size, thus the percentages quoted may
include an
The effect of size
56
error of up to 1%, such errors are evident for categories of MAR, FIN, ENT, ICT, ECOM, PROD
when
figures in Table 9 are compared with figures discussed in Section 5.4.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn about the effect of size, as revealed in the
completed
questionnaires:
_ In general micro firms show lower adoption of ICT in daily work of managers
than
small or medium sized firms, but the difference is not large.
_ Use of the Internet is higher in medium sized firms than other categories of
firm.
_ The proportion of managers classifying themselves as experts is highest in micro
firms.
_ Managers in medium sized firms are more likely to have used ICT-based training
than
those in micro or small firms.
_ More resource intensive approaches such as virtual reality and ementoring have
been
used more frequently in medium sized firms than micro or small firms.
_ Lack of information is a greater barrier to training for micro and small firms
than
medium sized firms.
_ Managers prefer training to be on demand regardless of size although:
_ There appears to be a greater willingness to participate in out of hours training
in
small and micro firms.
_ Demand for computer based training is currently low in micro firms.
_ Private training provision is preferred by managers regardless of size of firm.
_ Micro firms show the greatest preference for receipt of training from
universities,
public training providers and through networks.
_ Micro and small firms view reduction in cost and recommendations from other
SMEs as important factors in influencing use of ICT based training.
_ The need for entrepreneurship training is greatest in small and medium sized
firms.
The effect of Manager’s sex
57
5.6 Analysis of effect of sex of respondent
In order to search for any preferences or results that could be affected by sex of the
respondent, a series of cross-tabulations of responses against sex have been
performed.
These are presented in the tables below. In each case, the ratio of male to female
responses
has been used as an indicator of differences in preference. The overall ratio of male
to female
responses is roughly equivalent to 4:1 (20% female) and as such deviation from this
ratio is
considered below.
Table 1 Managers' level of expertise in the use of ICT
Sex Total Male: Female
ratio
Male Female
NONE 7 0 7
OCC 17 4 21 4:1
REG 78 24 102 3:1
EMAIL 78 23 101 3:1
INT 76 22 98 3:1
SPEC 35 3 38 11:1
EXP 21 2 23 11:1
390
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of level of ICT expertise of managers
with sex:
(a) NONE - no experience of use of ICT, (b) OCC - occasional use of basic packages, (c) REG -
regular
use of basic packages, (d) EMAIL - regular use of email, (e) INT - regular use of the Internet, (f)
SPEC -
use of specialist packages and (g) EXP - expert in use of ICT. An additional column presents
the male:
female ratio. Overall, male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1. It should be noted that the
data
includes seven missing values for sex.
Table 1 illustrates managers' level of ICT expertise. It can be seen that level of use is
distributed in a similar way between the sexes. More female managers appear to use
email,
Internet and basic packages than male managers. However, this may be linked to the
fact
that less female managers place themselves in the expert and specialist categories.
Table 2 ICTs used by managers in previous training
ratio
Male Female
INTS 54 11 65 5:1
CD-ROM 50 10 60 5:1
INTT 25 5 30 5:1
VIRT 18 2 20 9:1
EMAIL 43 10 53 4:1
EMENT 16 2 18 8:1
VC 20 2 22 10:1
VIDEO 30 4 34 8:1
302
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of use of ICTs in previous training with
sex: (a)
INTS - Internet searches, (b) CD-ROM - CD-ROM, (c) EMAIL - email, (d) VIDEO - use of video, (e)
INTT
- Internet based training, (f) VIRT - virtual reality, (g) VC - video-conferencing and (h) EMENT -
ementoring. An additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male to female
ratio for
respondents was 4:1.
It appears that there is some differentiation in the use of ICTs for training between
the sexes.
In general, ICT appears to be less well used by female members of the sample. In
particular,
58
use of virtual reality, e-mentoring, video-conferencing and video by male managers,
is much
higher than use by female managers.
Table 3 Methods for overcoming barriers to management training
Sex Total Male : Female
Ratio
Male Female
ACC 75 20 95 4:1
GRANTS 53 14 67 4:1
INFO 45 15 60 3:1
VAR 44 11 55 4:1
TRADE 20 7 27 3:1
304
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of methods for overcoming barriers to
management training with sex: (a) ACC - improved access, (b) GRANTS - grants to SMEs for
training,
(c) - INFO - information, (d) VAR - variety of methods, and (e) TRADE - greater involvement of
trade
associations. An additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male to female
ratio for
respondents was 4:1.
It can be seen from the table above that differences occur between male and female
managers regarding opinions on methods for overcoming barriers to management
training.
Whilst the broad picture is the same, female managers appear to rate better
information as a
more important method than provision of grants. The situation is reversed in the case
of male
managers.
Table 4 When managers prefer to receive training
ratio
Male Female
REQ 73 16 89 5:1
EVE 37 10 47 4:1
INS 21 3 24 7:1
WEND 17 4 21 4:1
DAY 6 2 8 3:1
189
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred timing of training with
sex: a) REQ
- at my request, (b) EVE - evening sessions, (c) INS - instant access, (d) WEND - weekend
sessions,
and (e) DAY - day sessions. An additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male
to
female ratio for respondents was 4:1.
Again, the picture is broadly similar between male and female respondents. There
are slight
differences in the preferences, with female managers placing less importance on
instant
access than male managers. Also, the preference for training during the day is higher
for
female managers. This may be related to the social situation of female managers.
Table 5 shows what may be an important difference between the training
preferences of
male and female managers. Female managers show a lower preference for receiving
training
by computer than male managers (as shown by the ratio of 11:1 compared with the
overall
male:female ratio of approximately 4:1).
Table 5 Where managers prefer to receive training
59
ratio
Male Female
COMP 59 18 77 3:1
SPEC 60 13 73 5:1
COMPU 33 3 36 10:1
HOME 18 4 22 5:1
SOC 7 1 8 7:1
216
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred location of training with
sex: (a)
COMP - in the company, (b) SPEC - special location, (c) COMPU - on the computer, (d) HOME
-training
delivered to the home, and (e) SOC - social location. An additional column presents the male:
female
ratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1.
Table 6 Who managers prefer to receive training from
ratio
Male Female
PRIV 63 17 80 4:1
LOCPUB 38 12 50 3:1
UNI 37 10 47 4:1
TRADE 40 7 47 4:1
NET 33 11 44 3:1
268
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of preferred training providers with
sex: (a)
PRIV - private training providers, (b) LOCPUB - local public training providers, (c) UNI -
universities,
(d) TRADE - trade associations, and (e) NET - networks. An additional column presents the
male:
female ratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1.
The table above illustrates that there are no large differences between male and
female
managers. However, there is a slight preference for networking (as shown by the
ratio of
3:1) among female managers. Local public training providers also appear to be
preferred.
Table 7 Factors which would encourage managers to use ICT based training
in the future.
Ratio
Male Female
QUALASS 64 12 76 5:1
COST 47 11 58 4:1
REC 45 11 56 4:1
ACC 27 10 37 3:1
QUAL 19 6 25 3:1
LANG 21 2 23 10:1
275
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of factors encouraging use of ICTs with
sex:
(a) QUALASS - quality assurance (b) COST - cheaper access, (c) REC -Recommendation from
other
SMEs, (d) ACC - Accreditation, (e) QUAL - Quality websites (f) LANG -provision in my language.
An
additional column presents the male: female ratio. Overall male to female ratio for
respondents was
4:1.
Table 7 illustrates the different suggestions made by male and female managers
regarding
improvements which would influence them to use ICT based training. Although the
ranking of
preferences is the same between the sexes, female managers appear to place more
importance on accreditation and quality of websites than their male counterparts.
Provision in
60
the manager's native language also seems to be a greater factor for male managers
than
female managers.
Table 8 Priorities for management training
Ratio
Male Female
HR 87 23 110 4:1
MAR 80 12 92 4:1
FIN 58 7 65 8:1
ENT 57 7 64 8:1
OM 29 2 31 10:1
ICT 27 4 31 7:1
ECOM 21 3 24 7:1
PROD 18 1 19 18:1
436
The table above shows the results of a cross-tabulation of priorities for management training
with size
of company: (a) HR - human resources management, (b) MAR - marketing, (c) FIN - financial
management, (d) ENT - entrepreneurship, (e) OM - organisational management, (f) ICT - ICT (g)
ECOM
- eCommerce, and (h) PROD - production management. An additional column presents the
male:
female ratio. Overall male to female ratio for respondents was 4:1.
From the table above, it appears that there are differences in priorities for
management
training. This may in part be due to some differences in the management roles of the
sexes
(for example, there is only a single female technical manager included). However, it
appears
that certain areas of training for example organisational management, production
management, entrepreneurship and financial management are lower priorities for
female
managers than male managers.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn about the effect of sex, as revealed in the
completed
questionnaires.66:
_ In general, responses appear to be unaffected by sex of the respondent, but there
are
some small differences
_ Female managers currently appear to be less likely than male managers to
want
training delivered by computer
_ Female managers also appear less likely to take part in specialist use of ICTs
_ Male managers are more likely to have used ICTs such as virtual reality and
videoconferencing
in training
_ Networks appear to be more preferred by female managers than male
managers,
although private training providers are seen as the preferrec training provider by
both
sexes
_ Female managers also appear to place more importance on accreditation and
quality
websites than male managers. Male managers place more importance on
provision
in their own language.
_ There appears to be less demand for training in the areas of production
management,
organisational management, entrepreneurship and financial management
amongst female managers
66 It
should be noted that sample size of female managers is low, which may have an effect on
these
results
Learning Styles
61
5.7 Learning Styles of SME Managers
In addition to the main questionnaire a learning styles questionnaire was also
delivered
during the interviews with SME managers in four countries, Finland, France, Greece
and the
UK (see Appendix 1 and Appendix 3). The questionnaires investigated four different
types of
learners67:
_ Activists - people who learn by trying things out
_ Reflectors - people who learn by observing, collecting data and
analysing it
_ Theorists - people who think logically, and follow logical rules.
_ Pragmatists - - people who learn by experimentation.
The dominant preferred learning style for the managers was “Activist” (30
managers), followed by “Pragmatist” (17 managers). This was the case for
Finland,
France and Greece. However, managers in the UK showed a stronger
preference for
“Pragmatist”.
The strong preference for activist and pragmatist behaviour within the sample,
would
influence the type of learning which is likely to be most effective.
According to Honey and Mumford68, Activists are most likely to learn from the
following type
of activity:
_ New experiences/problems/opportunities from which to learn
_ Here and now activities, for example business games, competitive teamwork tasks
and
role-playing activities
_ Exciting tasks with a range of activities to tackle
_ Activities in which they are thrown in at the deep end
_ Problem solving as a team
_ Tasks involving practical participation
Pragmatists learn best from the following:
_ Situations where clear links between subject matter and a "real" problem can be
made
_ Activities with obvious practice advantages, for example which save time
_ Tasks involving practising techniques with feedback from an expert
_ Models which can be emulated, for example a demonstration from someone with a
proven track record
_ Techniques which are directly applicable to their own job
_ Learning which incorporates immediate opportunities to implement what they have
learnt
_ Tasks where they can concentrate on practical issues
These findings link with the findings of the trainers survey and SME survey in this
report
which highlight preferences for human interaction, practical problem-solving
approaches,
feedback, coaching and mentoring, and group work. The results of the learning styles
survey
strengthen the idea that best practice in training for SME managers will require a
variety of
techniques and that ICTBT would need to be supported by other face-to-face
activities.
67 Based on the work of Honey, P. and Mumford, M. "The Manual of Learning Styles" (1986)
68 ibid.
Heads of SMEs Section 5: Research into Priorities -
Requirements
62
5.8 Requirements of Heads of SMEs
The survey of heads of SMEs has identified the following requirements:
_ Demand from Heads of SMEs
Heads of SMEs are different from employees. They exhibit activist and pragmatist
learning styles, prefer learning by doing and favour problem-centred approaches that
offer flexibility.
_ Preferences of Heads of SMEs
Managers prefer short courses, with an even split between delivery in and out of
company.
Private sector providers are favoured, with approximately a quarter of heads would
like
training delivered by computer.
Size of company is a factor in preferences.
_ Use of ICBT by Heads of SMEs
About a quarter of managers have used ICTBT, with most common forms being
CDROM,
email and Internet search.
They like the potential for immediacy, up-to-date material and learning at own pace
offered by ICTBT.
Managers find problems with ICTBT regarding lack of human support, poor
presentation
and unreliability of technology.
Heads of SMEs see a need to develop quality assurance and reduce the cost of
access.
Recommendation from other SMEs is a factor in use of ICTBT.
_ Take up of Management Training
Constraints to take up of training include: time and place, cost and quality.
Suggested mechanisms for overcoming constraints include: better access and
flexibility,
grants and information on the nature and quality of training.
Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU
63
6. ANALYSIS OF BEST PRACTICE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
6.1 Interviews with Training Providers
16 training providers were interviewed face-to-face in their native language.
Of
these, 7 were universities, 5 were private sector companies and 4 were public
or
non-profit organisations. The training providers are listed below:
Universidade Catolica, Portugal
Universidade Nova de Lisboa, N0VA-FORUM Institute for Executive Training, Portugal
University of Durham Foundation for SME Development, UK
Bolton Business School Centre for Enterprise and Management, UK
Business Focus & Associates, UK
FinnVera and Ministry of Trade and Industry, Finland
Pella, Finland
Tampere Technology Centre, Finland
Hellenic Management Association, Greece
University of Macedonia, Greece
ISTUD (Istituto Studi Direzionali), Italy
Poliedra Progetti Integrati, Italy
Emedi@, France
CNAM, France
WHU Koblenz, Germany
Schickler Personalentwicklung und Training GmbH, Germany
Summaries of the interviews are presented in Appendix 2.
6.2 Evidence of Size Differentiation
Only 4 of the 16 providers did not have provision designed specifically for
SMEs.
These were all universities. However the provision selected from these
organisations
for good practice was well attended by heads of SMEs.
6 training providers were providing training specifically for micro firms. 3 of
these
providers were in Finland, 1 was in France, 1 in Germany and 1 in the UK.
Most of
these providers were private sector companies offering a combination of
consultancy
and training. In two cases this was receiving public support. In Finland this
was
from the Ministry of Trade and Industry with a nationwide programme called
Training for Growth-orientated SMEs. In the UK the support was being
subsidised by
Business Link, which is a national network providing training and business
services to
SMEs.
Tampere Technology Centre was the only University offering training
specifically for
Micro firms.
Only one provider had a definite division between provision for small firms
and
provision for medium firms, with different programme for each. This was the
University of Durham Foundation for SME Development.
6.3 What training programmes are being offered?
The training programmes fall into three main categories:
_ Short courses
64
_ 1 day seminars
_ Masters degree programmes
The main themes covered by these programmes are:
_ General management
_ Information management
_ Change management
_ E-commerce
_ Finance
_ Marketing
_ Business strategy
_ ICT based decision support
_ TQM
_ Entrepreneurship
10 of the providers said that their training included entrepreneurship. The
programme at
Finn Vera specifically covered entrepreneurship. The University of Durham has an MA
in
Entrepreneurship but this is not specifically for SMEs.
The MBA and Executive MBA seem to be more popular with Greek SMEs than
SMEs
in the other countries. Bolton Business School was the only provider, which
had
designed an MBA specifically for small business.
10 of the providers were providing self-diagnosis skills for SME managers.
Generally the provision was not targeting women specifically, with the
exception of
one provider, ISTUD, which has a web-site for women,
www.mentoreimpresa.it
6.4 Evidence of Quality and Involvement of SMEs
There were a number of areas where quality was demonstrated. These can be
summarised
as follows:
_ On-going research
_ Specific market surveys
_ Evaluation of programmes
_ Piloting of programmes
_ Database on profiles of participants including company size
_ Generation of SME case study portfolio
_ Sectoral differentiation of materials
_ Pre-course assessment of training needs
_ Meetings with SME focus groups to discuss design and needs
_ Trainers with experience in SMEs
_ Use of data from participant companies in training
_ Involvement of training provider in a large network
_ Building close relationships with SMEs
_ Having a known reputation for quality
_ Involvement in entrepreneur networks or clubs
_ Being an organisation with a large number of members
_ Provision of tailor-made training where SMEs assist in the design of their
own
training
65
Evaluation of training provision is being carried out in a number of ways. This
includes: annual evaluation of programmes; on-going discussions with
managers;
post course questionnaires; follow up appraisals with firms.
6.5 What networks do the training providers belong to?
Most training providers belonged to networks or had a range of contacts. The
university providers had the most extensive networks and had connections
with a
number of other business schools and organisations some of which were
international. Included among these are:
_ European Foundation for Management Development
_ The European Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development
Committee
_ International Association of Science Parks
_ Finnish Science Park Association
_ Association of Business Schools, MBA Networks
_ Partnerships with various other business schools
Some universities had contacts with business networks, for example,
‘Association of
Industries in Northern Greece’, trade associations such as Federlombardia,
Confindustria Marche, Confidustria Sardegna (Italy), Business Links (UK).
Some universities had partnership with large industry for development and
financing
of management programmes (Bolton Business School, Universade Catolica
Portuguesa).
Non-university training providers tended to have networks that were more
related to
SMEs. These were often not formalised. Networks included:
_ Local networks for ICT training
_ Bund Deutscher Verkaufsförderer und Trainer (German Association of Sales
Promoters
and Trainers)
_ Network of CNAM training centres
_ Chartered Institute Marketing
_ European Marketing Confederation
_ Chambers of Commerce
_ Northern Association of Management Consultants
Only one of the providers mentioned a women’s network, MOSAIC (Women’s
institute of managers). Generally there seemed to be a weakness in links to
organisations promoting opportunities for women. There would also seem to
be a
lack of training specifically for women entrepreneurs. There is provision for
start-up
training but very little for women's businesses in the growth phase.
An analysis of projects funded by the NOW programme reveals a high
proportion of
projects supporting women entrepreneurs in the start-up phase. A good
example of
such provision is ‘Frauen Am Markt.’ This consists of four networked projects
providing information, counselling, training and on-going support to women
entrepreneurs, with particular emphasis on the creation or adaptation of
business
incubators tailored to the needs of female entrepreneurs. Other projects such
as
‘Step Up NOW’69 cater for women in management positions, but without
emphasis on
69A German project aiming to help highly qualified women step up into higher management
positions.
Participating firms include Volkswagen.
66
SMEs. However, the NOW programme has not catered sufficiently for the
growth
phase of SMEs run by women.
Whilst there is still a concentration on the start-up phase, such as evidenced
by the
‘Women’s Enterprise Development’ project,70 which is setting up a mentoring
network to encourage women to start businesses, other projects focus on the
growth
phase. One example is the ‘Cross-border training: ‘Euroadvisers and women
entrepreneurs,’ project.71 This is establishing a network of Euroadvisers to
provide
women running small businesses with training and information on all aspects
of
business management. Whilst these pilot projects are moving in the right
direction,
their influence is still very limited.
This lack of provision for female SME managers is supported by the Fourth
Annual
Report of the European Observatory for SMEs, which finds women make less
use of
information and advisory services. This is partly due to their lack of
knowledge
about relevant services, and partly because of “inadequate or non-existing
provision.”72 There is a need for provision catering for the growth phase of
SMEs run
by women, as well as for awareness raising of training opportunities amongst
them.
6.6 Evidence of Best Practice in Delivery – Traditional Techniques
It would appear that training for heads of SMEs needs to include a lot of interactive
activities,
which means a variety of mechanisms are used for delivery. The following are
examples of
what the providers are using.
_ Group work on cases to solve problems and presentation of solutions to
other
participants.
_ Use of special guest lecturers from industry
_ Use of 22 known problems of survival
_ Coaching
_ Action learning sets
_ Group games and workshops
_ Mentoring
_ On-site consultancy
_ Self-help discussions
_ Use of SME case studies as examples to solve problems
_ Lectures
Timing is flexible and includes 1 day per month, 1 week per month,
weekends, short
3-day courses and evenings. There are cultural differences in this area.
Portuguese
training providers felt that weekend work was not as effective because
managers are
tired and have family commitments.
It was generally considered useful for managers to be out of the work place
for part
of the training so that they can focus completely on the training. In the
workplace
the manager has little time to reflect. Mentoring is a process, which helps the
manager to reflect and stand back from the immediate short-term problems
of the
firm.
70 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg23/craft/craft-women/craft-women.html
71 Ibid.
72 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg23/craft/craft-women/craft-obswomen.html

67
All providers are offering a variety of techniques. Group work and problem
solving
are important. It would seem that some one-to-one individual attention is also
important.
6.7 Evidence of Best Practice in Delivery – ICT Techniques
All providers, except one, were making use of ICT for delivery of training. The
providers
were asked a number of questions about their use of ICT. This included:
_ How ICT is being used
_ What advantages ICT offers for training SME managers
_ What problems have been faced in using ICT for training
_ What would make it easier to use ICT for training
6.7.1 How is ICT being used?
Provider Use of ICT for Training
NOVA-FORUM Currently developing an electronic framework for teaching
management,
including a number of software products.
Have a management simulation game to assist decision making which
simulates market circumstances.
Plans for distance operation, where each lecturer has his or her own website
through which training will be delivered.
Universidade
Catolica
ICT is used to support training. Distance delivery is not used.
Course participants make use of multimedia training rooms. They are
given the option of creating a personal web-site. The Internet and mobile
phones are used during e-business training sessions. SME case study
data is also presented on the computer and participants learn how IT can
be a support tool for decision-making. On-line advice is given via email.
Bolton Business
School
ICT is used as a support tool for management training. There are plans
for future delivery of a virtual MBA for SMEs.
ICT is used for distance learning via CD-ROMs developed with ADAPT
funding. A CDROM called “Your future Business with E-commerce” is
available on-line at www.pegasus.org.uk
A virtual centre is currently being set up (www.virtual-centre.org.uk) to
provide Internet access to a wide range management training material.
(See Appendix 2.2)
University of
Durham,
Foundations for
SME
Development
ICT is mainly being used as a support tool, rather than for direct delivery.
‘Biz-Kit’ is delivered completely on-line but the focus of this is ICT training
rather than management training. CD-ROMs are used during workshops.
The MA in Entrepreneurship is supported by a virtual learning centre.
This includes information, on-line support and chat rooms but is not
dedicated only to SMEs.
Business Focus &
Associates
On-line advice via email is given. CD-ROMs are used to support
traditional training.
Finn Vera ICT is not used as part of training delivery.
Pella CD-ROMs are used for information to support the training.
Tampere
Technology
Centre
A wide variety of ICT is used to support management training. This
includes CDROM, virtual reality simulations and on-line advice via email.
Hellenic
Management
Centre
On-line advice is given via email. Internet is used for gaining information.
CD-ROMs are also used to support training.
University of
Macedonia
On-line advice is given via email. Internet is used for information. Videoconferencing
is used to carry out seminars at a distance.
68
Provider Use of ICT for Training
ISTUD On-line advice via e-mail is given. The web site has interactive aspects
where managers are able to talk and share information with other
managers. (www.sviluppoimpresa.com) There is also a site dedicated to
women (www.mentoreimpresa.it) ISTUD are currently carrying out
research on the use of simulation and virtual reality.
POLIEDRA A CDROM is being used to assist self-diagnosis for SME managers. Online
advice is given by email. There are some interactive aspects on the
web-site www.poliedra.it
WHU Koblenz ICT is not used as part of training delivery to SMEs. However the
university is making use of e-learning for students through LearnLoop
which is a Groupware facility. (www.whu-Koblenz.de/eindex.htm)
Emedi@ Emedia’s activities are tailor-made to the needs of the firm. An intranet
can be set up in the firm to be used as a tool for decision-making. Online
interactive training is used. Video-conferencing and web-cams are
used for interaction between group members. A virtual reality firm is
used for training in quality management.
CNAM Training is mainly delivered by ICT. This includes use of on-line advice via
email, an interactive web-site and discussion forum. The chat room is
used for on-line and real-time discussion by the virtual group. The
discussion forum is managed by the trainer who provides a subject or a
question the group members should answer. Training is delivered at the
participant’s computer or at a local learning centre.
6.7.2 What advantages does ICT offer for training SME managers?
The bullet points below show the open responses from the trainers in our study:
_ Time saving
_ Easier to give individual advice
_ Easier access to course material
_ Learning at a distance
_ The participant is able to organise him/her self to suit his/her needs
_ ICT offers a good way of getting information
_ On-line advice means day-to-day support can be given
_ Trainees become more familiar with the technologies that are now
important for
e-commerce
_ Managers are able to select specific modules
_ Personalising of training
_ Increase learning through the possibility of learning at any time
_ The ability to repeat a session, thus enabling easier assimilation of
knowledge
_ Breaks down barriers to learning
We can compare this information with the responses of SME managers from
the
Phase 1 survey (see Section 5.3 Fig.10a). The main advantages expressed by
the
managers are immediacy and up-to-date information. ‘Immediacy’ generally
implies
the flexibility to access learning when and where they want it, and to find
what they
want quickly. The SME managers felt that Internet searches, email contact
and ementoring
offered the greatest potential for providing up-to-date information. Use of
virtual reality and video-conferencing were felt to give good user-interactivity
and to
lead to good retention of knowledge. However these had been used by less
than
20% of the sample, a small number of managers. The best feature of CD-
ROMs was
though to be the ability to proceed at one’s own pace.
69
There are many potential advantages associated with ICTBT, which are
mainly
pedagogical in nature. A number of other studies have been consulted to
compare
these advantages.
Pedagogical Advantages of ICTBT
_ Access: Learning materials and resources can be accessed at all times and
from
remote locations, for example through the Internet or CD-ROM based
training.
There is no tie to a geographical location or a specific time as is inherent in
traditional face-to-face courses. Research on online courses in education
supports this statement; students identified convenience of access as one of
the
learning benefits provided by ICTBT.73 This is potentially of great benefit to
SME
managers. Data collected under Phase 1 of this study reveals SME managers
rate training in the workplace and at a time of their own choosing highly.
Furthermore, the TeleMan Report categorises flexibility in time and place, (as
provided by ICTBT), as an element of optimal course combination.74
_ Individual Tempo: Whilst learning within a traditional face-to-face
environment, students are required to fit in with the teacher’s schedule and
class
progress. ICTBT adds flexibility. Students may choose to review learning
materials on several occasions; ICTBT makes repeat usage possible75 and
thus
facilitates self-paced learning.76 For example, if students fail to keep pace
with a
particular face-to-face class, it is difficult for them to reattend; if they are
viewing
an online lecture they may re-run it as necessary. This individual tempo
allows
multi-level entry onto a programme, such as that taking place on the
Telematics
Learning Project undertaken by Suffolk College.77
_ Variety: Multimedia can be used with modern software (video, animations,
pictures, diagrams, text, sound) to ensure variety in presentation of learning
materials. Traditional face-to-face teaching usually uses the ‘chalk and talk’
method, which can become repetitive. ICTBT, however, offers the possibility
of
augmenting learning material. For example, at the University of Teeside,
lectures
are recorded and added to by digital audio narratives, pop-up notes and
lecture
transcripts.78
_ Interactivity: ICTBT can be interactive and maximise learner control.79 For
example, CD-ROM based training may include exercises and allow the learner
to
‘jump’ to relevant options through menus.80 This encourages retention of
student interest; they feel they are participating in the learning process
rather
73 S.English and M.Yazdani, ‘Computer Supported Co-operative Learning in a Virtual University,’ in the
Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning (1999) 15, 2-13, P5.
74 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September
1998, P56.
75 Mudge, Stephen M, ‘Delivering Multimedia Teaching Modules via the Internet,’ in Innovation and
Educational
Technologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16
76 Engineering College of the University of Idaho: Distance Education at a Glance, October 1995.
77 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views From the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value of
Telematics-
Supported Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3, P177-184.
On this
project, students with differing educational backgrounds entered the telematics-supported ‘Introduction to
Local
History’ course.
78 Barker, Philip, Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning, in Innovation and Educational
Technologies
International 1999, Vol 36.1 pp3-9.
79 Engineering College of the University of Idaho: Distance Education at a Glance, October 1995.
80 For example see: CD-ROM entitled “Management: TC 2001, Achieving Business Growth in the Textile
and Clothing
Industry through Training and Development.”
70
than passively receiving information.81 This is supported by the fact that
students have cited increased interaction, quantity and intensity as an
advantage
of online education.82 The TRANSMETE Project Evaluation Report emphasises
the importance of “learning by doing” and recommends including more
exercises.83
_ Teacher Contact: ICT provides excellent facilities for student-teacher contact.
Students
and tutors can stay in constant contact via telephone, email, fax, chat rooms, video
and
audio conferencing. For example, the Internet based learning environment developed
by the Metä Institute Silva allows students (at the workplace) and senior co-
ordinators (at
the training institution) to communicate through online learning diaries and email.84
_ Instant Response: ICTBT makes instant response and/or feedback
possible.
This can take place through synchronous technology (for example
videoconferencing).
85 Synchronous study is used at the University of Teeside; an
academic helpline is available at a fixed time, when students can email staff
and
participate in electronic discussions with them, gaining instant responses.86
Instant response also occurs through exercises, which students attempt and
submit interactively via courseware, generating an automatic instant
response.87
_ Relevance: It is easy to update and correct ICTBT material. Material is
simply
edited electronically and then made available on the Internet. This is more
difficult with traditional printed learning materials, which are less flexible and
imply expensive reprinting costs. Updating of training materials is important,
as
highlighted in the TRANSMETE Evaluation Report88 and by the American
Society
for Training and Development.89 Using techniques such as LearnLoop
(described
in section 4) trainees may also add their own examples to course materials.
6.7.3 What are the Problems in using ICT for Training?
The bullet points below are taken from the interviews with training providers
in our
study.
_ Confidentiality
_ Equipment too slow, network connections too slow
_ The telecommunications infrastructure is not suitable (France, Greece)
_ No time to learn how to use the ICT, therefore it must be simple
_ Equipment failure
_ Preparation of material is time consuming and expensive
_ The trainer has to have a high level of IT skills
_ Managers lack the skills to fully utilise an ICT based training system
_ Need training for trainers
Educational
Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.1 PP11-16.
82 S.English and M.Yazdani, ‘Computer Supported Co-operative Learning in a Virtual University,’ in the
Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning (1999) 15, 2-13, P5.
83 www.eurocom.gr/EurPrj/transmete/docs/public/d83.htm
84 Experiences in Using Internet Based Learning Environment in Paper Industry. ICEE 2000 Conference,
August 14-
16, 2000, Grand Hotel, Taipei, August 17-18, 2000, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan.
85 Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium, September
1998.
86 Barker, Philip, Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning, in Innovation and Educational
Technologies
International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp3-9.
87 Marshall, David, ‘Developing Interactive Courseware on the World Wide Web,’ in Innovation and
Educational
Technologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp34-43.
www.eurocom.gr/EurPrj/transmete/docs/public/d83.htm
88
Cornelia C. Weggen, American Society for Training and Development.
89
www.learningcircuits.org/sep2000/weggen.html.
71
_ It is important that the ICT component does not become more important
than
the management content
_ Lack of human interaction
_ Often SMEs do not trust computerised learning because programmes are
too
standardised and therefore too far from their problems
_ SMEs prefer oral explanations rather than written on-line communication
_ SME managers need to be out of the company to get the time and peace to
learn
_ Participants have a wide range of requirements
_ Universities do not have adequate resources to develop appropriate
services and
internal take-up of new technology is slow (UK response only)
_ There is a lack of motivation in SMEs to use ICT
_ Lack of motivation from the participant due to less obligation
The interviews with SME managers in our study (see Section 5.3 Figs. 9 and
10b)
show that the bad aspects of ICTBT are considered to be the lack of human
support,
poor presentation of information and problems with reliability of technology.
Technology concerns are particularly the case with video-conferencing.
A number of studies have been consulted to compare the results of our study
with
other identified disadvantages. Whilst some of these fall into the pedagogical
category, technical and commercial difficulties must also be taken into
consideration.
Pedagogical Disadvantages
_ Rigidity/Navigation: Most CAL modules require students to access
information
in a structured manner, which may not be the best route for them,90 who
need to
cover topics in more or less depth as appropriate. Equally, web-based courses
may be too open; Laurillard points out that there may be too many
distractions
and too little guidance,91 which may result in time wasting.
_ Lack of human interaction: Traditional face-to-face teaching involves a
high
degree of contact with tutors and other students. ICTBT implies less of such
contact. Research conducted by YOUANDI Communication Network GmbH
supports this, finding Computer Based Training using self-study modules is
unsuccessful and students prefer interaction with other students and tutors. 92
Technical Disadvantages
_ Prior Knowledge/Infrastructure: ICTBT courses often assume a prior
knowledge of ICT tools (for example email and Internet usage)93 as well as
assuming necessary infrastructure is in place. However, as already seen, SME
managers often have little ICT knowledge outside of what they require to
perform their daily tasks and European SMEs do not possess the most up-to-
date
hardware. Funnell provides one example of lack of ICT knowledge hindering
Educational
91 Laurillard, D (1993) Rethinking University Teaching, Routledge, London.
92 YOUANDI Communication Network GmbH: Trends in the development of competence in the field of IT
in SMEs –
Territorial Approach, January 2000.
Educational
72
training.94 His study highlights the difficulty of those with little ICT experience
engaging in telematics-supported learning, even after an ICT induction
session.
_ Delivery Speed: Philip Barker95 highlights the restrictions placed on the use of
sound
and motion video. He points out that both mediums imply large file sizes and hence
significant bandwidth to transmit them. The difference between intranets and the
Internet is important here; Barker states sound files can be moved over a fast
intranet
link fairly easily, whereas transmitting them over the Internet can involve an
unacceptable wait.
_ Security: Internet usage involves a security risk to published materials as
well
as raising the possibility of viral attack.96 This may cause significant problems
for
users by hindering access. SMEs may also have concerns about using
software
which makes use of their own data, due to confidentiality.
Commercial Disadvantages
_ Cost: Creating and updating teaching materials entails a significant
workload.
Creating and presenting information involves the investment of time and a
combination of skills (authoring via computer and graphic design),97 which are
not yet freely available. A recent study98 reveals preparation and production
costs of multimedia are significantly higher than for face-to-face teaching.
Multimedia implies 50-100 units compared with 1 unit for an hour of face-to-
face
teaching, and the more hypermedia used, the higher the cost of the learning
materials.99 This high cost means while it may be cost-effective to develop
ECD
materials for courses likely to have a large uptake, it may not be economical
for
those with only a minority interest. 100 This has a direct implication for SMEs,
as
their training needs are often very specific.
6.7.4 What would make it easier to deliver ICT based training?
The graph overleaf shows what the training providers think would make it
easier to
deliver ICT based training. It would appear that training providers are
concerned
about the lack of information about ICT based training. There are also
concerns
about firms possessing appropriate equipment and fast enough computers.
This corresponds with the results of the SME survey (Section 5.3 Figure 11).
This
shows that the main reasons for SME managers not using ICT for training are
lack of
knowledge (56 managers) and lack of quality assurance (14 managers).
When
managers were asked what would encourage them to use ICTBT in the future
(Figure 12), the biggest factors were quality assurance, cheaper access and
recommendations from other SMEs.
94 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views From the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value of
Telematics-
Supported Learning, in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3, P177-184.
95 Barker, Philip: ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational
Technologies
Educational
Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.1 pp11-16.
97 Ibid.
98 European Commission, IRDAC report: Quality and Relevance, March 1994.
Technologies
100 Ibid.
73
What would make it easier to deliver ICT based training?
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Information on
availability
ICT a t firm s'
premises
Quality standards Own ICT
infrastructu re
Financial support ICT in the
Community
Providers
How might the disadvantages associated with ICTBT be overcome?
In addition to the training providers interviewed in our study, a search has
been
undertaken specifically for providers using ICTBT to give examples of how
some of
the difficulties might be overcome. In addition to the 82 providers identified
from
databases, bodies were identified through regional networks. Information was
gathered from publications and reports of providers, their websites, and in
telephone
and face to face interviews. 101
Overcoming Pedagogical Disadvantages
_ Rigidity/Navigation: To overcome the problem of rigidity, students must be given
control over the way they learn. One way of doing this is to provide suitable menus
and
loops (hypermedia or hypertext links) so they can jump to the item they want,102 such
as
provided by the Management training CD-ROM produced under the MASTRI ADAPT
project. To minimise navigational problems, easy to use web pages should be
provided.
103 The learning materials developed by Cardiff University guide the learner by
providing
a consistent set of navigation tools providing hints on where to go next.104 From
experience in evaluating distance learning materials105 it would seem that an index
and
navigational map are needed to assist learners to use the material. From a trainer’s
perspective, the ability of Intranet and Internet servers to accept data entered by
students and post this to relevant online databases is important. Such facilities can
be
used to create monitoring programmes to analyse student progress. 106
101 The sources for such information were identified through background research (Appendix 5.1 Phase 1a)
and
through consultation of databases of training providers (Appendix 5.2). The search was for best practice,
and
followed leads to such providers.
Educational
103 Marshall, David, Cardiff University, ‘Developing Interactive Courseware on the World Wide Web,’ in
Innovation
and Educational Technologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp 34-43.
104 This courseware allows for different paths, for example finding additional reading material, or looking
for further
assistance. Marshall, AD and Hurley, S, (1997) Courseware development for parallel computing and C
programming,
in Proceedings of ED-MEDIA ’97 – World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Calgary,
Canada,
AACE, Virginia, USA 689-97.
105 Business Support Micromodules for High Technology SMEs, ADAPT I and II, 1995-2000, NJM Ltd.
Technologies
74
_ Lack of human interaction: Several methods may be used to overcome this. One
is to
provide feedback through the courseware itself. For example, courseware developed
by
the University of Cardiff provides feedback including automated assessment of
exercises.107 Furthermore, it is possible to incorporate email and even voice links
from
WWW pages to facilitate two-way exchanges between students and tutors.108 As
outlined
above, the HCI Course at the University of Teeside uses a combination of
synchronous
and asynchronous study to ease this problem.109 Combining distance learning with
traditional face-to-face teaching is also a good option.
Overcoming Technical Disadvantages
_ Prior Knowledge/Infrastructure: Course participants should have an induction
session to help them develop the necessary ICT capability, such as provided at
Suffolk
College.110 The HCI course at the University of Teeside also provides technical help in
both synchronous and asynchronous modes, alleviating technical problems.111
However,
providing technical help on a university campus is a different matter to catering for
dispersed SMEs, emphasising the need for local technical support. Regarding
infrastructure, awareness raising should encourage SMEs to invest in ICT.
_ Delivery Speed: Whilst delivery speed over the Internet is a problem,
technological developments such as ADSL and cable modems are expected
to
permit faster data transmission rates.112 Other developments include fractal
encoding which allows compression of video data,113 speeding up
transmission.
Whilst the use of Intranets for training SMEs is limited, networks covering
wider
geographical areas (such as WAN/LAN) may be a possibility and would allow
faster data exchange than via Internet. Furthermore CD-ROM based training
reduces time spent waiting for data.
_ Security: Technology is available to reduce security risks. Web sites can be
protected by the use of firewalls. 114 Reducing access to the website through
unique logon scripts and passwords will help to minimise security risks. 115
Overcoming Commercial Disadvantages
_ Cost:116 Good online training materials are expensive to develop and are
likely to
remain so for the foreseeable future. However, there are some potential
savings.
Evidence shows once ICTBT has been developed and the initial outlay has
been
recouped, costs for the training provider fall, which will benefit the trainees.
For
SMEs, ICTBT is particularly relevant if they have the necessary infrastructure.
It
will dispense with the need to release staff for training, always an issue for
small
107 Marshall, David, ‘Developing Interactive Courseware on the World Wide Web,’ in Innovation and
Educational
Educational
109 Barker, Philip ‘Using Intranets to Support Teaching and Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational
Technologies
110 Funnell, Peter: ‘Views from the Screen-Face: Issues Emerging From an Exploration of the Value of
Telematicssupported
Learning,’ in Innovation in Educational Technologies International 1999, Vol 36.3, pp176-184. However,
one student (with little prior ICT experience) criticised the session as too short.
Technologies
112 ‘Ferreira, Martins, MacKinnon, Lachlan, Desmulliez, Marc and Foulk, Patrick. A multimedia telematics
network for
on-the-job training, tutoring and assessment.
Educational
Technologies International 1999 Vol 36.1 pp11-16
114 Ibid.
115 Ibid.
116 Hunt, Malcolm and Clarke, Alan, A Guide to the Cost Effectiveness of Technology Based Training,
January 1997.
75
firms. ICTBT would also reduce travel costs for the company. Internet access
is
becoming cheaper, which will ease SME access to ICTBT. ICTBT has varying
cost
effectiveness, and the financial aspect must be carefully considered before
firms
invest in training.
6.8 Identifying Best Practice: Focus Group Results
A set of recommendations was produced after considering SME preferences,
the
interviews with training providers, information from background research and
European policy (see Appendix 1.6). These were tested on focus groups,
which
combined trainers, business support services and SMEs. Listed below are the
recommendations that were highly rated in at least four out of the seven
countries
taking part in this study.
To make training more specific to the business needs of SMEs
1. Specific training for firms employing less than 10 employees
2. Training needs to respond to the life-cycle position of the firm
3. Training needs to be sector specific
4. Practical examples using case studies from other SMEs
5. Initial visit by training provider to SME to assess needs and problems
6. Training should be delivered by trainers who have some experience in
SMEs
To respond to the manager’s learning priorities
7. Coaching, mentoring and one-to-one support to deal with individual
problems
8. Training that is open to requests for seminars from course participants
9. Training should include the generation of business clubs for participants to
encourage networking
10. The need for flexibility in timing
To ensure provision of information on content and quality
11. Training providers to provide more information about content of training
for
SMEs
12. Training providers should show rating of training by previous SME
participants.
13. Training should include evaluation feedback from SMEs themselves.
To enable SMEs to afford training
14. Subsidies or grants to undertake training
To promote ICT
15. ICT should be used as a support tool for training
16. Set up an e-Learning Centre to raise awareness of use of ICT training
techniques and assess quality
17. Training that is delivered in bite-sized pieces to facilitate a building block
effect with clear outcomes
18. Concerning training content: Information Management, E-commerce, ICT
for
Management Decision Making and Entrepreneurship were rated highly
19. Interest in the UK, Greece and Finland for a Virtual MBA for Small
Business
20. ICT should include on-line advice from tutors and virtual learning centres.
76
Although on-line tutor support was favoured, generally the concept of a
virtual
learning centre was only popular in Italy, Greece and the UK. Management
simulation games were generally not popular. Again, with respect to ICT, the
response favours the more known and accepted methods such as on-line
tutor
support.
What is the Role of an On-line Tutor?
There is evidence117 that authors of ICTBT are lacking specific skills because
issues
such as ‘how people learn’ and how to train on-line have not been fully
addressed.
There is too much focus on the technology and not on the quality of the
learning
experience.
The role of an on-line tutor is identified as follows118:
_ Administrator
- registration
- student groups
- group events
- recording progress
_ Subject expert
- FAQs, on-line support, on-line group sessions
- Referring people to resources
_ Coach
- falling behind
- encouraging learners and recognising success
- counselling learners
- initiating activities
_ Assessor
- Is the person doing the training who they say they are?
- judging assignments
- observing actions of learner
The skills needed for on-line tutoring are different from the skills of a classroom tutor.
The support needed is more intensive and the cost for training institutions to get
quality on-line tutors may be high.
Although many of the providers are using on-line tutor support the actual
times
when this support was available was not investigated. If provision is only
available
during working day hours, then it is not meeting the needs of SMEs for
flexible
support. One provider had addressed this issue but said that the problem of
on-line
tutor support out of normal working hours had not been solved. A problem for
training providers is the difficulty in monitoring working hours for on-line
tutors.
117 see, for example, Adults Learning, November 1999, report on research led by Dr
Jan
Seabrook for DfEE, UK
118 IT Training Conference, July 2000, Birmingham
77
6.9 Conclusions Best Practice from the European Union
Design
There is evidence in quality and relevance to SMEs in design of training. Many of the
programmes selected are designed specifically for SMEs. Particular examples of best
practice
include: regular meetings with SME focus groups to discuss needs and training
programmes;
building close relationships with SMEs such as Tampere Technology Centre; providing
tailormade
training for groups of firms; provision of sector specific material; differentiation in
provision between small and medium firms. There may also be a need for more
provision for
micro firms and for provision, which takes into account the life-cycle position of the
firm.
Programmes should include an initial visit by the training provider to assess needs
and
problems.
There is evidence of effective evaluation procedures among providers, leading to
annual
course revision. In one case this included follow-up appraisals with SMEs.
Content
In addition to traditional management areas, a number of new themes are
emerging
in management training for SMEs. These include ICT-based decision support,
ecommerce,
change management, entrepreneurship and self-diagnosis skills.
Delivery
There is a focus on flexible delivery in timing and a variety of delivery
mechanisms,
which include groupwork, coaching/ mentoring and problem solving, often
with the
use of SME case studies as examples. The focus groups suggest that delivery
should
facilitate networking and that trainers need to have experience in SMEs. The
training
providers show a preference for short courses delivered by traditional
techniques.
The focus groups show that training is favoured in bite-sized pieces to
facilitate a
building block effect.
ICT is mainly being used as a support tool. The main technique for this is the
provision of on-line advice via email and use of CD-ROMs. Internet searches
are also
used during the process of training. This corresponds with the techniques,
which
have been used most frequently by managers in our survey (see section 5.3,
figure
8).
Some providers were making more extensive use of ICTBT. Nova Forum,
Tampere
Technology Centre and Emedia are using management simulation games.
Bolton
Business School and ISTUD are investigating the use of virtual reality.
Publicity
Publicity may need to provide more information on how the content is relevant to
SMEs and
show recommendations from SMEs.
Advantages of ICTBT
‘Better access and flexibility’ is recommended in our SMEs survey as a way of
overcoming the barriers to training (see section 5.4 figure 19). ICTBT can
offer the
advantage of flexible access at a distance at a time to suit the learner.
Another
advantage is that the learner can proceed at their own pace and repeat
sessions
where necessary, thus enabling better assimilation of knowledge. ICTBT
can
enhance the learning experience by offering variety. ICTBT can be
interactive
which maximises learner control and encourages active learning. Where a
trainee is
able to select what they want, interactivity also allows for personalisation
of
78
training. ICTBT can provide enhanced tutor contact with more individual
support
and instant response techniques. Finally, materials are easier to update
than
textbooks, offering more up-to-date relevant information.
Problems Associated with ICTBT
There are a number of problems with ICTBT which need to be overcome if it is
to
become a useful tool for training SME managers. There is an overall problem
of lack
of awareness of ICTBT. Presentation can be a difficulty, making navigation
of
materials awkward and obscuring learner objectives. There is often a lack of
human interaction. This may result in a lack of motivation. There are some
difficulties with telecommunications infrastructures and the slow speed
of
using the Internet. Managers may also lack the necessary equipment and
ICT
skills to fully utilise the materials. Tutors may need training to use ICTBT
techniques. A major disadvantage for training providers is the high cost of
developing materials and SMEs are seen as a minority market who may
not
produce a good return on investment. The on-going cost of providing on-line
tutors may also be high and administratively difficult. There is also evidence
that
the role of on-line tutors is not clear and that specific training may be
needed in
on-line tutoring. Authors of ICTBT may also be lacking specific skills and
may
require training.
Heads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA
79
7. IDENTIFYING BEST PRACTICE IN THE UNITED STATES
The Office of Advocacy within the U.S. Small Business Administration was established
in 1976
to represent and advance small business interests before Congress and federal
agencies.119
The Office’s mission is to "counsel, assist, and protect small business, " and to fulfil
this aim,
the Office works with small businesses and small business organisations, Congress,
Administration, and trade associations.120 The White House Conference on Small
Business121
involves shaping policy through the active participation of small business owners who
assist
in the drawing up of recommendations.
The US leads the world in terms of ICT usage and ownership. The country has high
ICT
infrastructure penetration rates in homes and businesses, high usage levels and
welldeveloped
telecommunications, IT and content industries.122 ICT penetration in the US is far
higher than in Europe. For example, US micro-businesses are almost three times as
likely to
have a website as their UK counterparts.123 There is greater ICTBT development in
the USA.
7.1 E-learning
The e-learning environment is more developed in the USA than in the EU. However
application of best practice is focussed on large corporations and universities. The
elearning
concept has been developed to encompass the pedagogical changes resulting from
opportunities using ICT. It encompasses a variety of learning events. Training is
divided into
modules, which have a flexible structure and use diverse media. A typical module
can
contain between two and seven Learning Events. An event can be an instructional
segment, a seminar, a simulation or a collaborative event such as a workshop.
SmartSeminars are live interactive on-line presentations. A learning event can be
broken
down into Learning Objects. For example, the learning event, “Accessing Business
Resources on the Web” contains four objects: Advanced Searching; Market
Intelligence;
Financial Resources; Research Resources.
E-learning has a number of features:
_ Access to new events and materials, which are updated each week.
_ Different learning events designed to serve different kinds of requirements with
navigation to assist the user to get what they want when they want it.
_ A self-diagnosis tool which matches the interest and characteristics of the individual
user,
to the material that is the most relevant in any one given moment.
_ Orientation towards problem solving.
_ Aid to establishment of a culture of learning within a company, including specific
company learning events and resources.
Companies have developed specialising in e-learning. SmartForce124 is a pioneer,
which has
developed an e-business programme to allow companies to address their specific
training
needs through e-learning. Companies get access to services through a flexible rental
system.
SmartForce is delivering a number of e-learning workshops, which are described in
more
detail in Appendix 2.
119 http://www.sba.gov/advo/aboutus.html#THE OFFICE
120 Ibid.
121 http://www.whcsb.org/
122 Moving into the Information Age, An International Benchmarking Study, 1999.
http://www.isi.gov.uk/isi/isi/bench/1999/International99.html.
123 Ibid.
124 www.smartforce.com
80
E-learning seems to operate within large companies. The best practice has
been
included here to demonstrate the concept of e-learning, which might work
with
groups of SMEs, for example of the same size or sector.
7.2 US Small Business Administration (www.sba.gov/classroom)
The US Small Business Administration (SBA) is the main public service for
small
businesses in the US. It provides service programmes and information to
small
businesses across the US. Many of SBA's resources around the US,
specifically
Business Information Centres, One-Stop Capital Shops and others, offer
access to
computers, the Internet and other emerging technologies. SBA is also
partnering
with other federal agencies and organisations to help provide greater
technology
access.
In partnership with universities and private companies, the SBA now provides
courses and information on the Internet, free of charge. The Small Business
Classroom is an on-line resource for training and informing entrepreneurs and
other
students of enterprise.
At the Classroom site, articles can be read, courses can be studied, or areas
of small
business development can be researched. Through a SCORE125 Cyber-
Chapter,
access to confidential business advice on an issue via E-mail is available.
There is
also a facility to send comments about additional information and further
links that
could be added to the site.126
Linked to the SBA is SCORE127. SCORE offers email counselling. Dedicated to
aiding
the formation, growth and success of small businesses in the US, the
organisation
has 13,000 members with experts in virtually every area of business
management.
Retired professionals with small business experience counsel current owner
managers via email. The counsellor is carefully chosen according to the
client’s
needs, which ensures a well-matched service and indicates best practice.
Alternatively, the client is able to input a business problem and this will be
answered
by the most appropriate counsellor.
The SCORE website also offers email newsletters and magazines, interactive
quizzes
and business resources and hotlinks. SCORE also advertises workshops on
the
website, conducted at local level, covering topics such as ‘Developing Your
Business
Plan’ and ‘Marketing.’ SCORE is innovative in combining a national website
with local
help, providing busy owner managers with a dedicated support system.
7.3 The Virtual University Concept
The academic take up of ICTBT in the US illustrates the widespread use of
new
technologies in education and training. At the US college and university level,
Internet connection is ‘virtually universal’ and many institutions offer Internet
based
distance learning courses.128 Some of these courses are limited either due to
their
content concentration on technical information, or through ‘dressing up’
existing
125 Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)
126 The on-line classroom is described in more detail in Appendix 2.
127 www.score.org.
128 Molenda, Michela, Russell, James and Smaldino, Sharon: ‘Trends in Media and Technology in
Education and Training,’ in Educational Media and Technology Yearbook, 1998, Volume 23.
81
courses by simply adding online resources to the existing programmes.129
Others
merely function as portal sites for distance learning providers.130 The majority
of
management programmes offered by American virtual universities are MBAs.
However, they are being delivered to an audience, which is more familiar
with ICT
systems than in Europe. A good example is provided by Ohio University,
which has
an award winning virtual MBA.131 Many virtual MBAs make use of GroupWare
learning platforms to facilitate student interaction. Further information is
provided in
Appendix 2.3.
7.4 Best Practice from EU-US Collaboration
The Co-operation Programme in Higher Education and Vocational Education and
Training
between the European Community and the United States132 has fostered projects
using
ICTBT. The programme aims to add a new EC/US dimension to student-centred co-
operation
and to benefit the EC and the US. These aims are achieved by promoting an
innovative
range of student-centred, higher education and training co-operative activities.
The first phase of the programme covered 1995-2000. Projects from 1998 and 1999
were
analysed with regard to their use of ICT and relevance for SME management training.
Nothing could be found specifically for training SMEs. Most projects focused on higher
education for under-graduates.
Projects applied ICT in different ways, but there was a high incidence of Internet
based
projects, which included discussion forums, the development of joint EU-US papers,
business
team games and technical project development.133 The NEURUS partnership134 uses
Internet-based distance learning modules including asynchronous discussion groups
among
students and between students and faculty.135 The Transatlantic Business School
Alliance
(TABSA), which aims to develop a common international curriculum for business
schools,
uses a combination of video conferences, taped lectures, and classes over the
Internet.136
However, the emphasis is on the training of students not SMEs. The goal of the Earth
Imaging Project is to develop an international curriculum in Earth Imaging.137 This
course
uses a combination of face-to-face teaching and Internet based distance learning.
Each
course is preceded by a four week preparation period when students are encouraged
to
interact via the Internet to create a sense of community. The Internet-based
multilingual
curriculum includes class texts and laboratory exercises, implying student
interaction, and
there is a consolidation period at the end of the course. The course also uses Internet
based
assessment, as students deliver their final report over the Internet.
Email was by far the most common ICT element employed. This is clearly illustrated
by the
following table:
129 Examples include the University of British Columbia and UWired at the University of
Washington.
130 One example is the California Virtual University.
131 www.mbawb.ohiou.edu/intranet
132 http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/ec-usa/sele99.html
133 Circa Group Europe Ltd, (August 1999), The Evaluation of the Co-Operation Programme
in Higher
Education and Vocational and Educational Training between the European Community
and the United
States.
134 Network of European and US regional and urban studies, aiming to help students develop a
global
perspective on regional development. URL: http://www.seweb.uci.edu/neurus.html
135 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/ec-usa/sele98.html
136 Ibid.
137 Ibid.

82
Table: Usage of New Technology Transfer138
Technology Usage Level
Email 100
Video-conferencing 24
Joint Net-based Projects 21
Internet phone/Internet
video
4
Projects developed under the EU-US collaboration programme, therefore, still “have a
long
way to go to fully exploit new technology.”139 The evaluation report makes certain
recommendations, which might have implications for future ICTBT projects for SMEs.
These
include:
_ The financing of a service project in ‘new technology/virtual mobility’ to monitor
and
support transatlantic projects should be considered.
Whilst projects financed under the first phase of the programme concentrated largely
on HE,
the evaluation report recommends that the vocational training element must be
fostered in
the next phase. Most projects were HE collaborations for the development of
undergraduate
programmes. ICTBT is being used, but mainly involves email and not the more
advanced
technologies. No evidence of management training for SMEs for projects carried out
in 1998
and 1999 could be found.
7.5 Best Practice in traditional techniques
The leading institutions delivering entrepreneurial training employ traditional
delivery
techniques, which they attest maintain advantages over what ICTBT has
proven it
can deliver.
Traditional techniques in the USA are demonstrated by Harvard Business
School
and Babson College (see Appendix 2). These programmes are targeted at
smaller
firms but not micro firms. The average turnover of firms on the Owner
Manager
Program at Harvard is $15m.
FastTrac (see Appendix 2) is an award winning example of innovation in
traditional
delivery. FastTrac is a non-profit organisation which is sponsored by the
Kauffman
Centre for Entrepreneurial Leadership in Kansas. FastTrac operates
programmes in
36 States. It is designed and delivered by entrepreneurs locally in the
community
and focuses on planning for growing small enterprises. There is a strong
practical
orientation and participants use their own company for case study.
A variety of training techniques are used but there is an emphasis on
interaction with other entrepreneurs, case study, analysis of problems and
groupwork. ICT is not used as distance learning but there is a web-site for
resources and use of tools such as computer simulations.
Generally participants stay in residence at the college for a number of days
or weeks
per year.
Content is highly practical, exploring the tools and techniques needed to
identify
opportunities and successfully manage an enterprise.
138Circa Group Europe Ltd, (August 1999), The Evaluation of the Co-Operation Programme
in Higher
Education and Vocational and Educational Training between the European Community
and the United
States.
139 Ibid.
83
7.6 Conclusions - Best Practice from the United States
The concept of E-learning is more advanced in the US. However, it is
orientated
towards large firms. Similarly, the Virtual University concept is more
advanced in the
United States than the EU. Although providing a distance learning framework,
training provision tends to be MBAs rather than shorter courses.
The US Small Business Administration is the main public service for SMEs in
the USA.
Currently they are operating a series of on-line classrooms providing a range
of short
courses on-line for small businesses. This is linked to a mentoring service
called
SCORE, which consists of retired professionals with small business
experience.
There is no strong evidence that managers of SMEs are benefiting from ICTBT
training in the USA. However, there are a number of good practices in
traditional
techniques in developing entrepreneurship and small firm management,
which are
widespread. These use SME case studies, problem solving and group work.
For
example FastTrac is offered in 36 States.
The lessons from the USA involve good practices in stimulating
entrepreneurship
using traditional techniques, and the potential to apply ICTBT techniques
used by
other audiences for the benefit of the heads of SMEs. However the
practicability of
using ICTBT with heads of SMEs needs to be considered. A search of key web-
sites
and providers was carried out (See Appendix 5.1, Phase 4). This identified
very little
in the area of management training for SMEs using ICTBT. Harvard Business
School
and Babson College were asked why they are not delivering training to small
firms
using ICTBT. Harvard responded that they are developing e-learning but only
as an
additional support tool to their mainly traditional delivery techniques. Babson
College had no plans to become involved with ICTBT for small firms but
thought that
there might be a market for it as a time-saving device. Babson’s content
often
revolves around case studies, and group interaction is a vital element of their
technique.
The North American experience offers a number of lessons for European
practice.
By being first, North Americans can make most of the initial mistakes and the
rest of
the world can learn from them. The hurdles to be overcome are those of
content,
interaction and cost, which are themselves interrelated.
E-learning and virtual universities are developing fairly rapidly in North
America.
Virtual universities mainly offer MBA type courses which have a tried and
tested
market. Delivery usually makes use of GroupWare learning platforms. E-
learning is
more broad in content but tends to be targeted at large corporations. E-
learning
portals provide access to learning from multiple sources by aggregating,
hosting and
distributing content. Corporate customers can pick and choose courses from
a
multitude of vendors to create customised programmes for their employees.
Planning and executing a successful e-learning strategy in this way requires
time and
investment. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) has
expressed concerns about the quality of contents of e-learning portals.
The private sector is developing e learning as an industry. There are three
main
segments:
_ The content providers, for whom the demand is very high, because of the
variety of content needed
84
_ Learning services firms, who provide programme building components,
content design, development and programming
_ Delivery solutions companies, which sell the technologies associated with
e-learning.
The structure of the market is predicted to change from high demand in the
last
segment to high demand in the first, as technical solutions become standard
and
costs are driven down in this area140. A number of firms integrate all three
segments.
SmartForce is an example of an e-learning company. It produces its own
courses
delivered via the Internet with mentoring support and has a large content
repository.
It recommends the setting up of a supportive framework and technical
assistance
within companies seeking to operate e-learning. The set up charge is $20,000
and
the cost per year per employee would be about €900. Currently it would
appear that
e-learning structures are more appropriate for large companies.
The North Americans have not yet overcome the three hurdles for SMEs, but
it may
be possible to learn from their longer development experience in the latter
two
segments. In technology, costs are being driven and learning service firms
are
identifying techniques, such as mentoring, which do work. Setting up a
GroupWare
learning platform is relatively easy and is currently being used by various
projects
supporting SMEs in Europe. However, quality and variety of media in ICTBT
varies
enormously and it is therefore difficult to estimate the cost in its production.
The
ratio of production time to one hour of instruction time has varied from 30 to
as
much as 1,000 hours.141 The instruction time with ICTBT has been shown to
reduce
by around one-third. This might seem less of a reduction than expected. The
trend
is downward, but will reach a minimum for optimum human support.
The principle of e-learning based on a content repository which SMEs could
access
via the Internet has potential. In particular the ability to search the content to
find
solutions to specific problems would appeal to SMEs. Also the use of the
content in
a personalised way could facilitate individualised learning which is favoured by
SMEs.
The main issue again would be the design of the content such that it is relevant to
SMEs.
There are problems in transferring the widescale ICTBT practices from the USA. The
market
for ICTBT specifically for SMEs is untested and there are no standards. Training
providers in
the USA do not appear to have considered this a desirable area for development. The
main
best practice to emerge from the USA for SMEs has been delivered by mainly
traditional
techniques.
To bring ICTBT techniques such as virtual universities and e-learning into widespread
use
with European SMEs can build on a good base of knowledge in technology and
learning
techniques. It could also use some North American content (which would have to be
paid
for), but would require the identification of a sufficient level of quality content for the
European market. This would require the establishment of quality standards and the
benchmarking of provision against such quality standards in each Member State.
These
areas are discussed in Section 9.
140 E learning strategies for executive education and corporate training, 27/11/2000,
http://www.fortune.com/fortune/sections/onlinelearn/onlinelearn.htm
141 J.A. Athanasou Industrial and Commercial Training Vol 30 No 3 1998 pp. 96-103
Heads of SMEs Section 8: Conclusions
85
8. CONCLUSIONS
8.1 Demand from Heads of SMEs
While there is a very large variation in the nature of SMEs and their
managers, it is
possible to determine certain common characteristics, which impinge on the
roles of
the heads of firms.
As the chief decision maker, the head has to be able to respond quickly to
changes
in all areas of business. To survive, it is essential to focus on the immediate
and
short term situations. Although many small firms do have long term
strategies, the
head finds it difficult to plan his or her time beyond the short term (see
Section 3.2).
Small size in a large market place, and the crucial role of one (or a very few)
managers in the firm entail a focus on problem solving across all business
areas and
managing time in the short term. The demand for training from heads of
SMEs
reflects these considerations. A major priority area for training is Time
Management
and Delegation (Section 5 Fig. 27).
Heads of SMEs are different from employees. An examination of the learning
styles
of heads of SMEs shows them to be mainly either ‘activists’ or ‘pragmatists’
(Section
5.7). In the former category, preferences for learning include problem solving,
dealing with immediate tasks and group work. For the latter, links between
the
subject matter and ‘real’ problems, feedback from experts, and immediate
implementation of learnt material are important. Both styles favour learning
by
doing.
The ‘activist’ and ‘pragmatist’ approach was reflected in the managers’
desire for
flexibility. Most wanted training at their request (Section 5 Fig. 17).
8.2 Preferences of Heads of SMEs
Managers of SMEs differentiate themselves from employees. On-site training
in
technical areas is a very strong preference for employee training. However,
the
preference from heads of SMEs is evenly divided between in and out of
company
(Section 5 Fig.15). This may involve time for reflection or networking.
Due to time constraints, managers want training which is short (Section 5
Figs.22-
25). The top five preferences indicated are:
1. Short courses
2. One day seminars
3. One to one sessions
4. Group workshops
5. Mentoring.
There is little difference in the areas of management for preferences in these
techniques. 23% expressed an interest in receiving training on the computer
(Section 5 Fig.15).
86
There is a preference for private sector delivery (48%), followed by
universities
(31%). (Section 5 Fig.13)
There is some size differentiation in preferences. Managers in micro and
small
firms show a higher preference for out of working hours training (33%) than
medium
firms (19%). Micro firms show a much greater willingness to participate in
training
at weekends than small or medium firms (Section 5.5 Table 5). Training using
the
computer is less popular with micro firms (Section 5.5 Table 6). The desire for
entrepreneurship training varies with size (Section 5.5 Table 8).
Entrepreneurship
appears to be of more importance to managers of small and medium firms
(55% and
42% respectively) than micro firms (24%). Other studies have shown that in
micro
firms, survival and autonomy is often more important than growth and
innovation
(Section 3.3).
Women managers have similar preferences to men, except in four areas
(Section
5.6). They have a lower demand for computer- based training, and a higher
demand
for day time training, qualifications and e-mentoring than men.
8.3 Use of ICTBT by Heads of SMEs
General use of ICTs is high in this sample with nearly 90% of managers using
email
and Internet (Section 5.2). 92% are using ICT for financial management and
40-
50% are using it for other types of management. 25% have used e-
commerce. The
sample are therefore likely to be early adopters of ICT solutions.
Around 25% of managers have used ICTBT. This is fairly high. In the
TeleMan142
study only 11% of managers had used any type of distance learning. Internet
search, CDROM and email are the most common forms used. Managers
identified a
number of good and bad aspects concerning ICTBT (Section 5.3 Fig. 9).
Good Aspects Bad Aspects
_ Immediacy _ Lack of human support
_ Up-to-date material _ Poor presentation
_ Own pace _ Unreliable technology
8.4 Provision of Management Training
All Member States have systems for providing support to SMEs which are
state
funded. Partners in the project were consulted about such provision. Features
of
these systems include the following:
_ Information and advice
_ Training
_ Financing schemes
Specialist services such as technology, product design, exporting, promoting
forms of
co-operation among SMEs, are also available.
Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium,
142
September
1998.
87
Managers of SMEs see current training provision in management as not
meeting their
needs. The interviews confirmed the problem identified by other studies and
policy
documents (Section 3.3 and 3.4). Provision suffers from defects of content,
access,
flexibility and cost (Section 5.4 Fig. 19). There are also major concerns over
information about training and quality. This is particularly the case for ICTBT
(Section 5.3 Figs.11 &12). SMEs in the survey were asked an open question
about
whether they would like to see any changes to existing support services.
Earlier
questions had asked for assessments of experiences of advice, consultancy,
networks
and information. There was interest for more on-line services and better help-
lines
and centralisation of services to provide better information about training.
The review of training provision in the regions found little provision directed
at heads
of SMEs beyond the start up phase. The research teams looked for examples
of
good practice in their regions, and they were difficult to find. There is
provision of
management training, which may encompass SMEs. However, it was difficult
to find
training designed specifically for them. The publicity of training providers, via
Web
Sites or other literature showed little evidence of targeting this market143.
The credibility of provision to SME managers is important, as a common
complaint is
that they are being fed material for larger firms in a manner, which is
inappropriate.
Recent Swedish and Irish studies emphasise this point144 and point out
significant
differences in attitudes between providers and managers. Difficulties in
accessing
management training is confirmed by the SME managers surveyed
themselves
(Section 5.4 Fig. 19), by the training providers interviewed in this study
(Section
6.7.4) and in the results of the focus groups (Section 6.8). Training providers
in this
survey confirmed the findings of studies reviewed; that the SME market is
insufficiently rewarding to warrant the investment of large resources, or
target
marketing. All of these sources provide evidence that SMEs require better
information about relevant training.
8.5 Bridging training and consultancy
Heads of SMEs’ priorities for gaining expertise can be divided into three main
areas:
_ Individualised support
_ SME Focus
_ Interaction
This division was arrived at by drawing together data from background
research,
from the interviews with SMEs, from interviews with training providers and
evidence
from providers in the USA. The fourfold classification indicated in Section 3.6
on the
expertise needs of SMEs has been revised in the light of the surveys and
more recent
literature145, which emphasises the informal nature of training demanded by
heads of
SMEs. It is also chosen as it is relevant to both traditional and ICTBT delivered
143 This study aimed at identifying best practice, not conducting an evaluation of provision.
Hence,
these statements are based on the difficulty of search, responses from managers, providers
and other
literature.
144 Klofsten, M. Training for entrepreneurship and new business: attitudes among the
organisers,
Industry and Higher Education, Volume 13, 1999, pp 397-404 and
Walsh, J., & Hynes, B., Herding cats; implications for the development of management
development
courses for SME owner-managers, pp1273-1289, 23rd ISBA National Small Firms Policy &
Research
Conference, November 2000.
145 For example Walsh et al (op.cit.) and Johnson, S., Lifelong learning for SMEs: issues for
research
and policy, pp577-593, 23rd ISBA National Small Firms Policy & Research Conference,
November 2000.
88
training. Problem solving for immediate use was a major incentive to
undertake
training, and this is reflected in the priorities above. The relation of the
categories to
the literature review and the survey results is indicated below.
Category Literature Survey results
on general
training
Survey results
on ICTBT use
Individualised
support
_ Client
orientation
_ Preferences for
mentoring, &
consultancy
_ Need for
human support
SME Focus _ Tailor made
training
_ Quality
assurance
_ Short courses
_ Relevance of
material
_ Quality
assurance
_ Up to date
material
Interaction _ Problem solving _ Learning styles
_ Immediacy
_ Immediacy
The need for individualised support arises from the heterogeneous nature of
SMEs
(Section 3.2). Mentoring, consultancy and tailor-made training are means of
providing individualised support, which are recognised in the BEST Report
and other
EU policy documents (Section 3.4). SMEs rate mentoring and one-to-one
sessions
among the top five methods for delivery of training (Section 5 Figs. 22-25).
Training
providers also use individualised support and forms of self-diagnosis (Section
6.6 and
6.7).
Training for SMEs needs to have an SME focus. This is identified by current EU
document policy (Section 3.4), particularly the need for client-orientated
training and
relevant content. Open responses from the survey favoured providers with
SME
expertise and experience of running small firms, which confirms findings in
other
literature146 The interviews with training providers indicate that the SME focus
is
greater in the private sector providers (Appendix 2) who are more likely to
provide
consultancy, tailor-made training and to use client data and case studies to
help
solve problems. The need to involve SMEs in design and use SME case
studies was
recognised as good practice by most of the training providers interviewed
(Section
6.4). Training with an SME focus also needs to be flexible to access as most
managers want training at their request (Section 5.4 Fig.17).
SMEs favour methods, which involve interaction. This is demonstrated by the
preferred methods of delivery in our SME sample which includes one day
seminars,
group-work and mentoring (Section 5.4 Figs 22-25). Activist and pragmatist
learning
styles show a preference for learning, which involves interaction and direct
results
(Section 5.7). Lack of human support is seen as the worst aspect of ICTBT
(Section
5.3 Fig.9). Methods favoured by training providers for both traditional and ICT
techniques involve interaction (Section 6.6, 6.7.1). US providers: Harvard,
Babson
and FastTrac encourage interaction between entrepreneurs as an important
way of
learning (Appendix 2.3).
Good practice elements can be identified in these areas for both traditional
and ICT
techniques.
146 See Klofsten (op.cit) and Walsh et al (op.cit.)
89
Individualised support
_ Self-diagnosis /business check-up
_ On-site consultancy or counselling
_ Mentoring
SME Focus
_ Content including case studies from SMEs
_ Problem solving approach relevant to the businesses
_ Provision at appropriate time and place
Interaction
_ Group-work to solve problems
_ Guest speakers from industry and debates
_ Course conferencing on-line for group sessions
Chat tool for real-time communication
These areas bridge the division between consultancy and training. Provision,
which
involves both aspects would seem to suit the requirements of many heads of
SMEs.
There is often a division among providers and funding mechanisms between
the two,
which may be hampering adequate delivery.
8.6 Priorities of heads of SMEs
For more formal courses, heads of SMEs expressed six priorities:
_ Relevance to real business situation
_ Problem solving
_ Short duration
_ Flexible delivery
_ Networking
_ Quality assurance
These priorities are demonstrated by interviews with heads of SMEs (Figs. 12,
15,
17, 21, Figs. 22-25) and interviews with training providers (Section 6.6, 7.5).
Most of the elements can be delivered by either traditional techniques or ICT.
However, emerging good practice involves a combination of human and ICT
delivered material (Section 6.7.1). This can involve either the provision of ICT
supported material, in a traditional setting, or the provision of some human
interaction events to a mainly ICT delivered course. However, some such as
networking are typically thought of as easier in a traditional setting, and
others, such
as flexible delivery may bestow advantages on ICTBT.
8.7 Good Practice in Course Development
The survey of training providers (Section 6.4) identified a number of basic
features
which may be considered good practice in the process of development and
delivery
of management training for heads of SMEs. These basic features can be
summarised
as follows:
_ Research or market analysis
_ Involvement of SMEs in design, to enable a client-centred approach –
involves
building relationships with SMEs or groups of SMEs
_ On-site initial assessment of the needs of the SME manager
_ Expertise and experience of trainers in SMEs
_ Generation of entrepreneur networks for participants
_ Evaluation and feedback
90
8.8 The ICTBT Opportunity
ICT represents an opportunity for managers and providers to overcome a
number of
barriers to the delivery of training. Both groups recognise this. The
advantages of
access at any time and place, proceeding at one’s own tempo, access to a
variety of
sources, interactivity, good teacher contact and individual support through
email,
instant responses and the ability to update and customise the material are
recognised (Section 6.7.2).
Developing material is expensive, but once developed, costs of adaptation
should be
much less. Groupware products are designed to make it easier to develop
and
deliver on-line training (Section 4.2).
To ensure that ICT can play a full role in developing new training provision, a
number of hurdles have to be overcome, which are pedagogical, technical
and
financial (Section 6.7.3). Within pedagogy, the need for human interaction
has been
recognised, and guidelines for its development are being recognised.
However,
there is no similar consensus on the degree of structure needed in navigating
webbased
courses. Technical problems to be overcome include security, delivery speed
on the internet and appropriate infrastructure. The latter is still lacking in
parts of
Europe, and at a firm level, the machines may either be too old, too few or in
the
wrong place (Section 3.5). The development of the infrastructure, the
learning
environment, and the material are all costly activities. After their
establishment,
costs should diminish.
8.9 Problems and Constraints in providing Management Training to
Heads of SMEs
However, there are constraints in realising these goals.
_ Little existing provision meets them
There is a lack of specific training for heads of SMEs (see Section 8.4).
Executive Training at business schools is often targeted at larger companies.
There is a lack of provision with the required level of flexibility for SMEs.
There is a lack of best practice/expertise for training SME managers. There
are no guides or standards as to how training providers should deliver quality
training to SME managers.
_ The SME training that is provided tends to serve either start-ups or
medium sized
firms
There is a lack of provision for micro firms. Micro firms have specific need for
survival programmes (Section 3.2 & 6.2).
There is a lack of entrepreneurial training for small and growing firms
(Section 3.4 & 6.3).
91
_ICTBT is under-provided
Much ICTBT is of low quality, being simply the presentation of printed
material on a web-site147. There are concerns expressed by training providers
concerning the cost of development of ICTBT, particularly for SMEs which is a
new and uncertain market (Section 6.7.3 & Section 7.5).
There are skills shortages in ICTBT development and delivery. On-line
trainers need good ICT skills and their role is different from a traditional
tutor. There is too little training available for designers of ICTBT
management material. Skills are needed in being able to communicate the
content using different ICT-based mediums (Section 6.7.3 & 6.8).
There are barriers for SMEs in using ICTBT. These are: lack of knowledge,
lack of quality assurance and cost of technology (Section 5.3 Fig.11).
_ There is difficulty in finding information
This concerns, both locating courses and gaining sufficient information about
the content of courses and their relevance to SMEs (Section 5.4 Fig.19,
Section 6.7.4)
There is no system of quality assurance.
Tele-Teaching and Training for Management of SMEs – Studies, TeleMan Consortium,
147
September
1998.
Heads of SMEs Section 9: Recommendations
92
9 RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations need to address the problems and constraints that have
been
identified in providing management training to heads of SMEs.
Recommendations have been divided into two areas:
1. Those concerning Member States
2. Those concerning the Commission
Member States
9.1 Recommendation One: More training specifically for Heads of
SMEs
There is a need for more training specifically for heads of SMEs in all Member
States.
There is a need for separate programmes for small firms and micro firms.
These
programmes should be benchmarked against a set of quality standards for
the
provision of training to heads of SMEs. A first stage involves ensuring
awareness of
the needs of SMEs among training providers (i.e. that SMEs are not smaller
large
enterprises) and ensuring that the obstacles facing SMEs are recognised by
policy
makers and responsible bodies.
9.2 Recommendation Two: Promotion of ICTBT
ICTBT can be used to overcome some of the barriers SME managers face
concerning
cost and time. It may be used as a support tool for management training or
as the
main mechanism for delivery of training. Provision of ICTBT to a specific SME
audience is recommended through provision of material and awareness
raising.
Actions which may contribute to increased use of ICTBT could include
stimulation of
ICT skills amongst heads of SMEs or the use of ICT in combination with a
training
style favoured by heads of SMEs. An example of this could be the use of
ementoring.
Pilot projects under Leonardo da Vinci for the 2000-2006 period will look at
developing and transferring innovation and quality in vocational training
which will
include use of ICTs. The best practice indicators outlined in these
recommendations
might be taken into account as selection criteria for projects developing the
use of
ICTs in vocational training. In particular the development of material for
heads of
SMEs needs to be promoted. This may be done under specific measures in
EQUAL.
These are detailed in Appendix 6.
9.3 Recommendation Three: Training of Trainers
There are a lack of trainers with experience and expertise in SMEs. There is a
lack of
understanding of best practice for training SME managers. The training of
trainers
should be promoted and benchmarked against a set of quality standards.
There is also a lack of skills and training for development and delivery of
ICTBT to
SME managers. Training needs to be developed to address these skills
shortages.
Heads of SMEs Section 9: Recommendations
93
Particular actions might include exchanges of expert providers across the
Community
in the areas of management training and design of ICT-based training
material. To
support this activity, ‘Training for Trainers’ under Leonardo should include
guidelines
for developing training for the design and delivery of ICTBT.
The Commission
9.4 Recommendation Four: Concerted Action for Quality Assurance
Concerted action for quality assurance in management training for heads of
SMEs is
recommended. This has two main areas:
1. Establishment of quality standards among Member States
2. Benchmarking of provision in each Member State
Establishment of Quality Standards
A set of best practice indicators have been proposed for the delivery of
management
training to heads of SMEs. These need to be developed into standards
through
meetings of exchange groups across the EU. They should be charged with:
_ Promoting best practice in training provision in terms of content, mode of
delivery, and marketing
_ Stimulating the growth of expertise for trainers and in multi media design
for
training
_ Promotion of a manual of best practices in training for SME managers,
covering:
design, delivery techniques, involvement of SMEs, use of ICT-based training,
evaluation and publicity. This could result from a benchmarking exercise and
be
supported by examples drawn from several Member States
_ Policy conferences and workshops for heads of SMEs, regional policy makers
and
implementers on best practice in management training and ICT development
tailored to training needs of SMEs
Benchmarking of Provision in each Member State
A set of indicators should be drawn up to benchmark provision across
Member
States. The following are an indicative list:
_ Provision of Training/Support specifically directed at heads of SMEs by:
Number of providers
Number of beneficiaries
Numbers reaching benchmarked quality standards
Expenditure
Each of the above directed at either micro or small firms
_ ICTBT provision directed at heads of SMEs by:
Number of providers
Number of beneficiaries
Numbers reaching benchmarked quality standards
Expenditure
Each of the above directed at either micro or small firms
_ Involvement of SMES Representative Groups (sectoral, local or general) in
training support delivery as a proportion of the activities described above.
DISCUSSION
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Attitude (psychology)
Attitude (psychology)
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Overview
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or
dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place,
thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be
conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both
positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question.
Attitudes are judgments.

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I need definition of attitude with reference
Encyclopedia
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or
dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place,
thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be
conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both
positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question.
Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect, behavior, and
cognition
Cognition
Cognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought." Usage of the term varies in
different disciplines; for example in psychology and cognitive science, it usually refers to
an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions...
). The affective response is an emotional

Emotion
Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and disposition, and
motivation. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir. This
is based on the Latin emovere, where e- means 'out' and movere means 'move'...
response that expresses an individual's degree of preference for an entity. The behavioral
intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of an individual. The
cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual's
beliefs about the object. Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or
observational learning
Observational learning
Observational learning is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing,
retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others...
from the environment.
Attitude formation
Unlike personality
Personality psychology
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and individual
differences.Its areas of focus include:* Constructing a coherent picture of a person and
his or her major psychological processes...
, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience

Experience
Experience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of
some thing or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or
event....
. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes
that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we
must be consistent in our beliefs and values. The most famous example of such a theory
is Dissonance-reduction
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory
ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a
motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them...
theory, associated with Leon Festinger
Leon Festinger
Leon Festinger , was an American social psychologist, responsible for the development
of the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Social Comparison Theory, and the discovery of
the role of propinquity in the formation of social ties as well as other contributions to the
study of social...
, although there are others, such as the balance theory

Balance theory
Balance Theory is a motivational theory of attitude change proposed by Fritz Heider,
which conceptualizes the consistency motive as a drive toward psychological balance...
. tite
Attitude change
see also Attitude change

Attitude change
Breckler and Wiggins define attitudes as “mental and neural representations, organized
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on behavior” . Attitudes
and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components...
Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and we should understand attitude change
as a response to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the
persuasiveness of a message include:
1. Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who
receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence - it seems that
more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another
variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is
sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there
is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is
actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily
persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes & Woods,
1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process.
2. Source Characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise,
trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction
Interpersonal attraction
Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people which leads to friendships

and romantic relationships. The study of interpersonal attraction is a major area of
research in social psychology. Interpersonal attraction is related to how much we
like, love, dislike, or hate someone...
or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a
key variable here; if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a
professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one
believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated
whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the
effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared
after several weeks (the so-called "sleeper effect"). Whether there is a sleeper
effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the
source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect
than if they are told a message and then told its source.
3. Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion.

Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes.
Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to help

change an attitude. In the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with the
data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In
the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the
content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature
celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars
are used for their attractiveness.
Emotion and Attitude Change
Emotion is a common component in persuasion

Persuasion
Persuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding oneself or another
toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic means.-
Methods :...
, social influence
Social influence
Social influence occurs when an individual's thoughts or actions are affected by other
people. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization,
peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing...
, and attitude change

Attitude change
Breckler and Wiggins define attitudes as “mental and neural representations, organized
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on behavior” . Attitudes
and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components...
. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion
components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we
think, about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising,
health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health
campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism.
Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative
components. Attitudes are part of the brain’s associative networks, the spider-like
structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.
By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though

affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective
networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to
persuasion and attitude change.
Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also

impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important
component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about
an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales.
In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion

and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models
and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information.
Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal
changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised
eyebrows, increased heart rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods
include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues.
Components of Emotion Appeals
Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy,
disgust, indignation, fear, and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in
communication and social influence research.
Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility
of reactance which may lead to either message rejections or source rejection and the
absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in
motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change;
if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing
attitude change.
Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than
perceived positive emotions like humor. Though the inner-workings of humor are not
agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent
research has looked at the impact of humor on the processing of political messages.
While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change
is receivers with low political message involvement.
Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy,
attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a
perception of one’s own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own
ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages
because it dictates a person’s ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For
example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global
environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global
warming.
Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication,
message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals.
The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different
levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one
size does not fit all.
Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words,
how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement
is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement
has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude
accessible attitudes are more resistant to change
DISCUSSION
Implicit and explicit attitudes
There is also considerable research on implicit attitudes

Implicit Association Test
The Implicit Association Test is an experimental method within social psychology
designed to measure the strength of automatic association between mental representations
of objects in memory...
, which are generally unacknowledged or outside of awareness, but have effects that are
measurable through sophisticated methods using people's response times to stimuli.
Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, though in different ways.
They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some cases they are.
The relationship between them is poorly understood.
Jung's definition
Attitude is one of Jung's

Carl Jung
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist, an influential thinker and the founder of
analytical psychology. Jung is considered as the first modern psychologist to state that the
human psyche is "by nature religious" and to explore it in depth...
57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types
Psychological Types
Psychological Types is the title of the sixth volume in the Princeton / Bollingen edition of
the Collected Works of Carl Jung. The original German language edition,
"Psychologische Typen", was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich in 1921....
. Jung's definition of attitude is a "readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way"
(Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the
other unconscious. Within this broad definition Jung defines several attitudes.
The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are the following.
• Consciousness and the unconscious. The "presence of two attitudes is extremely

frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that consciousness
has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality
particularly evident in neurosis
Jung's theory of neurosis
Jung's theory of neurosis is based on the premise of a self-regulating psyche

composed of tensions between opposing attitudes of the ego and the unconscious.
A neurosis is a significant unresolved tension between these contending attitudes.
Each neurosis is unique, and different things work in...
" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 687).
• Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jung's theory of types

that he labeled them the "attitude-types".
• Rational and irrational attitudes. "I conceive reason as an attitude" (Jung, [1921]
1971: par. 785).
• The rational attitude subdivides into the thinking and feeling psychological
functions, each with its attitude.
• The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological
functions, each with its attitude. "There is thus a typical thinking, feeling,
sensation, and intuitive attitude" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 691).
• Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are "isms".
In addition, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. “When I take an abstract attitude...”
(Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 679).
Abstraction
Abstraction
Abstraction is a cognitive process by which higher, more abstract concepts are derived
from the usage and classification of literal, "real," or "concrete" concepts....
is contrasted with concretism

Concretism
Concretism may refer to one of the following*Concrete art, a form of
abstractionism*Concrete poetry*Reism, a philosophical movement*concretism , an
opposite of abstraction, see Attitude_*Reification...
. “CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the

antithesis of abstraction” (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 696).
For example "i hate his attitude for being Sarcastic.
MBTI definition
The MBTI write-ups limit the use of "attitude" to the extraversion-introversion (EI) and
judging-perceiving (JP) indexes.
The above MBTI Manual statement, is restricted to EI," is directly contradicted by Jung's
statement above that there is "a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude"
and by his other uses of the term "attitude". Regardless of whether the MBTI
simplification (or oversimplification) of Jung can be attributed to Myers, Gifts Differing
refers only to the "EI preference", consistently avoiding the label "attitude". Regarding
the JP index, in Gifts Differing Myers does use the terms "the perceptive attitude and the
judging attitude" (Myers, 1980:8). The JP index corresponds to the irrational and rational
attitudes Jung describes, except that the MBTI focuses on the preferred orientation in the
outer world in order to identify the function hierarchy. To be consistent with Jung, it can
be noted that a rational extraverted preference is accompanied by an irrational introverted
preference.
See also
• Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two

contradictory ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes
that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them...
• Elaboration likelihood model

Elaboration likelihood model
The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion is a model of how attitudes are

formed and changed that was developed by R. E. Petty and J. T. Cacioppo in the
early 1980's . Central to this model is the "elaboration continuum", which ranges
from low elaboration to high elaboration...
• Propositional attitude
Propositional attitude
A propositional attitude is a relational mental state connecting a person to a

proposition. They are often assumed to be the simplest components of thought
and can express meanings or content that can be true or false...
• Social psychology
Social psychology
Social psychology is the study of the relations between people and groups.
Scholars in this interdisciplinary area are typically either psychologists or
sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the
group as their units of analysis.Despite their similarity,...
• Theory of reasoned action
Theory of reasoned action
The theory of reasoned action , developed by Martin Fishbein and , derived from
previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study
of attitude and behavior...
• Theory of planned behaviour

• Expectancy-value theory
Expectancy-value theory
-Introduction:Expectancy-value theory was originally created in order to explain

and predict individual's attitudes toward objects and actions. Originally the work
of psychologist Martin Fishbein, the theory states that attitudes are developed and
modified based on assessments about beliefs and...
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Introduction To Attitude and Motivation

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Introduction To Attitude and Motivation

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INTRODUCTION TO ATTITUDE AND MOTIVATION

General goals of teaching to the affective domain

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Book II Affective Domain

A Structure for the Affective Domain in Relation to Science Education

citation and bibliographic information

Learning and Teaching in the Affective Domain (more info)

The Art of Possibility

citation and bibliographic information

Methods for teaching in ways that address the affective domain

A Checklist for Designing Instruction in the Affective Domain

Increasing Enrollment in Higher-Level Mathematics Classes through the Affective

citation and bibliographic information

The Relationship between Teacher Management Communication Style and

citation and bibliographic information

De Bono's Red Hat on Krathwohl's Head: Irrational Means to Rational Ends

Students' View of Intelligence Can Help Grades

Evaluation of affective outcomes

Techniques for Evaluating Affective Objectives

citation and bibliographic information

The Affective Domain Related to Science Education and its Evaluation

citation and bibliographic information

Science Motivation Questionnaire

The 30-item questionnaire by Shawn M. Glynn and Thomas R. Koballa, Jr.

Development of an Assessment of Student Conception of the Nature of Science

By Julie Libarkin, Arizona State University

Science and the Affective Domain

Research on the affective dimensions of science learning

Simpson, R. D., Koballa, T. R., Oliver, J. S., & Crawley, F. E. (1994)

Attitudinal and motivational constructs in science learning

Koballa, T. R., & Glynn, S. M. (in press). Chapter 5 in S. K. Abell & N.

• Americans fear decline in US performance in math and science

Some Geoscience Examples

• Journal of Geoscience Education special issue on Student Thinking about the

1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

• response, relationships, results), Assessment.] 231

1. THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

3.1 Data and Descriptive Analysis

Table 1 Descriptive variables

Gender of Household Head (1 if male and 0 GENDER 84%

Heads of SMEs Section 3 : Expertise Needs of heads of

Heads of SMEs Section 4: Use of ICTBT

Heads of SMEs Section 6 : Best Practice in the EU

Heads of SMEs Section 7 : Best Practice in USA

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Attitudes are judgments.

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I need definition of attitude with reference

). The affective response is an emotional

from the environment.

, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience

, although there are others, such as the balance theory

see also Attitude change

Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people which leads to friendships

3. Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion.

Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to help

Emotion and Attitude Change

Emotion is a common component in persuasion

, and attitude change

By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though