Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

The corrosion of carbon steel in oil-in-water

emulsions under controlled hydrodynamic
conditions
HaydeÂe Quiroga Becerra a, C. Retamoso a, Digby
D. Macdonald b,*
a
Chemical Engineering School (Escuela de IngenierõÂa QuõÂmica), Industrial University of Santander
(Universidad Industrial de Santander), AA 678, Bucaramanga, Colombia
b
Center for Advanced Materials, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
Received 26 March 1999

Abstract

The e€ect of the oil content on the corrosion of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel in oil-in-
water emulsions under controlled hydrodynamic conditions was studied by means of
potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The
systems that were studied included brine (0.2 wt% NaCl), surfactant solution (Dioctyl
sodium sulfosuccinate, 1 wt%, +NaCl, 0.2 wt%), and oil-in-water emulsions, in which the
aqueous phase was the surfactant solution and the oil phase was a mineral oil. Corrosion
studies employed various controlled hydrodynamic systems, which included a rotating disk
electrode (RDE) and a jet impingement electrochemical cell (JIEC), with the working
electrode located in the stagnant region on the jet axis or on the wall jet region (displaced
from the axis). This study found that the e€ect of the oil content on the electrochemical
activity of carbon steel (as indicated by the current density in the active state) varies with
the `internal phase relationship', IPR. For emulsion with low IPR (oil contents up to 20
wt%), the electrochemical activity was slightly higher than that of the base surfactant
solution. The electrochemical activity of emulsions with medium IPR (oil contents between
20 and 45 wt%) showed no major variation with oil content, while for emulsions with high
IPR (oil contents between 45 and 70 wt%) the activity was diminished. The data are

* Corresponding author. Present address: Pure and Applied Physical Sciences Division, SRI
International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA. Tel.: +1-650-859-3195; fax: 1-605-
859-3250.
E-mail address: digby@unix.sri.com (D.D. Macdonald).

0010-938X/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 0 - 9 3 8 X ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 6 8 - 2
562 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

explained in terms of a model that postulates the formation of an `oily phase' on the steel
surface, the stability of which depends on the magnitude of the hydrodynamically induced
shear stress at the interface. However, the coverage of the oil phase on the surface is
postulated to depend on the normalized IPR, such that as the IPR increases the coverage
also increases. Furthermore, the oil phase is envisioned to facilitate the cathodic partial
process (reduction of oxygen) due to the enhanced solubility of oxygen compared with
water, while inhibiting the dissolution of the metal (anodic partial process). Because the two
partial processes are strongly coupled, the corrosion rate is predicted to pass through a
maximum with increasing oil content of the emulsion, as observed. # 2000 Published by
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon steel; Oil-in-water emulsions; Hydrodynamics; General corrosion

1. Introduction

Oil-in-water emulsions are heterogeneous systems, in which a nonpolar or oily

phase (mineral oil) is dispersed in the form of small drops in the polar or water
phase (distilled and deionized water). Emulsions are produced and exist in
metastable form due to the action of mechanical agitation and the presence of
surfactant molecules that diminish the interfacial tension. Emulsi®ed systems have
acquired great importance in industrial applications due to certain inherent
characteristics. These include facilitating the transport of soluble, active
ingredients in either the watery phase or in the oily phase (used by
pharmacological and beauty industries, and in the production of fungicides) and
reducing the viscosity of heavy oils. The latter is important for reducing the cost
of transporting heavy oils through pipes and channels in the petroleum and
petrochemicals industries [1].
In spite of the wide use of emulsions, very little attention has been paid to the
electrochemical and corrosion behaviors of metals in contact with emulsi®ed
systems. Fundamental information on the conductivity of emulsions and electrode
potential is very limited [2,3], although some work has been reported on the
electrochemistry of microemulsions systems [4±7]. In general, the theory of
electrochemical processes in emulsions is speci®c to each application, for instance,
emulsi®cation and demulsi®cation processes [1] or electrodeposition of emulsions
systems [8±11]. In the speci®c case of oil-in-water emulsions, where the continuous
phase is aqueous, metallic corrosion is expected, because of the water present in
the system. However, oil is known to wet metals, so that destabilization of the
emulsion at the interface could signi®cantly alter the corrosion behavior compared
with that for the aqueous phase alone. The corrosion rate may also be a€ected by
changes in the rate of transport of oxygen to and reactants from the metal
surface, due to the presence of oil in the system [12±15]. A thorough
understanding of these factors requires a detailed knowledge of the rheological
properties of the system.
The rheological behavior of an emulsion can be Newtonian or non-Newtonian,
 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575 563

depending on its composition. Emulsions with a low ratio of dispersed phase to

the continuous phase (the oil content or the `IPR') generally exhibit Newtonian
behavior while emulsions with high IPR values behave as pseudoplastic ¯uids [16].
It has been found [13,14] that for kerosene (and other light mineral oils)-in-water
emulsions with medium and high internal phase ratios, the rheological properties
slightly depart from Newtonian behavior and obey the Casson model [17],
described by the following expression:

t1=2 ˆ t1=2
c ‡D
1=2 1=2
m …1†

where t is the shear stress (Pa), tc is the minimal value of shear stress at which the
material su€ers plastic deformation (Pa), D is the shear rate (sÿ1), and m is the
viscosity of the emulsion (cp). The change in the rheological behavior of the
emulsions with oil content around 40% could explain various phenomena that are
observed when electrochemical experiments are made with emulsions [14,15]. The
average emulsion viscosity is logarithmically related to IPR, with m increasing with
increasing IPR.
Studies of the electrochemical behavior of metallic surfaces in contact with
emulsions under controlled hydrodynamic conditions can help to develop an
understanding of the e€ect of the oily phase on corrosion processes. Previous
studies [18,19] have employed rotating disk electrodes (RDEs) to study mass
transfer under laminar and turbulent ¯ow conditions as well as to investigate the
kinetics of corrosion reactions. However, in order to more accurately stimulate
®eld and/or plant conditions, a jet impingement electrochemical cell (JIEC) was
employed in the present work. A JIEC allows one to control the hydrodynamics
of the system over a wide range of conditions (e.g., shear rate) and to obtain
turbulent ¯ow with a high shear stress on the surface. Several patterns of ¯ow can
be obtained, depending on the location of the working electrode. Thus, the
electrode can be placed directly in front of the nozzle, where the mass transfer
rate is independent of the radial position and the ¯ow regime is considered to be
mainly laminar (stagnant region, r < Rnozzle). Alternatively, the electrode may be
located at some radial distance from the central point (wall jet region, r > 2.5
Rnozzle), where fully developed turbulent ¯ow exists, but where the turbulent
intensity and mean ¯ow rate decays with distance from the central stagnant point.
In this latter region, momentum is transferred away from the surface and the ¯ow
is known as `self preserving', but it eventually becomes laminar [20] at suciently
large radial distances.
In this paper, the electrochemical behavior of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel in
contact with oil-in-water emulsions under controlled hydrodynamic and
electrochemical conditions is analysed. Our principal objective was to ascertain the
relationship between the corrosion rate, as determined by electrochemical
methods, and the oil content of the emulsion and the hydrodynamic conditions.
Data from these studies is considered to be essential for developing an
understanding of the role of the oil in modifying the corrosion rate and
mechanism.
564 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

2. Experimental

2.1. Preparation of the emulsions

The most stable emulsions were found to have the following aqueous phase
composition: distilled and deionized water, anionic surfactant agent TRITON
GR-7 M (Dioctyl sodium sulfusuccianate, 1 wt%), and sodium chloride, 0.2 wt%.
The oily phase was a light mineral oil with a viscosity of 2 cp and a density of
0.89 g/cm3.
Optimization of the emulsion composition and preparation process, as well as
characterization of the emulsion in terms of particle size, viscosity, wettability,
electrical conductivity, and pH was carried out as the Colombian Petroleum
Institute, in consultation with the Rheology and Interfacial Phenomena Group.
Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were used to determine the emulsion composition
with the highest degree of stability, as described elsewhere [21,22].
Average drop size was determined using a particle size analyzer manufactured
by Malvern Instruments, MASTER PARTICLE SIZER MG-02. The distribution
of drop size obtained in all cases was unimodal with an average of 11 mm.
Rheological properties were measured using a Haake Rotovisco RV-20
Rheometer. Table 1 shows the experimentally measured viscosity for emulsions
with di€erent oil content as determined at a shear rate of 10 sÿ1.

2.2. Preparation of the metallic samples

AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel, with the composition shown in Table 2, was used
as the test material. Before each experiment, the samples were polished to 1200
grit using SiC paper and were ®nally polished to a mirror ®nish using 0.05 mm
Al2O3 powder.

2.3. Experimental cells

The diameter of the rotating disk electrode (RDE) was 0.5 cm. The reference
electrode was a standard saturated calomel electrode (SCE) coupled to a Luggin
probe, whose tip was located between the working and the counter electrodes. The
counter electrode was a platinum wire in serpentine form and protected by a
porous membrane. Both the reference electrode and the counter electrode were
located in a manner that they did not perturb the ¯ow lines of the emulsion
toward and from the working electrode. The rotation rate of the RDE was

Table 1
Viscosity values for di€erent oil contents

Oil percentage 0 2 5 10 20 50 70
Average viscosity, cp [g/ms] 1 1.3 1.5 1.75 2 10 17
 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575 565

Table 2
AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel composition

Compound metal sample AISI-SAE 1010

C 0.106 0.08±0.13
Mn 0.509 0.30±0.60
P 0.013 0.040 max.
S 0.010 0.050 max.
Si 0.058
Cu 0.007
Ni 0.028
Cr 0.005
V 0.003
Mo 0.008
Ti 0.001
As 0.002
Al 0.029
Nb 0.007
Co 0.007
Sn 0.004
Fe Balance

between 0 and 2500 rpm; however, most of the experiments were carried out at
800 rpm. At rotation rates higher than 800 rpm, no major e€ects of rotation rate
were observed in the electrochemical activity.
The jet impingement electrochemical cell, shown schematically in Fig. 1, was
fabricated after the design of E®rd [23]. The main geometric parameters were:

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the jet impingement electrochemical cell.

566 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

. Nozzle and working electrode diameter=0.625 cm,

. Vertical distances from the nozzle to the working electrodes, h = 4d,
h = 2.54 cm.,
. Radial distances for the location of the electrode in the wall jet region x = 5r,
x = 1.5875 cm.
The reference electrode was a standard calomel electrode/Luggin probe, with the
tip being located between the working and the counter electrode. The counter
electrode was a platinum cylinder located in the entrance to the cell.
The ¯ow loop that was employed with the JIEC consisted of a 20 l tank for

Fig. 2. In¯uence of oil content on the polarization of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel in contact with o/w
emulsions using the Rotating Disk Electrode at 800 rpm: (a) 0±45 wt% oil; (b) 45±70 wt% oil.
 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575 567

emulsion storage, a centrifugal pump, and an on-line ¯ow rate measurement

system. The emulsion temperature was 252 28C.

2.4. Electrochemical techniques

Electrochemical experiments were preformed using a Gamry Instruments PC3

potentiostat controlled by CMS100 software. The polarization curves were
measured by varying the applied potential from ÿ1.0 V vs SCE up to 2.0 V., at a
sweep rate of 1 mV/s. Before each experiment, the open circuit potential (OCP)
was recorded for 300 s. Electrochemical impedance measurements were performed
at the corrosion potential over the frequency range from 10 kHz to 100 mHz, with
a voltage perturbation amplitude of 20 mV, using a Voltech Instruments TF2000
Frequency Response Analyzer. In order to standardize the specimen surface, the
samples were left at the OCP for 300 s, then polarized at ÿ1.0 V vs SCE for 300 s,
and, ®nally, the impedance was measured at the OCP that was previously
determined. Compliance of the impedance data with the constraints of Linear
Systems Theory (LST) was veri®ed by Kramers±Kronig (K±K) transformation
[24±29].

3. Results and discussion

Polarization curves for carbon steel in o/w emulsions of di€erent oil content,
obtained using the rotating disk electrode and the jet impingement cell, are shown
in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. In Fig. 2, the polarization curves obtained from the
rotating disk electrode at 800 rpm in the surfactant solution (aqueous
solution+1% GR-7 M+0.2% NaCl) and in emulsions with oil contents of 20, 40,

Fig. 3. In¯uence of oil content on the polarization curves for AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel in contact
with o/w emulsions as determined using the JIEC. The specimen was located in the stagnant region.
Fluid velocity at the nozzle is 3.58 m/s.
568 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

45, 50, 60, and 70%, are presented. Under the laminar ¯ow conditions provided
by the rotating disk electrode (Re was calculated to be between 48 and 817
compared with 2  105 for transition to turbulent ¯ow), a decrease in cathodic
current with increasing oil content is observed. An anodic peak is observed for all
oil contents; however, the peak current density decreases with increasing oil
content in the emulsion up to 45%. For all contents over 45%, the peak current
density increases. The observed relationship between the anodic peak and the oil
content in the emulsion under laminar ¯ow conditions indicated the existence of
an oil-surfactant ®lm on the metallic surface.
At 800 rpm, the cathodic current density for an o/w emulsion with an IPR of
20% was slightly higher than that of the surfactant solution (IPR=0%).
However, experiments performed at a rotation rate of 400 rpm indicate that for o/
w emulsions with low IPR (2, 5, 10% oil) the cathodic current density showed a
tendency to be slightly higher than that for the surfactant solution, but the
di€erences are very small. Therefore, an increase in the oil content of the o/w
emulsions with low IPR seems to favor the cathodic processes, but when the oil
content exceeds 20% the cathodic activity of the metal diminishes.
Polarization curves that were obtained using the jet impingement cell, when the
working electrode was located in the stagnant region and when the ¯uid velocity
at the nozzle was 3.58 m/s, are presented in Fig. 3. The polarization curves
obtained for the stagnant region at a ¯uid velocity at the nozzle of 7.17 m/s, and

Fig. 4. In¯uence of oil content on the electrochemical impedance of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel in
contact with o/w emulsions. Rotating Disk Electrode at 800 rpm.
 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575 569

those for the wall jet region at ¯uid velocities at the nozzle of 3.58 and 7.17 m/s,
were very similar to those shown in Fig. 3. Those data have been presented in
previous publications [30±33].
Under the drastic ¯ow conditions existing in the JIEC (high ¯uid speeds at the
nozzle and low emulsion viscosity), the characteristic anodic peak in the
polarization curves obtained with the rotating disk electrode is not observed
(compare Figs. 2 and 3). Furthermore the current at high anodic potential
observed with the JIEC is considerably higher than that observed with the RDE

Fig. 5. E€ect of oil content on the electrochemical impedance behavior of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel
in contact with oil/water emulsions as determined using the JIEC. The specimen was located in the
stagnant region. Fluid velocity at the nozzle 7.17 m/s (a) and 3.58 m/s (b).
570 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

at equivalent oil contents, indicating that the electrochemical processes that occur
in this region of potential are highly sensitive to ¯ow-induced shear.
Nyquist diagrams obtained for the rotating disk electrode and the jet
impingement cell with the working electrode located in the stagnant region for
two ¯uid velocities at the nozzle (3.58 m/s and 7.17 m/s) are shown in Figs. 4 and
5. The Nyquist diagrams for the jet impingement cellÐwall jet region and for
both ¯uid velocities at the nozzleÐare similar to those shown in Fig. 5 for the
stagnant region. A marked increase in the polarization and ohmic resistances is
observed for oil contents in the emulsion between 45 and 50 wt%. This is
common for both of the hydrodynamic systems employed, but the impedances at
both ends of the frequency range observed under laminar ¯ow conditions using
the RDE is considerably higher than those observed in the JIEC in either the
stagnant and wall jet regions. These data, again, indicate the presence of a shear-
sensitive phenomenon at the steel/emulsion interface.
In the speci®c case of the polarization resistance, derived from the Nyquist
diagrams shown in Fig. 4, for the rotating disk electrode, three di€erent behaviors
become evident. For low IPR (o/w emulsions with 0, 5, 10, 20 wt% oil) the
polarization resistance seems to increase with oil content; for medium IPR (20, 40,
45%) this parameter does not change strongly with the oil content, and for high
IPR (45, 50, 60%) it markedly increases with oil content once again. In the case
of the impinging jet cell, we observed that the solution resistance varied
signi®cantly with the oil content in the emulsion, is independent of the ¯uid

Fig. 6. Change in the corrosion rate of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel vs oil content in the emulsion.
RDE at 800 rpm.
 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575 571

velocity at the nozzle, and is independent of the working electrode location. The
polarization resistance (diameter of the locus at the real axis) seemed to display a
sinusoidal behavior with the percentage of oil in the emulsion, and is dependent
on the ¯uid velocity at the nozzle and on the region where the working electrode
is located.
The variation of the corrosion rate, calculated from the potentiodynamic
polarization curves (by Tafel extrapolation) and impedance measurements (using
the polarization resistance, obtained from the Nyquist diagrams, and Tafel slopes)
[12], is shown in Fig. 6 with respect to oil content of the emulsion for the rotating
disk electrode. The corrosion rate remains relatively constant for oil contents in
the emulsion up to 20%. Further additions of oil reduce the corrosion rate
sharply. This behavior is quite similar to that of the cathodic current density, as
was noted earlier.
The in¯uence of oil content on the corrosion rate, when measured in the JIEC,
in which the hydrodynamic conditions are characterized by higher Reynolds
numbers and shear stresses than those of the RDE, and with the electrodes
located in the stagnant region and for the two ¯uid velocities at the nozzle, is
shown in Fig. 7. The corrosion rate is observed to increase with oil content for
emulsions with low IPR (5, 10, 20%), whereas for oil contents over 40% (40, 50,

Fig. 7. Change in the corrosion rate of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel vs oil content in the emulsion.
JIEC, stagnant region.
572 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

65%) the corrosion rate decreased. Again the behavior of the corrosion rate is
very similar to that of the cathodic limiting current density.
For the JIEC assembly with the working electrode in the wall jet region,
corresponding to the most drastic hydrodynamic conditions used in this work, the
corrosion rate is not strongly a€ected by the oil content in the emulsion, provided
that it is less than 40% (Fig. 8). Oil contents higher than 40% reduce the
corrosion rate, independent of the ¯uid velocity.
The ®ndings reported in this paper are consistent with the formation of a thin
layer of an `oily phase' on the metal surface, the stability of which depends on the
oil content of the emulsion and the magnitude of the hydrodynamically-induced
shear at the interface. Thus, in all cases, increasing the oil content (to r20% in
the case of the RDE and r40% in the JIEC in the stagnant region) results in a
shift in the high frequency intercept of the impedance locus on the real axis to
higher values, indicating an increase in the resistance of the phase(s) between the
metal surface and the tip of the reference electrode. However, the formation of
this layer is not abrupt, as indicated by the continuous nature of the corrosion
rate vs oil content data shown in Figs. 6±8. Thus, the bell-shaped nature of the
corrosion rate vs oil content curves indicates that the rate of attack on the metal
is determined by a competition between oil adsorption, which decreases the

Fig. 8. Change in the corrosion rate of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel vs to the oil content in the
emulsion. JIEC, wall jet region.
 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575 573

corrosion rate with increasing oil content, and some process by which the
formation of the oily phase on the surface enhances the corrosion rate (see below).
The principal e€ect of increasing shear is to increase the corrosion rate, with the
e€ect possibly being greatest at low oil contents (compare Figs. 7 and 8). In the
case of RDE, oil adsorption appears to be the dominant process, whereas for the
jet impingement system the process that facilitates attack at low oil contents
appears to play a major role in determining the corrosion behavior.
It is important to note that, in the latter case, in both the stagnant and all jet
regions, the corrosion rate increases with oil content for low oil contents. This
behavior is mathematically described by a function of the form, Corrosion Rate
(CR) A y(1ÿy ), where y is the coverage of the surface by the oily phase.
Assuming that y is proportional to the normalized oil content of the emulsion
(IPR '), we obtain CR A IPR ' (1ÿIPR ') where 0 < IPR ' < 1.0. The corrosion rate
vs IPR behavior therefore is determined by the product of two linearly varying
sub-functions, IPR ' and (1ÿIPR '). The ®rst subfunction appears to correspond to
the oily phase facilitating the transport of oxygen to the metal surface, which is
supported by the higher solubility of oxygen in light mineral oil than in water
[34,35]. Thus, the role of the adsorbed oily phase is to facilitate the cathodic
(oxygen reduction) partial reaction. However, the immediate product from the
corrosion of iron is an ionic species, Fe2+ or (Fe3+), whose solubility in the oily
phase is expected to be very low. Thus, the oily phase on the surface is expected
to inhibit the anodic partial reaction, such that the rate decreases with (1ÿIPR '),
with the e€ect becoming dominant at high IPR '. Because the anodic and cathodic
partial reactions are coupled, the net e€ect is the competition of two opposing
e€ects and hence the observed bell-shaped dependence of corrosion rate on oil
content of the emulsion.

4. Summary and conclusions

The corrosion and electrochemical behaviors of AISI-SAE 1010 carbon steel in

oil-in-water emulsions under controlled hydrodynamic conditions have been
explored with the objective of de®ning the mechanisms involved. This work has
found that:
1. Both the rotating disk electrode (RDE) and the jet impingement
electrochemical cell (JIEC) are convenient experimental systems for studying
the e€ects of hydrodynamic and mass transfer factors on the corrosion of steel
in oil-in-water emulsions.
2. The electrochemical behavior of the steel, as re¯ected in potentiodynamic
polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopic (EIS) data, is found
to be a sensitive function of oil content and the hydrodynamically-induced
shear stress at the metal interface.
3. The results are consistent with a model that postulates that the surface of the
steel is partially covered by an oily phase, the coverage of which depends upon
574 H.Q. Becerra et al. / Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 561±575

the oil content of the emulsion and the magnitude of the hydrodynamically
induced shear stress at the interface. The adsorbed oily phase is considered to
facilitate the cathodic partial reaction (O2 reduction), because of the higher
solubility of oxygen in oil than in water, whereas it inhibits the anodic partial
reaction (iron dissolution) due to the low solubility of ionic species (Fe2+ or
Fe3+) in the oil.

Acknowledgements

This investigation was supported by COLCIENCIAS and the Center for

Advanced Materials at Pennsylvania State University. The authors wish to express
their thanks to Prof. Nobuyoshi Hara and to Drs Elizabeth and Janusz Sikora for
their advice, to Dr K. D. E®rd for the technical material on the jet impingement
cell design, and to Dr Donald Heaney for his assistance in building the JIC and
hydrodynamic loop. Also, the support and advice of Eng. Jorge Luis Grosso and
Dr Jorge H. Panqueva is gratefully acknowledged.

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