Professional Documents
Culture Documents
List of Tables 5
List of figures 7
List of Plates 8
Nomenclature 9
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 14
1.1 Introduction 14
1.5 Uses 19
3.1 Data 25
3.2 Assumptions 26
1
3.3 Individual mass balance 28
3.3.1 High pressure reactor 28
3.3.2 Decanter I 30
3.3.5 Decanter II 36
4.1 Data 42
4.2 Assumptions 42
4.3.2 Cooler 46
4.3.5 Preheater 56
2
5.2.1 Process design 77
AND CONTROL
3
7.3 Aim 158
CONCLUSION 168
REFERENCES 169
4
LIST OF TABLES
2 List of Manufacturers 20
3 Cost of glutaraldehyde 20
5 Antoine constants 25
5
TABLE NO. NAME PAGE NO.
Components
components
components
6
TABLE NO. NAME PAGE NO.
distillation column II
column II distillate
column II residue
7
LIST OF FIGURES
1 VISCOSITY VS TEMPERATURE 17
LIST OF PLATES
5 DISTILLATION COLUMN I
7 DISTILLATION COLUMN II
9 PLANT LAYOUT
8
NOMENCLATURE
General Notations :
A Area of cross-section m2
D Diameter m
ΔH Enthalpy change kJ
J Joint efficiency %
L Length m
9
NOTATION DEFINITION UNITS
P Pressure kg/cm2
ΔT Temperature change K
T Torque Nm
V Volume m3
Wm Load kg
10
g Acceleration due to gravity m2/s
m Mass kg
t Thickness mm
v Velocity m/s
Greek symbols:
μ Viscosity gm/cm-s
η Efficiency %
11
λv Latent heat of vaporization kJ/kg
ρ Density gm/cc
Sub scripts:
12
NOTATION DEFINITION
av Average
c Crown
c Condenser
d Distillate
e Equivalent (diameter)
f Feed
hk Heavy key
i Component
i Internal (diameter)
j Jacket
k Knuckle
l Liquid
lk Light key
o Outer(diameter)
r Residue
s Shell
v Vapor
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
13
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The first report of the synthesis of glutaraldehyde appeared in 1908, but its first
commercial use, as a tanning agent, was not recognised until about 30 years ago. Interest
in glutaraldehyde peaked in the early 1960’s when several investigations founded to have
outstanding disinfection and sterilization capabilities. By 1963 high level disinfectants,
cold chemical sterilants and potent sporicides were marketed with glutaraldehyde as the
active ingredient. Concerns about the health risks associated with the use of
formaldehyde in the early 1970s led to a further impetus in glutaraldehyde use.
Interests have been intense throughout the years for glutaraldehyde, right upto the
present, as its still is essentially the standard for chemical forms of sterilization.
14
Glutaric dialdehyde is a colorless or yellow oily liquid with a pungent odor.
1.3.3 Synonyms
Aidal (sterilant), Aldecyde 28, Aldesan, Aldespray, Aldetex, Alhydex, Aqucar, Asep,
Biomate, Cidex, Coldcide-25 microbiocide, Cronex, Derugan, Dioxopentane, Glutaral,
Glutaralum, Glutarol, Glutasept, Glutex, Hospex, Keymix Glutacide, Microcide, Nalco,
Parvocide, Pentanedione, Performax, Piror Slimicide, Protectol GDA, Protosan, Relugan
GT (tanning), Sporicidin, Sonacide, Sterilite, Surflo, Technicide, Ucarcide, Ucarsan,
Uconex, Ultrasan, Wavicide (sterilant), Zenicide Plus, Zexocide.
15
1.4.1 Physical properties
16
Viscosity vs Temperature
2.2
1.4
Viscosity(cP)
liquid
0.6
vapor
-0.2
0 100 200 300
-1
Temperature (Deg C)
1.5
Vapour Pressure (bar)
vapor
0.5
0
0 100 200 300
Temperature(Deg C)
17
1) Glutaraldehyde is an aliphatic dialdehyde that undergoes most of the typical
aldehyde reactions to form acetals, cyanohydrins, oximes, hydrazones and bisulfite
complexes.
2) Glutaraldehyde in solutions is susceptible to aerial oxidation to give the
corresponding carboxylic acid, glutaric acid.
3) Glutaraldehyde reacts with proteins by a cross-linking reaction which is mainly
between the NH2 groups,and which depends upon time, pH and temperature. The
reaction is less efficient under alkaline conditions.
4) Glutaraldehyde polymerises in water to a glassy form which regenerates the
dialdehyde on vacuum distillation. In solution, glutaraldehyde partially polymerises to
oligomers to give a mixture of variable composition. The degree of polymerisation
increases with pH and temperature.
5) When heated to elevated temperatures (> 400°C), glutaraldehyde in aqueous
solution decomposes thermally to form carbon oxides and hydrocarbons
1.5 USES
18
Glutaraldehyde has a wide variety of uses throughout the world with its use spread over a
number of different industries.
It is used primarily as a biocide but it also has wide use as a fixative, and some use as a
therapeutic agent. The main uses of glutaraldehyde are:
19
1.6 LIST OF MANUFACTURERS AND COST OF GLUTARALDEHYDE:
Accepta UK
Amsa USA
Advanced Sterilization Products USA
Durotec SOUTH AFRICA
Sigma-Aldrich USA
Mid South Chemicals USA
Dow Chemicals USA
20
2.1 METHODS OF PRODUCTION [12] [13] [14] [15]
In this method, the dihydropyridine obtained from the reduction of pyridine is treated
with hydroxylamine to give glutaric dioxime. The treatment of this oxime with nitric
oxide or with amyl nitrite, gives glutaraldehyde.
This method involves the synthesis of the ozonide of cyclopentene and the decomposition
of this product to form, among other products, varying amounts of glutaraldehyde.
21
Among the processes listed, the continuous process for the production of glutaraldehyde
by acid hydrolysis of alkoxydihydropyran has been chosen.
In the synthesis of glutaraldehyde from pyridine, the method requires the previous
indirect synthesis of the oxime from chemicals which themselves may be
prepared only with difficulty under considerable expense. However the selected
method does not involve undesirable number of intermediate steps.
22
3) Water
4) Hyrdoquinone(Inhibitor)
5) Maleic Acid (Catalyst)
or its derivative in the presence of solid acid catalysts. Here, we are using 2 methoxy-
3,4dihydropyran. The reaction is generally carried out at a temperature of 50°C and at
atmospheric pressure.
23
2.4.2 Acid Hydrolysis of 2 methoxy-3,4dihydropyran [14]
The 2 methoxy-3,4dihydropyran from the distillate residue is then hydrolysed using water
in a continuous stirred tank reactor. The reaction occurs at 50°C and 1 atm. The molar
ratio of water and 2 methoxy 3,4 dihydropyran is the ratio 8:1.Maleic acid is the catalyst
utilized in this reaction. Glutaraldehyde and methanol are the products formed.
24
3.1 DATA:
Table 4: Molecular weight of various components
25
BASIS: 1 hr operation
= 2500 kg/day
= 125 kg
=1.25 kgmoles
= 1.275 kgmoles
= 145.40 kg
26
Recovery of Methoxy Dihydropyran = 99%
= 146.86 kg
= 1.342 kgmoles
= 75.15 kg
Basis: 1 hr operation
Acrolein and methyl vinyl ether are reacted in the molar ratio of 1:1. 0.4 kg of
Hydroquinone is added to the reaction mixture to prevent the polymerization of acrolein.
27
Since the reaction requires the reactants to be in their pure form, we assume 100% purity
for the reactants. The conversion for the reaction is 96%. Here acrolein is the limiting
reagent.
=75.15 kg
= 77.84 kg
= 1.288 kgmoles
= 146.87 kg
28
= 0.053 kgmoles
= 3.006 kg
= 0.053 kgmoles
= 3.11 kg
2 Methoxy 3, 4 0 146.87
Dihydropyran
Hydroquinone 0.4 0.4
TOTAL 153.39 153.39
3.3.2 DECANTER I:
= 152.99 kg
29
3.3.3 DISTILLATION COLUMN I:
Due to the vast difference in boiling points between acrolein, methyl vinyl ether
and Methoxy Dihydropyran, it is assumed that 99% of Methoxy dihydropyran is
recovered in the bottoms having a purity of 99%.The feed is introduced into the column
at its bubble point ( 98.1°C).The column is maintained at a pressure of 1 atm.
=145.41 kg
=1.46 kg
=146.87 kg
30
=1.46 kg
=1.55 kg
31
Methoxydihydropyran 0.923 0.137 0.979
αi = ki / khk where αi = relative volatility of each component with respect to the heavy
key.
Ф = 6.26
Substituting this value in the below equation gives the minimum reflux ratio
32
Rm = 0.65
= 0.78
=0.071
=0.071 + 0.092
=0.163
Component Mole Kgmoles Mass Mole Kgmoles Mass Mole Kgmoles Mass
fraction (kg) fraction (kg) fraction (kg)
Acrolein 0.293 0.027 1.55 0.293 0.021 1.17 0.292 0.048 2.72
Methyl 0.57 0.053 3.113 0.57 0.04 2.32 0.57 0.093 5.43
Vinyl Ether
Methoxy 0.137 0.012 1.46 0.137 0.01 1.14 0.137 0.022 2.6
dihydropyran
TOTAL 1 0.092 6.12 1 0.071 4.63 1 0.163 10.75
33
3.3.5 CONTINUOUS STIRRED TANK REACTOR:
The cooled residue from the distillation column containing 98% Methoxy
dihydropyran is fed to a reactor along with water in the molar ratio of 1:8. The water
solution consists of 0.6% by weight of solid maleic acid catalyst. The conversion for the
reaction is 98%. Here Methoxy dihydropyran is the limiting reagent.
Methoxydihydropyran Glutaraldehyde
+CH3OH
Methanol
= 1.276 kgmoles
= 10.2 kgmoles
= 183.67 kg
34
Amount of maleic acid catalyst added = (0.006×183.67)/
(1-0.006)
=1.108 kg
= 1.25 kgmoles
= 125 kg
= 1.25 kgmoles
= 40 kg
= 0.026 kgmoles
= 2.91 kg
Amount
Amount of water unreacted = 8.954 kgmoles
= 161.17 kg
35
Table 11: Material balance for Continuous stirred tank reactor
COMPONENT WEIGHT in Kg (INLET) WEIGHT in Kg
(OUTLET)
Methoxy dihydropyran 145.41 2.91
Water 183.67 161.17
Glutaraldehyde 0 125
Methanol 0 40
Maleic acid 1.108 1.108
Acrolein 1.46 1.46
TOTAL 331.64 331.64
Solid maleic acid alone is removed by decanter. It is assumed that maleic acid is removed
completely.
= 330.54 kg
36
Amount of residue formed = 125/0.5
= 250 kg
= 80.54 kg
37
COMPONENT FEED (kg) DISTILLATE RESIDUE
WEIGHT WEIGHT
(kg) (kg)
Glutaraldehyde 3.113 0 125
Methoxy dihydropyran 2.91 0 2.91
Water 161.17 39.28 121.89
Methanol 40 39.8 0.2
Acrolein 1.46 1.46 0
80.54 250
TOTAL 330.54 330.54
38
Light key –Methanol
αi = ki / khk where αi = relative volatility of each component with respect to the heavy
key.
39
Ф = 2.69
Substituting this value in the below equation gives the minimum reflux ratio
Rm = 2.73
= 3.28
=11.31
=11.31 + 3.452
=14.762
Component Mole Kgmoles Mass Mole Kgmoles Mass Mole Kgmoles Mass
fraction (kg) fraction (kg) fraction (kg)
Acrolein 0.0076 0.006 1.46 0.0076 1.12 4.78 0.0076 0.112 6.24
40
Methanol 0.3603 0.291 39.8 0.3603 30.49 130.4 0.3603 5.318 170.2
Water 0.6321 0.51 39.28 0.6321 30.09 128.7 0.6321 9.331 168
MethoxyDihydropyran 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Glutaraldehyde 1 0.807 80.54 1 61.7 263.9 1 14.76 344.44
TOTAL 1 3.441 79.91 1 18.122 420.85 1 21.563500.76
4.1 DATA :
Table 16: Enthalpy of formation at 298K and Latent heat of vaporisation [17]
S.No COMPONENT ΔHformation Latent heat of vaporization λ
(kJ/kgmole) (kJ/kg)
1 Acrolein -81.78 1600.98
2 Vinyl Methyl Ether -107.97 1418.54
3 Methoxydihydropyran -301.48 4161.02
4 Water -241.75 1097.856
5 Methanol -200.89 2363.87
6 Glutaraldehyde -307.62 7037.79
41
4.2 GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
1. No heat loss in flowing streams and in equipments.
2. The reactors operate under isothermal conditions.
3. Ideal state of gas and liquid phases.
4. Reference Temperature = 25°C
The vital reaction for the formation of 2 methoxy 3,4 dihydropyran from Acrolein
and Methyl Vinyl ether is carried out in a Reactor vessel at 180°C and 30 atm pressure.
The feed stream enters the reactor at a temperature of 30°C.
Table 17: Specific heat capacity for high pressure reactor components[17]
42
Enthalpy of each component in the reactor feed stream at 30°C is calculated as follows:
Inside the reactor, the reaction of Acrolein and Methyl Vinyl ether occurs as follows:
43
CH2=CH-CHO + CH2=CH-O-CH3 -------------->
Acrolein Vinyl Methyl Ether Methoxydihydropyran
Heat to be removed = Total Enthalpy of exit stream + Heat of reaction – Total enthalpy
of inlet stream
44
Heat to be removed =59525.03 + (-5013.12)-(1297.04)
=53214.87 kJ
Heat Heat energy is removed from the system using a jacket with water as the cooling
fluid.
The flow rate of the cooling fluid is calculated as follows:
4.3.2 COOLER:
45
The entering stream is cooled to the bubble point of the mixture i.e. 98.1°C
Inlet stream
= 792.08 kJ
= 883 kJ
= 40066.13 kJ
Outlet stream
46
= 21257.67 kJ
Heat removed by the cooler = Enthalpy of inlet stream – Enthalpy of outlet stream
= 41741.21- 22525.86
= 19215.35 kJ
= 19215.35/(4.18 × (333-303))
= 153.23 kg/hr
47
4.3.3 DISTILLATION COLUMN I
Table 21: Specific heat capacity for distillation column I components [17]
Enthalpy of feed:
Enthalpy of vapour:
48
+ 5.43 × 1418.54
= 8117.72 kJ
Enthalpy of 2 methoxy 3,4 dihydropyran =2.6 × 1.41 × (349.3-298)
+ 2.6 × 4161.02
=11006.71 kJ
Enthalpy of distillate:
49
= 30.69 kJ
Enthalpy of 2 methoxy 3,4 dihydropyran =1.14 × 1.56 × (303.4-298)
=9.6 kJ
=23680.02-(70.62 + 53.24)
=23556.16 kJ
= 23556.1/(4.18×(323-303)
=281.77 kg/hr
=385.37 kJ
=29827.13 kJ
50
= 70.62 + 23556.15 + 30212.5 - 22566.82
= 31272.45 kJ
= 31272.45/2064.9
= 15.14 kg/hr
Table 23: Specific heat capacity for continuous stirred tank reactor components [17]
S.No COMPONENT INLET SPECIFIC OUTLET SPECIFIC
HEAT HEAT CAPACITY
CAPACITY(kJ/kgK (kJ/kgK)
)
51
1 Acrolein 2.71 2.17
2 Water 3.89 4.03
3 Maleic acid 1.18 1.251
4 Methoxydihydropyran 2.105 1.684
5 Methanol - 3.426
6 Glutaraldehyde - 2.057
Enthalpy of each component in the reactor feed stream at 30ºC is calculated as follows:
= 6.587 kJ
52
Enthalpy of each component in the reactor outlet at 50ºC is calculated as follows:
53
Methoxydihydropyran Glutaraldehyde +CH3OH
Methanol
Heat of Reaction
Heat removed or added =Total Enthalpy of exit stream +Heat of reaction –Total enthalpy
of entering stream
= 26407.216 + 1875.523 - 33035.968
= -4753.23 kJ
Heat to be removed = 4753.23 kJ
Heat energy is removed from the system using a jacket with water as the cooling fluid.
54
= 37.87kg
The operation time is 1hour.
Thus the flow rate for 1 hour =37.87 kg/hr
4.3.5 PRE-HEATER:
The entering stream is heated to the bubble point of the mixture i.e. 95° C
55
3 Methoxydihydropyran 1.962
4 Methanol 3.83
5 Glutaraldehyde 2.233
Inlet stream
Outlet stream
56
Enthalpy of water = 161.17× 4.406×(368-298)
=49708.05 kJ
Heat supplied by the pre-heater = Enthalpy of outlet stream – Enthalpy of inlet stream
= 80626.6 - 26372.54
= 54254.06 kJ
= 54254.06 /2064.9
= 26.27 kg/h
57
Heat supplied 54254.06
Total 80626.6 80626.6
Table 27: Specific heat capacity for distillation column II components [17]
Enthalpy of feed:
58
=49708.051 kJ
Enthalpy of vapour:
59
Enthalpy of distillate:
60
Heat removed by condenser = Enthalpy of vapour – (Enthalpy of distillate + Enthalpy of
recycled liquid)
=571428.4 kJ
= 571428.4/(4.18×(333-303))
=4556.8 kg/hr
61
Enthalpy of Methoxydihydropyran in the residue = 2.91 × 1.98 × (377.6-298)
=458.639 kJ
= 540568.03 kJ
= 540568.03 /2064.9
= 261.7 kg/h
62
Table 28: Energy balance for distillation column II
ENTHALPY OF THE
COMPONENT ENTHALPY LEAVING STREAM (kJ)
OF THE
TOP BOTTOM
ENTERING
STREAM(kJ)
63
Order of Reaction is assumed to be 2.
= 0.3893 gm/cc
= 0.394 m3/hr
Volume of reactor = V0 × t
= 2 × 0.394
= 0.788 m3
= 1.024 m3
Assuming a L/D ratio of 1.5 for the reactor
64
= 1.024 m3
= 1.338 m
SHELL DESIGN
The shell material is chosen to be C steel of tensile strength 4921 kg/cm 2 with a safety
factor of 1.5.
= 1.1 × 30.99
= 34.09 kg/cm2
Working stress fs = 4921/1.5
= 3280.66 kg/cm2
Thickness of shell = (P x Dj )/ (2 × f × J – P)
= 5.48 × 10-3 m
= 5.48 mm
= 6.23 mm
65
Table 30: Physical Properties of high pressure reactor components
COMPONENT VISCOSITY SPECIFIC HEAT THERMAL
μ (gm/cm-s) CAPACITY CONDUCTIVITY
Cp (kJ/kgK) K (W/m-k)
Acrolein 0.0014 3.684 0.0997
Methyl Vinyl Ether 0.00093 1.77 0.0773
Hydroquinone 1.13 1.785 0.0278
= 57.06 kg/kgmole
= 0.088 J/s-m-K
= 2.725 kJ/kg-K
66
Outside diameter of reactor = 0.904 m
= 0.024 m
= 897831.87
= 3.62
= 0.892/3
= 0.297 m
=3265.67 W/m2-K
67
= (0.024 × 10 × 0.889 ×104)/ 0.0081
= 263407.4
The K value for water is 0.613 W/m2-K, Specific heat = 4.17 kJ/kgK
= 5.51
= 904 + (1004-904)/2
= 954 mm
= 2310.99 W/m2-K
Wall thickness (x) = 6 mm, Thermal conductivity of material (Km) = 16.02 W/m2-K
68
= 415.05 W/m2-K
Q = U × A × ΔT
ΔT= (50-30)/ln(50/30)
= 39.15ºC
= 3.27 m2
= 0.75 × 1.338
= 1.003 m
DESIGN OF HEAD
The head is also constructed from C steel of tensile strength 4921 kg/cm2 with a safety
factor of 1.5
V= (2 + 4)/6
=1
69
Thickness of head = (34.09 × 89.2 × 1)/( 2 × 3280.66 × 0.85)
= 0.54cm
= 5.4 mm
GASKET DESIGN
Spiral edge wound metal gasket is used as it can withstand high pressure and temperature
Soft steel is used which has a gasket yield of 316 kg/cm2 and a gasket factor of 3.
Go = [Y – m × P]0.5
Gi [Y – (m+1) × P]0.5
= [316- 3 × 34.09]0.5
[316-34.09 × (3+1)]0.5
= 1.0907
Assuming Gi = 892 mm
= 972.28 mm
Gw = (Go- Gi)/2
= (972.2-892)/2
= 40.1 mm
= 40.1/2
= 20.05 mm
70
= 0.5 × 20.050.5
= 2.23 mm
= 967.74 mm
Wm1=π× b × G × Y
= 21423.99 kg
Wm2 = H + HP
where H= (π × G2 × P)/4
=250790.27 kg
HP = 2 × π × b × G × M × P
= 13867.29 kg
= 264657.56 kg
DESIGN OF BOLTS
The bolt is made from hot rolled C steel of tensile stress fb= 545.19 kg/cm2
71
For bolt area the higher value among Wm2 and Wm1 is chosen.
= (264657.56)/ 545.19
= 485.44 cm2
= (96.77)/ 2.5
= 38.7
= 3.93 cm
Bolt circle diameter (B.C.D) = Outside gasket diameter +12× Diameter of bolt +
12
= 967.74 + 12 × 39.3 + 12
= 1451.34 mm
= 145.1 cm
= 24.2 cm
72
DESIGN OF FLANGE
=1/(0.3+(1.5×264657.56×24.2)/(250790.27×96.77))
= 1.43 cm
= 8.24 cm
= 8.31 cm
= 27.63 cm
AGITATOR DESIGN[7]
= 80.28 cm
73
= 8.92 cm
= 89.2 cm
= 80.28 cm
= 4.46 cm
= 7148122.96
For anchor impeller
[7]
Kt = 0.35
Np = kt = 0.35
= 2.28 HP
Shaft design
The standard material used for most shafts are commercial steel with fs = 560 kg/cm2
= 1.86 Nm
= 1.86 Nm
74
For solid shaft
fs × (π × d3)/ 16 = ks × T
Solving d = 5.54 mm
75
5.2 DISTILLATION COLUMN I DESIGN
αi = ki / khk where αi = relative volatility of each component with respect to the heavy
key.
From Table 9
αlk, av = (αlkD × αlkW × αlkF)1/3
= 8.98
From Table 8
Nmin + 1 = [log((0.293/0.137)/(0.979/0.02))]/log(8.99)
= 2.11
Nmin = 1.11
76
(1-0.75 × ( 1- (( R-Rmin))) 0.566 )
(R + 1)
= 5.5
Therefore no of stages = 6
Average viscosity of feed mixture μl = e(0.038× ln(0.0066) + 0.038 × ln(0.0078) + 0.92 × ln(0.009))
=87 %
=6.8
77
ln( Nd/ Nr) = 0.206 × ln [( W × xHKf × (xLKr)2 )/ ( D × xLKf × (xHKd)2 )]
Nd + Nr = Actual no of plates = 7
Nr = 3
Nd = 7 - 4
=3
The feed plate is located at the 4th plate from the top.
=65.05
Temperature T = 349.3 K
R=8.314 J/kg-K
=2.26 kg/m3
= 4.71 m3/hr
78
= 1/[(0.293/783) + (0.57/676) + (0.137/948)]
= 734.26 m3
COLUMN DESIGN:
Maximum allowable
vapor velocity C = ( (-0.171×ps2) +( 0.271× ps)-0.047)×((ρl- ρv)/ ρv)0.5
= 6.03
= 0.44 m
=((7-1) + 2) × 0.9
= 7.2 m
= (π× 0.442)/4
= 0.152 m2
= 0.12 × 0.152
=0.018 m2
79
= 0.152 - (2 × 0.018)
=0.116 m2
SHELL DESIGN:
The shell is made of mild steel of tensile stress f= 931.5 × 105 N/m2
= 0.3 mm
HEAD DESIGN:
The head is made of mild steel of tensile stress fh = 931.5 × 105 N/m2
80
Where M = 0.25 × ( 3 + (Rc/ Rk)0.5)
= 0.25 × ( 3 + (0.44/0.035)0.5)
= 1.63
GASKET DESIGN:
Asbestos has a gasket yield of 1.11 × 106 N/m2 and a gasket factor of 2.
Go /Gi = [Y – m × op]0.5
[Y – (m+1) × op]0.5
= 1.005
Assuming Gi = 0.44 m
= 0.442 m
Gw = (Go- Gi)/2
= (0.442-0.44)/2
= 0.001 m
81
Therefore the gasket width is taken to be 10 mm
= 0.01/2
= 0.005 m
= 0.5 × 0.0050.5
= 0.035 m
= 0.89 m
Wm1= π × b × G × Y
= 1086900 N
82
Wm2 = H + HP
=69092 N
HP = 2 × π × b × G × M × op
= 43913 N
= 113005 N
DESIGN OF BOLTS :
The bolt is made from hot rolled C steel of tensile stress fb= 534.6 × 105 N/ m2
For bolt area the higher value among Wm2 and Wm1 is chosen.
= 1086900/534.6 × 105
= 0.0203 m2
= 35.6
83
Actual no. of bolts = 36
Bolt diameter bd = ( A × 4 )/ (N × π )
= (0.0203 × 4)/( N × π )
= 0.026 m
=1.27 m
= 0.19 m
DESIGN OF FLANGE :
= 1.19
Substituting the value of k, tf = 0.89 × (1.11 × 105 /( 1.19 ×1.11 × 106 ))0.5
= 0.037 m
=3.7 cm
84
DESIGN OF CONDENSER :
= 281.77/1000
= 0.281 m3/hr
Assuming two passes on the tube side, no of tubes per pass = N/2
= 1.6 × 10-5 m2
=5
= 49.87 ºC
85
Heat transfer coefficient (U) = 850 W/m2 ºC
= 0.55 m2
= π× 0.0195
= 0.0612 m
= (4.18)/(0.0612 × 5)
= 1.79 m
= 0.178 m
MECHANICAL DESIGN :
86
Design pressure Pd = 1.13 kg/cm2
fc = 1250 kg/cm2
=0.00009 m
= (0.0027/5)
=0.54 mm
REBOILER DESIGN:
= 1.55 × 53
87
= 82.55 kJ/kg
Sensible heat of
methoxydihydropyran (Shmdp) = Cpmdp × ΔT
= 2.105 × 127
= 267.33 kJ/kg
= 24.12 kW
= 1.05 × 24.12
= 25.32 kW
= [(180.9-52) + (180.9-127)]/2
= 90.9 ºC
= 3.7 m2
88
outside diameter of tube (do) = 0.012 m, Length (l) = 3 m
=3.7/(0.012 × π × 3)
= 32
= 0.19 m
= 25.32/3.7
=6.81 kW
MECHANICAL DESIGN :
fr = 1250 kg/cm2
=0.0001 m
89
Hence shell thickness is taken as 2 mm
= (0.00275/5)
=0.54 mm
Number Of Trays =7
Plate Spacing =0.9 m
90
Tube Length =1.79 m
Tube bundle diameter =0.162 m
Shell Thickness =2.75 mm
Shell Diameter =0.178 m
Baffle Spacing =0.54 mm
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION:
The two types of flow reactors are the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) and
the plug flow reactor (PFR). A CSTR, as name suggests, is a reactor in which its contents
are well stirred and uniform throughout. For all design calculations, the exit stream
concentration is taken as the concentration inside the reactor.
For a required conversion, a PFR requires less volume compared to the CSTR.
Yet, the CSTR is preferred to the PFR as uniform removal of heat is difficult in the later.
91
PURPOSE AT HAND:
OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN:
The main objectives of the design are to find out the following:
Volume of the reactor VR
Diameter and Height of the reactor dR, hR
Area of heat transfer for the jacket, Areq
ASSUMPTIONS:
The reaction is assumed to follow first order kinetics with a rate equation as follows:
-rA=k.CA kmol/m3.s
DATA USED:
Table 33: Data for continuous stirred tank reactor process design
92
Operating Temperature 50C
Operating Pressure P
760mm Hg
Gas constant R 8.314kJ/K
Conversion XA 0.98
Heat to be removed in the jacket 7253.131kJ
Temperature difference (approach) 25C
Initially, basic calculations to find the average liquid density and average
molecular weight are performed.
93
Average viscosity of the mixture:
Ln(i) = .xi. Ln (i)
=(0.0023×-8.25)+(0.8862×-
7.50)+(0.0008×0)+(0.1108×-7.83)
= -7.8392
i = 0.000532 kg/ms
=(0.0023×2.174)+(0.8861×4.037)+(0.0008×1.251)
+ (0.1108×1.684)
=3.769 kJ/kg
=(0.0023×0.148)+(0.8861×0.637)+(0.0008×0.164)
+(0.1108×0.183)
=0.5856 W/mk
94
=(0.0023×806.7)+(0.8861×984.6)+(0.0008×993.4)
+(0.1108×965.6)
=0.001
I =981.974 kg/m3
= XA/k.(1- XA)
= 5 hrs
FO = 331kg/hr
VO = FO/L
= 331/975.535
= 0.339m3/hr
Allowance volume is calculated as 20% excess to the reactor volume to accommodate the
agitator.
The diameter and height of the reactor are calculated from the reactor volume as follows:
95
Equation for volume is VR = .d2.h/4
dSi = 3
(VR.4/)
= 3
(2.04×4/3.14)
= 1.374m
DATA USED:
96
Material of construction = Stainless steel
Gasket
Agitator
=1374/3
=458mm
97
Height of agitator
above bottom, ha =dSi/3
=1374/3
=458mm
Number of blades =6
=1374/4
=343.5mm
=1374/5
=274.8mm
Support skirt:
98
DESIGN METHODOLOGY & CALCULATIONS:
The mechanical design involves determining the thickness of the vessels and jackets used
taking into account the operating pressure and temperature.
The design pressure and temperature are calculated from the operating conditions to
accommodate any surges in the same during operation.
=1.1×0.101325
=0.11146N/mm2
=1.1×50
=55C
The length of the jacket used for transferring heat is usually chosen as 75% of the length
of the vessel. This may be appended as per requirements.
99
Length of the jacket, lJ =0.75×lS
=0.75×2748
=2061mm
=2061+10
=2071mm
Thickness of the shell and jacket are calculated using the formula given below:
t =PD.di/(2.f.j-PD) mm
=0.75mm
=2.5mm
100
Outer diameter of reactor, dO =dI+tS
=1374+2.5
=1376.5mm
Heat transfer area:
Q =Uo.A.ΔT
, Areq =Q/Uo. ΔT
=(1376.52-13742)/13742
=0.004m
NRe =1.3742×220×981.974/(0.000532×60)
=12777128.21
NPr=Cp./K
NPr =2.985×0.000532×1000/0.5856
101
=2.711
hi=0.74×NRe0.67×NPr0.33×K/ha
hi=0.74×(12777128.21) 0.67×(2.711)0.33×585.6/0.458
=75904.9 W/m2K
NRe=de.v./ ; v=1.5m/s
NRe =0.004×1.5×889/0.00081
=6585.19
The K value for water is 0.613 W/m2-K, Specific heat = 4.17 kJ/kgK
= 5.51
ho=0.27×NRe0.8×NPr0.33×(1+(3.5×(de/di)×(K/ha)))
102
ho=0.27×6585.190.8×5.510.33 ×
(1+3.5×(0.004/1.374))×(0.000613/0.458)
=727.44 W/m2K
U=1/((1/hi)+Ffi+(1/ho)+Ffo+(ts/K)
Wall thickness (x) = 2.5 mm, Thermal conductivity of material (Km) = 16.02 W/m2-K
U=1/((1/75904.9)+0.00004+(1/727.44)+
0.00009+(0.0025/16.02))
=597.405 W/m2K
=0.265 m2
103
=1399
1400mm
=0.75mm
=[3+((687/82.44)0.5]/4
=1.471
104
=0.11146×687×1.471/(2×120×1)
=1.31mm
=2.5mm
Flange length on the head is usually 3 times the thickness of the head.
Height of flange, lF =3.th
=3×2.5
=7.5mm
The flange is made up of stainless steel with a steel lining in the form of a ring. The
gasket is made of asbestos. The other data used are obtained from standard tables for the
corresponding material of gasket.
105
dGO/dGI = (Gasket yield-(m.PD))/(yield-(PD(m+1)))0.5
=(260-(2×0.11146))/(260-(0.11146×(2+1)))0.5
=1.0008
dGO =1374×1.0002
=1374.2mm
The following calculations are performed to find out the load on the bolts and hence
determine the number of bolts and bolt dimensions.
=(1374.2-1374)/4
=0.05mm
=2.5×0.05
=0.559mm
106
Diameter of gas loading reaction, G =(dGo+dGi)/2=(1374.2+1374)/2=1374.1mm
The minimum bolt load at atmospheric conditions and design pressure and
temperature are calculated as follows:
Wm1 =.b.G.Ya
=3.14×0.559×1374.1×11.2
=27013.31N
=(3.14×2×0.599×1374.1×2×0.11146)+
(3.14×1374.12×0.11146/4)
=165743.49N
107
=27013.31/(58.70×100)
=4.60cm2
=165743.49/(58.70×100)
=28.32cm2
=1374.1/(2.5×10)
=54.9
55
=(28.32×4/(55×3.14))x10
=8.099mm
=1374.2+2×12+12
=1402.4mm
108
Outer diameter of flange, dF =B+2dB
=1402.4+2×18
=1418.6mm
=3.14×1374.12×0.11146/4
=165205.83N
Factor k =1/[0.3+(1.5.Wm.hg/H.G)]
=1/[(0.3+(1.5×165743.49×14.17/(165205.83×
1374.1)]
=3.16
=(1374.1×(0.11146/(3.1.6×95.2))0.5)×1.2
109
=33.7 mm
The thickness of the nozzles provided on the head is calculated as follows using the
following formula:
tn = PD.di/(2.f.j-PD) mm
Baffle design:
=458/12
=38.2mm
AGITATOR DESIGN:
From the data for agitator, Reynolds number is calculated. This is then used to find the
Power number from the plot of Re vs NP. The Power required is estimated as below:
110
=(981.974×220×0.4582/(60×0.000532)
=141968.02
=6.2
=6.2×(981.974×2203×0.458)/(9.81×603)
=1401.91W
=1.88 hp
A gland loss of 10 % and a transmission system loss of 20% are to determine the total
power requirement.
=2.48 hp
Based on the power required, the diameter of the shaft is calculated as follows:
=2.48×750×60/(2×3.14/220)
111
=80.78N.mm
=1.5x80.78
=121.18N.mm
=121.18×1000/55
=2203.28mm3
Zp =.dshaft3/16
=22.39mm
22mm
112
Area of Heat Transfer =0.265 m2
113
5.4 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN II
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION:
PURPOSE AT HAND:
114
OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN:
The main objectives of the design are to find out the following:
ASSUMPTIONS:
DATA USED:
115
DESIGN METHODOLOGY & CALCULATIONS:
Hence, q=1
116
1 1
The Underwood's method is used to find out the Minimum Reflux ratio.
∑((αi*xfi)/(αi-Ф))=1-q
∑((αi*xdi)/(αi-Ф))= Rm+1
117
R= 1.2 x Rm R= 3.28
Fenske’s Equation:
The Fenske’s equation is used to find the minimum number of theoretical stages
Nm+1 =ln[(0.3603/.0008)(0.6321/0.8408)]/ln[3.532/1]
Nm = 4.098
(R-Rm)/(R+1) =(3.28-2.73)/(3.28+1)
=0.128
(N-Nm)/(N+1) =0.75×[1-((R-Rmin)/(R+1))0.566]
=0.75×[1-(0.128)0.566]
(N-Nm)/(N+1) =0.516
(N-4.127)/(N+1) =0.516
N =10.882 11
118
Efficiency η = 85%
Nr/Ns=ln[(xd/xf)lk/(xd/xf)hk]/ln[(xf/xb)lk/(xf/xb)hk]
=ln[(0.3603/0.109)/(0.6321/0.778)]/ln[(0.109/0.0008)/(0.778/0.8408)]
=0.281
Nr =0.281Ns
N =Nr+Ns
=13
Ns=4; Nr=9
Thus the feed is introduced into the fourth plate from the top.
119
=80.54 × 3.28
=263.9 kg/hr
=344.4 kg/hr
The average liquid and vapor densities are calculated for the next stage of calculation as
follows:
Components xi , kg/m3 Mi
Acrolein 0.002 757.12 56
Methanol 0.109 704 32
Water 0.778 961.2 18
MethoxyDihydropyran 0.002 925.566 114
Glutaraldehyde 0.109 1106 100
1 757.12
=(0.002×757.12)+(0.108×704)+(0.779×961.2)
+(0.002×925.566)+(0.108×1106)
=947.62 kg/m3
120
Average density of Vapor v = P ( xi. Mi)/RT
=101.325×[(0.002×56)+(0.109×32)+(0.779×18)+
(0.002×114)+(0.108×100)]/(8.314×368.6)
=0.946 kg/m3
Now, the flooding velocity is determined in order to calculate the diameter of the
distillation column. The plate spacing can be taken between ranges of 0.5 – 1.5m.
=1.9092 m/s
=0.9 x 1.9092
=1.7183 m/s
=501.574/(0.946 x 3600)
121
=0.1472m3/s
The active area inside the column available for flow of the fluid, down comer area, holes
area, free area and the cross-sectional area are calculated as follows:
=0.1472/1.7183
=0.0857 m2
=0.0857 x0.9
=0.0771 m2
=0.0866-0.0771
=0.0086m2
=0.0779-2(0.1x0.0771)
122
=0.0617m2
The column diameter and height are calculated from the column CSA as follows:
Using the free area, the number of holes on the sieve trays is calculated as follows:
Nhole =0.0.0086/(×(5×103)2/4)
=0.0086/(3.14×(5×103) 2/4)
=436.65
437
=(4x0.0617/3.14
=0.3134m
=[(13-1)+2]×0.8
=12.8m
123
5.4.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN:[2]
DATA USED:
124
Material of construction =Carbon steel
=18.806mm
Gasket:
Trays-sieve type:
125
Support skirt:
The mechanical design involves determining the thickness of the vessels and jackets
used taking into account the operating pressure and temperature.
The design pressure and temperature are calculated from the operating conditions to
accommodate any surges in the sane, during operation.
=1.1×0.101325
=0.11146N/mm2
=1.1×95.6C
=105.16C
126
Shell design:
Ts =( Pd.ds)/(2.f.j- Pd)
=(0.11146×313.4)/(2×120×0.85-0.11146)
=0.0175mm
=[3+(156.7/18.806)0.5]/4
=1.47
=0.11146×156.7×1.47/(2×120×0.85)
127
=0.126mm
=3×2.5=7.5mm
The flange is made up of stainless steel with a steel lining in the form of a ring.
The gasket is made of asbestos. The other data used are obtained from standard tables for
the corresponding material of the gasket.
The following calculations are performed to find out the load on the bolts and hence
determine the number of bolts as well as the bolt dimensions.
128
=(260-(2×0.11146))/(260-(0.11146×(2+1)))0.5
=1.0008
dgo =313.4×1.0002
=313.5mm
=(313.5-313.4)/4
=0.025mm
=2.5×0.025
=0.395mm
=(313.5+313.4)/2
=313.45mm
The minimum bolt load at atmospheric conditions and design pressure and temperature
are calculated as follows:
129
Wm1 =.b.G.Ya
=3.14×0.395×313.45×11.2
=4357.8N
=(3.14×2×.0.395×313.45×2×0.1114)+
(3.14×313.452×0.1114/4)
=8771.3N
=313.45/(2.5×10)
=12.53
13
130
=((149.42 ×4)/(13×3.14))
=3.862mm
B= dgo +2db+12=313.5+2×3.862+12=333.164mm
=10mm
=3.14×313.452×2×0.11146/4
=8597.9N
Factor K =1/[0.3+(1.5.Wm.hg/H.G)]
=1/[0.003+(1.5×8771.3×10/(8597.9×313.45))]
131
=2.873
=313.45×(0.11146/(2.873×95.2)) × 1.2
=2.064mm
Nozzles:
The thickness of the nozzles provided is calculated using the formula below:
132
Usually a hole diameter of 5mm and a plate thickness of 3mm is chosen in the
case of stainless steel. In this case, the specifications of the sieve trays and hence the
down comer area as well as the number of holes is calculated as follows:
=(0.0617-0.0771)/2=0.077m2
=Afree/(.dhole2/4)
=4×0.0866×106/(3.14×52)
=437
CONDENSER:
133
Volumetric flow rate of water (V) = W/1000
= 455.248 /1000
= 0.455 m3/hr
Dic = 0.0143 m
=(3.14×0.01432)/4
=0.000160m2
=(0.455×2)/(0.000160×2)
=28.43
134
=29
= 86.50 ºC
=571428.412 /(850×86.50)
=0.78m2
=× 0.019
= 0.0596 m
=(0.78)/(0.0596×29)
= 0.451 m
135
Substituting the values for k and n, Bd = 0.183 m
= 0.2014 m
fc = 55 N/mm2
= (0.11146×173)/((2×95×0.85) – 0.11146)
=0.206 mm
136
= (0.0025/5)
=0.5 m
REBOILER:
= 1.598 × 65
= 103.87kJ/kg
137
=((103.922+1097.85)×0.2)+((189.84+2363.87)×
121.891) +((267.77+323.94))×2.91)+
((439.732+460.245)×125))/3600
= 118.126 kW
= 1.05 × 118.126
= 124.032 kW
= 199.89 ºC
= 0.73 m2
138
Assuming internal diameter of tube (di) = 8mm , wall thickness (w) = 2 mm
=0.73/(0.012 × 3.14× 3)
= 6.54
=7
= 0.024 m
= (0.11146×24)/((2×95×0.85) – 0.11146)
=0.165 mm
139
Baffle spacing = (Shell thickness/5)
= (0.0025/5)
=0.5 m
Hole Diameter =5
Number Of Holes =437
140
Pitch Circle Diameter =333.1640mm
Number Of Bolts =13
Bolt Diameter =3.8265mm
141
5.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN :
5.5.1 COOLER
The cooler inlet temperature is 180ºC. Its outlet temperature is the bubble point of the
mixture i.e. 98.1ºC.Water is used as the coolant which enters at 30ºC and leaves at 60ºC
= 81.67 ºC
142
Heat transfer area = Q/(U × ΔTlm)
=0.33 m2
= π × 0.016 × 1.95
= 0.098 m2
= 0.33/0.098=4
143
CHAPTER 6 -COST ESTIMATION
The details of the price of the equipment purchased for the process are tabulated below:
The delivered cost of the purchased equipment is calculated as 10% of the purchased
equipment cost as follows:
144
= Rs.75,92,200
1. Fabricated equipment
2. Process machinery
3. Pumps
4. Valves
The various categories contributing to the direct costs are calculated based on the
purchased equipment delivered.
The corresponding factors for Liquid Gas operations and the direct costs are tabulated as
follows:
145
8 Service facilities (installed) [7% of PED] 5,31,454
Total 2,25,48,834
Fixed Capital Investment FCI = Direct plant costs + Indirect plant costs
=2,25,48,834+95,66,172
=Rs.3,21,15,006
=3,21,15,006×0.15/(1-0.15)
=Rs.56,67,354
146
Total Capital Investment TCI = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
investment
=3,21,15,006 + 56,67,354
=Rs. 3,77,82,360
The quantity of raw materials used and the corresponding costs have to be calculated in
order to proceed with the calculations to determine the total product cost.
147
The total product cost is composed of the following heads:
Manufacturing Costs:
General expenses
1. Administrative costs
2. Distribution and selling costs
3. Research and development costs
The direct product cost consists of several heads of which the operating labor and
utilities are calculated as follows:
148
Estimation of Utilities
Table 47: Utilities cost
Now the remaining heads are calculated as percentages. The Total direct production
costs are determined as follows on an annual basis:
149
S.No Category Total Cost
(Rs.)
1 Local Taxes [4% of FCI] 12,84,600
2 Insurance [1% of FCI] 3,21,150
Total 16,05,750
The plant overhead is calculated based on the operating labor as 50% of the operating
labor costs, operating supervision and maintenance costs as shown:
=Rs.171,66,20,225
=Rs.214,57,75,281
150
(Rs.)
1 Administrative costs [20% of Operating labor] 60,00,000
2 Distribution and Selling costs 1,58,16,000
3 Research and Development costs 2,37,35,000
Total 2,41,89,500
The total income is calculated based on the sales of the manufactured product and the
revenue obtained from sale of by-products recovered from the process.
= Rs. 225,00,00,000
Income from sale of by-products and recovered raw materials are tabulated below:
151
2 Water – Process 1118080 2 22,36,160
3 Methanol 240000 30 72,00,000
Total 1,24,44,160
= Rs.2262444160
= 2262444160-214,57,75,281
= Rs.116668879
Considering and accommodating an income tax of 35%, we can estimate the annual
gross earnings after taxes as follows:
=116668879×(1-0.35)
=Rs.7,58,34,771
For an evaluation period of ten years, the net profit i.e., net profit after tax is
calculated:
=7,58,34,771-((32115006/10*(1-0.35))
152
=Rs.73747295
The depreciation is estimated as follows assuming the salvage value is zero at the end
of service life, as follows:
The payback period of the capital invested is estimated using a simple formula as
follows:
= 3778236/(73747295 – 3211500)
=1.53 years
153
CHAPTER 7- PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND
CONTROL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
154
piping must be marked with line designations, symbols showing service, pipe size and
pipe specification. The P & I diagram should include:
7.2 INSTRUMENTS
The different instruments used in the P & I diagram generally are Flow meters, Level
meters, Thermometers, Quality Analysis, Radiation measurement and Weight calculation.
The instruments are used for indicating, recording and controlling purposes. The
instruments are all identified by a code number. The first letter of the code refers to the
property measured. For Example, F for Flow meters, T for thermometers and L for Level
meters. The second letter is either I, R or C Which indicates to indicating, recording and
controlling respectively. Then the letters are followed by a number used to identify the
instrument uniquely amidst a number of similar instruments.
7.3 AIM:
1. To control the process variables so that they are within known safe operating
limits.
2. To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards.
3. To detect dangerous situations and develop alarm and automatic shut-down
systems.
4. To operate at lowest possible production cost.
5. To achieve the desired product output.
155
7.4 PROCESS CONTROL [8] [4]
The variables that need to be controlled in chemical processes are temperature, pressure,
liquid level, flow rate, composition etc. Temperature is usually controlled by heat
exchange with a heat transfer medium. Pressure is usually controlled by regulating the
flow of effluent from the equipment vessel. Control of the effluent flow rate is the most
common method to regulate the liquid level.
REACTORS
DISTILLATION COLUMNS
Distillation columns have a large number of closed control loops and these are highly
interactive and depend on each other. For controlling the quality of one specified product,
the reflux ratio should be maximized and this is done by controlling the flow rates of the
reflux or vapor. The pressure of the tower is controlled by changing the amount of vapor
in the overhead.
156
CHAPTER 8 - SITE AND PLANT LAYOUT
A suitable site layout has been designed for the manufacture of Glutaraldehyde.
Provision has been made for ancillary buildings and services needed for efficient plant
operation; and for the environmentally acceptable treatment and disposal of the effluent.
157
The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most
economical flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be
located at a safe distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to future
expansion of the site. The ancillary buildings and services required on a site, in addition
to the main processing units will include:
Storages for raw materials and products; tank farms and warehouses
Maintenance workshops
Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
Laboratories for process control
Fire stations and other emergency services
Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, water, power generation, transformer
stations
Effluent disposal
Offices for general administration
Canteens and other amenity buildings, such as medical centers
Car and heavy vehicle parking
When sketching the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited
first and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps
from raw material and final product stage. The location of the principal ancillary
buildings should then be decided. They should be arranged so as to minimize the time
spent by personnel in traveling in traveling between buildings.
Administration offices and laboratories, in which relatively large number of people will
be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control
rooms will normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially
hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance. Utility buildings should be
sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and from the process units.
158
The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and
the process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited
at least 70m from site boundary.
The economic construction of a process unit will depend on how well the plant
and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal
considerations to be considered are:
Costs:
Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between
equipment, and the least amount of structural steel work can minimize the cost of
construction. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
Operation:
159
at convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working place and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.
Maintenance:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that they can be easily cleaned. Equipment
that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps should
be placed under cover.
Safety:
Plant expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe allays for future needs and service
pipes oversized to allow for future requirements.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
160
In most industries, the main concern is to ensure worker safety by machine
guards, moving load warnings and electrical isolation. Accidents rarely have any effect
on members of the public. However in process industries accidents can result in the
release of toxic materials or large amounts of energy with disastrous consequences for
workers and third parties. Releases from a chemical plant can go well beyond the site
boundary and can cause both long-term and short-term effects. However even in process
industries handling very dangerous materials, the majority of accidents are not related to
processes- they are largely trips, falls and dropped loads.
Much can be done to ensure safety by application of common sense and basic
engineering skills. As processes become more hazardous, however, the problems of
ensuring safe operations become even more complex, requiring the application of
specialist safety analysis methods. Such techniques can only be acquired by specific
training and experience. Process safety programs focus on design and engineering of
facilities, maintenance of equipment, effective alarms, effective control points,
procedures and training.
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The ever-increasing production of flammable organics, the rush to bring in new products,
all extend the probability of hazards.
Toxic and corrosive chemicals, fire, explosion and fully mechanized equipment
are major hazards encountered in the operation of plants in chemical industries. The
design engineer must be aware of these hazards and must make every attempt to present
designs, which provide maximum protection for the plant personnel and minimum chance
for occurrence of accidents.
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Liquid causes severe conjunctivitis and corneal injury which can permanently
impair vision if prompt first-aid is not provided. Vapor causes stinging sensations
in the eye with excess tear production.
Skin contact causes itching and brown coloration. Prolonged contact may lead to
severe pain followed by swelling with ulceration leading to tissue destruction. It
might also cause absorption of harmful amount of the material.
It is moderately toxic and its ingestion causes chemical burns in the mouth,
esophagus, throat and stomach. This further leads to nausea, dizziness, pain in the
chest and abdomen and might even cause coma.
Its vapor is an irritant to the respiratory tract causing stinging sensations in the
nose and throat, bleeding from the nose, coughing etc.
Chronic exposure results in cumulative dermatitis.
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Eye contact
Immediately flush eyes with water and continue washing for at least 15 minutes. Do not
remove contact lenses, if worn. Obtain medical attention without delay, preferably from
an ophthalmologist.
Skin contact
Immediately remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash skin with soap and water.
Obtain medical attention. Wash clothing before reuse. Discard contaminated leather
articles such as shoes and belt.
Inhalation
Move to fresh air. Give artificial respiration if not breathing. If breathing is difficult,
oxygen may be given by qualified professionals. Obtain medical attention.
Ingestion
Do not induce vomiting. Do not give anything to drink. Obtain medical attention
immediately.
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ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES:
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Self-contained breathing apparatus in high vapor concentrations.
PROTECTIVE GLOVES:
Polyethylene, Nitrile (NBR) or Butyl gloves
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective chemical apron and rubber boots.
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EYE PROTECTION:
Splash proof mono-goggles or safety glasses with side shields in conjunction with face
shield.
CONCLUSION
165
been performed to verify and account for the transfer of mass and energy throughout
the process.
The instrumentation employed in the operation and the control methodologies have
been outlined. This is followed by a site layout that has been proposed based on
several conditions to economize the manufacturing process. The economics of the
process has been worked and the project is considered feasible.
An overview of the safety aspect of the process has been made providing vital
material safety information on the chemicals handled in the process.
The design project for the manufacture of glutaraldehyde has been undertaken subject
to several assumptions. These must be looked into critically in order to implement he
process design proposed in this report.
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166
Chemical Engineering design, Volume 6, Fourth edition.
Butterworth-Heinmann,Miami,USA.
167
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
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Seaver A Ballard, Orinda, California: Derivatives of dihydropyran and
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14. US Patent 6559346 Jorg Therre, Worms (DE); Carsten Oost, Bad Durkheim
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19. www.mathche.com
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