Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
Thus, the emergence of the modern self, the self as subject, figures
prominently in the subjection of humankind, and figures promi-
nently in the genesis of those modern struggles that seek, in the face
of that subjection, to reclaim their humanity for men and women
(Guttman 1988, 118).
INTRODUCTION
ethnic minorities, and the local appears to characterize all national his-
toriography. Indeed, scholars have argued that the state arises through
suppressing alternative sites of power such as family and tribe, inventing
the nation as a myth of unity and dividing the (male) public domain
from the (female) domestic one.
No single “official” Palestinian history has yet been published, yet
we find these leader- and andro-centric characteristics in the publica-
tions of the various Palestine Liberation Organization institutions—the
Research Center, the Planning Center, the popular unions—that flour-
ished in Lebanon between 1969 and 1982. One Palestinian historian,
Abdul-Wahhab Kayyali (1979, 171–73, 191–92), observed that women
formed a vanguard within the national struggle during the Mandate pe-
riod, but this interesting suggestion has never been followed up. Among
PLO institutions, the General Union of Palestinian Women (established
in 1965) formed a subcommittee to research and publicize the history
of the pre-1948 women’s movement in Palestine, but its research ambi-
tions were pushed aside by social care work created by continual crisis
and attack.
At a third level, in Palestinian communities, women are not rec-
ognized as making or knowing history, or capable of telling it. This was
first manifested to me in the camp of Bourj al-Barajneh in 1973 when
I asked a young refugee schoolteacher (male) to help me find people to
speak on the experience of being Palestinian. Even though I didn’t use
the word “history,” he assumed that only men, and only senior men at
that, were capable of performing this national task, so that his first list
was all male, aged 50 years and above. Later, when I was conducting
fieldwork in Shatila camp, a man refused to allow me to record with his
wife (but this was in the period of greatest fear of spies and informers,
in 1982–83, when Israel occupied all of south Lebanon). When experi-
menting with interviewing husbands and wives together, and women in
mixed family settings, I found that men often “corrected” their wives or
interrupted even when it was the wife’s turn to speak. A session with an
elderly woman, recording her life story, gave me a clearer understanding
of how the collective refugee story had been constructed, when a visiting
(male) neighbor interrupted her story of her marriage with the words,
“Tell her how much land you owned!” These experiences of suppression
of female voices and the “domestic” were valuable in forcing me to ques-
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
89
the smaller camp. The ensuing attacks and sieges (the “War of the
Camps,” 1985–87) left Shatila almost totally destroyed, and most of its
inhabitants scattered outside (see Mansour 1985). The Syrian Army, after
entering West Beirut in 1987 to end Lebanese militia conflict, proceeded
to arrest large numbers of Palestinians as “Arafatists,” and precipitated
an intra-Fateh battle that completed Shatila’s destruction. After it fell
totally under the control of the Syrian Army and pro-Syrian Resistance
groups, entry into the camp meant interrogation for myself and anyone
I visited inside the camp. I continued to visit Shatila people, but now
scattered in unfinished or war-damaged buildings all over West Beirut.
These years of visits during which I recorded oral histories of Shatila
camp helped in the selection of life story tellers in several ways, famil-
iarizing me and legitimizing me through association with respected
figures in the camp, and enabling me to learn some of the descriptives
used of women and girls, value-laden terms that show up the inadequacy
of merely demographic variables. I was also able to gauge variations in
women’s political activism and to grasp the language used for it. Hav-
ing a visiting network of my own also helped me to avoid depending on
the Women’s Union, which would certainly have proposed only women
known for their activism.
I aimed at a sample that would be representative of the community
in demographic variables such as age, pre-1948 origin, marital status,
and socio-economic position, yet also express the heterogeneity of char-
acter and type to be found among women in a small-scale Arab/Mus-
lim milieu. The prevalent insecurity meant that I could not ask about
people’s political affiliation; but what women said about each other gave
me a rough idea of degree and type of mobilization.4
History entered the Shatila life-story recordings first through
the specificity of the period in which the recordings were carried out.
The years 1990–92 were ones of heightened insecurity and poverty for
Palestinian refugees in Lebanon, a result of the decline in PLO employ-
ment, services, and aid, and of the reimposition of Lebanese labor laws
which foreclosed most skilled and salaried employment to the refugees.
Such conditions created an ambiguous mood: nationalism continued
to be the dominant mode of political discourse but was now dissoci-
ated by ordinary Palestinians from the existing PLO and Resistance
leaderships. Such dissociation created a space for “revisionist” versions
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
91
of history, both public and personal. The fact that some of the speakers
spontaneously raised problems of sexuality in sessions where family
and neighbors were present—all recording sessions were conducted in
“public”—points to the crucial importance of the historic moment in
shaping life stories.
Second, the span created by the interviewees’ ages offered a wide
sweep of Palestinian history, with the oldest Shatila speaker being aged
90 and the youngest 26. The speakers divided fairly evenly among the
three generations named in everyday camp speech as the “generation of
Palestine” (five speakers, born between 1900 and 1933); the “generation
of the Disaster” (eight speakers, born just before, during or after the
expulsion); and the “generation of the Revolution” (five speakers, born
between 1949 and 1965). It was a sign of regional and class specificity as
well as historical period that all but five of the 18 speakers had lost close
family members through war—husband, children, parents, brothers. In
several cases losses were multiple. Until the second Intifada in the Oc-
cupied Territories, Palestinian losses had been nowhere higher than in
Lebanon between 1970 and 1987, years when the camps became targets
of both Israeli and Lebanese attack.
My method of discerning “self” stereotypes in the life stories was
to look, first, at anecdotes about the “self,” and what characteristics they
emphasized; then positioning of the “self ” in relation to a collective
history of expulsion, repression, and resistance; third, metaphors of
collective situation; and finally, stance toward the researcher and the
outside world. Colleagues from milieus close to the camps listened to
the tapes with me and corroborated or contested my interpretations.
Three collective stereotypes dominated most (11) of the 18 life stories
(seven speakers seemed not to express any dominant “self” stereotype).
I labeled them as did the narrators themselves, or my Palestinian col-
leagues: 1) the “struggle personality” (five cases); 2) the “confrontation
personality” (two cases); and 3) “all our life is tragedy” (or “witness to
tragedy”) (four cases).5 The connection of these stereotypes with na-
tional struggle is obvious; so too is their idealized and didactic nature,
projected to multiple audiences—local and imaginary—in life stories
intended as witness to the tragic epic of the Palestinian people, hence
“testimonials” in the full meaning of the term, fusing the personal and
the collective in truth-claiming narratives (see Beverley 1992).
92
JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN’S STUDIES
While telling this story, Umm Muhammad energetically acted out how she
had pushed the British soldier aside and seized his rifle. She continued:
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
93
The second day they told us to leave the village because the Inkleez
were going to dynamite it. We left for Kafr Yaseef. My daughter Aisheh
was about to have a baby. We went to a relative, Umm Saleh, because
we needed a midwife, but she refused to come. My daughter gave birth
into my hands.
When I first got to know her in Shatila, Umm ‘Imad was married,
with young children, engaged in distributing supplies to people whose
homes had been destroyed in the 1982 invasion. In her life story she tells
how she became a member of the Palestinian Women’s Union, taking
on a broad spectrum of voluntary political activities. Her husband sup-
ported her activism by staying with the children when she had meetings.
In later parts of her narrative, Umm ‘Imad told how she stayed in the
camp during the war of 1982, and continued to work with the Women’s
Union in the period of Army repression that followed the war:
People were afraid, they didn’t want to get involved in national work
after the Resistance had left Beirut.... But we began again, bit by bit,
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
95
During the final siege of Tell al-Za‘ater in 1976, Khawla, like other
women, undertook the dangerous task of bringing water from a well
exposed to sniper fire:
I was young, I was thirteen, I used to go out and fill water, from the top
of Tell al-Za‘ater to Dikwaneh, more than a kilometer. There was snip-
ing and shelling. We used to come up carrying the tins full of water, in
the night, running. I swear by God that once I carried a whole barrel.
I’m thin but I used to carry cans of water as big as this [gesture of both
arms], and go back up running.
After the fall of Tell al-Za‘ater, Khawla married, settled near Sha-
tila, and stayed there throughout the Israeli invasion of West Beirut in
96
JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN’S STUDIES
September 1982. She described herself seeking news of her parents after
the massacre, and of her frantic search through the hospitals of West
Beirut to find a wounded sister. She ended her story with her husband’s
death in the third ‘Amal siege of Shatila: “He died. God have mercy on
him. And we are still continuing in our struggle work.”
Dominance of the “struggle personality” in camp women’s narra-
tives has multiple historical roots: in Palestine, where peasant women
participated in the earliest demonstrations against Zionist land purchase;
in the transmission of peasant culture to the camps where refugees of
rural origin formed a majority; in post-1948 Resistance and popular
discourse, which adopted the peasant as “national signifier” (Swedenburg
1990); and in the conflictual nature of refugee history in Lebanon. In
camp meetings at which women were addressed, such as International
Women’s Day, cadres used to pay tribute to “our heroic peasant moth-
ers”; camp housewives appropriated the struggle motif to describe their
domestic and maternal labor (Peteet 1991, 187–98). As is shown by the
quotations presented above, its national and popular character ensured
its transmission between generations, across the urban/rural divide,
and between schooled and unschooled women. What is most interesting
about the “struggle” stereotype is its ambivalence, recalling the epigraph
to this paper: on one hand, conservative in the way it mobilizes women
in occasional action without disturbing norms of domesticity; on the
other, flexible enough to incorporate new elements arising from changed
contexts, as well as encourage personal elaborations.
Manifested by only two of the life story tellers, the “challenge personality”
could be taken as a variant of the “struggle personality,” were it not for a
critical difference. Whereas the “struggle personality” is easily incorporated
into women’s domestic routines, even becoming a metonym for them, the
logic of the “challenge personality” is that, formed in the crucible of na-
tional struggle, it becomes a vehicle of opposition to gendered constraints
in the family. Several of the speakers who incarnated the “struggle person-
ality” voiced conservative attitudes to gender, especially when speaking as
mothers of daughters. But Umm Marwan (born in 1938) and Rihab (born
in 1964) had both challenged gender norms in their personal lives, and
each used the life story genre as vehicle for social critique.
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
97
I will choose my life according to what suits me. And there’s no way
that anyone can impose things on me. I have this revolutionary logic
not only in my national work but also in my personal life. Of course
they are linked.
Both Umm Marwan and Rihab were of rural origin; the older was
self-taught, the younger had reached university; Umm Marwan had
worked as an employee (outside the PLO) for most of her adult life, and
may have belonged to the mar’a nashita category (insecurity at the time
of recording made it impossible to ask about political activity); Rihab was
mutafarrigha (a full-time Resistance cadre). Older women tell stories of
women rebels and nonconformists, and it seems likely that, however rare
its occurrence, the “confrontation personality” is not the product of a
particular historic period, class, or diaspora region, but this is a hypoth-
esis that needs testing in historic Palestine and other diaspora areas. Leb-
anon perhaps gave greater scope for social rebellion because it provided
a wider basis for women’s economic independence. But a close reading
of these two narratives suggests that the primary element in forging the
“confrontation personality” is a determination to follow out an inescap-
able “logic.” In Rihab, the “confrontation personality” is an essential
expression of the “self” rather than a theme of incidental anecdotes, a
full-time occupation rather than an occasional irruption into politics.
the Beqa‘, Nahr al-Bared camp, Bourj al-Barajneh camp, Tell al-Za‘ater
camp, and Shatila camp, where her home had been destroyed twice (in
1982 and 1985). She commented, “Since I was born I saw nothing in my
life but wars.” Part of her story ran thus:
We stayed steadfast in Tell al-Za‘ater camp for three months under
bombardment. We were living death. There was no more food. No
more water. No more medicine. They treated people who got wounded
with salt. Za‘ater fell. People went down and surrendered themselves
in Dikwaneh. From Tell al-Za‘ater to Dikwaneh we were walking on
Palestinian corpses thrown on the ground.
Umm Noman ended her story with the death of a newly married
son in the third siege of Shatila. When she had finished speaking, awed
by the painfulness of her story, I felt unable to ask her for details, though
hers was the briefest of all the recording sessions. Just as a way of closing
down, I asked her if she had anything to add. She answered:
To be honest, I don’t have anything more to say. Don’t be offended, but
I’ve given many interviews before. I’ve talked a lot. A long, wide life
we’ve spent telling our reality and we got nothing from it.
As I noted earlier, more than a third of the life stories (seven) did not
seem to express any dominant “self ” stereotype. In seven of the life
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
101
CONCLUSION
NOTES
The author was not able to carry out revisions of this article because of
war circumstances.
1. For a critique of traditional Biblical scholarship, see Keith Whitelam, The Inven-
tion of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History (London: Routledge, 1996).
2. On the gender conservatism of Palestinian refugee communities, see Sirhan
1975 and Peteet 1991, 134–41.
3. The term stereotype used in this essay comes from Luisa Passerini who
defines it in historical and cultural, not psychological, terms.
4. Age: the speakers were born between 1900 and 1965. Origins: 14 came
originally from villages, four from cities. Marital status: seven were married, seven
widowed, three single, one divorced. Current socio-economic position (with home-
ownership as a rough guide): two owned homes outside and inside the camp; three
ROSEMARY SAYIGH
105
owned homes outside the camp; six owned homes inside the camp; four rented
outside; and three were homeless. Employment: five had never worked outside
the home; three had done casual labor after 1948; one had worked (after being wid-
owed) in the family shop; six were employed by the PLO/Resistance; three were (or
had been) employees in other institutions.
5. The Arabic forms are “al-shakhsiyya al-nidāliyya,” “al-shakhsiyya
muwājahiyya,” “kullu hayatna māsā.”
6. Umm ‘Imad was of urban origin and had completed UNRWA schooling.
7. Tell al-Za‘ater camp was besieged and destroyed by the Lebanese Forces
during the Civil War of 1975–76.
8. A second part of the marriage payment, usually held back in case of divorce.
9. A mainly Maronite, Lebanese nationalist party, strongly anti-Palestinian.
10. Two of Fayrooz’s stories, “Mandelbaum Gate” and “Umm Amer,” were
published in Shabnam Grewal et al., eds., Charting the Journey: Writings by Black
and Third World Women (London: Sheba Feminist Publishers, 1988).
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