Spain Today

SPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODA
DAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTO
2010.es TODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPA
Presidencia 2010.es
Española PAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYS
TODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPA
PAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYS
Spain today 2009 is an up-to-date look at the primary DAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTO
aspects of our nation: its public institutions and political
2010
2010
scenario, its foreign relations, the economy and a pano-
ramic view of Spain’s social and cultural life, accompanied
by the necessary historical background information for
PAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODA
each topic addressed DAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTO
http://www.la-moncloa.es

spain today
Acknowledgements
The Secretary of State for Communication wishes to thank all of the

Ministerial Departments and public and private institutions for their
collaboration in providing texts, graphs, pictures and selected photographs,
which have made the publication of this book possible.
2010
General catalogue of official publications
http://www.060.es
This publication was prepared by the General-Directorate of International Information

under the Secretariat of State for Communication
Publisher: Ministry of the Presidency

Publishing coordination: Carmen de Francisco
NIPO (official publications identification number): 000-10-021-0
Graphic design and electronic publishing: Imprenta Nacional del Boletín Oficial del Estado
(National Printing Press of the Official State Bulletin)
2010
Madrid
MINISTRY OF THE PRESIDENCY
FOREWORD
I am delighted to present this new edition of the book Spain Today 2010, which
has been published again this year to offer an up-to-date overview of our country. Its
purpose is to document the current situation in Spain, providing information on the
political, cultural and economic changes that the country has experienced. The pu-
blication also aims to present the principal traits that characterise our history, culture,
society and democratic institutions to those who are less familiar with our country.
The book is also intended as a guide for foreign readers who are curious about
and interested in the Spain of today. Furthermore, it is a reference for anyone wishing
to keep abreast of the social, cultural and political progress of recent years or learn
about the evolution of the Spanish economy and how it is responding, after nearly a
decade of constant growth, to the economic recession with instruments such as
Plan E and the sustainable economy strategy.
Our foreign policy, which is of particular interest to all given Spain’s presidency
of the European Union this year, is also addressed and explained in this volume.
Indeed, one of the objectives of the Spanish presidency is to promote economic re-
covery in Europe by improving coordination among all member-states and appro-
ving a new European strategy for sustainable growth in the period leading up to
2020.
In addition to this objective, Spain will be working to ensure the full and effec-
tive implementation of the Lisbon Treaty, thereby reinforcing the European Union’s
presence and influence in the new international context. These efforts will place
European citizens at the centre of the Union’s policies, with initiatives aimed at in-
creasing their rights and freedoms. Spain Today 2010 is therefore a volume designed
for anyone with an interest in discovering modern-day Spain.
NIEVES GOICOECHEA
Secretary of State for Communications
INDEX
Chapter I. The Country and its Population ........................................................... 13

Geography ............................................................................................................. 14
Population ............................................................................................................. 21
Chapter II. History and Culture ............................................................................... 27
History ................................................................................................................... 28
From Prehistoric Times to the Discovery of America ........................................... 28
From the Discovery of America to the 20th Century ............................................. 33
Democracy ............................................................................................................ 45
Chronology ............................................................................................................ 50
Culture ................................................................................................................... 52
Chapter III. The Organisation of the State ............................................................ 63
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 ......................................................................... 64
The Institutions ..................................................................................................... 64
The Symbols of the State ...................................................................................... 66
The Territorial Organisation of the State .............................................................. 67
The Languages of Spain ........................................................................................ 79
The Political Arena: Historical and Constitutional Foundations .......................... 81
The Defence of Liberties ....................................................................................... 86
Chapter IV. Foreign Policy ........................................................................................ 87
Spain and the European Union ..................................................................................... 88
Spain and International Organisations ........................................................................ 91
Spain and the Defence of Human Rights .................................................................... 94
Spain and the Mediterranean ....................................................................................... 96
Spain and Sub-Saharan Africa ....................................................................................... 100
Spain and the Asian-Pacific Region ............................................................................... 101
Spain and its Bilateral Relations .................................................................................... 103
Spanish Cooperation: A New Policy for Development and the Eradication
of Poverty ..................................................................................................................... 110
Spain and Latin America ................................................................................................. 113
The Alliance of Civilisations ........................................................................................... 115
Chapter V. Defence Policy ........................................................................................ 119
The Armed Forces, Closer to Society .................................................................... 120
Chapter VI. Economic Policy and the Social Protection Model .......................... 127
Introduction to the Economic Policy ............................................................................ 128
The Spanish Economy Today: Economic Structure by Sectors ................................ 130
10
The Political-Economic Model Based on Macroeconomic Stability and

Productivity Growth .................................................................................................. 131
Agriculture and Fishing in Spain ................................................................................... 134
Spanish Tourism Policy .................................................................................................... 135
The Tax System .................................................................................................................. 137
The Transport System in Spain ...................................................................................... 142
The Working World .......................................................................................................... 147
The Role of Immigrants in the Economy ..................................................................... 150
Social Security and the Social Welfare System ........................................................... 151
Chapter VII. Health and Consumer Affairs ............................................................ 159
The National Health System ........................................................................................... 160
Services Covered by the National Health System ..................................................... 162
National Health System Resources and Activities ..................................................... 163
Funding and Public Health Expenditure ...................................................................... 166
Citizens and the Health Care System ............................................................................ 167
Future Challenges of the National Health System ..................................................... 167
Consumer Protection ...................................................................................................... 169
Chapter VIII. Education ........................................................................................... 171
The Spanish Education System ...................................................................................... 172
General Principles of the Education System: the Legal Framework ....................... 172
General Structure of the Education System ................................................................ 173
General Administration of the Education System ..................................................... 179
Education Policy ................................................................................................................ 181
Higher Education .............................................................................................................. 184
2009 Action Plan ................................................................................................................ 186
University Entrance Requirements ............................................................................... 187
Current Organisation of University Education........................................................... 188
Grants and Bursaries Policy ............................................................................................ 193
Constitution of the Ministry of Science & Innovation
and the Ministry of Education Coordination Committee ................................. 196
Chapter IX. Research, Science,Technology and Innovation ............................... 197
Research, Science, Technology and Innovation ......................................................... 198
The Technical-Scientific System .................................................................................... 200
R&D and Innovation Intermediaries ............................................................................ 202
Research Funding and Grants ........................................................................................ 204
The National R&D and Innovation Plan ....................................................................... 205
The ENCYT and the New Science Law ......................................................................... 205
Internationalisation .......................................................................................................... 206
Chapter X. The Natural, Rural and Marine Environment ................................... 209
Climate Change ................................................................................................................ 210
Environmental Assessment ........................................................................................... 211
The Rural Environment ................................................................................................... 213
Agriculture in Spain ......................................................................................................... 213
Livestock Breeding ........................................................................................................... 214
The Fishing Industry in Spain ........................................................................................ 215
Water ................................................................................................................................... 216
The Natural Environment and Biodiversity ................................................................ 219
The Marine Environment ................................................................................................ 223
Table of Contents 11
Chapter XI. Equality Policy ....................................................................................... 227

Ministry of Equality .......................................................................................................... 228
Chapter XII. Housing Policy ..................................................................................... 231
Spanish Housing Policy in 2009 ..................................................................................... 232
Chapter XIII. Culture ................................................................................................. 235
Thirty Years of Culture in Spain ..................................................................................... 236
Chapter XIV. Sports ................................................................................................... 243
Sports in Spain .................................................................................................................. 244
Chapter XV. The Media ............................................................................................. 251
Panorama of the Media in Spain ................................................................................... 252
ch
o co S
OBI
D
an
te
tre Mar Bl Ti
AN
s
Tungus
Es m
ISLANDIA Península an
Llanura de tal
C
ia
Escandinava
ES
ciden
CA
MON
1448
tn
Hekla
Siberia Oc
Bo
ES
Lago Onega
RE
Ye
NT
de
n
LIA
Ghttertind Llanura de Ob ise

MO
Gº.
Is. Faeroes i y
Europa Oriental
TES
2470
Is. Shetland Lago

Lagoda
ico
e
Is. Orcadas
rt
Bált
Emb.
Alt
C. Duncansby
No
Is. Hébridas de Ribinsk
URALE
ura
C. Lindesnes Gotland
ISLAS
im
Llanura IR
MAR DEL
s
del Báltico Yamantau TI
Ish
Emb. de
r
BRITÁNICAS
de
N ie m 1640 SH
Ma
N O R T E Pen. de e Kuibishey
Ru
Alturas
n
Jutlandia
IRLANDA ntal Ví del Volga
sia
S
ccide
GRAN stula
CHAPTER I
a
pa O
ch
uro
Ce
BRETAÑA la E M MO
an
Don
C. Mizen de Od UC
nt
M
la ra Bo tes NT
nu er
Estepa de Kirguizia
ra
de Lla
he . d
RA L. Zaisan E
Rh
al m e
l
C. Land' End Dn Dn
Can
ia NI
in
i e s te iep
CÁR r A er VO Depresión
KAZAJISTAN Lago Baljash
tico
Pta. de San Mateo PA LG del Caspio

TO A Estepa
a
ES Drava Hambre
sz
Sir del
Lo
Mont Blanc
Ti
LP
S
Mar
ira
4810 lp Pen. de
TIAN SHAN
lán
Da
NTES
Macizo A es Crimea Elbrus de Aral
Di DANUBIO ria MO
Ma
Central ar n 5633 Pobedy

ár CÁ
M
Negro 7439
Mar
At
P Ad ico B UC
AP
C. Fisterra E IR I
Pen. bro NEOS Córcega
N ri s ALCANES ASO TURQUESTÁN
E
IN át
Ca
O Desierto Takla-M
Am
Ibérica S ic
Cerdeña Mar o de Karakum
spi
Da Comunismo
Tajo s Tirreno Pen. Pen. Cuenca
are ria 7495
o
Itálica Balcánica del Tarim

a le Meseta
Ma
Mtes.
Is. B
Mar Ko
ores M A R Etna de Anatolia pet
r
Jónico
Eg
3479 3340 PAMIR K2 (Godwin Au

C. San Vicente Mulhacén Sicilia
eo
Mtes. Elburz Nanga Parbat

SH
8611
Estº. de Gibraltar C. Matapán 5604 8126
Tig
MED Chipre Damavand KU

I T E R RCreta Cachemira T
r
AS EÚ U
is
ATL ÁNEO FR D
O
IND
De
N
M
Islas Madeira TES Gran Erg Tri

AT
MON
on
E
sie
I
H
Oriental po S
te
4165 lita Desierto

to
nia Pen. e
sZ
Tubkal de Nafud
d
Islas Canarias del Sinaí Lu Kuh-e-Taaftan Dhau

ro rto
ag
Cirenaica t 4042 8172

s sie ar
Desierto .P De e Th HIM
Gº
3715
ér
Teide
S A H A R A de Libia sic
o
d
NIL
Gº
MA
. de
O
El Hank Omán
Tahat Lago Nasser Península
R
ada
Té
2908
Arábiga C. Al Hadd Narm
né
MACIZO TIBESTI Meseta

ali
Ghat
C. Blanco Desierto del Deccán

ré
RO
Kh
DE AHAGAR Emi Koussi
3415 de Nubia
al Godav t
JO
Cuenca
Rub
Adafer Macizo ari
es O
A
n
de Air Bodélé Kordofan

rie
Se de Arabia
ne
tb
s de
sO
ga
a
Jabal Sabir
ccid
Verde
ra
l
Meseta MAR
NI
Ghate
C. Verde 3006
Lago Chad MACIZO Pen
GE
Cuenca de Darfur Adén Socotora

ent
4543
R
Chari-Chad o de Ind
Golf
n Ras Deshen Is. Laquedivas
Nilo
Yalo
Vo
ale
ta L. Tana C. Guardafui
l
ta
Fu
i
Meseta DE ABISINIA
ar
alk
de Jos ue Azul
Ch
n maua Pen. de ARÁBIGO

de P
Be Ada SR
Somalia
THE COUNTRY de
Nilo
L. Volta C. Comorin (
Estº.
iz o Hararge
ac Camerún Sh
Blanco
M 4095 e C. D
Uele Lago Bale Cuenca
i
Is. Maldivas
gu
be
C. Palmas Bioko Rodolfo

de Som alia
li
Ouban
Congo
Pedro
ablo
AND ITS
São Tomé Kenia
MON
C. López Cuenca 5194

C u enc a Annobón del Zaire Kilimanjaro
5895
TE
Noronha O Lago Victoria Is. Seychelles

de G u i n ea
S M
G
ON Lago Banco de
Lualaba
C Is. Almirantes Is. Chagos
POPULATION
Tanganica
IT
las Seychelles
UM
Cu
Kasai
Ascensión Gran C
an
C uenc a Is. Aldabra

B
C. Ledo Shaba
A
go
Dorsal
l Brasil Montes Ruvu

ma C. Delgado Is. Agalega Dorsal Índ
Bª. de Lobito Muchingo Lago C. Bobraomby
Cu en ca Malawi Is. Comores Medio-Índica

Cu
de An go la
ba
Santa Elena Lago

ZAMBEZE
ue
ng
Kariba
MADAGASCAR
O C É A
biq
o
Pta. da Marca
m
De
oza
Mauricio
sie
e y Martín Vaz Reunión Is. Mascareñas

e M
Limp
r to
s
vi
de N
al
Pta. Ilhea Desierto

al d
op
W
de Kalahari
o
amibia
Can
de
C. Vohimena
st
d
al
oe
G
T H E C O U N T R YA N D I T S P O
PULATIONTHECOUNTRYA
NDITSPOPULATIONTHECO titude – over 600 metres above sea level. As
such, it is the second-highest country in Eu-
UNTRYANDITSPOPULATI rope, surpassed only by Switzerland, where
the average altitude is 1,300 metres. This is
ONTHECOUNTRYANDITS due to the presence at the centre of the pe-
ninsula of a vast plateau, known as the Me-
seta, divided into two smaller plateaus by
POPULATIONTHECOUNTRY the Sistema Central mountain range. A series
of other mountain ranges around the plateau
GEOGRAPHY
and yet others located on the periphery of
Most of Spain’s national territory is located the peninsula round out the topography.
on the Iberian Peninsula – which it shares There are two depressions – the Ebro and the
with Portugal and Andorra – situated in the Guadalquivir river valleys – located between
southwest corner of Europe. However it also the Meseta and the peripheral ranges. The
comprises the Canary Islands and the Balea- mountain ranges, which except for the Sis-
rics, a few smaller islands, and the cities of tema Ibérico (Iberian System) and the Cor-
Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa. dilleras Costero-Catalanas (Catalonian-Coas-
With a surface area of 506,030 square ki- tal Ranges) generally run from west to east
lometres, Spain is among the fifty largest coun- exert a tremendous influence on the conti-
tries in the world. The mainland territories oc- nental climate by creating natural barriers
cupy an area of 493,514 square kilometres; the against banks of moist air from the Atlantic
Balearic Islands, 4,992 square kilometres; Ocean, which would otherwise temper in-
the Canary Islands, 7,492 square kilometres; land temperatures.
and the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, 32 square
kilometres. Rivers
The geological history of the Iberian Penin-
sula has given rise to mountains organised in The natural fluvial regime of Spain’s rivers
large chains surrounding a high inland plateau mainly depends on the pattern of precipita-
situated at over 600 metres above average sea tion, where its waters originate and transform
level. As a result of this layout, the peninsula is into surface water or groundwater runoff.
characterised by a rich variety of unique en- However, this natural fluvial pattern is affect-
claves and natural environments. If there is one ed by human action in the form of infrastruc-
characteristic that differentiates the surface of tures used to regulate and modify its temporal
the peninsula from the rest of Europe, it is distribution, as well as other types of actions
clearly its diversity. that remove volumes of water from rivers.
Due to its geographic location, Spain is The diversity of climates in Spain, toge-
influenced by two very different seas: the At- ther with other morphological and geological
lantic Ocean, vast and open; and the Mediter- factors, explains the enormous contrasts in
ranean Sea, whose only physical connection its present-day hydrographical composition.
to the former is the narrow opening of the
Straits of Gibraltar, which permits the ex- Climate
change of water between the two masses of
very different salinity and temperature. The Although the climates in Spain are difficult
Spanish coastline is 5,755 kilometres long. to classify because of their heterogeneity, it is
possible to distinguish the following types:
Topography • Atlantic or Oceanic Climate
• Continental Climate
The surface of Spain is extremely varied and • Mediterranean Climate
characterised by a relatively high average al- • Mediterranean Mountain Climate
The Country and its Population 15
140° 160° 180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 40° 60º 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180° 160° 140°
OCÉANO
ÁRTICO
C. Colum row
EL
a
SI BE M AR AB bia Bar
GLACIAL
irk
A IS
Pta.
REIN
gu
RI DE C. Morris Jesup
di
A L A MEI DE IA
RRA
In
C. Kre O RI AS ER
stov
EN DE GHE Fiordo Victoria TIE RTE ISLA SIB
kii AS N
DEL
NO EV
TA
L Cu ISL ELLESM s evique
NU Siberia DE AL ang
el
DE lvi
lle
Bell somolet Nueva
AXEL Co
de Greenwich
Wr
en ca Graham NT oks
Es de l ELL ERE Tierra
Peary
Bolch R R A
MA OTK
Wr BOR
Meridiano
Kom
MA
ang Ca PRÍ MA
CKE DEN RING EF HEIBE Fiordo
IE Bro
PAT NCIPE
tº.
ek de
OR
el na da NES
RG Independencia
li m a E KINI SL
UK
NZI ra
de Vilch
de
Ko RIC in
AR G AS Tierra RA DE ión ille
IO AMU liusk ov
Alejandra Revolucubre E IA CH
e
Lo
CH kii C. Che a Liaj Long Cord

MA R D
RING ND urn
Mo
SV ER Tierra de TIER CO JOSÉ

el'nyy º. de
IPI ÉL ER
ng
R D NES its ueñ ov C. Lisb

de Oct MA
Est
K A
DR UP re s ilk Peq n Liaj
CH FRANCIS E V Kot B
AG O eV
SI
ntes
E Na ISLAS Gra
UK .d
PT
v
A S
de tº
Es
Pob Pta. DE Es Lapte
314 eda OT Barro BAT Estº. SPITSBERGEN Jorge LA dii Mon
tº.
Es
itri
Tierra de
Círculo C. Wrot PA RR
A L N
7 KA w ME HURST la Dim tovs tes
MA
Chukotka
tre
de
tesle
Penínsu ir C. Kres Chuk
LVILL de
Pol R D y cC Y Estº.
Tierra del Nordeste
ch
M
ar Árti C. Lisb ichev .
III
lu E de Taim otk
kwin
BE
o
Begu Penard KÓ
E re
oV
co urne a
Fed del
AU Gran
IA
YU
de
BAN Pen. Spitsbergen ia Sew
FO
eric
KS Estº . de
Kusko
de Hayes C. Buorja
Rey Tierra
Ber
adir
RT RESO . Jones Pen tka Kinl
ey
In
Chuko
LUTE
Ártico
Estº. de
DEV
ing
An STEFAN Olen Mc. 3
D
de
di
Pen
Melville
ON MAR DE iok
Polar ney Bª. ton 619
gu
Colville
Montes
g
ima
Chu . de in SSO Edge C. Rod
rional
N ulo Nor
irk
C. Bathu
N
Ber
LE
kotk Cordil SOMERSE Estº. GROENLANDIA Círc de
Kol
rst
Septent
ii
a
a Gº. Gº. dir
NA
Gº. Lanc otsk
Anadde
de lera Amu de PRÍN T aste BAHÍ A A
Yan
Ana C. Chuk
Siberia
cho de Br ndsen CIPE r DE m
s ir Pen VICT DE GAL M o
R
iako ORIA de
wi
ooks BAFF ÍN on
Sew . Lorenz
tre
a
Dorsal de Molus
KA
C. Chuk ES
Llanura
L
Kor Es X NUEVA
k
otskii C. Rodn ard BYLOT án Beli te ir 60º
Kusko
60º Gº. sd Anad San
Seli de tes sti ZEMBLA
DE
ey
N
Mon
Leda
jov 2562 naya San Lore A L Pen. de e
ri
s
Bª.
A S Boothia Isla del Oso Ch
ko
nzo
Mo
C
C. Nava Nort de M ín
R
E
N er
Rey
rín K A da
C. Navar
ria
on O
MA
Ti
KÓ sk Pobe
n
i
del
YU in
O
Kamen 3147
al
Pen. naya
tes
Ko
er
okw Gran REY
MAR DE Pen. de 1701 Leda o ivak
Bª. dewim
N
GUILL
de Yamal Mate Nun
rra
tr C. Oliuto usk de los Lago ERMO 2562
A Is. San
TE
sK
ra
Guidan
tes
Territorio e
Ve
R
Kuskok
Tie
en Kara rskii Osos Pen. de C. Bolvanski jo tantin
BARENTS
Is. San
S
nte Mc. Kinley Te r r

.C
guin Cuenca ia
r
del Yukó C. Cons
Mon
Mo Melvill
a
Mate
Alaska
itori
I
6193 C. Raper ns
MA
e C. Norte
YE
lim
o im n os Bª. de
de
rd de Noruega k
M
Nuni kw
Ko
Estrecho
del
Co
Disko
NI
CKENZ
vak tol
Pen ING
sko
MA R TES DE ALASKA N o ro rskii
AC
Jan Mayen Kolgüiev

R Bris
SE
Kam . de MON de Gº. de
Ku este C. Oliuto
DE Bª. Yukón Is. Vesteraalen
BER
. de
PRÍNCI
Y
tes
IX
Selijov
KE
chatka Kusk de Lago ck istián

CARLOPE
E
Baffin
C. Kanin iuy
BE RIN okw Pen. de IE
Gran Garry Ba
Rey
Cr Is. Lofoten Vil
Mon DE Is. Pribi
lof
Ald
NZ
Pen
G im Kenay de los Lago BAFFIN del Pen. guin R
Lago a MAR DE
B Pen.
MA
OS
Logan Esclav Kara
an
Tierr ca
IE
L. Baker Pen. de Kanin de Koni

amar
Is. Com os Dubw
Pech
6050 In feri
I
Bª. ant SOUTHAMP ak
AV
Is. Pribi Emb.
Din or
Fox
ando Bristde de Kola Tungusk
Cord. Centra
a
de
Forel LAPONIA Unim
NORUEGA Pen. deka
Beri a a Viliuy
lof
M
ng ro sk GOL FO TON de Narodnay de
S
3360
ora
Ala tral
IN
ol d
on
1894
Liar co ia Cen
cho Kamchat
Is.
OBI
AND
DE ALA an aska
te
de C. Mercy tre Mar Bl Ti de Siber andoro Unal
Es
Meseta
s
Tunguska
n. Kodia Coats Es m AS
M O N T
SKA
Davis
Pe k Península an
Llanura de Is. Com AN f
tr e
Attu ho ISLANDIA
CADENA
UTI
SC
Is. Shum Pedr
ia
ISLA egoso
Mansel de
Escandinava ntal ALE reano
CA
MON
agin Pen. de 1448
S ALEUTIANAS ovoi
tn
Siberia Occide Bering
SE
Is. Fox Paz Hu Hekla
Stan DE ISLAS nd
Bo
Unimak BAHÍA DE Ungava ds Lago Onega I s. A
RE
Montes
Lago
MAR
NTE
Is. Andrea nof ARCH Athabas on Ye
l
ar
de
Is. Raf Unalaska ALEXA . ni Attu
LIA
Llanura de
7684 ca HUDSO N ra Is. Shant
TSK
NDER C. Churchill C. Chidley
na
Ghttertind Ob se Anga eti
MO
Gº.
OJO
i y C. Yalizav
GR
Bª. de Is. Faeroes s
Le
TES
2470 Is. Raf iana
Fos Lago ill Ungava
Europa Oriental Aleut
COSTE
a Reindeer ch
ur Is. Shetland Lago 7684 las
de ARCH Ch Costa del Cuenca C. Farewel Fosa de
AN
Lagoda
tico
las
A Ñ A
Aleutianas LA REINA
i
. DE
ov
CARLO Nelson Is. Belcher Labrador del Labrador Is. Orcadas Lago Baikal Amur a
rt
Ca
on
ES
Emb. C. Lopatk
Altu
rn
Bál
TA
RA
ve C. Duncansby ushir
Cuenca SAJALÍN
No
de Ribinsk
DE
l
Is. Hébridas
URALE
Se
UR
Is. Param
de
Pen. del Labrador
ab
Estre
Cascad iana C. Lindesnes Gotland Y
AM
ras
4042
ewan s
C
na
ISLAS
m
Waddington Llanura IR
tch MAR DEL MAR DEL Montes S te
n
Yamantau
cho de
Ishi
del Báltico TI
ska on
U
Emb. de
S
r
BRITÁNICAS aya
riles
de
Shinga
VANCOU Ni e m 1640 SH
Ma
Fraser
Sa Lago N O R T E Pen. de n
O e
S ub
VER
D
Kuibishey M
nga
S
Winnipeg LABRADOR
iles
y
Rus
Alturas
n
Praderas
Ku
Jutlandia
te
an
Tar taria
Sele
del Volga
ma
IRLANDA ntal Ví
K ur
del Canadá Alb
S
ccide
Sijo
ia
C. Flattery C MONTES GRAN
as
stula
a
AN LAURENTINOS pa O
ch
Mis
rin
Euro
Ce
ran
Is l
BRETAÑA Urup
las
sou MO
LLAN
an
ADI E NSE e la BoMte
Don
Rainier ri C. Mizen Od
ntes
UC
ntr
ra d
a
Lago la NTE len C. Aniva Iturup
de
4392 er
Estepa de Kirguizia
sG
s.
Superior Anticosti de Lla
nu he
RA L. Zaisan ru
al
ne Llanuras de mi de S
Rh
ari
de
al Ke 10542
a
C. Land' End Dn Dn
wsto TERRANOVA Can NI Sung
Mo
ia ALT
Fos
Gº. de a
nte
San Lorenzo
in
Columb Yello ieste
A iep
l
S. Lorenzo CÁR r Depresión Lago Baljash
KAZAJISTAN MANCHURIA
R O
er
RA
Lago Hurón VO AI IA HOKKAIDO
tico
MONGOL
Príncipe PA del Caspio 40º
Mo
Em
Pta. de San Mateo LG
40º TO
URAS
S
TE
zo Eduardo A Estepa
a
Gannet Lago ren E S Drava (YESO)
sz
Lago C. Race Hambre
pe
Lo
Ontario n Lo C H E Sir del
CADENA COS
Sna 4202 Mont Blanc

Dorsal de
Ti
LP
S
Michigan Mar
ira
Mendocin o ke C. Bretón 4810 lp Pen. de
TIAN SHAN
lán
1917
ra do
A
Sa A Da
NTES
A es
C O
Macizo Crimea de Aral

L MAR DEL
Elbrus
Gobi
Washington DANUBIO ria
Di MO
Ma
MISSOURI
P A ánti Gº. de Maine

C. Mendocino co C. Sable Central ar ná 5633 Pobedy Fosa
CÁ de
M
ric Negro 7439
GRAN Mar
At
Desierto JAPÓN
P Ad del Japon
r
A UC
AP
r
Llanuras tl C. Fisterra Eb IRI N os BALCANES
ado Lago Erie A C. Cod
Pen. ro NEOS Córcega r iá ASO TURQUESTÁN
E
CUENCA IN
lor
Ca
Cuenca Centrales l O ti c Desierto Takla-Makan HONSHU
Am
de
S A
del Co 4399
S Ibérica
Cerdeña Mar
S o de Karakum
spi
4418 Elbert Pen. de (HONDO)
u
io E Pen. Da Comunismo
ES KUEN LUN
Whitney Oh T Tajo
are
s Tirreno Pen. ria 7495 Cuenca MONT
Mar Corea
ra
o
Itálica Balcánica
ea
del Tarim
HUANG
N Llanura abisal a le Meseta
Mar
te
Mtes.
r
Is. B
Mar Ko
os
Co
O2037 M A R Etna de Anatolia o
S
Desierto Ark Islas Azores Jónico pet

Montes Tanglha H Amarillo
O
C
Pta. Concepción 10374
Eg
an MMitchell 3479 PAMIR
HO
3340
de
de Morave
de Shom C. San Vicente K2 (Godwin Austen)
A
Meseta sa Mulhacén Sicilia
eo
Mtes. Elburz o
É
r Nanga Parbat
I
C
s
a
SH
8611 Gran Llanura
PP
ech Shikoku
Murray
O
del Colorado Rojo nu Estº. de Gibraltar C. Matapán 8126
el
Pecos
C. Hatteras 5604
Tig
KU
Chipre g
o rs al Lla MED Huan de China Estr
SSI
Damavand
T I B E T
O I T E R RCreta
D Meseta S Cachemira KYUSHU
ris
EÚ
C d A U
SIER
É
SSI
ATL
Gr
O
A
Edwars FR D Dabieshan
N ÁN EO
Is. Bermudas
Pen
IND
Des
O
M
N
an
MI
AT 1834 Mar de
ES j
NG
Islas Madeira
O C É A N O
Gran Erg
MONT Tri
Gol Baja Ca
ont
ES Ro
a
Is. Midway
I
Is. Nampo
R
Gonggashan
de
. de
H
IS
ie
olfo Oriental p olit China Oriental
KIA
A M Califo a
7800 ca
rto
LA el G 4165 Desierto
es
fo
ani Pen. e en
Brahama utra
p
S ad Pen. de Tubkal
a de Nafud Cu GTSE
d
er MAR DE del Sinaí Lu
Za
Dorsal Islas Canarias Kuh-e-Taaftan Dhaulagiri
de liforn
ro
u
AD
SIERRA
Florida Cirenaica t rto 8172 Everest YAN
y
g
s 4042 Is. Bonin
a
de Molokai
st
Laysan Pacífico LOS SARGAZOS sie ar
u-K
HIM
s
HA Desierto .P 8848
Gº
Co
Norte
mo
R
Bolsón 3715 De Th
GOLFO ér Is. Daito
ALAYA
EO
W de Mapimi Teide
S A H A R A de Libia de
For
sic
Ry
Llanura
Gardner AI a Is. Kazan Trópico de Cáncer

o
MAD
C. Sable Florid ISLAS
NIL
GAN Sikia
I DE MÉXICO Iwo Jima
CC
de
as
Trópico de Cáncer Gº
rn
ng
i
MA
BAHAMAS . de GES
de
Isl
O
ho
ia
Estº. Omán TAIWAN

ID
l El Hank
RE
Salween
Península
Dorsa
Tahat
rec
Lago Nasser
R
EN
Kauai C. San Lucas ada (FORMOSA)
Té
2908
ORI
C. Catoche
Est
CUBA Arábiga C. Al Hadd Narm Luzón 20º
TA
Maui Bª. de AN Fosa de
né
20º MACIZO TIBESTI Meseta Bocas . de
Pen. de P Estº
ali
EN
ue r
Ghat
TI Desierto
L
C. Corrientes Campeche C. Blanco del Deccán
ré
RO
Hawaii LL HISPANIOLA to DE AHAGAR Emi Koussi del Ganges
P Yucatán de Nubia Kh s
I ra
Ric Cuenca de
TA
AS 3415 le Gº HAINAN C. Engaño

o al ta MEKO .d
s Mari anas
9212 Godav
L
wad
Cuenca
JO
Johnston Adafer Macizo ari l a s F i l i p i n a s Is. Marianas
O 5700
Rub eT
es O
Dorsal de Clarion Is. Revillagigedo Gº. de A
n
on
NG
de Air
Jamaica M A Y O Kordofan LUZÓN
Orizaba Bodélé
ri e
Honduras Puerto Rico Se de Arabia kin ISLAS
i
ne
tb
Islas de Saipan
L
sO
Fos Tajumulco RE ga C. Negrais Pen. de FILIPINAS
ara
a S Jabal Sabir
ccid
ANTILLAS Cabo Verde l GOLFO
NA A
4217 Tinian
de Meseta MAR Indochina MAR DE
NI
3006
Ghate
C. Verde
e la
IO IN
I MAR CARIBE MENORES Lago Chad MACIZO Pen. de
GE
L
Gu má Cuenca de Guam Is. Marshall
Darfur Adén Socotora Mindoro
ent
ID CH
ate 6489 na
Indostán Is. Andamán
d
M
R
4543
N mal Chari-Chad o de Samar F I L IPINAS I C Eniwetok
sa
Pa Llanura abisal n Ras Deshen Is. Laquedivas Delta del
Nil
Yalo Mar de R
Vo
a de Golf Panay
Fo
Lago
ale
ER E
ta L. Tana C. Guardafui Mekong 11034
O Bikini
lta
al
DE BENGALA Cebu
M RD
o
Fu Gº. de Challenger
Nicaragua N
i
Can
Lago Trinidad Meseta DE ABISINIA 10497
ar
de Ceara Palawan Negros Leyte Fosa de Mille
lk
Azul Andamán Máxima profundidad
de Jos e Siam E
Ch
Maracaibo
ARÁBIGO Islas Carolinas
Pa
A
co maua Pen. de oceánica
E
nu SRI LANKA Fili pinas
M
Orino Be Ada Ponape Kwajalein S
os
de
Somalia
L
Cuenca del Pta. San Pedro de Sorol
Nilo
MINDANAO
TA
L. Volta C. Comorin (CEILÁN) Is. Nicobar M A L AY S I A Is. Truck Is. Senjavin I

Ll an
iz o
Estº.
Hararge
S
EN
Palmyra Roraima Is. Palau Cuenca de las Carolinas

ta 2772 ac Camerún Sh Pen. de
Kinabalu
A
Blanco
C. Corrientes
RI
M e st 4100
P A C Í F I C O
Teraina Me 4095 C. Dondra Is. Natuma Mar de
E
Pac fico Central
O
Cuenca re
ch Malaca
IS.
Macizo de Lago Bale

I
e Uele Is. Talaud
gui
C. Orange Is. Maldivas
be
RA
Tabuaeran viar las Guayanas C. Palmas Bioko o Célebes

ES
Rodolfo
Gua de Somalia de
li
Ouban
Congo
LLE
Arch. de Colón I N D O N E S I A
PO
nco
Kirimati M
A
C. de Neblina Is. San Pedro ala

(Is. Galápagos)
RDI
RA
Howland San Francisco 3100 Bocas del Amazonas y San Pablo ca Halmahera ECUADOR
São Tomé BORNEO
Bra
ECUADOR
ar
Kenia
M 0º
MON
Jarvis
DAS
CO
0º
cas
Baker Neg NA S Marajó C. López Cuenca 5194 Islas Mentawai SUMATRA Is. Supiori Is. Almirantazgo Is. Gilbert
Isabela ISLAS E
P A C Í F I C O AZO
Putuma ro Cuenca
Ma
Annobón del Zaire Kilimanjaro Bangka
yo AM
EC
arañón
5895 CÉLEBES Ceram Mte Tarawa
TES
Pará Lago Victoria Is. Seychelles Puntjak Djaja ARCH. DE Nueva L
s
. de
Fernando de Noronha Belitung s.
jo
O
UA
M
C O
de Guinea Buru 5030 Ma BISMARCK Irlanda

pa
ira NG Mar de Java A

CA
Estº
Is. Phoenix Malden Selvas de Lago ok Isl
TO
Nueva
ÓNI Banco de
Ta
Lualaba
MIT
C. de São Roque CO Is. Almirantes Is. Chagos MOLUCAS Is. Aru NUEVA e as
AMAZ
Ma Bretaña
Pta. Negra Juruá Tanganica Salo N
RIA
da Mar de Banda
gas las Seychelles Estº.de la Son GUINEA
Xingu
LLANURA
UM
Cu
a ti n
Kasai
Bougainville
Gran Cuenca Bali m
R
Ascensión Flores Kolepom

Ca cisco ón E
LES
Cuenca del
an
an Cuenca Is. Aldabra JAVA
BA
C. Ledo Shaba
CO
s Fr Is. Ellice
D
Fo Mar de Arafura
go
Is. Marquesas Pac fico Oriental ru sa Sumbawa
Is. Tokelau Estº. de Torres S
Dorsal
del Brasil Dorsal Is. Christmas Guadalcanal

RD
Pu Is. Agalega Sumba TIMOR

Caroline Cuenca ma C. Delgado Índica
IL
Montes Ruvu de C. York

ILL
Islas Cook Bª. de Lobito Lago C. Bobraomby Is. Cocos Mar de Timor Archipiélago Is. Santa Cruz
del Peru Muchingo Java 7450 I
Beni
ER
Septentrionales M E S E TA BRASILEÑA Pen. del de Luisiada

E Bª. de Malawi
L
Cuenca Is. Comores

A
Is. Samoa Tierra

Walis y AR
Is. Desappointment Pta. Carreta CC
R Todos los Santos Medio-Índica C. Londonderry
de Arnhem Gº. de Cabo York
O
CH
Cu
Is. Mamua ID Lago Titicaca MAR DEL
Sã
Dorsal del
A
MESETA DE
Futuma Is. Soci . D E A de Angola Carpentaria Is. Fiji
ba
NT Santa Elena Lago C. Levêque
edad ZAMBEZE Espíritu Santo
ue
E AL MATO GROSSO
ng
Kariba M
de las Tonga
MADAGASCAR Macizo CORAL Vanua Levu

O C É A N O
Vanua Levu TU de eset
biq
Lago
o
Islas Pta. da Marca de Kimberley Islas
Pac fico Oriental
a
Tahití 6867 Poopo Altiplano Ba a

AM
zam
zc
GR
Is. Lau Co o Bandeira rk Nuevas Hébridas Viti Levu
Fos
De
k O
6520 Boliviano s Mauricio ly
Na
Alofi Pi 2890 Is. Chesterfield
AN
Sajama
sie
Is. Tonga lc po
D E
CO
Mo
a
om Trindade y Martín Vaz Reunión Is. Mascareñas Is. Lau

ar Limp
r to
Gran Desierto
s
Cam
NÁ
TU
C. São Tomé C. Flattery 20º
vi
Nueva
Desierto de Atacama
CO
ay
HA
lM
de
20º C. Noroeste
Bruce de Arena
RA
Is. de la Lealtad
al de
L. Mackay
a
Is. del Duque
de N
al
o Pta. Ilhea Desierto
de
Fos
Caledonia
op
Is. Gambier Pta. Angamos
C
PA
RDI
W
de Gloucester 1226 Montes MacDonnell
g ua y
de Kalahari Montes
o
NBe
a
s al
Is. Tubuaí
Peruano
C. Capricornio
R A rm
1510
mibia
Can
Hamersley Trópico de Capricornio
LLERA
rr
de
Trópico de Capricornio
e
Ducie Ziel Gran Cuenca
Sie
10882 G
D or
San Ambrosio ejo C. Vohimena
st
Pitcairn Artesiana
Par
Montes C. Sandy
Fosa de las Kemadec
Sala y Gómez San Félix

L O S
Pascua o
del
C. Inscripción Musgrave
C. de Santa Marta Grande Mar de Fiji
s al
oe
Sal
G
Rapa Nui Oran Thabana L. Carnegie
DIVISORIA
doba
ER
u
ad
o 3482
d
g
D or
C. Bascuñan Gran Desierto

Cuenca de S
SB
D o r sal
e
Victoria Lago Eyre
Uruguay
N
E Mozambique
AK
Sierras de Cór
l D i am L. Barlee C. Byron
A T L Á N T I C O
Chilena
DR
de
7021
Aconcagua ES an t Norfolk
Is. MONT ina Llanura de Nullarbor
Is. Kermadec
er s
C. de Buena ng
Kermadec rli
c
Esperanza
ca
nd
ade
A N D E S
Is. Juan Fernández Da

di
C. Polonio C. de las Agujas Pen. de Eyre
Fli
C. Leeuwin
rm
La Plata GRAN BAHIA
Cuenca de Ín
s.
LA
Ke
Lord Howe
Cuenca
te
10047 Pta. Norte Is. Tristán da Cunha
M
PAMPA l Amsterdam AUSTRALIANA
s
de Chile Pta. Lavapié El Cabo
e la
sa
Mu
C. Norte
Gough
or St. Paul
rra
a d
10047
Atlá
Bª. Blanca
D C. Jaffa
y
C. Quedal
Fos
Í N D I C O
Pta. Rasa C. Howe
Gº. de San Matías Cuenca ISLA
nti
I A
Estre DEL NORTE

Chiloé cho
ISLA de Argentina de Bass
Cuenca de Is. Furneaux MAR DE
co
Gº. Corcovado
PA T A G O N
DEL NORTE Cuenca del
Es
Arch. de C. dos Bahías Is. Crozet
Is. Príncipe Eduardo Australia Meridiona TASMANI
tº
los ChonosPen. Gº. de San Jorge A
. d
ental l
de Taitao TASMANIA 40º
e Co
40º Pac fico Sudoccid NUEVA
Es
C. Tres Puntas
NUEVA Gº. de Penas
tº.
ISLA ZELANDA
ZELANDA
Cord
Dorsal Australo-A C. Sudeste
ok
de
DEL SUR
Is. Kerguelen ntartica
Coo
Is. Malvinas
.
Is. Chatham Dorsal de

Dar
Bª. Grande
Llanura abisal S
k
180º Gran ur Kerguelen-G aussberg Is. Chatham

0º
win
Soledad Fosa de l
DE BERING ton Arch. de Malvina as Llanura abisal de
ISLA MAR de Morning la Reina Adelaida Bouvet Endervy Heard 60º
DEL SUR 60º M. Is. Georgias del Sur Is. Sandwich
Sa
º
cos D E150 Tierra del Fuego del Sur ATLÁNT 30º C. Suroeste
nd
g
150 Koria O Jº 30º O

n
ÉAN
8428
ICO
eri
Dorsal de Scotia
wi c h
Mtes. O Estrecho
N a
as
OC
k
Estº. de B
Is. Bounty TS
Al Mtes. de K de Magallanes Is. Bounty
Stewart e Kolim
S
KÓ
.d C. de Hornos
d e l S ur
es Círculo Polar Ártico a

Mt Is. Sandwich del Sur Cuenca olar Ántártico
Círculo P
YU
s KA e
Is. Antípoda AS I ak Austral o-Antar
AL 70º a Dr Is. Orcadas 70º Aucklan
d
Is. Antípod
as
nzie Kol
ima irk tica del Sur
acke igu C. Noruega
sM Ind ur Is. Orcadas del Sur
nte MAR
lS Is. Shetland
B
Mo Pta. Barrow I B de de
a
º
nd DE
O
S ERIA del Sur
120
120
LENA
t
sk
60º
DE T
G L A C I A L
Mar
Is. Auckla ORI
60º
Mackenzie
rjo es.
O C É A N O
Campbe
sa e
ian
and
C
EN
nce a d
Sib
R Tier ll
º
Ve Mt
Meria C
etl
R TA
A FO Base
A N T Á R
Pen. E ra End
ÉA
e
L Tierra de
la Pri Cost
so Juan Carlos I D
M AU
Sh Base Juan Carlos I
set entr
E
Antártica L la Reina Maud erby C. Boothby

bell E Pa EL
Macqua
T I C O
Arch. Palmer
a d al
AR
Camp Is. rie
NO
G
A N O 80º L A C Is. de Joinville
B
M
ED
e
Is. Biscoe 80º

Banks
CÉ I A Nueva Siberia T ie
W
Sib
O ÁRTICO Arch. Palmer Adelaida rra C. Darnley

R
eria
de Berkner
Victoria Alejandro I Pa
L
Llan ptentrional
C. Batterbee
ÍNDI
lm
Pen. Antártica
Se
Is. Parry MAR DE e

ura de
Pen. de BELLINGSHAUSEN Meseta Polar Antártida Oriental

C. Cheliuskin
r
Polo Norte Magnético Taimir Is. Biscoe
Tierra Glacia Costa
I
ie IS. DE del Norte de Shakle r Eights orth ANTÁRTIDA MAR

quar LA REINA ISABEL Adelaida Glaciar Ellsw
CO
de H udson
Polo Norte ton Mtes.

90º
Mac Polo Sur DE
90º
90º
de Larsen
90º
Ba hía
Thurston Antártida Occidental DAVIS

Ellesmere Tierra de
Tie
YENISEY ita
Francisco José de -Meseta de Hollick-
A
MA
Bª. Margar e la Princesa Astrid Costa Ragnhild
r
tal
Costa d Costa de la Rein
OCÉ
Glaciar Kenyon
ra
es
a MAR DE C. Dart
R
a Mary
on
cciden
la Princes
d
de Amery
Sibe lanura de
Polo Norte a Polo Sur
Wilk
AMUNDSEN
TIE
art
eM
DE
Huds
Geomagnético Geomagnético
Nueva
Pedro I aM
arí
Charcot
KA
By
ria O
es
RRA
a
Zembla
AN
A rd C. Poinsett
R
Estº. de
Latady inc
T i er
de
I
L
Pr
DI DE C. Noruega
ALEJANDRO
OBI
T IE
A
Is. Spitsbergen la
MAR
O
S
ra Vic
v is M
de
AN SEN
TS E
AT
D
WEDELL
Da MAR DE O de C. Colbeck
ra
HAU
DE
Canal VI
IA AR N
N ta
GRO cho de Roone ESCALA 1:60.000.000
INGS
RR
NL DE
er
de ENLAND TE
O
M RE Estre O MAR
Cos C
Jorge
S
BELL MAR
toria
Ti
BA UR DE ROSS
OE
º.
sh
A
1000 0 1000 2000 3000 km
C
st
L
AL
ngli
PA L
n. C
Pe Kola
GR 60º
C. Norte E
E
A
60º
º
ta E
S er
60º E
60º
120
120
É
IA
de Is. Fleteh Cos D Escala Gráfica 1 cm = 600 km Proyección Van der Grinten
A
C. Adare
º
L
DE
MER
Polo Sur
a
marc
O
l
O de
nta
Magnético
Dina hts
N
on AN
os
ra
TINTAS HIPSOMÉTRICAS
C
ri e
de MAR DE Eig
Thurst TH R T I
A
nu
Á D TÁR
O
a E
T
º.
inav
Ll p
N A
É
Est sta LL
OR
R
N
A TI C O
a
NORUEGA ro Co 0 200 2000 4000 6000 8000 >8000 m Is. Balleny

A
P
R
VI
W
O Eu W
an d
ISLANDIA LS A UR
IL
TI
C D'
EL
Esc
AT Í F
KE
Mar
AR -400 0 200 500 1000 2000 4000 6000 >6000 m R

GLACI E I C MA
30ºL
es.
E GLACIAR Círculo
S
ÁN
de Greenwich
N DE ROON O
Bál
co R 150 º
Mt
DSE
TIC 30º D DE FILCHNE
Meridiano
árti º 150 Pol

UN
tico
ar Ant O AM R
A
er Límite externo de la banquisa Zona pantanosa
ar Ant
Pol E árti
R D
R Isla Berkn co
Círculo 0º
MA
Barrera de hielo Desierto 180º
E
TI
160º 180º 160º 140º 120º 100º 80º 60º 40º 20º 0º 20º 40º 60º 80º 100º 120º 140º 160º 180º 160º
Physical Map of the World.
50º 45º 40º 35º 30º 25º 20º 15º 10º 5º 0º (Greenwich) 5º 10º 15º 20º 25º 30º 35º 40º 45º 50º 55º 60º 65º 70º 75º
G Magerö
ya C. Norte
R
94
RO Fi
or
Círc
MA S o
18 ya
na OB
NT
do ulo Rolvsöy
a tic rod I
EN Pen. de r R E Kanin
Ár Na LA
l
G Po
me
ge r de
BA
yld lar lar
ka
Varange Pen. nin
C.
LA Mo en Söröya Varan C. Po
ia
n
oze
Ártic
N
sti lo Seiland Fiordo
DE Ka lo
De
m
Pe
ng ve o rcu
Cí
Mal
D
E
Stjernöya
ch
hía siz
Irtish
IA
D
Ba esh 17 lpo
ora
L
toi ish
na
C.
Mese ta C. Svia Ch 16 . Te Irt
Voronia
Fa
TA
Ta
de
dra
rev Ringvassoy Mt
ark
M
ell Cuenca
de Finnm A
Osha
Lofoten
N
Kvalöy
Tun
C. Hor L. Inari m
a R
E
U
Izh m
n Senja 1328 lo
ID
U
Tu
la del M on N
ínsu noi
Fio Glam Halti
ra
a G. zen
O
rdo Hún Andöya L. Lov A

Pen
920 a
C
le
Me
a
de 438 ispää
te s
Bre
rdo Islas Vesterålen
LL C
s
ESCALA 1:10.000.000 Kaun 1191 i

S
idh
O
en
Po 08
Fio
ar
Jibin
de 11 yp
Kola
ia dra
Peza
Se
M ay
As
100 0 100 200 300 400 500 km Langöya L. Iman Ko Peli

N
Hinnöya m
pte
F.
Va Ti m
M
de
V O
IA
uo
Austvågöy rz
L. Tornea
ntr
C. Font
Proyección cónica Lambert ug an
J an
ni
L. Lokan Mez R
O
Ba st
Hofs
Gla ur Vestvågöy a
o
en 27
hía
Islas Lofoten 2111
ion
Ve E
Kulo
55º Lanciar 10 m 55º

C
Fax
T
TINTAS HIPSOMÉTRICAS do Kebnekaise eri

NIA
a g
IB
al
á
de
Fior Moskenesöya
N
C. Ish
Fior A
LAPO
Rey do Vop i
es
0 200 2000 4000 m m G. de Ka

BL S Tavda Ishi
y
kjan Ask
A
na Ka Ke ndalaksha
151 ja
MAR L. Kovd Va
es
Do rsal
Gla Landegode lix ts sh m

E
0
Hociar Cuen t R C. Kere ka 93 zhkin
MA
Tor
fs Gla ca 2090 L. Kere 14 ne

I N
Vat cia
Is a
-400 0 200 500 1000 2000 4000 m 1914 fo
ep
r Sarektjåkkå 344 . De
nea
m
141 na Sulitelma iye Gol na Tura
ra Dvi
hi
de st
He 9 Hva Kuusivaa vetsk Mt ki

del
S
nna2120 de No L. Pia Pinega 69 vs

E
kla
rue Is. Solo 15 ko
IS LA de
i
dals ga ha
Kem
hnü Pen.nega sa
Ulea
C. Dyr
va
Glaciar Lago l nz Nit

ND L. Top
D
ku ne Go Ko
s hóla
Ra Pi O
jane ey
IA te o
Ke m lfo
Reyk L. Kuit
DE 413 te d
Tob
Okstindan el O
Vichegda
Zona pantanosa Lago salado

N
NORUEG 1915 L. Udd Isosyö ne g a

al i a
A
Dors m
ol
I ij o k
A Dvin Ka
AV
Vega a
A
a de
One
Pla Hailuoto Paljakk b.

Ura
taf Ou 384 ep
orm LIA Sisola Em
S
t en
CA RE
ga
C
lu
ass
IN
triona e
le
a Ske
DE
s
al
de llef Ka
s
l
Mi
Isl Vig
m
te ma
Uv
an
se
Vikna Lago
S
dia L. Oulu
U
Cen
Norrland
D
m
l
Na
A
Kam
L. Seg L. Vod Ub
UR
AN
tral
s
E
aga
ia
en
te
Um
n
Le
AN
L. Pielin
tn
on
R
es
sti
ea
AL
Ui
Bo
LL
Fröya
M
C
ha sk
NT
Strey Hitra vesi Yug
L. Lac Mol
Fa
moy Ufa
ES
L. Kalla tkim
x
Islas Smöla om
IE
Vàga Replot L. Keitele si a Vo
Faeroer Averöya L. Orive de un
OR
Eystu In
Ne
ur
de
s roy
L. Storsjön Lago
b. m
a
da
Em
Ork
1766 he sh
L
Suõu
Onega
ls
roy L. Voz Ku
t e
Sylarna
a
ne oie L.
la
Beta
A
LA
u
jon
2286 L. Päijän L. Bel

OP
r Banc nd Snöhetta Ljun
231
ri L. Purur
esi K il' m e z ia 40 nta
16 ma
o
Su
o Faer la
E
gan Lauhavuo esi

et L. Puulâv
R Ya
o
oes
N
SU
h
Lago
EU
2183
- S
G o lf
S
s Rondane Lju aa e Via

roe sna L. Näsi
Ladoga koi tka
Fos
Galdhöpiggen L. Saim
sha
Fae
Ural
ens
S
n
ug
ÍN
E
LA
2469 L. Kub
To
a
Fos
l
Un
de sk
Vet
Unst
bo
a
Sula 644 b.
Ko
50º Yell Ö
l
Em ekam 50º
T
te Finnmark de v
ks
eie
N
rd
o zn
de
Mainl
ha
a
and Islas l Ni as
eleb
i c
Voljov
N
tur
PE
ga
Hardanjerjokulen
t Shetland Is. Åland
Al B
1862 andia a-
Finl Emb.insk
O
Sotra
Noruega
n L. Mjösa Da rki lg
a
ulm
á
Kla
l de Go
Mor
l
Westra
y de Rib b. de
Vo
Bug
M
Tysnesöy
Main l fo
r
t Sanday
oga
land Stord Go Msta Em

A Ban
co Roc Isla Lewis C. Wrath Hoy Strons Islas Bömlo 1883 Svealand L. Mälaren h ij
Glåma
Hébri s
elyu
ay Gausta sc
Ob
kall L. Ilmen
das C. DuncanOrcadas
a
Ben Klibre Karmöy

Kin
Su
azm
Nort 961 ck sby Hiiumaa Lago ra

s
linas
h Uist n L. Hjälmaren
l Fiordo Bo
d
Peipu er ko Samara s
Kli
L. Selig ns te
L
Sout s Co de Tur
lo
as
URA
e ole b. ev
on
ste
gai
TICO
Otra
h Uist O
O
E. de
Nos Alt
d IS LA Moray do Sm Emibish
roe
Skye M Ilek
Oka
or L. Pskov
de rra
S C. Kinnaird Fi
Saaremaa de Ku
T I C
at
BR IT
Tie
's
Ben
s
Lov
os
Valdai
Macd
l
L. Vänern L. Vättern as
ian u ra
1309 ui
Altur
C. Kolkas
BÁL
ÁN IC mp
C. Lindesnes
k Gotland
A lt
M ok
l a GraDee r r a C. Skagen
Fårö Golfo de
Göta
1344 .
a nd
AS Mull
Mtes
MAR ge de Riga
s ha
Irla Ben
A lt
Nevi ka Götaland a
Á L
s de Jura s S ga uizi
iz
r Fosa Esco ol
l V
u ra
Irg
Kirg
Islay
cia
A
o
an
DEL Laesö
LG
C. Malin C l
NORTE
Tsna
an
D de
Ätr
E. de ta de
B
VO
Dv
al
s
Forth L. Bolmen Gran

R
Kattegat en
Öland s
Pen. de
in
Sur C. St. Abbs id

MA
Ve
Arran Anholt
tepa
de
B. de 752 cc Oka
del
a
Merric
nt
l N
Don Errig L. Asnen O

842 k tas Jutlandia
a
egan al
Al The Chevio Es
ort
C. Achi L. Neag
ll s UR
e
Ulster h ra 816 t
usia AL
de
Emba
Samsö
R
er 173
Ti
GR AN Yding Skovhöj Golfo orr
Mwe
Biel
A
de Hanö
L
819 elrea
M
Gran B
P. Scafel
de
DE
B. de Kurski
IR LA
B. de 977 l BRE TAÑ Banco
Fyn Seeland
nd
Dogger s
O
Galw
A
Monte
Bornholm
Man
ura
it s a
Su
ay MAR Als r
elt
ND
Ru
Golfo Alt lso

45º IRLA DE Sylt C. Rozewie
CA
A Isangeland de Danzig
BL AN
Ara 45º
ved
Mön L.
NDA
s ia
Swa
CASPIO
G. Canal Is. Frisias Sept. Erö
Lolland Falster C. Arkona
G.
C R USI A
Lugn926
le
A
s Penin
Rügen
Med
d
aquill Angle ie Fehmarn e go

R
L. Mamry
e
S h an n o n sey Golfo de d r Golfo de U

K
Mte ia l
G. bu
Sozh
Wick s. N EL
sn
1085 Helgoland em Pomerania

C rto m
b. de o
C. Spurn
Jo
ckl
A
É
De
low Me sie ku
Snowd Niem en D
pe
Em rad
ias Or.
LL
e en De ra
rg B. Pomerania en
t
Is. Fris L. Sniardwy gog

r
os
Jo Cardide Ka
n
isias
Occ. tr Vol
Tre
gan de
C. Mize The Wash
al
os
C. Mine ic Fr k
A
DO
n San br Is. 169 El ida

C. St. m ba Ka
N
David s. Cá Lüneburguer
Notec Narew S Pr de
PANTANO
de
Mt e LA
Ems
LLANURA ip im
N
ma
l CENTRAL ALEMANA DE et Se VOLGA
IÓ
Gales
L L A NU R A
ris
Cana
PRIPET
se
Ma
on
Ode Vístul Bu
Ou
Inglaterr Emb.
ES
Cana g DEL de
Av
rta
O
l de Bristo
a r Wa a de Kiev
l
S I L E SI A b. de sk n.
Pe zachi
URA
PR
Em ian
LLAN
520
Brandenburgo ml Bu
Exmoo
O C CI D EN TAL Tsi
Vorskla
r Brocken
P Támesis
DE
nualles Cor en. de Westfalia 1142

E U ROPA Polesia Slu
PER
Mo
is ca r ch Donets
Is. Scilly Land's End la
DNIE
Prosn
Ba Banc Pili Sti i

Ca N de
sa
nco o Gran B. de
Lyme de Flandes Kahler Asten Harz Sajonia DEL Montes DO Sãl len n. lak
Wes
Ch Sol Tiu Pe ish

Donet
RHIN
au Pla Wight so
841
Is.
Volinia gu
a
cer tafo Pta. Start nt s

er
Man
rma Pa 612 de b.
Hessen
o
M a nc h a es de
la Sude Meseta Em elii
le
Mt. Lyso rto rik

tálicos
d e C. de Sa Ves
Saa
Cel Vogelsberg tes n Ro . de de sie

l la Hague tes Me Embenchug DNIEPER Ma De rinzha
Se rin
tica 1603 la
C a na Guernsey Hohe Acht z
^
IA
774 Wetzsteip Mon nic liar
toc
Tu
`
lva gi
Klinovec nii
Vístu Beski des
Bahía niezka h
1244 Ohre Krem
RAN
So h Kiz Ka
del Sena Ardenas 747 Taunus 792 ze Mes nico de cha
de a
Jersey m 1492
us M Pes
A
G.
^
L. Madil
UC
m ro la C.
Mo ntes de Bo hemi a
g
de
Golfo de Cotentin
Pen.
Se CUENCA
Picardia
e Praded
C Á et
a ag
an Gu Ka ropol Ku
ma
A de
R
ri
Pta. de Saint Malo
na BOHEMIA de Bu a eT Yeia Stáv R gui lfo ga
d
Kajovk
San Mateo y g d Sen Go Bo l
Normand
T
Gerlachovsk
P Po G. s de C. ra-
Naab
Ma
Pen. de ía Grand Wintersberg Moravia de Ka Go

2663 d Emb. Colina
A C
Bretaña Marne ol Meridio
Mo
Mosela
in
580 na
DE PARÍS Cham ia
ne
Dniest NEGRO A
sa
Pta. de l
Bretaña paña Alsacia Grosser Arber
Eslovaquia M AR n
en
L
Se
h
T
Perma Goverla Beisug
DEL
er ba
va
Les Coëvron
Vá
lva 1456 R S
ay
rch
MA
357 2058 Ku
ra
s Terek
M
Dyje V
40º de
RA P
gra
40º
AZO
Mo
l
Belle-I Aube B AV I E R A Isar Boh Pietrosu
ldavia U
Á AN DE
os
le
I
Ne
a 2303
A
U
1015
Pr Mo
C
em
Orléans Jur avio
C Á A
La
Lorena ia R
S
O
Pta. de Mt. Mátra LL O

sg
ba
Croisic Loir Su Bivolu

ya
lva
ut
O
Ban
Meseta de Baviera
A
ntip
ca co de 1534
Vo
Loira
N
C. Kaza
Se
iz Cha 3
G
- V Meseta 1493 Bávaros de bek

Pen.mea
rcot Ll anu Anjou Mare 563 rus
En
Banc
Feldberg L. Constanza Alpes
S
S
Yeu
N
res o Vizc 288

Che IO Hàmasu 1793 init Elb Kaz 7
ra Puy Crapa de Langres DANUB a Kark
Azo s
ns
504
HÚ
echo zi
E Tirol ea
ÁN
0
de
aya A bisa nd r ub Zugspitze Dachstein L. Neusieldl seni a Bahí
Cri
EstrKerch
IA 448 Diu
Mtes. Apu Transilvani
ri
T l de Do RHIN s Bakony im
Loma
2996
e 2963 n de Ingu
RG
zar
H
DZ
Nemira Ba
Si
Viz caya Cr
rnesTödi
a
L. de In Grossglockner
P
Mt.
Ráb
G EO AI
re
1648
A
Te Re Neuchâtel Wildspitze Vladeasa de

Poitou s Be
t
3797 kut
Lo
I
rce
All
1545 an Kosh
UR
1834
RB
Cr
Jura 3623 3774 C. Tarjan mit Kura

Mu
s.
ira
Alpe
ira
Olerón Rom nda

ier
eu
te
Kala
a
a de
A ZE
Marmolada C. Pitsu
M
Sa o n
4166
AN
r
L. Balatón
L
se
s
C Pta. de Jungfrau Bernina 3354 ariu Ciucasu Boca bio Bahí ro
0
Is la Grave 4049 Dolomitas 2863 Moldove 1956
s del Danu
h 285 pistska
eño Cáucaso a
n
LL
2543
Pe q u
Lemosin Drá C. Saric
ale
tep
Ai
s Maciz o L. Léman Monte Rosa L. Triglav Me

Es gan
O
3554
EstacPta. da va n R O
ve
Az Puy de Sancy
dio
Al
N E G
4634 Como Peleaga
Tisza
a de MAR Adamello Mu
Meri
pe
or
a
2509
ASaboya de
Bares 1886 4810 L. Mayor
San Lombardia
Pi
Plomb du
es
s
igio
Isle O
eniantes ii
^
Mi
Banc CAN Cantal Mont Blanc Sneznik
Eslavonia C ár p a t o s BI 0 an
Ju
o de TÁB 1858
Centr al L. Garda
NU R 409 s
L. Sev
Ara
gu no 1796
Arm Moue
lia
Ad
Galic C. de RIC
M A
C. Fiste gat
el
Valaquia DA zursk
ac
ia Peñas O s
rra Dordogne LLANURA DEL PO Golfo de 507 Sava Ara
ico
Dr
Gar
1
Golfo Petrova Gora L ng
as
481 balãn
la
Ródano
4103 Venecia DE
^
Lla de Krk i Za
Piamonte 5
Ga
Meset r
h
on
Vizca Lot Pelvoux Po BIO

Land
nu C. de a de a ja s 516 i Dag Sa
AS
ru
Cord ill Picos de Europ C. Fene

ya Delta
L ra
Bosn
ra Ajo NU
las Landa Delfinado Dobru
a
M t es . E l b u r z
A
3843 Un UR Agr rat)

o
Ço
Cres a
LLAN - A Büyük nte Ara
o
era 2519a Maggiorasca del Po

P DA
ciz
San s C. Kaliakr
iñ
Ab Mt. Viso C. Bafra

es
Beljanika
os
ta isa 1799 Borja C. Ince u 2

Ma
Naran Can A Ren

E 354 dürek
Can
en n
a
Dr
Ma Rt. Kamenjak (Mo

as
1909 Pag 1336 as

m
l d o 1077
ría Sil táb ric Tarn
S Servia Kar
in
Ar
jo Mt. Ventoux
e Bosnia- Ten
ít i
Cév
Telen de Bulne
a P Gascuña Que
N E S
Ibe
a
al
2188 o a
ar
s du Golfo s zel O
s M de Génova
Pó nt ic o s
C. de 1781 ovina
ria
I R doc Provenza M Troglav
1913 Herzeg Urmi w za m
B A L C A 2376 nte
la
Manz Mi
Langue Al p e P tes
M
Es
di Falterona
L. de
Mon
aned D ura n c e A Dal
or
ME SET I N D Golija
o
a
PEN
1654 Kelkit
Si
av
3355
m t
ega A st Mte. Perdid
E O Arno R acia I N
1833 a ra
a
A e
Tám
ÍNS em o URI E Durmitor
Botev
M es Kös 2 Kar 0 r
Iskur
vr 303 nzu Mu
S LIG Á te tes
ULA 3404 Golfo del León
Toscana 2522 s. De 281
s Mu
^
Brac u
a R o gl
Eb
DE Van
De
Mt Istr
I C Montenegr
Aneto C. Corse Yenice fra
Hvar er nte L. de
ego
Puigmal
N A 1186 a ro
ro
Tun
pr
SEP Duero es nca

ak
ho Eú Mo
2313 Abanico
AR Elba Mt. Amiata
Kö ák ec
es
TEN Goljak Estrec ro

2913
D Korcula Peljesac
OS .R Maritsa
li r sT
m
Gáll
C. Mond 1738
35º a Monca M del Bósfo
ión
TRI ON d e l R o´ d a Musala ód 35º

dzh
ÁN
rêl s te am
rm
ego yo no i
Est C. de Creus Mljet
AL Montserr Gran Sasso d'Italia R 2925 ope te
Kiz
Bot
eh
ia
de
a on
ili
ST
a d 1991 at Ter
Ib
a on
PENÍNSULA I Á
a
S . Central Córcega 2914 M doc an

l Eb
e
rin
Kiz
1236 Ard M
ma
DI
2710
Estre L. Keb
Capa
Va
Sirum
ér
gr ne
S i s t e 2592
I
la Jalón na s Mt. Cinto rd Erge

Za
atala
ro
Se T DE R
ico
-C ar 2191
Tracia
r
ere tero Perelik

KU
A br I C MAR TIGRIS
Tibe
Dri
Zêz os A
Zap
E. de Alman Golyam . de
i
D E
sC Bahía
Macedonia MÁR MAR
t al
a
N
Alcántar zor a uz L. Iznik Emb anli

ler O
n
Tajo Promotorio de Drin 1963 n rya

Tah
as
a II ME SET d il ITÁLICA os del Gargano SULA Mt. Falakro 2543
Saka Hirf Erciy
ra C. da or Es
PENÍN T A
Lla Sac L. Ohrid cia g
ei nur Roca A Javalam
bre Peñarro C. de Tortosa
t. de
Bonifacio co L. Prespa Pen. Samotra Uluda ik 3916
ad
S E
Ekec
C
tes
a 2024 ya Tomorrit
M Abi de Toledo 2020 Asinara 2383 Mt. Vermion a Tasos Gökçe Ada 2137 3 bur
Montes La Man Calcídic
M E
o de 248 an Tepe Khã
Diyãlã
C. Circeo Wãdi ath

Mon
Ban sal C. Espic Puglia 2052 Tuz

Yenice
co Jose cha Golfo M Estrech os

L. de Milc fid
Taj
M
Ca
hel ME RID C. Pinnes los Darnel

de Vesubio te Ak Dag Sa
o
IBÉ de Gaeta M
nal
de
G
S
fina 1277 Pen. Vij Mt. Olimpo

E h-e
Th
Gu a d i a n a ION AL Volturino s. Mo 2089

on
.
2963 Kü 8
an
RIC
osa Sa s
n te Tu 2911
Salentina ntes Simav
S
ar
de
Menorca 1835 n Lemno ndiz 363

Mallorca P tes
I A
ria ló
th
A
Ceyh
ie Ardila Golfo de Cerdeña G. de Salerno nic C. Kanestro Alaçam Mele

O
Otr
C. Burun
r
ar
ãr
i
O L
u
M A R
Sado
Zúj Valenc a
nd Agr Golfo
P Zagros
Gâv
an
in
Ja ia Pta. Licosa
adas z
A T L. Beysehir
Ban ba Júcar di
O
to
Ban de Tarento Is. Espornt.

do
Pe
2248
Lesbos
co Leo ló n 1835 Ge
co Gorr Sierra Morena A
s A N L. Egridir
Mt. del Gennargentu C. Sta.
BALCÁNIC
Mt. Pollino a
n Ibiza Llanura Septe T
ntes
inge
Lla r Cabrera
re María de Leuca Corfú G. de Esmirn 2157 EÚFRATES
A
Viar
nu
ro
C. de vir Boz
ra Guadalqui C. de la Nao ea T I R R E N O Skíros
u
Mo
San
n del res
Ab
Vicen
te resió vir Seg
Forment
era
B al
Abisal Arg
e l i n a San Pietro nde Gök
Ta as ãr M
ria
Khíos
D ep Guadalqui Eubea n Me su C. Karat rth
Aks
isa
Ban l Golfo
ticos s G. de Arta 2457
M A R
Gra
Montes L. Tha I
ab
mas Bé
co Amp de Cádi
Is la A
ur
Mt. Parnaso Sámos

u
He Leuca
rra te
a
Isl as erio z
S i s Gen
C. Spartivento
Cal
G. de s
Be y
dur Is. Lípari Ándro Ikaría L. deniyah

A
Asi
a Corinto eas
il 3396 Mulhacén
M
C. de Palos G. de
Ma Cefalonia Kéa Tínos Golfo lya
C. St.
Andr
R
Ban Patras
Ma de ira co Cora Veleta 3479 Montalto
o E O radas de Anta
ur bbã
s
C. Gallo G. de C. Anam Hã ãf
deira Pelopones
te
E G Is. on
C. de
TI
1955
EÚ
l Patc Trafal ud
C. Sacrat Egina Islas Espo Gh Milh
GR
h gar IS
o
Ban Zante M
FR
if Balear C. Spartivento
Pen. de Merid.Kos
nia
Líban
Port co Lla Etna al L.

Sen sal
st. Sérifos Páros C. Kelido
AT
o San G. de
E
nu C. de Gata Abi 3340 di

Naupli Cícladas
a
to ra Estrecho
de Gibraltar de
Golfo de
Arcadia Morea a Náxos
Rodas
Wã
ES
Ab Pta. Almina ra Me C. Greco

nu
M A R
del
isa Lla
Is. C. Blanco Canal C. Punta Granitola 1578 ss
Des
erta l del Alborá
C. Bougaroun
C. de Fer de Cammarata in a Mílos Ca
nal
C. Arnau
ti ayyid ãb ãr
n Sic de K Ub Rih mm
Montes
s C. Maleas 1952
Sen ilia R E TA ar pa dos Ar L. Ha
C. Fervat C. Bon
Sicilia C. Akritas DE C zos e Troo
Er Rif
Chipr
30º a C. Tres Chéliff MAR 30º
Forcas Ouad da Kizira zos
djer da C. Matapán Karpa
J Ó N I C O
al
er
T e l l i a n o la Me dj Pantelleria C. Passero Kizira
A t l a s
2456 Canal de Canal de
de Me C. Spaza KásoKásos
Jbel
Creta IA
jãrah
s
di
Mtes.
Tidirh
S IR
Se
ine Canal de Malta es

Wã
Montes de Hod C. Sidero riad

Al Hi
bo
na 2456
L. Tibe ãn
Zahrez DE idy
u
Mt. Ida nte

Al W
Chergui Chott Malta Leva O
el Hodna RT
ya io
de
SI E
Chott ´
Jonica C. Litinon
Cuen ca Cu enca
e O
Za
ulou d
ech Chergu 2328 ud

resión
Jbel
DE
Jord
Is. Mous
M Djebel Chélia ro
Selv
age 3190 saou i Zahrez Rharbi Ze Ra's Kabudiyãh M Dep Muer to
E
án
ns
s Mar
rrah
tla
Montes Oulad
Nail E del
Al Ha
Mo
A
Is la Rb
ia
ef Hadt
s Chott Chott D I N
La
Pal s Ca Ou m
er
Jbel Ch
ar
ta di
Meirhir
Chott en Noual Is. Kerkenna
T E R R Á Mar
rto
Mese
ma Mue
bah
Ayach Dje el Rharsa
Tensi l
na ria ft El Abid 3190 i Djebel
2236
Aïssa Ite Golfo de Gabès Lab
La
Go Ten s La Gra Tizi Jbel Atta Al
me erife cios Aleg C. Rihr
n' Test Igbil
Mgou
a s
Ksour ano r
A S Djerba
D
Sahari
El Hie ra a 2100 4071 n es des FU
A t l
ranz
L
Jbel
rro Teid a Toub Mont Chott
Atlas T NA
371 e 4166 kal l
5 Lan
zarote Sous
G r a
n A el Djerid
TAL ar
Ra's at Tin Delta
del Nilo
Cana
de Suez DE
el
kh d Milh O
al A
Ra's al RT
Fue
T E S Rh Mz
ab OR
IEN L L AN UR l SI E
N
ar A
rtev TAL ba
Gran ent
ura Ta M O bi
ID EN ER
G DE
J IFA Al
Ja DE
NIL
Cana C. Dra
A nti A tl a s
r h ba
lt O CC GR
AN Tripolitania RAH C. Misurata Suez Aca
ba
ria ir t e
O
ERG G olfo d e S CIRENAICA G. de G. de

GRA N
C. de
Drâa
~
Jubi Jabal Nafusah
15º 10º 5º 0º (Greenwich) 5º 10º 25º 30º 35º 40º
Physical Map of Europe.

16
Physical Map of Spain.

Types of Climate.
Climates
Cold wet climate with warm summers
Mild wet climate with warm summers
Mild wet climate with hot summers
Mild rainy climate with warm dry summers
Mild rainy climate with hot dry summers
Mild rainy climate with dry winters and warm summers
Mild rainy climate with dry winters and hot summers
Hot steppe climate
Cold steppe climate
Desert climate
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
(in Cº)
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.5
17.5
20.0
Average annual temperatures.
There are other smaller but nevertheless Húmeda, or Wet Spain, with annual precipi-
significant climate zones, as follows: tation exceeding 600 mm and rising occa-
• Cold Steppe Climate sionally to 2,000 mm. The remainder of the
• Hot Steppe Climate country is predominantly dry, with an annual
• Subtropical Climates precipitation of less than 600 mm. The south-
With regard to temperature, the most no- east of Spain is semi-arid, with annual pre-
table differences are between the inland and cipitation below 300 mm and a semi-desert
the peripheral areas. In the former, where tem- landscape that at times is reminiscent of the
peratures are influenced by the continental Sahara.
factor, the winters are very cold, with average
January temperatures ranging between 0 and Vegetation
3ºC, while the summers are hot, with an ave-
rage of 24ºC in July and August. Meanwhile, in Spain’s rich diversity in terms of its climate,
the peripheral areas the winters are mild, with petrography and topography has given rise to
an average of 10ºC in January, and an average the formation of clearly defined ecological
annual temperature, especially on the Medi- compartments, which in turn have led to the
terranean coast, of between 16 and 18ºC. development of a broad spectrum of vegeta-
Precipitation is also marked by sharp con- tion types. Another factor is the intensity of
trasts: the north and northwest, which are di- human activity, which has gradually trans-
rectly influenced by the Atlantic, have abun- formed nature since the Neolithic period, of-
dant rainfall and no distinguishable dry season. ten adding to the already diverse array of
This area is sometimes known as La España habitats.
18
Under natural conditions, virtually the holm oaks and cork oaks are joined, even on
entire country would be covered by forests; the coast itself, by a mass of coniferous trees
only certain enclaves in the highest moun- dominated by the Aleppo pine, which on high-
tains and a few extremely dry areas in the er ground is replaced by other types of conifers
southeast and in the Canary Islands do not more adapted to mountain conditions. By con-
lend themselves to the natural development trast, a desert-like landscape extends along the
of this type of vegetation. Mediterranean shores of south-eastern Murcia
However, nowadays the vegetation cover and Andalusia. Here, exotic species such as
in Spain resembles a type of mosaic in which European fan palms, prickly pears and pitas are
the natural formations of trees, shrubs and frequently found, together with more occa-
herbaceous plants are distributed unevenly sional compact or scattered palm groves.
throughout the land alongside crop fields and Forests, natural or otherwise, currently oc-
reforested areas. This landscape variety is cupy 15 million hectares (approximately 30%
clearly reflected in the equally varied flora, of the land), the most characteristic being the
which comprises approximately eight thou- Atlantic variety, dominated by oaks and other
sand species and includes plants from the leafy evergreens; gallery forests, present in
whole of Europe and North Africa. Hence, 20% of the riverbanks in Spain; Mediterranean
the European beech co-exists with the Medi- forests in their evergreen, sclerophyll and
terranean holm oak, Aleppo pine, African mountain varieties; and sub-alpine coniferous
palm and even the Australian eucalyptus. forests, with alternating mountain scrub and
The boundary between the wet and dry re- wet or semi-wet meadows.
gions of Spain also separates two types of pe- In certain areas with a temperate climate
ninsular landscapes: that of Green Spain, with and abundant rainfall, subtropical-lauroid
its prevailing leafy evergreens and vastly vary- vegetation is still present. So also is the con-
ing meadowlands, and the landscape of Medi- tinental steppe vegetation of Eastern Medi-
terranean Spain, characterised by expanses of terranean and Asian origin, as well as Euro-
scrubland and xerophilic plant life – plants ca- Siberian vegetation represented by certain
pable of withstanding the summer droughts – evergreen forests, heaths, hay fields and a
alongside the ever-diminishing woodlands. In few arctic-alpine plants and similar vestiges,
more arid areas – La Mancha, Extremadura which grow in the dampest and highest
and, particularly, the Ebro Valley – holm oaks Mediterranean mountain ranges.
have been replaced by a sparse cover of dry, This richly diverse vegetation is matched
thorny bushes. by a great variety of coastal ecosystems, in-
The Mediterranean coastal areas display a cluding intertidal areas, beaches, cliffs, sand
more complex variety of vegetation. Here, the dunes, salt marshes, salt steppes, etc. Spain
Galician landscape in Ourense province. At 3,718 metres, El Teide (Tenerife) is the highest peak in Spain.
NATIONAL PARKS
NATIONAL PARK AUTONOMOUS REGION PROVINCE Total

Surface Area
(hectares)
Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici Catalonia Lleida 14,119
Atlantic Isles of Galicia Galicia Pontevedra, A Coruña 8,480
Cabañeros Castile-La Mancha Ciudad Real, Toledo 38,996
Cabrera Archipelago Balearic Islands Balearic Islands 10,021
Doñana Andalusia Huelva, Seville 50,720
Garajonay Canary Islands Santa Cruz de Tenerife 3,984
Monfragüe Extremadura Cáceres 18,118
Ordesa and Monte Perdido Aragon Huesca 15,608
Picos de Europa Asturias, Castile and Leon, Cantabria Asturias, Leon, Cantabria 64,660
Sierra Nevada Andalusia Granada, Almería 86,208
Tablas de Daimiel Castile-La Mancha Ciudad Real 1,928
Taburiente Crater Canary Islands Santa Cruz de Tenerife 4,690
Teide Canary Islands Santa Cruz de Tenerife 18,990
Timanfaya Canary Islands Las Palmas 5,107
Source: Autonomous Organisation of National Parks.
also boasts a similarly rich variety of fresh- over 50% of the total number of species in
water habitats, with 75,000 kilometres of riv- each group present in the European Union,
ers and at least 1,500 wetlands, representing and, once again, the merits of this biological
0.22% of the national territory. Although diversity are multiplied by the endemic factor.
usually fairly small, the wetlands are hugely This is particularly true of the Canary Islands,
important as centres of biological diversity. where 44% of the wildlife – or 3,066 of the
However, land use in Spain is currently 6,893 animal species present – are endemic.
dominated by farming, stockbreeding and for- The Iberian Peninsula, Ceuta and the two
estry, occupying over 42 million hectares or archipelagos are also significant in terms of
80% of the country. Of this area, just over migrations, receiving a vast quantity of ani-
30% is used for dry-farmed crops, 30% for fo- mals. Abundant species that cannot strictly
restry and 12% for grazing and plant species be described as Spanish wildlife – mainly
requiring little water. Irrigated crops occupy birds but also marine fish and mammals –
7% of the land. And yet, even in these areas use the country as a transitional territory be-
the flora is not without interest: many plants tween their northern breeding grounds and
endemic to Spain grow there and a number of their Mediterranean and Southern Sahara
animal species are able to live there. In addi- wintering places, or between their reproduc-
tion to all of this, there is another totally al- tive grounds in the Mediterranean and their
tered and irretrievable habitat: 8% of the land resting places in the Atlantic.
is covered by urban areas and infrastructures. Endangered species are increasingly and
more efficiently protected in numerous nature
Wildlife reserves. This is the case, for example, of the
brown bear, which lives in evergreen and
There are estimated to be between 50,000 and mixed mountain forests, the Iberian lynx, found
60,000 wildlife species in Spain. Of these, in Mediterranean forests and meadowland
770 are vertebrates (excluding marine fish) with thick undergrowth, the European mink,
and the rest invertebrates. Both types represent the grouse and the Spanish imperial eagle.
20
Left, a group of Spanish ibex and, above,

an imperial eagle and chick in their nest.
Both are protected species.
The southern part of the peninsula is Minerals

home to countless African-type wildlife spe-
cies, while on the Meseta or central plateau Iberia, Hesperia or Hispania – the different
the most predominant species are the par- names by which Spain was known in Antiqui-
tridge, quail, wolf and birds such as the great ty – was famous for its natural wealth, and for
bustard, sand grouse, imperial sand grouse the abundance and variety of its mineral re-
and various birds of prey. The typically Spa- sources in particular. In fact, such was this
nish sub-species include the Spanish deer, fame that it attracted the attention of conque-
the wild cat, the weasel and the Andalusian ring peoples and became the battle field on
wild boar. This group also includes the Ibe- which Carthage and Rome confronted each
rian black pig, although it is not exclusive to other. Even as late as the beginning of the 20th
Spain, and, through the mutations in its do- century, Spain still boasted several of the
mestication, the fighting bull. world’s most important mineral deposits, and
The marine wildlife is rich and varied. the economic development of certain regions,
The Atlantic offers a greater diversity of fish such as the Basque Country and Asturias, was
than the Mediterranean, especially along the based on their mineral wealth. Although now-
coast of Galicia, with large continental plat- adays the situation has changed, Spain still re-
forms, abundance of plankton and, due to mains one of the richest countries in Europe in
strong tides, the frequent renewal of its wa- terms of its mineral wealth.
ters. In the Bay of Biscay, which is deeper, Spanish mineral production – even ex-
the fish live further away from the coast. The cluding energy production – is characte-
southern Atlantic coast is characterised by rised by its diversity. There is practically no
abundant migrant fish, such as the tunas that mineral absent from Spanish soil, although
lay their eggs there en route to the Medi- of the approximately one hundred products
terranean. The endangered Mediterranean exploited, the only significant volumes pro-
monk seal fares well on the rocky coasts least duced are generated by iron, various py-
altered by human activity and with abundant rites, zinc, copper and lead (among metal
islets and caves. However, the excessive minerals) and refractory argil, bentonite,
hunting of large cetaceans has impoverished quartz, fluorite, glauberite, grain magnetite,
Spanish wildlife in this respect, and nowa- rock and sea salt, potassium salts and sepio-
days it is rare to see dolphins, sperm whales lite (among non-metallic minerals).
and porpoises in the seas that surround the Although highly varied, Spain’s metal
peninsula. mineral production is insufficient to meet
the country’s needs. By contrast, non-metal tionals is 5.6 million, of which 2.3 million
minerals are produced to a surplus, excee- are citizens of the European Union.
ding domestic demand. According to the municipal register, the
total number of residents in Spain as at 1 Jan-
uary 2009 was 46,661,950, which repre-
POPULATION sents an increase of 504,128 people in rela-
tion to the figures for 1 January 2008. Of this
total, 41,063,259 corresponded to Spanish
The Resident Population nationals and 5,598,691 - or 12% of the total
in Spain
number of registered residents - were foreign
In recent years the resident population has nationals.
unexpectedly begun to recover. At the begin- In 2008 the number of registered Spanish
ning of the 1990s, demographers and other nationals experienced a net increase of
experts announced that the population 174,199 people (0.4%), while the number of
showed a tendency to decline and that the foreign nationals grew by 329,929 (6.3%).
figure of 40 million inhabitants would there- Of the latter, those belonging to the EU-27
fore not be reached in the short term. How- rose by 164,154 (representing 49.8% of the
ever, the massive influx of foreigners has overall increase in foreign nationals) to a to-
overturned these projections and the resi- tal figure of 2,266,808 residents.
dent population in Spain has not only bro-
ken through the 40 million threshold but has Population by Gender and Age
continued to rise steeply during this first de-
cade of the 21st century. According to data from 1 January 2009,
Based on data from 1 January 2009, the 49.5% of registered residents are male and
registered population in Spain is over 46.6 50.5% are female. Among Spanish nationals,
million; the number of registered foreign na- 49.0% are male and 51.0% are female.
POPULATION BY GENDER AS AT 1 JANUARY 2009
Total Spanish Nationals Foreign Nationals

Both genders 46,661,950 41,063,259 5,598,691
Male 23,104,496 20,130,789 2,973,707
Female 23,557,454 20,932,470 2,624,984
Source: National Institute of Statistics.
POPULATION BY AGE
Total Spanish Nationals Foreign Nationals

Total 46,661,950 41,063,259 5,598,691
Under 16 7,229,745 6,380,917 848,828
16 to 44 20,219,113 16,679,406 3,539,707
45 to 64 11,432,262 10,503,874 928,388
65 and over 7,780,830 7,499,062 281,768
22
Meanwhile, 53.1% of foreign nationals are By contrast, the lowest population in-
male and 46.9% are female. creases occurred in the autonomous cities of
By age, 15.5% of the population is under Ceuta (1,202 people) and Melilla
16, 43.3% is between 16 and 44, and 41.2% (1,934), and the autonomous region of Extre-
is 45 or over. madura (2,256).
In relation to registered Spanish natio- No autonomous region experienced a
nals, 15.5% are under 16, 40.6% are be- loss of population.
tween 16 and 44, and 43.9% are 45 or over. In relative terms, the greatest population
As for the foreign population, 15.2% is un- increases occurred in Melilla (2.7%), the
der 16, 63.2% is between 16 and 44, and Balearic Islands (2.1%) and Castile-La Man-
21.6% is 45 or over. cha (1.8%), compared with the smallest in-
creases in Castile-Leon (0.1%), Extremadura
(0.2%) and Galicia (0.4%).
The Resident Population by
Autonomous Region
Distribution of the Foreign Population
The autonomous regions that experienced
by Autonomous Region
the highest population increases between 1
January 2008 and 1 January 2009 were Cata- The proportion of foreign citizens is 12.0% of
lonia (up by 103,345 people), Madrid the total resident population in Spain, accor-
(88,603), Andalusia (83,472) and Valencia ding to data from the municipal register of 1
(54,901). January 2009.
The regions with the highest proportion
of foreign nationals are the Balearic Islands
(21.7%), Valencia (17.4%) and Madrid
POPULATION BY (16.4%). By contrast, those with the lowest
AUTONOMOUS REGION proportion of foreign nationals are Extrema-
dura (3.3%), Galicia (3.8%) and Asturias
Total 46,661,950 (4.3%).
Andalusia 8,285,692
In absolute terms, the regions that expe-
Aragon 1,342,926 rienced the greatest increases of foreign na-
Asturias 1,085,110 tionals in 2008 were Catalonia (80,402), An-
Balearic Islands 1,094,972 dalusia (44,814) and Madrid (37,752). The
Canary Islands 2,098,593 smallest increases occurred in the autono-
Cantabria 589,043 mous cities of Ceuta (367 people) and Me-
Castile and Leon 2,560,031 lilla (1,100), and the autonomous region of
Castile-La Mancha 2,079,401 Extremadura (1,174).
Catalonia 7,467,423 No region experienced a loss of foreign
Valencia 5,084,502 population.
Extremadura 1,100,000 In relative terms, the greatest increases of
Galicia 2,794,796 foreign population occurred in Melilla
Madrid 6,360,241 (17.0%), Asturias (15.2%) and Cantabria
Murcia 1,445,410 (14.4%), and the smallest in Extremadura
Navarre 629,569 (3.3%), Madrid (3.8%) and Valencia (4.2%).
Basque Country 2,171,243
Rioja (La) 321,025
Ceuta (Autonomous City) 78,591
Distribution of the Foreign
Population by Nationality
Melilla (Autonomous City) 73,382
Source: National Institute of Statistics. The number of foreign residents in Spain be-
longing to the EU-27 is 2,266,808. Of these,
FOREIGN POPULATION FOREIGN POPULATION BY COUNTRY

BY AUTONOMOUS REGION 2009 2008
2009 2008 Total 5,598,691 5,268,762
Total 5,598,691 5,268,762 Romania 796,576 731,806
Andalusia 668,093 623,279 Morocco 710,401 652,695
Aragon 170,295 40,804 Ecuador 413,715 427,718
Asturias 47,012 154,892 United Kingdom 374,600 352,957
Balearic Islands 237,359 223,036 Colombia 292,971 284,581
Canary Islands 299,220 283,847 Bolivia 227,145 242,496
Cantabria 38,024 33,242 Germany 190,584 181,174
Castile and Leon 166,032 154,802 Italy 174,912 157,789
Castile-La Mancha 224,892 206,008 Bulgaria 164,353 153,973
Catalonia 1,184,192 1,103,790 China 145,425 125,914
Valencia 882,870 847,339 Argentina 140,443 147,382
Extremadura 36,489 35,315 Portugal 140,424 127,199
Galicia 106,129 95,568 Peru 137,154 121,932
Madrid 1,043,133 1,005,381 Brazil 124,737 116,548
Murcia 235,134 225,625 France 120,246 112,610
Navarre 70,149 65,045 Dominican Republic 86,888 77,822
Basque Country 132,189 117,337 Poland 84,823 78,560
Rioja (La) 46,416 43,856 Ukraine 81,132 79,096
Ceuta (Autonomous City) 3,491 3,124 Paraguay 80,467 67,403
Melilla (Autonomous City) 7,572 6,472 Venezuela 60,751 58,317
Source: National Institute of Statistics. Source: National Institute of Statistics.
the largest group is made up of Romanian Among the nationalities with the largest
citizens (796,576), followed by citizens from number of registered residents, the greatest
the United Kingdom (374,600) and Germany relative increases correspond to citizens
(190,584). from Paraguay (19.4%), China (15.5%) a and
Among non-EU foreign nationals, Mo- Peru (12.5%).
roccan citizens form the largest collective By group of countries, citizens from the
(710,401), followed by the Ecuadoreans EU-27 form the largest collective, represen-
(413,715) and the Colombians (292,971). ting 40.5% of the total foreign population.
In relation to the figures from 1 January They are followed by citizens from South
2008, there have not been any significant America, who account for 28.1% of all fo-
changes in the relative weight of the majority reign nationals.
of the different nationalities. It has increased In relation to the distribution of the for-
for Moroccan and Romanian citizens and eign population by gender, the proportion of
declined in the case of Ecuadorean, Bolivian women is higher among Latin American na-
and Argentinian citizens. tionalities. However, there are more men in
In 2008 the number of Romanian citi- most of the African and Asian nationalities.
zens experienced the largest increase, rising
by 64,770 people. Other significant growths Population Projections
occurred in the numbers of citizens from
Morocco (57,706), the United Kingdom A knowledge of the future population, bro-
(21,643) and China (19,511). ken down at least by gender and age, is
24
FOREIGN POPULATION BY GROUP OF COUNTRIES

2009 2008
Number % in relation to the Number % in relation to the
of people total for Spain of people total for Spain
Total 5,598,691 100.0 5,268,762 100.0
EU-27 2,266,808 40.5 2,102,654 39.9
Rest of Europe 221,004 3.9 211,771 4.0
Africa 998,024 17.8 909,757 17.3
North America 51,921 0.9 49,620 0.9
Central America and the Caribbean 191,717 3.4 172,230 3.3
South America 1,573,347 28.1 1,563,040 29.7
Asia 292,961 5.2 256,728 4.9
Rest 2,909 0.1 2,962 0.1
FOREIGN POPULATION BY GENDER AND GROUP OF COUNTRIES
Total Varones Mujeres

Total 5,598,691 2,973,707 2,624,984
EU-27 2,266,808 1,209,745 1,057,063
Rest of Europe 221,004 102,187 118,817
Africa 998,024 651,121 346,903
North America 51,921 24,165 27,756
Central America and the Caribbean 191,717 79,118 112,599
South America 1,573,347 725,074 848,273
Asia 292,961 180,675 112,286
Rest 2,909 1,622 1,287
clearly vital for rational decision-making in a ven point in time. The breakdowns by gender
number of fields, including education (at the and age are usually taken as the starting
various stages), health (and medical special- point for calculating the future population
ties corresponding to the age of individuals), with the same breakdown information.
pensions, etc. This knowledge is also neces- Bearing in mind that the population at a
sary for planning the consumption of all given point in time is the result of an evolu-
kinds of goods and services. tion experienced in the past by its various
Population censuses, which are conduct- components – the mortality rate, the fertility
ed every ten years, provide insufficient infor- rate and migrations (into and out of the coun-
mation about the population in the interve- try) – a census can be used to predict the fu-
ning periods. However, they do provide a ture population based on the hypothetical
starting point for decisions of the above- evolution of the same three components.
mentioned nature in that they shed light on As a result of the sharp increase in the
the population of a country and its regions, immigration figures for Spain, the projec-
in keeping with a series of variables, at a gi- tions calculated on the basis of the Popula-
POPULATION PYRAMID. YEAR 2002
men + women = 10 , 000
100
men 95 women
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Source: Spanish Statistical Office
POPULATION PYRAMID. YEAR 2035
men + women = 10 , 000
96
men women
90
84
78
72
66
60
54
48
42
36
30
24
18
12
6
0
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Source: Spanish Statistical Office
tion Census of 1991 quickly became outdat- However, any consideration about the fu-
ed and had to be reviewed. ture population of Spain must take into ac-
The population breakdowns by gender count the fact that the broad variety of factors
and age that resulted from the 2001 Census influencing the evolution of immigration fi-
provided the population base or starting gures implies a significant degree of uncertain-
point for new projections. ty about future arrivals and departures. This
26
means that the projections are actually possi- The most outstanding characteristic in
ble scenarios – that is, the results obtained il- the evolution of the population in Spain is its
lustrate the consequences, in the growth and progressive ageing. This process is due pri-
distribution by age of the population, of the marily to the sharp and sustained decline in
hypotheses on which they are based. the fertility rate, and the increased life ex-
Hence, as a first scenario, the net influx pectancy is a second influential factor. Al-
of immigrants into Spain is predicted to con- though the massive influx of foreign nation-
tinue its recent trend until 2010, after which als can slow this process down, it cannot
it is expected to level off. The total number of stop it.
immigrants entering Spain during the period For further information, please visit the
2007-2059 is expected to rise to 14.6 mil- official website of the Spanish Statistical Of-
lion. The global hypotheses are described in fice at www.ine.es.
the following annex.
ANNEX
Hypothesis for Scenario 1
Years Life expectancy at birth Average number Average age Net numbers of
Men Women of children at birth of foreigners
per woman first child entering Spain
2002 76.63 83.36 1.26 30.82 647,867
2012 78.70 85.09 1.43 31.08 283,838
2022 80.05 86.22 1.52 31.11 278,659
2032 80.99 87.00 1.53 31.15 273,481
2042 80.99 87.00 1.53 31.15 268,302
2052 80.99 87.00 1.53 31.15 263,124
2059 80.99 87.00 1.53 31.15 259,499
CHAPTER II
HISTORY
AND CULTURE
HISTORYANDCULTUREHI
S T O R YA N D C U LT U R E H I S
T O R YA N D C U LT U R E H I S T lithic Revolution, this process consisted of the
transition from a collector economy to a pro-
O R YA N D C U LT U R E H I S T O ducer economy based on agriculture and
stockbreeding. Another period in the history
R YA N D C U LT U R E H I S T O R of the peninsula began around 5000 or 4000
B.C. and lasted until the 16th century A.D.,
which was characterised by the dominant role
YA N D C U LT U R E H I S T O R Y of the Mediterranean basin and civilisations.
From approximately 1100 B.C. until the
HISTORY
middle of the 3rd century B.C., commercial
Spain is a country with profound historical and cultural contact with the Mediterranean
roots in Europe. It has experienced periods of civilisations was articulated by the Phoeni-
conflict and others of great splendour, each of cians (whose territories extended from the Al-
which is clearly visible in its cultural heritage garve on the peninsula’s South Atlantic coast
and has undoubtedly contributed to shape the to Iberia’s Mediterranean shores in the east)
country it is today. Its identity and unique idio- and the Greeks (whose influence stretched
syncrasies have been forged by a variety of from the estuary of the Ebro River to the Gulf
phenomena, such as the discovery of the Amer- of Roses on the north-eastern coast of Spain).
icas and its neutral position during the two At the end of this period, both civilisations
world wars. At the same time, however, there were displaced by the Romans and Carthagi-
are strong parallels between Spanish history nians respectively.
and the history of other European countries; al- Hence, between the 12th and 4th centuries
though it never renounced its diversity, Spain B.C., substantial differences emerged between
emerged as a unified state at a very early stage the Iberia that extended from the Mediterrane-
and played a crucial role in some of the most an in the northeast to the Atlantic in the south,
brilliant episodes in modern European history. and the Iberia of the peninsular inland region.
The latter territory was inhabited by various
tribes, some of them Celts. With a relatively
From Prehistoric Times
primitive social organisation, these peoples en-
to the Discovery of America
gaged in migratory herding, which consisted of
alternating the grazing pastures in the northern
The Early Settlers uplands that they used in the summer with
Based on the findings at Atapuerca (Burgos prov- those of the southern part of the central plateau,
ince), estimated to be around 800,000 years old, or Meseta, used in the winter. Shepherds and
the presence of hominids on the Iberian Penin- sheep, the conquerors of grazing lands, played
sula dates back to the Lower Palaeolithic period. a key role in the geo-history of the Iberian Pe-
Experts are still debating the origin of these early ninsula.
settlers, who may have entered the peninsula di- By contrast, in the 4th century B.C. the peo-
rectly from Africa via the Straits of Gibraltar, but ples of the coastal region generically known as
more likely arrived by crossing over the Pyrenees. Iberians had already formed a homogenous
In any case, the remains of utensils and works of group of city-states (Tartessus, the biblical Tar-
art found on the peninsula are certainly from this shish or perhaps the legendary submerged At-
period, corresponding to the same hunter-gather- lantis) influenced by the more developed ur-
er cultures that existed in other parts of Europe. ban, trading, farming and mining centres of the
Moreover, the Iberian Peninsula consti- Eastern Mediterranean. The earliest written
tuted the western boundary of a process of records about the peninsula date from this pe-
cultural dissemination that began in on the riod. Hispania, the name the Romans gave to
eastern shore of the Mediterranean around the peninsula, is allegedly a Semitic word de-
the fifth millennium B.C. Known as the Neo- rived from Hispalis (Seville).
History and Culture 29
The Persistent Traces of the Roman Presence

these plans met with considerable resistance,
The Roman presence on the peninsula basically particularly in the interior.
followed the same pattern as the Greek commer- Of the numerous confrontations that took
cial bases, but unlike the Greeks, Rome’s intro- place throughout the Roman conquest of the
duction to Iberia was the result of a power strug- inland region of Hispania, the most famous
gle with Carthage to gain control of the Western was the so-called Celtiberian-Lusitanian War,
Mediterranean during the 2nd century B.C. In any which lasted for twenty years (154-134 B.C.).
case, it was at this point that the Iberian Penin- The war tactics of the Lusitanian chief Viria-
sula as a geographic unit entered the arena of thus and the legendary, although unsubstanti-
international politics and, by virtue of its privi- ated, collective suicide of the people of Nu-
leged location between the Atlantic and the mantia under siege by the Romans were much
Mediterranean and its rich agricultural and mi- celebrated by Latin historians.
neral resources in the south, became a much- The Roman presence in Hispania lasted
coveted strategic objective. seven hundred years, during which time the
The Roman invasion and eventual con- basic boundaries of the peninsula in relation
quest of the peninsula took place over the long to other European countries were established.
period between 218 and 19 B.C. The Romans The interior divisions drawn up by the Romans
were alarmed by the Carthaginian expansion to seem curiously prophetic: Lusitania, Tarraco-
the northeast; like Napoleon centuries later, nensis and Baetica. But the Romans be-
they believed that the Ebro River delineated a queathed more than just a territorial structure;
natural boundary with Gaul, which was then a they also left institutions such as the family
Roman province. unit, language, religion, law and the concept
This conflict of interests led to the Sec- of the municipality, and their assimilation si-
ond Punic War. While Hannibal was mak- tuated the peninsula firmly in the Greco-Latin
ing his legendary journey across the Alps, and later the Judaeo-Christian world.
the Roman legions were attacking his Spa- The Romans mainly settled along the
nish base at Carthago Nova (present-day coasts and rivers, bequeathing the enduring
Cartagena), with its seaport and mines. importance of cities such as Tarragona, Carta-
Hannibal’s defeat by Publius Cornelius gena, Lisbon and particularly Mérida. Mean-
Scipio (209 B.C.) not only marked the be- while, the vast array of public works such as
ginning of the end for his army in Italy; it roads, bridges, aqueducts, temples arches, the-
was also the beginning of the Roman con- atres, amphitheatres and circuses clearly re-
quest of Spain. flects the geographical distribution of Roman
The Romans did not just want to replace settlements on the peninsula. However, at the
the Carthaginians, but to extend their domi- beginning of the 5th century A.D. the map of
nion to the rest of the peninsula. However, Roman colonisation began to change dramati-
Roman arch of Bará

(circa 13 BC),
Roda de Bará
(Tarragona).
30
cally when a variety of Germanic peoples and an ecclesiastical aristocracy, and both
marched into the peninsula and settled in the institutions favoured the autonomy of the no-
interior, in the case of the Visigoths, and in the bility at the expense of royal power.
west, in the case of the Suebi. At the same time,
certain phenomena had been gaining momen- Muslim Spain: Cradle of a Flourishing Culture
tum since the 3rd century A.D. such as the re-
duction of the urban population, the construc- It was precisely one of the ostracised noble
tion of fortifications around cities, the extension clans, the Witiza family, which brought about
of latifundismo (the division of the land into the collapse of the Visigothic state at the begin-
large estates), the lack of safety in rural areas ning of the 8th century by appealing for help to
and the weakening of the state as an institution. the Arabic and Berber troops on the other side
On the other hand, local oligarchies were be- of the Straits of Gibraltar. In fact, the degree of
coming more powerful as they offered safety in disintegration within the Visigothic state appa-
return for loyalty. A major event of this period ratus enabled the Muslims to secure isolated
was the beginning of the Christian conquest of pacts with the semi-independent aristocracy
Hispania, although its exact origins are still un- hostile to the Crown.
known. St. Paul was probably present in His- By the mid-8th century, the Muslims had
pania between 62 and 63 A.D., and Pruden- consolidated their occupation of the land, and
tius’ narrative of the 3rd century persecution of in Cordoba the Umayyad prince Abd al-Rah-
Christianity mentions dioceses and martyrs. man proclaimed himself emir of a new state,
Following Constantine’s Edict of Milan, which independent of Damascus. During the first
granted religious freedom, the first Council of third of the 10th century, a member of the
the Spanish Church was held in 314 A.D. Umayyad dynasty in Hispania, Abd al-Rah-
man III, restored and expanded the state of Al-
The Visigoth Kingdom: First Attempt Andalus and became the first Spanish caliph.
at Peninsular Unity The proclamation of the caliphate had a
dual purpose. In the interior, the Umayyads
By the 5th century the Visigoths were already a were keen to reinforce the peninsular state.
Romanised people who saw themselves as the In the outlying territories, their quest was to
perpetuators of the extinct imperial power. consolidate the commercial routes in the
Around the mid 500s, the pressure exerted by Mediterranean that would guarantee eco-
the Suebi in the west (Galicia), the Cantabrian- nomic relations with the eastern basin (By-
Pyrenean shepherds in the north, and the Byz- zantium) as well as the supply of gold. Me-
antines in the south (Baetica) on three different lilla was occupied in 927 and by the middle
fronts led them to establish their capital in To- of the same century the Umayyad Caliphate
ledo at the centre of the peninsula. controlled the triangle between Algeria, Sijil-
Integration between Visigoths and His- masa and the Atlantic. The small Christian
pano-Romans was both rapid and success- enclaves in the north of the peninsula be-
ful. It was also greatly facilitated by King came modest fiefdoms of the caliph, whose
Reccared’s conversion to the Catholic faith at superiority and arbitration they recognised.
the 3rd Council of Toledo (589), which ena- The foundations of Muslim Spain’s he-
bled the Church to acquire a predominant gemony rested on considerable economic
and fiscal role in politics through the cele- power derived from substantial trade, a high-
bration of a series of Councils of Toledo and ly developed crafts industry and farming
the adoption of relatively similar social struc- methods that were much more efficient than
tures, contained in the Liber Judiciorum those employed in the rest of Europe.
promulgated by Recceswinth that basically The Caliphate of Cordoba was the first ur-
unified Visigothic and Hispano-Roman law. ban and commercial economy to flourish in
Both cultures boasted a landed aristocracy Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire.
Interior of the
Great Mosque,
Cordoba.
Moreover, its capital and main city, Cordoba, From the Early Christian Resistance
had a population of approximately 100,000, to the Reconquest of Spain
which made it the largest urban centre in Eu-
rope at the time. The first Christian uprising occurred in the first
Muslim Spain produced a flourishing third of the 8th century in Covadonga, located
culture, especially following the accession of in the mountains of Asturias.
the caliph Al-Hakam II (961-976), who is at- However, this early Christian resistance
tributed with creating a library of several was more a question of survival than a deliber-
hundred thousand volumes – an inconcei- ate offensive campaign or “reconquest.” In the
vable feat in Europe at the time. The most 10th century, Alfonso III advanced from Oviedo
characteristic trait of this culture was its swift to Leon, en route to the Duero River Valley. On
re-adoption of classical philosophy, most no- the Meseta, this expansion led to the creation
tably by Ibn Masarra, Abentofain, Averroes of the county and then the kingdom of Castile,
and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides. But which later united with the kingdom of Leon
above all, Hispano-Muslim scholars were under the reign of Ferdinand III in 1230. Mean-
noted for their contributions to the fields of while, in 1143 the Atlantic flank of the penin-
medicine, mathematics and astronomy. sula became the kingdom of Portugal.
The fragmentation of the Caliphate of During the 12th and 13th centuries, the four
Cordoba occurred at the end of the first dec- main Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Penin-
ade of the 11th century and was brought about sula were formed: Portugal, Castile-Leon, Na-
by the intense military aggressions perpetrat- varre and Aragon-Catalonia.
ed by its last leaders, combined with asphyxi- From a continental perspective, the Recon-
ating fiscal pressure. The successors of the quest took place within the context of the growth
unitary caliphate were known as taifas or pet- and offensive expansion that characterised the
ty kingdoms, and the word has passed into the history of the western segment of Europe be-
Spanish language as a synonym of the ruin tween the 10th and 13th centuries against Hun-
that generated the fragmentation and disunity garian, Slavic and Muslim invaders. The result of
of the peninsula. As a result of this gradual these dynamics was the creation of the area we
weakening of the state, by the mid-13th cen- now call Western Europe around 1300 A.D.
tury Muslim Spain had been reduced to the By the final third of the 13th century the
Nasrid kingdom of Granada. Muslim presence had been reduced to the
32
Nasrid kingdom of Granada until 2 January

1492. The end of the Reconquest – or, in Ro-
man-Visigothic terminology, the recovery of
Hispania – had a profound impact on Chris-
tian Europe, being regarded as compensation
for the fall of Constantinople to the Turks.
Given that the Reconquest lasted so long,
there were several periods of co-existence and
even, at certain times in the 12th century, a
type of frontier society. In any case, the Chris-
tian monarchs conquered through colonisa-
tion, offering land to anyone who promised to
occupy, cultivate and defend it. This gave rise
to transfers and migrations from the north of
the Iberian Peninsula and Europe, a rare phe-
nomenon in other latitudes at the time. Those
colonisers gradually formed a peasant society
that was comparatively freer than its contem- The Mexuar Hall in the Nasrid Palace at the Alhambra
(Granada).
poraries in other parts of Europe, where subju-
gation to the feudal lords was much greater.
Between the 9th and 11th centuries, these giving rise to the so-called disputas or debates
semi-free peasants were grouped into towns between scholars of the three cultures united in
governed by elected councils to which the a movement sponsored by King Alfonso X and
monarchs granted special charters (fueros) known as the Toledo Translation School. The
based on certain exemptions and privileges. work produced by this school enriched Euro-
Subsequently, in the 12th century, these burg- pean culture with the science of the Greeks and
hers sat down with the other two branches of the achievements of the Arabs.
society – the nobility and the clergy – in assem- Expansion of the calibre described above
blies known as Cortes, where they discussed undoubtedly created a frontier economy with
and voted on matters pertaining to taxes. the acquisition of vast spaces. Since the 13th
century the Hispanic kingdoms were based on
The Catholic Monarchs: Peninsular Unity rapidly growing societies, the dynamics of
and the Imperial Enterprise of the Spanish which were clearly reflected in the economic
Renaissance and political boom experienced by the king-
dom of Aragon with the conquest of Sardinia,
The quest for unity did not end with the last Sicily and Naples in the Mediterranean.
military victory of 1492 and the conquest of Thanks to a combination of economic in-
Granada, but continued – in its ambition for re- terests and a seafaring vocation, Castile was
ligious, ethnic and cultural uniformity – with able to occupy a vanguard position in the
the expulsion that same year of the Jews who quest for and consolidation of new commer-
refused to convert to Catholicism and then of cial routes with the East. In this race, the Cas-
the Moriscos, or Moorish converts. The difficult tilians found an extremely active competitor in
situation in which the Jews found themselves another Iberian state – Portugal. A first attempt
was not confined exclusively to Spain. Since at resolving the rivalry between the two king-
the Council of Letran in 1215, they had unfor- doms for the control of the maritime eastern
tunately suffered a similar if not harsher fate in trade routes was the Treaty of Alcaçovas.
the rest of Europe. Until 1492, Christian terri- Signed in 1479, this agreement enabled Cas-
tory in Spain had been a melting pot of Jewish, tile to maintain the Canary Islands in return for
Muslim and Christian cultures, most famously renouncing all eastern voyages around the
African coast, which was assigned to Portugal. and considerable scientific and technical ex-
Such an unfair division can only be explained pertise: mathematicians, geographers, astrono-
by the fact that the treaty also addressed an mers and shipbuilders, forged in the melting
age-old issue of the Iberian states, namely, the pot of the three cultures.
unity of the peninsula.
Although the incorporation of Navarre in
From the Discovery of America
1512 improved peninsular unity, the cycle of
to the 20th Century
unification was really completed with the
capture of Granada in 1492. That same year,
Nebrija published the first grammar of a pop- The Conquest of America: The New Frontier
of the Largest Western Empire
ular language – Castilian – and a Spanish
fleet reached the coasts of America. By the mid-16th century, the main viceroyalties
The legendary aura surrounding Ferdi- had been established and settled: Mexico on
nand and Isabella, the Catholic Monarchs, the Atlantic flank and Peru in the South Ameri-
has hindered the task of providing an ade- can Pacific.
quate assessment of their context and a sober On 6 September 1522, Juan Sebastián El-
evaluation of their work. cano returned to the peninsula as a survivor
Internally, they invested all their efforts in of the first circumnavigation of the world ini-
reinforcing the state apparatus and the author- tiated by Magellan, thereby providing Spain
ity of the Crown, seeking support in the exist- with a route to the East. Thereafter, Havana-
ing legal and administrative institutions and Veracruz (the Tierra Firme fleet) in the Atlan-
creating new ones, often inspired by those of tic and Acapulco-El Callao-Philippines (the
other European countries. Such was the case, China ship) in the Pacific, together with con-
for example, of the Tribunal of the Inquisition. trol of the Western Mediterranean – under
Introduced at a later date in Spain than else- eternal threat from the Turks – became the
where, this court not only served religious pur- vital arteries of the Spanish Empire’s overseas
poses but was also an instrument used by mon- territories. The convoys of Spanish galleons
archs to reinforce the authority of the state. maintained these routes open despite attacks
In 1492 the Spanish monarchy represent- from marauding English and Dutch ships un-
ed one of the earliest modern states in Renais- til the decisive Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
sance Europe. Its outward expansion across
the Atlantic (the Americas and Flanders) and
the Mediterranean (Italy) was based precisely
on this. Indeed, Spain’s foreign policy at the
time was orchestrated by the creation of a per-
manent state staffed by civil servants and di-
plomats, with a unitary but flexible and con-
federate concept of the monarchy.
Although Castile had lost its African routes
to Portugal, its possession of the Canary Islands
provided it with an excellent springboard for
alternative routes. This is precisely what Chris-
topher Columbus offered the state, which was
clearly in need of such an offer, although it had
prepared for and become accustomed to enter-
prises of this nature. By 1492 the united Spain
boasted powerful war machinery, a solid eco-
Detail of the “Fresco de los colonizadores” (Fresco of the
nomy, an international presence, experience at Colonisers) by Vázquez Díaz. Monastery of Santa María
sea and in exploring new commercial routes, de la Rábida (Huelva).
34
King Philip II ordered the construction of the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial.
In many respects the conquest of America would have been no unity without the figure
was similar to the peninsular expansion that of the king, since each kingdom maintained its
preceded it. In both cases, confrontations were own institutions, language, laws, and even its
a last resort, used only after intense attempts to own borders.
avoid them. The Spanish sought allies in the The Carolingian Empire was therefore a
tribes they subjugated and in discontented conglomerate of territories randomly united
leaders; they agreed to capitulations in ex- under a common sovereign. The first conse-
change for privileges; they distributed the new quence to arise from this was the complete ab-
lands among Spanish colonists; and they reor- sence of any attempt to create an institutional
ganised the indigenous settlements. organisation common to the whole empire.
In Italy the Spanish monarchy adopted the Similarly, the second consequence was that no
tradition of engaging in confrontations with attempt was made to secure any type of politi-
France and alliances with England. The Battle cal or economic cooperation between the vari-
of Pavia in 1521, which resulted in the cap- ous territories, which would have helped con-
ture of King Francis I of France by the Spanish solidate the idea of an empire – that is, the
infantry regiments, consolidated Spain’s supe- participation of all parties in a shared enter-
riority until the mid-17th century. prise. The most notable achievement of Spain
Eventually, in their quest to further Spain’s under the Hapsburgs was its ability to retain
diplomatic and commercial relations with the control over its vast territories spread around
Netherlands, Ferdinand and Isabella joined the world. No other state in the 16th and 17th
the Spanish Crown to the Duchy of Burgundy. centuries was faced with such an enormous
The fabulous legacy embodied in the Flemish administration problem. Spain had to explore,
Prince Charles, grandson of the Emperor Ma- colonise and govern a new world.
ximilian and the Catholic Monarchs, was to
condition Spanish and European politics until The Spanish Empire and its “Black Legend”
the 18th century. The solution adopted by the
Spanish Hapsburgs to manage this enormous This acceptance of differences by the Spanish
legacy was to establish an all-encompassing, Hapsburgs encompassed all domains except for
flexible monarchy, consisting of a constella- one: religion. They strove to create a universal
tion of kingdoms and domains united in a vast empire founded on the Madrid-Brussels-Vienna
confederation around a single Crown. There triangle, which did not sit well with the emerging
nationalist states and was even less palatable to ces. In addition to these two factors, Spain was
the individualist mindset of the Reformation. also the victim of its own success: The incorpo-
These two ingredients – nationalism and Protes- ration of the Americas and the expansion of
tantism – met head on in the Dutch uprising transoceanic navigation shifted the European
against Philip II, who had succeeded the Emper- geo-economic axis from the Mediterranean to
or Charles in the Duchy of Burgundy and on the the Atlantic, and more precisely to the basins
throne of the Spanish kingdoms in 1556. of the Thames, Rhine, Seine and Scheldt, rele-
The conquest of America was an attempt to gating Spain to a peripheral position.
annex the territory and subjugate the popula- However, peripheral is not to be confused
tion. Just as the Roman Empire had done, with marginal, and Spain maintained its status
language, religion, laws, administration and as a great power and a key player in Europe
crossbreeding provided the vehicles for the His- with the Americas and Naples still under its
panicisation of America, all of which guided control. Following the Treaty of the Pyrenees
the continent firmly into the western fold. Se- in 1659, it had ceded its hegemonic role to the
veral Spaniards, including Bartolomé de las Ca- French kingdom of Louis XIV, which made the
sas, spoke out against the abuses of the con- “Sun King” into the arbiter of European poli-
querors, which gave rise to the so-called “Black tics and France into the model for what was
Legend” of Spanish cruelty in the Americas. soon to become the reformed government of
The issue became the subject of intense po- 17th century enlightened despotism.
litical debate; the so-called “Indian question” Charles II, the last of the Spanish Hapsburgs,
consisted of doubts regarding Spain’s right of was childless and bequeathed his inheritance
conquest, which was eventually justified as an to a grandson of his sister Maria Theresa and
evangelising mission. Against such a back- Louis XIV of France, Philip of Anjou. Crowned
ground it is hardly surprising that it was the King of Spain and the Indies in 1701, Philip V
Spanish, through Francisco de Vitoria, who first inaugurated the dynasty of the Spanish Bour-
advocated the concept of international law. bons. His reign prolonged the Enlightenment
in Spain, a period of foreign policy equilibrium,
Fiscal Crisis, Centralism and the Decline reform and internal progress.
of the Spanish Empire
Spain under the House of Bourbon
The state that had gradually been forged, first by and the Enlightenment
the Catholic Monarchs and later by Philip II, was
the prototype of the modern absolutist state. The The rest of Europe viewed the will of Charles II
Spanish Empire invented an administrative appa- with suspicion. This led to the Spanish War of
ratus that was highly complex for the time, based Succession (1705-1713), with the Treaty of
on a system that put security before all else and Utrecht signifying victory for Philip V.
attained enormous prestige. The state grew con- However, at Utrecht Philip V and his suc-
siderably, assuming responsibilities and duties cessors were obliged to renounce their Fle-
that were too much for the increasingly impove- mish inheritance. The official renunciation of
rished agrarian society of the ancien régime to Flanders constituted the end of the old univer-
bear. But rather than reducing the size of the state salising conception of the Spanish-Austrian
and eradicating duties, the imperialists chose to monarchy and the beginning of the nationali-
asphyxiate society. The breakdown of the system sation of Spanish politics.
became evident in 1640 with the rebellion of Balance and peace in Europe became the
Catalonia and the separation of Portugal. two goals pursued by Spain throughout the 18th
The decline of the Spanish Empire, brought century. However, this ambition was thwarted
about by fiscal exhaustion, coincided with a by England’s commercial and colonial expan-
gradual disintegration of the confederated sys- sion on the one hand, and by the rivalry be-
tem, which was subjected to centralist practi- tween England and France on the other. Spain’s
36
desire for neutrality and peace was best embod- by mercantilist ideas, interventionist meth-
ied by Ferdinand VI (1746-1759). ods and, to a lesser degree, liberal impulses.
During the reign of Charles III (1759-1788), A major step forward was made with the
the politics articulated by Prime Minister Flori- removal of all obstacles to trade and industry.
dablanca managed to keep Spain out of mili- The elimination of “dry ports,” which econom-
tary conflicts, despite a tentative intervention ically isolated certain areas from others, and
in the American War of Independence. Charles the opening of all the ports in the kingdom pro-
III’s legacy was a country at peace and well on vided a major boost to the trade conducted not
the road to progress, and it took a long time for only between these national ports but also with
the French Revolution of 1789 to derail this foreign ports, so that by the end of the century
peaceful, non-interventionist policy. 75% of the trade with the Americas had been
The germination of a Spanish nationality recovered. Similarly, the Catalonian cotton in-
in foreign policy was accompanied by a par- dustry began to take off; this growth was so
allel phenomenon in the country’s domestic pronounced that, prior to the French invasion
politics; indeed, the two developments were of 1808, it represented two-thirds of the British
closely related. During the War of Succes- cotton industry. The progressive liberalisation
sion, the Kingdom of Aragon had backed the of farm prices and the limitation of the privi-
Austrian candidate, a choice that presented leges of the Mesta (a powerful association of
the victorious Philip V with a perfect excuse sheep ranchers in the medieval Kingdom of
for embarking on what was to become a Castile) contributed to provide a greater quan-
chain of profound reforms in the structure of tity of land for cultivation and an increase in
the state and the Spanish government. The agricultural production.
Decree of Nueva Planta (or new approach, However, in Spain as in the rest of Europe
which aimed to reorganise the country) was still governed by the social order of the ancien
to internal politics what the Treaty of Utrecht régime, the land problem consisted of vast ex-
was to foreign policy, as it implied the exten- panses purloined from the market and placed
sion of the Castilian administrative structure in the hands of either the Church – which
to the Kingdom of Aragon and the abolition owned 15% of the cultivable area – the mu-
of Aragon’s fueros or special charters, thus nicipal councils or the nobility. The confisca-
bringing the confederate monarchy of the tion policy initiated – albeit timidly – by the
Hapsburgs to an end. This marked the first enlightened governments formed part of a
step on the road to centralisation, which was general policy aimed at reducing tax and other
completed a century and a half later by lib- exemptions, special privileges, judicial and
eral governments. territorial domains, and even the ecclesiastic
The disproportionate and chronic deficit of and noble populations (the former still repre-
the 17th century was reduced and a tendency sented 3% of the total population, while in the
towards budgetary balance recovered, which latter case the number of gentry fell from
was only broken at the end of the 18th century. 700,000 in 1763 to 400,000 in 1787).
The country’s improved financial management The Bourbons also did away with a large pro-
was brought about by another two factors: less portion of the motley administrative apparatus
was spent on foreign ventures and more taxes inherited from the Hapsburgs and reduced the
were collected, not only as a result of a more Councils. They promoted the creation of Secre-
efficient fiscal system but also because Spanish tarías (Ministries) and direct dealings with the
society was more prosperous. king as part of a plan intended to marginalise the
The Bourbons were exemplary figures of upper nobility from, as Louis XIV of France put it,
the reformism of Europe during the Enligh- “anything that could give them part of the govern-
tenment. They sought progress and efficient ment”. The Bourbons recruited their senior civil
organisation for the country according to the servants from among the local and enlightened
theories of their time, which were influenced lower nobility, giving rise to a new social cate-
Francisco de Goya.
“The Third of May 1808.”
Madrid. National Prado
Museum.
gory – an ambitious middle-class nobility eager a dynastic crisis that severely undermined the
for advancement at the service of the state. enormous prestige and authority of an an-
These civil servants were people of their cient Crown. When Charles IV abdicated in
time, enlightened in their thinking and con- favour of his son, the monarchy was irrepara-
vinced of their reforming mission, alert to the bly damaged.
ideas of the period, often with foreign friends The political regime that the Bonapartes
and a command of other languages. For exam- attempted to unify was laid out in the Statute
ple, Floridablanca was a friend of Benjamin of Bayonne, signed on 8 July 1808. Although
Franklin and kept up a correspondence with this document is tremendously important
Voltaire. In his Informe sobre la Ley Agraria from a historical standpoint, it never had any
(Report on the Agrarian Law), Jovellanos dem- legal or practical significance because it was
onstrated his knowledge of the recent reforms never enacted. It was, however, the first con-
introduced by Adam Smith, and he also wrote stitutional text to appear in Spain.
frequently to Lord Holland. The paradox lay in The reforms established in this Statute
the fact that neither of these two figures en- could not be implemented by Joseph Bona-
joyed a reputation among their fellow coun- parte due to the fact that a huge proportion
trymen, although at least they did not suffer of the Spanish population rejected them, as
the sad fate of Esquilache, whose reforms met they saw the new monarchy as illegitimate
with such widespread opposition that he had and the product of an act of treason.
to go into exile. The result was a general uprising on 2 May,
which was immortalised in Goya’s paintings.
The Napoleonic Invasion The War of Spain, as the French called it,
and the War of Independence lasted six years. The Spanish christened it the
War of Independence, and it was an all-out
The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) permitted war that raged throughout the entire country.
the French army of Marshal Junot to cross the A minority of Spaniards, albeit fairly nume-
Pyrenees and advance towards Portugal, and al- rous, actually supported the intruder king.
though the French entered Lisbon they did not The luckier ones became some of contempo-
leave Spain. rary Spain’s first political emigrants. The di-
The crisis of the ancien régime that paved sasters that Goya reflected in his paintings
the way for the Napoleonic invasion was also clearly evoke the cruelty of a long struggle in
38
which the guerrilla parties used the strategy rious state but a devastated and divided nation.
of preventing normal life in the country as The profound crisis in the mother country had se-
way of perpetually harassing the invaders. verely damaged the Latin American Empire, from
Senior Provincial Juntas emerged sponta- which continental America separated in 1824 fol-
neously in most of the Spanish provinces, lowing the Battle of Ayacucho. In the words of the
but in the face of military defeats and the Count of Aranda, the Spanish Empire had coped
lack of financial resources they eventually better with the small defeats of the 17th century
saw the need for a higher structure to coordi- than with the violent victories of the 19th century.
nate all their efforts, giving rise to the crea- The patriots of Cadiz had responded to the
tion of the Central Junta. dynastic crisis and the power vacuum with
The Central Junta appointed a Regency, three main stances on national sovereignty. For
founded in the city of Cadiz, which sum- some, this lay with the Crown and the tradi-
moned the Cortes (Parliament). tional institutions (the Cortes); consequently,
they initially defended a return to an absolutist
The Constitution of 1812 regime (1815-1819), then a more moderate
one (1824-1834), and eventually adopted the
The inaugural session of the new Cortes was held name of Carlists to signify their support of the
on 24 September 1810 and was attended by ap- king’s reactionary brother, Don Carlos. Others
proximately 100 representatives, around half of defended a nation based on the Cortes and the
whom were stand-ins. This gathering ratified the King. These subsequently became known as
following basic principles: that sovereignty lay moderate or doctrinarian liberals (between
with the nation, that Ferdinand VII was the legiti- 1834 and 1875), and then as conservatives
mate king of Spain, and that the representatives (1876-1923). Finally, a small but highly active
were entitled to parliamentary immunity. group supported the idea of national sover-
The Constitution of 1812 proclaimed the eignty based exclusively on the Spanish peo-
figure of the king to be sacrosanct and imple. A more moderate version of the French
mune, not subject to liability and with the right Jacobeans, these went down in history first as
to sanction and enact laws. It also established exaltados or extreme radicals (1820-1823),
the number of ministers, who were accounta- then as progressives (1823-1869), and finally
ble for the king’s actions and in the Cortes for as constitutionalists (1870-1880) and fusionist
compliance with the law of the land. liberals (1881-1923).
In relation to the judiciary, the courts were The Carlists had a strong following in the
responsible for applying the law, and the revo- countryside – especially in the north (Basque
lutionary concept of procedural law was intro- Country and Navarre) and in the hinterlands
duced. Only two special fueros or charters of Catalonia – and to a certain extent they
were granted: to the clergy and to the militia. represented the rebellion of rural society
The constitution also proclaimed the equality against urban society. They were also sup-
of all Spaniards in the eyes of the law and the ported by the lower clergy and autocratic
irremovability of judges and civil servants. powers such as Russia.
Primary schools were contemplated for Politically, Carlism advocated the return
every town in the land, plus a single education of the ancien régime. By contrast, the liberals
system for the entire kingdom. Freedom of ex- – who defended the succession of Isabella II,
pression and of the press was also established. daughter of Ferdinand VII – desired a radical
change to create a society made up of indi-
A Century of Liberal Revolutions viduals who were equal in the eyes of a law
and Moderate Governments that would guarantee human rights. Their
victory must be viewed within the context of
When the Spanish diplomats attended the Con- British support for liberal causes, especially
gress of Vienna in 1814, they represented a victo- in the Latin world, as opposed to Russian ex-
pansionism, and the victory of the liberal However, it would be mistaken to view
monarchy in France in 1830. these coups as armed conflicts: they simply
The liberals legislated in accordance with provided a method for precipitating political
individual-egalitarian principles. They abolis- solutions with a minimum of military con-
hed privileges and legal exemptions, did away frontations. In 1868, what started out as a
with judicial domains, and dissociated entailed classic coup staged by the progressives de-
estates from the Church and local authorities, generated into a revolution that deposed Isa-
thereby making millions of hectares available bella II and ushered in a six-year period of
for the market and vastly increasing the quanti- strong political mobilisation with the esta-
ty of cultivable land and agrarian production. blishment of a provisional government and
At the beginning of the century, Spain imported the enactment of a new constitution (1869)
wheat and ate rye bread, while by the end of that paved the way for the ephemeral reign
the century it exported cereals and the bread of Amadeus of Savoy (1869-1873).
was made from wheat. The liberals also be-
lieved in the free market, and through the con- The First Republic: The Carlist Uprising
fiscation of land they attempted to create a
much wider, national market to achieve a vic- Following the abdication of Amadeus I, who
tory over absolutism. However, they did not lacked popular support, on 11 February 1873
pursue an agrarian reform like that advocated the National Assembly (Congress and Senate)
by other powers years later, in the 20th century. proclaimed the First Republic by 258 votes to 32
against. Although extremely short-lived – it only
The Impossibility of Rotation lasted until 29 December 1874 – this republic
and the Coup d’état Tradition advocated new theories that shaped the imme-
diate future: federalism, socialism and cantona-
The liberals, who believed they had solved a pro- lism. Following four successive presidencies –
blem of state, were in fact creating one of govern- Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Margall,
ment by drawing up constitutional and electoral Nicolás Salmerón and Emilio Castelar – the coup
legislation that was markedly biased and designed d’état led by General Pavía dissolved the Nation-
to ensure the permanence in power of their party. al Assembly (3 January 1874) and on 29 Decem-
This turned rotation in office into the Spanish po- ber of the same year, following the uprising led
litical problem par excellence, although in reality by General Martínez Campos, the monarchy was
it was also a conflict deeply rooted in social is- restored in the person of Alfonso XII, Isabella’s
sues, for the small parties of the time sought sup- eldest son. The Republic met with a major upri-
porters among the employed, unemployed and sing of the Carlists. The general political senti-
job seekers, all from the urban middle classes and ment had begun to swing from the extreme right
dependent on power for their survival. to the extreme left, in keeping with events in
For decades, monopolist practices alter- Europe at the time, such as the Paris Commune in
nated with mutinies and military coups, and 1871 and the conservative reaction it provoked.
until 1870 in Spain the military uprising was The liberals soon became disillusioned with
the basic and daring – but no less effective the revolution and frightened by the Carlist reac-
–instrument used by the parties in opposition tion. All of these sentiments provided the ideal
to impose the rotation denied to them by conditions for the Restoration of Alfonso XII.
governments entrenched in office.
An oversized, ambitious and undisciplined The Restoration: The Loss of the Last Colonies
officers corps, eternally exposed to the threat of
being discharged, with no job and only half The beginning of Alfonso XII’s reign was marked
pay, were easy prey for political groups keen to by two successes: the end of the Third Carlist War
take by force what the exclusivist policy of the and the approval of a new constitution (1876),
party in power denied them. and a certain stability based on the existence of
40
two political formations that represented the ma- social agitation, even including a general strike
jority of the electorate: the Conservative Party led (1855). In 1868, Fanelli, a follower of Bakunin,
by Cánovas, supported by the court and lati- established sections of the International Wor-
fundista aristocracy, landowners and people of in- kers’ Association in Spain, rapidly recruiting
dependent means, and Sagasta’s Liberal Party, 100,000 members in Catalonia and Andalusia.
whose members included people from the pro- After several periods of action and successive
fessional and middle classes, as well as merchants repressions, in 1911 the movement evolved into
and industrialists. Their rotation in power, espe- the CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo
cially after the death of the king and the regency – National Confederation of Labour), which re-
of his wife Maria Christina (1885-1902), gave rise tained the support of the Spanish working class
to a period of stability interrupted only in its last until the end of the Civil War. The arrival in Spain
phase by the incidents and confrontations in Mo- of Lafargue, sent by Marx, failed to halt the de-
rocco and the loss in 1898 of the last two remai- velopment of Bakunism, as described by F. En-
ning colonies: Cuba and the Philippines. gels in his famous collection of articles.
On 2 May 1879 the PSOE (Partido Socialista
The Early 20th Century Obrero Español – Spanish Socialist Workers’
Party) was formed, followed in 1888, after sev-
The dawn of the 20th century in Spain was marked eral conferences, by the formation of the socia-
by a series of profound unsolved problems. Some list union UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores
of these problems were structural; the population – General Workers’ Union). The socialist claims
had almost doubled since the beginning of the found a wide support base in industrial areas:
previous century, rising from 11 to 18.5 million in among miners in Asturias, metal workers in the
a land of limited resources. There were also agrar- Basque Country and printers in Madrid.
ian problems: latifundismo, low yields and a high In Catalonia powerful regional parties
percentage of land left uncultivated. In addition to emerged, such as the Regionalist League that
these problems, capital funds and the existing in- won the elections in Barcelona in 1901. The
frastructure were insufficient to launch heavy in- Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was founded
dustry, and consumer capacity was very low, all of in 1895. One more splinter action also took
which gave rise to a protectionism that was both place during this period – the separation of
costly and for the most part non-competitive. political Spain from intellectual Spain. The
At the same time, the political problems confrontation between traditional ideas and
that had arisen in the previous century became progressive ideas also spread to the literary
more acute. In addition to the political and in- and scientific fields, where the most impor-
tellectual frustration resulting from Spain’s loss tant intellectual movement, Krausism (based
of influence on the world stage, plus the disap- on the ideas of German philosopher Karl
pearance of its colonial empire, the country Christian Friedrich Krause), had a particular-
now had to face the regionalist problem, either ly strong influence on education – the free-
in the form of federalism or claims for a return thinking Institución Libre de Enseñanza run
to the old regime of fuerismo, the system of by Giner de los Ríos – and on research – the
special privileges that had characterised the so-called Junta para la Ampliación de Estu-
Carlists. Similarly, the cantonalism expressed dios (Board of Further Study) promoted and
during the ephemeral First Republic raised its run by Cajal, Castillejo and Bolívar. Spanish
head again. However, the main problem un- intellectuals, creators of extraordinary philo-
doubtedly emerged from the social and trade sophical, literary, historical and scientific
union movements of the working class, which schools of thought – Unamuno, Ortega, Aza-
was destined to play a historic and decisive ña, Altamira, Sánchez Albornoz, Menéndez
role throughout the 20th century. Pidal, Marañón, Negrín, Moles and many
Working class associations first emerged in others – took sides and, in some cases, served
Spain in 1830 and gave rise to moments of great as political leaders in the dilemma of 1931.
The republican administration under Azaña’s presidency, 23 June 1933. From left to right: José Franchy Roca (Industry
and Commerce), Marcelino Domingo (Agriculture), Largo Caballero (Labour), Lluís Companys (Naval Affairs), Francisco
J. Barnés (Public Instruction), Agustín Viñuales (Internal Revenue), Manuel Azaña (Head of Goverment), Fernando de los
Ríos (Foreign Affairs), Álvaro de Albornoz (Justice), Santiago Casares Quiroga (Interior), Indalecio Prieto (Public Works).
Spain and the First World War: created as a consequence of the victory of
The Authoritarianism of Primo de Rivera the October Revolution in Russia.
But above all, the crisis was rooted in the
In 1902, Alfonso XIII took the throne and the Moroccan War. When Spanish troops were
emergence of new political forms threw the Cano- massacred at Annual (1921), unleashing a
vite and liberal-conservative two-party system into wave of criticism against the government and
crisis. There were also several important expres- the military administration, General Primo de
sions of social unrest, such as the Tragic Week of Rivera staged a coup d’état (13 October 1921)
1909 in Barcelona and popular resistance to the and installed a military government.
drafting of troops for the war in Morocco. Described as “mild despotism”, Primo de
Spain’s neutral position during the First Rivera’s dictatorship attempted to solve several
World War was only a parenthesis. Price in- problems by ending the Moroccan War, deve-
creases and the contraction of the European loping infrastructure for the country and pro-
market generated enormous instability, leading moting public works. Although ideologically
in 1917 to the summons of the Parliamentary aligned with the authoritarian regimes in Eu-
Assembly in Barcelona, which recommended rope, it adopted a more traditional, monarchic
the reform of the constitution, and a general and Catholic philosophy than the one adopted
strike in August of the same year. in Mussolini’s new state. Its failure was mainly
Following the failure of constitutional re- political, despite attempts to create a single
form, the regional problem re-emerged, this party and involve certain sectors of the wor-
time more acutely, and there were outbreaks kers’ movement in political life. Neither was it
of social and peasant unrest in both Andalu- able to re-organise industrial relations on the
sia and Catalonia. Coinciding with all of this basis of corporations, nor solve the agrarian
(1921), the PCE (Partido Comunista de Es- and regional problems.
paña - Communist Party of Spain) was formed An attempt to reform the constitution
when the PSOE failed to join the Comintern, through the creation of a consultative Na-
42
tional Assembly in 1926 also failed to mate- provided by General Sanjurjo’s abortive coup
rialise, and when the financial crash of 1930 on 10 August 1932. The following year began
occurred, the dictator was forced to resign. with the repression of the uprising at Casas Vie-
He was replaced by General Berenguer. jas and municipal elections that showed a clear
swing to the right. This trend was represented by
The Collapse of the Monarchy the CEDA (Confederación Española de Dere-
and the Second Republic chas Autónomas—Spanish Confederation of
Autonomous Right-Wing Parties) (Gil Robles);
In August 1930, Republican, Socialist and Cata- Renovación Española (Spanish Revival) (Calvo
lonian nationalist politicians signed the Pact of Sotelo) and Comunión Tradicionalista (Tradi-
San Sebastian, and on 12 December a military tional Communion). On 29 October, José Anto-
uprising in favour of the republic took place in nio Primo de Rivera founded the Falange Es-
Jaca. Officers Galán and García Hernández were pañola, or Spanish Falangist Movement.
shot, which led to the resignation of Berenguer, New general elections on 19 November
and a group of intellectuals – Ortega y Gasset, gave a clear victory to the right and the admin-
Marañón, Pérez de Ayala – declared themselves istration led by Lerroux and CEDA was formed.
to be “At the Service of the Republic”. The new government revoked several laws, in-
The last monarchic government was cluding the Agrarian Reform, and issued an
formed in February 1931 and immediately amnesty for the rebel troops involved in the
called municipal elections for 12 April, result- abortive coup of 1932. Following Lerroux’s re-
ing in victory for the left and the Republicans signation, the Cortes were dissolved and the
in the main cities. On 14 April the Second Re- elections of 16 February 1936 were won by the
public was proclaimed. Alfonso XIII left Spain Popular Front, a coalition group uniting Aza-
and went into voluntary exile. ña’s Republican Left, Esquerra Catalana led by
The Republicans called general elections Companys (Catalonian Left), Largo Cabellero’s
on 28 June, announced religious freedom and Socialist Party, Martínez Barrio’s Republican
drew up a new constitution, approved on 9 Union and the Communist Party. The initial
December. Its preamble stated, “Spain is a government led by Azaña announced a gene-
democratic republic of workers of all classes, ral amnesty and reinstated the agrarian reform
organised in freedom and justice. The powers and the statutes of autonomy for Catalonia and
of its bodies rest with the people. The republic the Basque Country, and later Galicia. In May,
is a fully-integrated state, compatible with the Azaña was elected President of the Republic
autonomy of the municipalities and the re- and Casares Quiroga set up a new administra-
gions.” The organisation of the state was ex- tion. On 17 July, the military forces at the Me-
pressed as democratic, secular, decentralised, lilla garrison staged an uprising, marking the
and equipped with a single representational outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.
house and a Constitutional Court.
A preoccupation with reform marked the The Military Uprising and the Outbreak
first two years of the republic (1931-1933) unof the Civil War
der the leadership of Alcalá Zamora and Azaña,
who adopted a three-pronged approach: the On 18 July the military coup spread and the fol-
Basic Law of Agrarian Reform, the solution to lowing day Francisco Franco took command of
the regional problem with statutes of autonomy the army in Morocco. By the end of 1936, the
for Catalonia and the Basque Country, and a Nationalist troops had seized most of Andalusia,
particular emphasis on educational and cultur- Extremadura, Toledo, Ávila, Segovia, Valladolid,
al policy. However, two issues created consid- Burgos, Leon, Galicia, part of Asturias, Vitoria, San
erable tension: religion and military policy, Sebastian, Navarre and Aragon, as well as the Ca-
which the Azaña Law failed to solve and only nary and Balearic Islands, except for the island of
aggravated even further. Evidence of this was Minorca. Madrid, New Castile, Catalonia, Valen-
cia, Murcia and Almeria, Gijón and Bilbao be- ler and Mussolini, thereafter entrusting foreign
came Republican bastions. policy to the Germanophile Serrano Suñer.
The Republican government formed a coa- Although diplomacy under France played
lition cabinet led by Giralt, succeeded in his the anti-communist card, it could not avoid
post by Largo Caballero, who brought in repre- condemnation from the United Nations, the
sentatives of the CNT and moved the cabinet to withdrawal of ambassadors and the closure
Valencia. On 29 September the National De- of the French border.
fence Committee appointed General Franco In economic terms, international isolation
head of the government and commander-in- and, to a lesser degree, ideological differenc-
chief of the army. The Republican government es generated an autocratic and corporatist ap-
reacted to this by creating the Popular Army proach, which more or less accompanied the
and reorganising the militias into professional regime throughout its history. In agricultural
armies. Help from abroad also arrived for both terms, the country experienced a dramatic re-
bands – the International Brigades to support gression in relation to previous periods, giving
the Republicans, and Italian and German troops rise to a shortage of basic supplies and the
to provide assistance to the Francoist troops. introduction of rationing.
The year 1937 was characterised by an in-
tensification of the war in the north. The Re- The Cold War and Economic Development
publicans reacted by establishing fronts in
Guadalajara (March), Brunete (July) and Bel- The beginning of the Cold War provided a
chite (August). The year closed with the begin- boost for Franco’s regime, although Spain was
ning of the Battle of Teruel. At that time, the excluded from the reconstruction of Europe. In
Francoist troops concentrated their efforts in 1953, the Holy See signed a concordat with
Aragon, winning back Teruel and, after their Spain and the United States signed a treaty of
triumphal entry in Castellón in June 1938, di- reciprocal aid in military matters.
viding the Republican zone in two. The gov- Meanwhile, in the political arena, the UN
ernment response was the so-called Battle of accepted the renewal of diplomatic relations
the Ebro (July-November 1938), which ended in 1950, and in 1955 Spain occupied its seat
with a Republican defeat and 70,000 lives lost. in the international forum. A year later the
Having lost their final stronghold, the Re- Spanish protectorate was abolished in Moro-
publicans began to seek exile in France and on cco, which declared independence.
10 February 1939 the Francoist troops claimed Social unrest had emerged, albeit timidly,
control of Catalonia. Only Madrid still held out, in the 1951 labour strike in Barcelona and later
and when the peace proposals of its Defence with the first student riots in 1956. Extraordi-
Committee (Casado, Besteiro) failed, the Fran- narily high inflation led to the introduction of a
coist troops occupied the capital on 28 March Stabilisation Plan (1959) to offset the lack of
1939. A final war dispatch by General Franco currency. Although the effect of this was eco-
on 1 April announced the end of the conflict. nomic stagnation and new outbreaks of social
unrest in Asturias, it did pave the way for the
Franco’s Dictatorship First Development Plan (1963), which was
merely orientational for the private sector but
The new regime was characterised by three factors: binding for the public sector. In order to pro-
repression of the defeated band, economic hard- mote regional and local development, the so-
ship, and a modification of the internal balance of called “development poles” – areas zoned for
power as the result of changes on the international economic activities – were created.
stage brought about by World War II. Despite an Drawn up according to guidelines issued
initial declaration of its neutrality and then its “non- by the International Monetary Fund and the
belligerence”, the new government became iso- European Organisation for Economic Coope-
lated from the outside world. Franco met with Hit- ration, the Stabilisation Plan boosted the eco-
44
nomy and laid the foundations for an autocra- the participation of exiled politicians and insti-
tic model of development. In accordance with tutions in international forums, internal opposi-
these guidelines, in 1967 the Spanish peseta tion movements had also gradually taken
was devalued and in 1968 the Second Deve- shape. Students, teachers and intellectuals rep-
lopment Plan, similar in scope to the first one, resented a democratic left-wing front, while
was launched. By this time the population of the working class focused their struggles
Spain had reached 33 million, of which 12 through the trade unions and a civil front. These
million (38.3%) represented the working movements were the origin of the political
population, virtually distributed into three forces that later played a leading role in Spain’s
equal parts as follows: agriculture (28%), in- transition to democracy.
dustry (38%) and services (34%). Thousands In the political sphere, the monarchy – em-
of people emigrated from the impoverished bodied in the person of the Count of Barcelona,
rural areas to the industrial cities (Madrid, Juan de Borbón – proposed the need for a re-
Bilbao, Barcelona), while thousands of oth- turn to democracy. An extremely active PCE
ers departed for Europe in search of better (Spanish Communist Party) had launched its
opportunities. The funds these workers sent policy of national reconciliation and proposed
back to their families in Spain constituted a overcoming the regime by peaceful means. The
crucial contribution to the country’s balance socialists and Christian democrats also called
of payments. for a return to democracy as the only viable
Politically, the regime attempted to orga- means of integration with Europe.
nise a so-called “organic democracy” with a The Church’s isolation was increasingly ap-
referendum to approve the Organic Law of the parent. Rank-and-file priests, especially in Cata-
State (1966). Two years later Guinea gained in- lonia, the Basque Country and Madrid, were
dependence, followed in the same year by the openly critical of the regime, and were joined
declaration of a state of emergency in the in their condemnations by several prelates.
northern province of Guipúzcoa. Meanwhile, these stances coincided with the
radicalisation of nationalist positions and the
The Twilight of the Dictatorship emergence of ETA’s terrorist activity.
A series of political trials were held. In
The economic changes that concluded a long 1969, a group of Basque priests were tried by
process of development also produced social court-martial, and in 1970 the “Burgos Trial”
changes. The politicians who had emerged in was held and nine death sentences were
the Civil War – military groups, Falangists, tra- passed down, although the condemned men
ditionalists, Catholic-Nationalists – were re- were later pardoned.
placed by technocrats, mainly senior civil ser- At the end of 1969 a new cabinet with a
vants, who advocated the need for economic technocrat majority was formed, which was
progress and forward-looking policies. subsequently replaced in 1973 by a cabinet
This led to a period of goodwill and re- with similar leanings. The latter proved to be
newed relations with countries of the East short-lived; in December, the cabinet presi-
and the signature in 1970 of a preferential dent Carrero Blanco was killed in a terrorist
trade agreement between Spain and the Eu- attack by ETA. Arias Navarro was then ap-
ropean Common Market. A year earlier, on pointed president and formed what was to
22 July 1969, Parliament had appointed Don be the last cabinet under Franco’s regime.
Juan Carlos de Borbón as Franco’s successor In July 1974 Franco was afflicted with
as head of state, with the title of king. thrombophlebitis. Prince Juan Carlos took
Since the early 1960s, opposition to Fran- over as provisional head of state on 30 Octo-
co’s regime had become stronger as a result of ber 1975, and on 20 November Franco died.
the profound social changes produced by eco- On 22 November, Juan Carlos I was crowned
nomic alterations in the country. In addition to King of Spain. Another chapter in Spain’s his-
King Juan Carlos I

sanctioning
the Spanish
Constitution of 1978.
tory closed and the doors of freedom and the first general elections were held. The
hope opened for all Spaniards. Spanish right did not hesitate to accept the
democratic rules of play under the leadership
Democracy of Manuel Fraga, a former minister under
Franco and the founder of Alianza Popular
The Transition from Dictatorship (Popular Alliance). The Communist Party of
to Democracy Spain, headed by a former leader of Republi-
can Spain who had been exiled for years (San-
From the outset, the new monarch adopted a tiago Carrillo), participated in the drafting of
determined but prudent attitude to ensure the the constitution and also embraced the role
rapid democratisation of Spain, turning the in- of the democratic institutions. However, the
stitution he embodied into a “monarchy of all electorate – to the surprise of many – voted for
Spaniards”. However, this was no easy task. He more moderate options than these two forma-
was obligated to “respect” the legal structure tions and the day was won by the UCD (Un-
inherited from Franco’s regime, as well as most ión de Centro Democrático), the centrist party
of the existing political frameworks. founded by Suárez to support the transition.
Following the resignation of Arias Nava- With a relative majority, this party obtained
rro, the king entrusted the leadership of the 165 seats, followed by 118 seats for the PSOE
country to a group of young reformists headed (the historic Socialist Party, in which a young
by Adolfo Suárez, who was sworn in as presi- generation led by Felipe González had just re-
dent of Spain on 3 July 1976. Under the placed the old guard of exiles who still clung
watchful eye of the king, it was up to him to to the memory of the Civil War). The Catalans
achieve the transition from dictatorship to de- and Basques were represented by a variety of
mocracy. Numerous left-wing politicians and parties.
intellectuals – Madariaga, Sánchez Albornoz, Support from the press for the transition
Pasionaria, Sénder, Guillén and Llopis – re- to democracy was crucial. So too was the
turned from exile and on 15 June 1977, in a prudence exercised by all the political and
context of total freedom and open democracy, trade union groups, who at the end of Octo-
46
The first four presidents

of the Spanish democratic
era. From left to right:
Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo,
José María Aznar,
Adolfo Suárez and
Felipe González.
ber of the same year signed the Moncloa of politicians and analysts in numerous
Pacts to consolidate democracy and provide countries, especially the citizens of Latin
a boost to the economy, which was already America and the former Soviet bloc nations
threatened by the first signs of recession. of Eastern Europe searching for the best way
The transition, in which Adolfo Suárez to achieve their own transitions from dicta-
played a central role, transformed Spain into torship to freedom.
a modern country in all respects: freedoms The reign of Don Juan Carlos, who has
of all types were guaranteed and a multipar- been on the throne for more than thirty years
ty parliamentary system was established; the now, received widespread popular support
social function of political parties and trade from the outset, and this has increased over
unions was recognised; and the state adopt- the years thanks to the king’s discretion in
ed a decentralised form of government, pav- the exercise of his constitutional duties.
ing the way for the formation of autonomous The transition brought about a genuine
regions throughout the country. These national reconciliation, demanding sacrifi-
changes were backed by a widespread con- ces in every quarter. Conceived as a legal
sensus, demonstrating the degree to which evolution from the existing institutions, it
the Spanish had overcome the wounds of was incompatible with the demand for pu-
the Civil War and were capable of looking nishing those who had supported the dicta-
towards the future rather than remaining torship. On the contrary, its premises were
mired in the past. Without a doubt, this is to offer a generous amnesty and to strive for
the most important legacy of the transition total democracy. The process of consensus
initiated in 1977. Spain had already had a that had been undertaken, in which all the
number of constitutions, a long history of political parties had to make sacrifices (for
parliamentary life and even the experience example, the Socialists and Communists
of a former democracy, but this was the first abandoned their dream of a republic), per-
time that changes were introduced of committed the introduction of a provisional
mon accord. Dialogue and negotiations package of self-government measures in
formed the basis for establishing the widest Catalonia and the Basque Country and the
possible social consensus. This climate of drafting of the constitution, which was
consensus and the peaceful nature of the approved by a vast majority (87.87%) on 6
transition to democracy attracted the interest December 1978.
Spain after the Constitution of 1978

On 28 October 1982, new general elec-
New general elections held on 1 March 1979 tions were held in which the PSOE obtained
maitained the national balance of power (UCD, an absolute majority (202 seats) and 106 seats
34.3%; PSOE, 30%; PCE, 10.6%). However, the were given to a new right-wing alliance of the
first municipal elections (19 April) gave left-wing AP-PDP (Alianza Popular-Partido Demócrata
coalitions 77% of local councils in the main cities, Popular – Popular Alliance-Popular Demo-
marking the beginning of the end for the UCD. cratic Party). The elections had two major los-
The weakening of this party and the ers: the UCD, which scraped by with only
change of president coincided with a final 7.2% of the votes, and the PCE with 3.8%.
authoritarian attempt to overthrow demo- On 3 December, Felipe González consti-
cracy. On 23 February 1981, members of the tuted his first administration. The PSOE ma-
Civil Guard burst into Congress and held the naged to retain its majority in the following
representatives hostage, while one of the two elections, held on 22 June 1985 and 29
military headquarters ordered its troops to October 1989.
take the streets. The decisive intervention of By then, the party had become a mode-
the king foiled the attempted coup and the rate and reformist party of social democrats,
Spanish people took to the streets in defence abandoning its traditional Marxist ideology.
of democracy. However, the incident served Backed by successive electoral victories, it
to weaken both the administration and the governed until 1996 and carried out a swee-
party it represented even further. ping modernisation of the country.
On the stage of international politics, Thanks to this period of remarkable po-
Spain’s incorporation into the group of demo- litical stability, it was possible to make up for
cratic countries was complete. The country lost time in fields such as education, health
applied for membership in the EEC on 28 July and taxation, while the army was made pro-
1977 and on 1 January 1986, Spain became a fessional, industry was streamlined, public
member state. Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo, Suá- infrastructures were built, social services
rez’s successor as president, proposed and were extended, etc. Moreover, in 1992 this
gained approval from Congress for member- modern, dynamic Spain, capable of joining
ship in NATO (29 October 1981), which was the European Union (1986) and exercising its
later ratified in a popular referendum held in periodic presidencies of the Union (1989,
1986. 1995 and 2002) with efficiency and creati-
The Spanish
president, José Luis
Rodríguez Zapatero,
taking his oath
of office before
H.M. the King on
12 April 2008.
48
Group photo of the new administration, 8 April 2009.
vity, presented a new image to the world with stability of the government. In the end this was
the organisation of the World Fair in Seville, made possible by agreements reached with the
the European Cultural Capital in Madrid and CiU (Convergencia i Unió – Convergence and
the Olympic Games in Barcelona. With the Union).
former isolation of the dictatorship relegated Meanwhile the Partido Popular had been
to the past, Spain returned to the internation- restructured and renamed in 1989 around the
al arena as an agent of peace and harmony, new leadership of José María Aznar and an
promoting Latin American Summits (since ethos based on liberal ideals and Christian de-
1991), participating in the United Nations’ mocracy, oriented towards the reformist centre.
peace-keeping forces in Africa, the Balkans, Its favourable results at the municipal, regional
Middle East and Central America, hosting and European elections in 1995 culminated in
conversations between Israel and the Arabic victory at the general elections in 1996, which
nations (Madrid Conference, 1991), dramati- with support from the moderate nationalist
cally increasing its aid to developing coun- groups of Catalonia (Convergencia i Uniò), the
tries (through the Spanish Cooperation Agen- Basque Country (PNV) and the Canary Islands
cy), exporting the activities of its technicians (Coalición Canaria – Canary Coalition) placed
and business leaders to distant markets (with the presidency in Aznar’s hands.
strong investment in Latin America), reinfor- The Partido Popular was again victorious
cing the presence of the Spanish language in the general elections of 2000, obtaining a
and culture around the world (through the comfortable absolute majority.
Cervantes Institute, created in 1991), etc. The economic policy pursued by this ad-
Although in the elections of 6 June 1993 ministration focused on controlling inflation
the PSOE still managed to obtain the most and the public deficit as a means of reactivating
votes (159 seats), enabling Felipe González to economic growth. The successes achieved in
form a non-coalition government (inaugurated the economic arena were crowned by Spain’s
on 8-9 July 1993), the loss of the absolute ma- admission to the first group of countries to
jority forced the party to turn to other parlia- adopt the single European currency – the euro
mentary groups in order to gain sufficient sup- – in 2002, after the Spanish economy had suc-
port in the Congress and Senate to ensure the cessfully met all the necessary requirements.
Spain’s presidency of the European Union recipient of immigrants – an essential factor in

in the first half of 2002 coincided with the in- the growth of the population (nearly 45 million
troduction of the euro, thereby completing a at the beginning of 2006) as well as its econo-
significant cycle in the recent history of the mic growth (above 3% per annum and ahead
country; coincidentally, the euro was adopted of all the other countries in the Eurozone).
as the name of the single currency at the Coun- The firm commitment displayed by Ro-
cil of Europe held in the second half of 1995, dríguez Zapatero’s government to investment
when Spain also happened to be holding the in research, development and innovation is
presidency of the Union. likely to bring about major changes in the
On Thursday, 11 March 2004, Spain was Spanish economic model in the medium and
dealt a dramatic blow by a kind of terrorism un- long term. In the international arena, Spain is
like anything ever experienced before on Spa- now an important donor country and has
nish soil. A group of radical Islamist extremists pledged to duplicate its development aid dur-
killed 192 people and wounded almost 2,100 ing this legislature and reach the target of 0.7%
more in Madrid, in the worst terrorist attack of GDP in the next one.
perpetrated in Europe to date. However, three In 2004 Spain witnessed the creation of its
days later normalcy reigned as the people of first government administration with gender
Spain turned out to cast their votes in the gene- parity among its members (one of the world’s
ral elections as planned. few existing gender-balanced administrations)
14 March 2004, the PSOE won the gene- and has laid the foundations for a more mo-
ral elections, making José Luis Rodríguez Za- dern society with, among other government
patero the fifth president to take power in initiatives, the legalisation of homosexual mar-
democratic Spain. Since then, the country riage, a law against domestic violence, an
has kept up and even accelerated the pace of equal opportunities law, the reform of the state
social and economic change. television network and measures to simplify
Now, at the beginning of the 21st century, government procedures for citizens.
Spain is the eighth world power. The successful The Law on Dependent Care guarantees
adoption of the euro, a spectacular rhythm of assistance for 1.3 million Spaniards, who will
social achievements, an unprecedented level of benefit from a more supportive social frame-
job creation and healthy public accounts have, work, and represents a major step forward in
in just a few short years, turned Spain into a net the welfare state.
Fourth Conference of Presidents of the Autonomous Regions, held at the Senate on 14 December 2009.
50
CHRONOLOGY
Prehistory 1788-1808 Charles IV.
1,500,000 BC First human findings on the Iberian 1790-1808 The Radical Challenge.
Peninsula. 1805 Battle of Trafalgar.
40,000-15,000 BC Altamira cave paintings. 1807 Treaty of Fontainebleau.
Spain before the Romans Dissolution of the old Regime and the
1,200-800 BC Indo-Europeans, Phoenicians and War of Independence (1808-1814)
Greeks invade the Iberian Peninsula. 1808 Abdication of Charles IV and
800-500 BC Tartessus. Ferdinand VII in Bayonne.
Roman Hispania Entry of Joseph Bonaparte I
of Spain in Madrid.
218 a.C.- 409 AD
1810-1812 The Cortes and Constitution of Cadiz.
The Visigothic Kingdom
Liberal reaction and Revolution (1814-1833)
472-710
1814 Arrival of Ferdinand VII in Madrid.
Muslim Spain (710-1492) 1814-1820 First Absolutist Restoration.
756-929 Umayyad Emirate. 1820-1823 Coup d’état and Liberal Triennium.
929-1009 Caliphate. 1823-1833 Second Absolutist Restoration.
1009-1090 Taifa Kingdoms.
1090-1146 Almoravid Invasion. The Two Regencies (1833-1843)
1146-1224 Almohad Invasion. 1833-1841 Death of Ferdinand VII and Regency of
Maria Christina Carlist War.
1224-1232 Marinid Invasion.
1834 Royal Statute.
1232-1492 Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.
1837 Liberal Constitution.
Christian Spain (710-1492) 1841-1843 Regency of Espartero.
803 Kingdom of Navarre.
1137 Kingdom of Aragon and Catalonia. Reign of Isabella II (1843-1868)
1143 Kingdom of Portugal. 1843-1854 Moderate Decade.
1230 Kingdom of Castile and Leon. 1845 Constitution.
1479 Unification of the Crowns of Castile 1854-1856 Liberal Biennium.
and Aragon with the marriage of 1856 Non nata Constitution.
Ferdinand and Isabella. 1856-1868 Moderate Predominance.
1492 Conquest of Granada, Columbus
Revolutionary six-year period (1868-1874)
discovery of America and the
publication of the first Spanish 1869 Constitution of 1869.
grammar text. 1869-1871 Regency of General Serrano.
1512 Incorporation of Navarre. 1871-1873 Democratic monarchy of Amadeus of
1535-1545 Viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru. Savoy.
1873-1874 First Republic.
House of Hapsburg (1517-1700)
1874 Coup staged by Martínez Campos on
1517-1556 Charles I.
behalf of Alfonso XII.
1526 Treaty of Madrid.
1556-1598 Philip II. The Restoration (1875-1923)
1571 Battle of Lepanto. 1875 Entry of Alfonso XII in Madrid.
1598-1621 Philip III. 1876 Constitution.
1605 Publication of Don Quixote. 1881 Liberal Government.
1621-1665 Philip IV. 1885 Death of Alfonso XII. Regency of Maria
1640 Secession of Portugal. Christina.
1665-1700 Charles II. 1890 Universal Suffrage.
1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees. 1898 Spanish-American War and the Treaty
House of Bourbon (1700-1808) of Paris.
1700-1746 Philip V. 1902-1931 Reign of Alfonso XIII.
1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and
1746-1759 Ferdinand VI. the fall of the Monarchy (1923-1931)
1759-1788 Charles III. 1931 Municipal elections (14 April) and
1760-1790 Enlightenment and Reform. Proclamation of the Republic.
51
Second Republic and the Civil War (1931-1939) Prince Felipe swears allegiance to the
1931 Republican Constitution. Constitution in Parliament (30 January).
1936 Popular Front elections (February) and Referendum on Spain’s continuation
military coup (July). in NATO (12 March).
General Franco’s Regime (1939-1975) General elections. New absolute
1959 Stabilisation Plan. majority for the PSOE (22 June).
1969 Appointment of Prince Juan Carlos as Felipe González is sworn in as
successor. president (25 July).
Democratic Transition. From 1975 1987 Municipal, regional and European
1975 Death of Franco. Proclamation of elections (10 June).
King Juan Carlos I. 1989 Spanish presidency of the EC
1976 Political Reform Law (November) and (January-June). European Elections
Referendum (December). (June). General elections. Victory for
1977 General elections (15 June). Relative the PSOE (29 October).
majority for the UCD. Felipe González takes the presidential
Third government of the monarchy oath of office before Parliament (5
(4 July). President Adolfo Suárez. December).
Spain requests membership in the EEC 1993 General elections (6 June). Relative
(28 July). majority for the PSOE.
1978 Constitution (sanctioned by HM
Felipe González takes the presidential
the King on 27 December in
oath of office before Parliament (9 July).
Parliament).
1994 European elections (12 June).
Constitutional Monarchy
1995 Municipal and regional elections (28
1979 General elections (1 March). Relative
May). Spanish presidency of the EC
majority for the UCD. HM King Juan
(July-December). The European
Carlos I invites Adolfo Suárez to form
his government (29 March). Council of Madrid approves the name
Foundation of the main democratic of the future European currency: the
town councils (19 April). euro (15-16 December).
HM the King opens the first 1996 General elections (3 March). Relative
constitutional legislature of Parliament majority for PP.
(9 May). José María Aznar is sworn in as
1980 Opening of the Constitutional Court president before Parliament (3 May).
(12 July).
1999 Municipal, regional and European
1981 Resignation of Adolfo Suárez as elections (13 June).
president. HM the King invites
2000 General elections (12 March).
Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo to form a new
cabinet (10 February). Calvo Sotelo Victory with an absolute majority for
proposes Spain’s entry into NATO (18 the PP. José María Aznar takes the
February). Coup d’état (23 February). presidential oath of office before
Calvo Sotelo is sworn in as president Parliament (25 April).
(25 February). The Congress of 2002 Spanish presidency of the EC
Representatives approves Spain’s entry (January-June).
into NATO (29 October). 2003 Municipal and regional elections (25
1982 General elections. Victory with an May). European elections (13 June).
absolute majority for the PSOE (29
2004 General elections (14 March). Victory
October). New government with
for the PSOE with a relative majority
Felipe González as president (3
(164 seats out of 350). José Luis
December).
Rodríguez Zapatero is sworn in as
Appointment of the Ombudsman in
the Congress of Representatives (28 president before Parliament (17 April).
December). 2005 European Constitution Referendum
1985 Signature of Spain’s treaty of adhesion (20 February).
to the EEC (12 June). 2007 Local elections (27 May).
1986 Spain and Portugal join the EEC 2008 General elections (9 March). Victory
(1 January). for the PSOE with a relative majority.
52
CULTURE B.C., the Balearic Islands witnessed the emer-

gence of a culture of imposing megalithic cons-
By virtue of its geographical situation, the Ibe- tructions comprising navetas (burial tombs
rian Peninsula has served as a bridge not only shaped like the hull of an overturned ship),
between the cultures of Northern and Southern taulas (T-shaped megaliths) and talayotes (low
Europe but also between Africa and the Medi- towers), the most important of which is the
terranean. Similarly, the vicissitudes of its his- Naveta dels Tudons, near Ciutadella on the is-
tory have made it a place of meeting for the land of Minorca. Meanwhile, a megalithic cul-
most diverse cultures. It therefore boasts a rich ture was developing in Almeria, characterised
cultural legacy with palpable living traces of an by dolmens with covered galleries and circular
extraordinarily dynamic past. burial chambers, topped by false domes. The
most famous example is the Dolmen of Men-
The earliest cultural expressions ga, near Antequera (Malaga province).
The earliest cultural manifestations of any sig- Simultaneously, the legendary culture of
nificance are prehistoric. In the Palaeolithic Pe- Tartessus was emerging in the lower Guadal-
riod, around 15,000 B.C., a Franco-Cantabrian quivir Valley, based on trade with the Phoe-
culture stretched from the north of Spain and nician colonies. The Greeks also established
Europe to Asia. This culture left behind animal colonies along the Mediterranean coast,
figures painted in several caves for magical and leaving significant traces of their artistic leg-
religious purposes; the masterpiece from this acy in areas such as Ampurias (Girona prov-
period can be found in the main chamber of ince).
the cave at Altamira, which has been described According to all the indications, the large
as the “Sistine Chapel” of cave art. boar sculptures and the bulls at Guisando,
A later period, the Mesolithic, is represent- near Ávila, are of Celtic origin. The Iberian
ed by the paintings of the Levant school, of culture is represented by three sculptures of
African origin, which have been found in prim- female figures – the Lady of Elx, the Lady of
itive shelters ranging from Lleida (Catalonia) to Cerro de los Santos and the Lady of Baza –
Albacete (Castile-La Mancha). These paintings that are currently on display at the National
depict humans. During the first millennium Archaeology Museum in Madrid.
Two megalithic structures. On the left, the dolmen of Axeitos, Ribeira (A Coruña) and, on the right, the Cave of Menga,
Antequera (Malaga).
which gradually distanced itself from Roman art

and fed rather on Byzantine and North African
influences. Horseshoe arches, geminate windows
sharing a central column, square-shaped apses
and barrel vaults are the distinguishing characte-
ristics of the early Christian churches. Two exam-
ples can be found in Ourense (Santa Comba de
Bande) and Zamora (San Pedro de la Nave).
In the 8th century, Pre-Romanesque art
began to emerge in Asturias and reached the
height of its splendour during the reign of
Ramiro I (the churches of Santa María del
Naranco and San Miguel de Lillo).
The Muslim invasion and subsequent
Female anthropoid sarcophagus (470-400 BC), Museo Christian reconquest generated a confluence
de Cádiz.
of three cultures – Christian, Islamic and He-
brew – whose fusion and interrelation gave rise
The Roman legacy to one of the most fruitful processes in Euro-
pean culture.
Romanisation induced the cultural unification Meanwhile, the perpetuation of the classi-
of the Iberian Peninsula, leaving not only the cal legacy was guaranteed by Alfonso X, who
language and numerous social institutions but created the Translation School of Toledo and Se-
also a plethora of artistic remains. Some of these ville. Alfonso the Wise, as he is also known, is
provide a crucial insight into Roman art, such as also credited with writing The Seven Divisions
the aqueducts in Segovia and Mérida the Alcán- of Law and making major contributions to the
tara Bridge and the Arch of Bara in Tarragona. world of science Lapidarium.
Two splendid Roman complexes can be The Arabic tradition also made a lasting
found at Italica, near the city of Seville, and impression on the field of poetry, with figures
Mérida, whose splendid theatre is still used to such as Ibn Hazm of Cordoba (The Ring of the
stage classical drama during the summer. Such Dove) and Ibn Quzman, famed as the inven-
is the quantity of Roman remains in this town tor of the classical metre. One of the most im-
that it was chosen as the site for the National portant philosophers was the great Averroes
Museum of Roman Art, inaugurated in 1986. (1126-98, Cordoba), an Aristotelian scholar.
While Rome built the Hispania of the first While the field of literature was fertile, the
five centuries, Hispania returned the favour field of architecture was no less. The Great
by providing with some of its best sons, in- Mosque of Cordoba (begun in 784) and Me-
cluding emperors (Trajan and Hadrian), writ- dina Azahara are outstanding examples of art
ers and philosophers. This Roman legacy not under the Caliphate. In Seville, the former
only pervades numerous institutions but also minaret of the mosque – known as the Giralda
the law of the land. Similarly, with the excep- – the Golden Tower and the Alcázar palace
tion of Basque, Vulgar Latin served as the root represent some of the most important monu-
of all the languages of the Iberian Peninsula: ments of Islamic architecture. The culminat-
Castilian, Catalan, Galician and Portuguese. ing structure from this period is the magnifi-
cent Alhambra palace in Granada.
The Middle Ages Although the Arabic presence persisted in
the south, the north of Spain maintained close
The generalised spread of Christianity coincided contact with the prevailing European culture
in Spain with the beginning of the Germanic in- thanks to the Pilgrim Way of St. James, which
vasion. Little has remained of Visigothic art, ends at the tomb of the apostle in Santiago de
54
Romanesque church of San

Martín, Frómista (Palencia).
Compostela. Along the way, churches were During this period – the 12th century –
built in which European Romanesque art Castilian began to develop as a literary lan-
blended with the Pre-Romanesque style typi- guage with the publication of the first great
cal of Spain. Examples of this are the cathe- epic, The Lay of the Cid.
dral in Jaca (Huesca province), the church of Gothic art first emerged in Spain during the
San Martín de Frómista in Palencia, the beau- 13th century in the old Cistercian style, as evi-
tiful frescoes in the royal pantheon at the Ba- denced in the monasteries of Las Huelgas in
silica of San Isidoro in Leon, and the great ca- Burgos and Poblet in Tarragona, and achieved
thedral in Santiago de Compostela, whose its finest expression in the cathedral of Leon. The
sculptures adorning the Pórtico de La Gloria 14th century was characterised by the emer-
portal are regarded as the masterpiece of gence of the Catalonian Gothic style (cathedrals
Spanish Romanesque art. of Barcelona, Girona and Palma, Majorca) and
Romanesque painting can be observed the 15th century by the Late or Flamboyant
in the frescoes, and the art of drawing deve- Gothic style (cathedrals of Seville, Toledo and
loped in illuminated manuscripts (Beato de Burgos). Civil architecture also began to deve-
Liébana, Beato de Girona). lop during this period, notable examples of
Sculpture acquired a distinct physical which are the shipyards in Barcelona and the
identity in the 11th century, which was main- old markets in Valencia and Palma, Majorca.
ly manifested in the cloister of Santo Domin- In the field of literature there were impor-
go de Silos (Burgos), the royal pantheon and tant advances, with popular minstrel verses
the portals of the Basilica of San Isidoro giving way to more learned poetry. Gonzalo
(Leon), the capitals in the cathedral of Jaca de Berceo is the earliest known Spanish poet,
(Huesca), the monastery at Ripoll and the famed for his work The Miracles of Our Lady.
mentioned cathedral of Santiago. Alfonso X has already been cited in con-
Other noteworthy Romanesque monu- nection with his Siete Partidas, but he also
ments can be found in the region of Castile wrote the Crónica General, the first history of
and Leon (Avila, Zamora, Soria, Salamanca, Spain, and the Songs to the Virgin Mary in
Segovia, Burgos), while Navarre, Aragon and Galician. It was also during his reign that the
Catalonia all boast magnificent churches with first collections of stories appeared such as
superb paintings. Nowadays, most of these The Eastern Fables of Kalilag and Damnag as
are held at the National Art Museum of Cata- well as the first dramatic script, Play of the
lonia in Barcelona. Three Wise Men.
of the Castilian Language), the first grammar

text applied to a vulgar language. The first
chivalrous novels also emerged at this time,
including the famous Amadis of Gaul.
A similarly notable evolution took place
in the genre of drama. Juan de la Encina
(1469-1529) was the first to write about non-
religious themes, but the genuine break-
through came with The Celestina or the Tragic
Comedy of Calisto and Melibea by Fernando
de Rojas, the second most important work in
Spanish literature after Don Quixote.
The Golden Age

King David, an altarpiece painting produced by Pedro Chronologically situated mid-way between the
Berruguete between 1478 and 1482. It is held at the
Museo Parroquial de Santa Eulalia in Paredes de Nava
Renaissance and the Baroque, the Spanish
(Palencia). Golden Age (16th-17th centuries) was a glorious
flourishing of the arts and letters in Spain.
During this period the novel achieved its
The Renaissance finest Spanish and universal expression with
Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes, and se-
The 14th century was an extraordinarily fruitful veral other distinctly Spanish genres emerged,
period with profound influences from Italian such as the picaresque novels Guzmán de Al-
humanism on literary works such as Book of farache by Mateo Alemán and the anonymous
Good Love, by the Archpriest of Hita, Count Lazarillo de Tormes.
Lucanor,by Alfonso X’s nephew, Juan Manuel
and Chronicles and Rhymes of Palace Life by
Pedro López de Ayala. Diego Velázquez, “Las Meninas”, 1656.
The Prado Museum.
In the following century, literature adopted
a more lyrical and courtly form, paving the way
for the ideological transition between medieval
and Renaissance ideals that took place at the
beginning of the Modern Era, which spans the
period from the last decade of the 15th century to
the end of the 18th century. The main figures of
this period were the Marquis of Santillana
(1398-1458), who was the first person to use the
sonnet in Spain, and Jorge Manrique with his
Coplas por la muerte de mi padre (Verses on the
Death of My Father).
In the field of architecture, the combina-
tion of Spanish Gothic and Italian Renais-
sance produced the hybrid Plateresque style,
exemplified by the universities of Alcalá de
Henares and Salamanca which were both
built during this period. Meanwhile, consoli-
dation of Castilian Spanish came with the
publication Arte de la lengua castellana (Art
56
Poetry evolved at the same pace. In the Herrera. The finest example of the style is the
16th century Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial,
adapted Italian metres to the Spanish lan- commissioned by Philip II.
guage; the finest expression of this style can
be found in the mystical works of Fray Luis de The Baroque Period
León and St. John of the Cross, and in the
prose of St. Theresa of Ávila. Two great figures Of Italian origin, from whence comes its name,
from this period are Luis de Góngora and the Baroque style embodies the spirit of the
Francisco de Quevedo. Counter-Reformation. It is mainly a decorative
Major changes were also afoot in the field style based on fanciful, over-elaborate forms.
of drama. Instead of being staged in ecclesiasti- The Society of Jesus stamped the Baroque style
cal settings, plays were now performed in on all religious monuments from previous pe-
open-air public places such as the so-called riods, superimposing it onto designs originally
Corrales de Comedias, still used today in Alma- in the Gothic and even Romanesque styles.
gro (Ciudad Real province). This form of artistic The most outstanding examples in Spain
expression achieved unprecedented splendour are the façade of the Hospicio de San Fernan-
in the works of Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina do in Madrid, the Palace of San Telmo in Se-
and Calderón de la Barca. ville, the Obradoiro portal in Santiago de Com-
Humanism also flourished from early on in postela, the Jesuit Shrine of Loyola, the façade
the Modern Era, thanks to figures such as the of the University of Valladolid and the Basilica
philosopher Luis Vives and monumental col- of Nuestra Señora del Pilar in Saragossa.
laborative works such as the Complutensian
Polyglot Bible. The Age of Enlightenment
As a final note on the literature of the
Spanish Golden Age, the period closed in The 18th century, known in Spanish as El Siglo de
the 17th century with Baltasar Gracián’s The las Luces or the Century of Lights, witnessed the
Faultfinder. introduction of the spirit of the Enlightenment
In the field of painting, the 16th century
produced an outstanding artist in the figure of
Domenikos Theotokopoulos, “El Greco”, who Francisco de Goya. “Self-Portrait.” 1815. Madrid.
National Prado Museum.
worked mainly in Toledo. His canvases The
Disrobing of Christ, Martyrdom of St. Maurice,
The Resurrection and The Burial of Count Or-
gaz are all landmarks of Spanish and universal
painting.
The realism of the 17th century found its fin-
est exponent in Diego Velázquez (1599-1660),
whose main works are as follows: Las Meninas
(a.k.a. The Maids of Honour), The Surrender of
Breda, The Forge of Vulcan, and his famous por-
traits Philip IV, The Prince Baltasar Carlos and the
Count-Duke of Olivares. Most of these works
hang in the Prado Museum.
While Velázquez was painting in Madrid,
Zurbarán and Murillo were busy in Seville,
producing paintings with predominantly reli-
gious themes.
The Golden Age is also credited with a
specific architectural style named after Juan de
and with it education, science, public works

and a rational concept of politics and life.
The reign of Philip V ushered in the foun-
dation of new cultural institutions such as the
Royal Library (subsequently renamed the Na-
tional Library) and the Academy of the Spanish
Language, both in 1714. These were followed
twenty years later by the academies of Medi-
cine, History, Pharmacy and Law, as well as
the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando.
Science received an enormous boost
with the creation of the Cabinet of Natural
History, the Botanical Gardens, the School of
Mineralogy, the Cabinet of Machines in the
Retiro, the Royal Laboratory of Chemistry
and several Schools of Engineering.
The political and satirical press flourished, Detail of the steps leading up to Park Güell, designed by
Antonio Gaudí, in Barcelona.
along with the publication of cultural and scien-
tific articles. Although in the literary field the
quality was substantially inferior to that of two Factory, macabre etchings such as The Disasters
centuries earlier, several outstanding writers of War, the bitter Caprichos, the Follies and the
emerged, such as Leandro Fernández de Mora- Tauromachia, and dramatic paintings such as
tín, Torres Villarroel, Meléndez Valdés, the fable The Third of May 1803 and the frescoes of San
writers Iriarte and Samaniego, and the dramatist Antonio de la Florida in Madrid.
Ramón de la Cruz, a key exponent of the cos-
tumbrista genre, with its focus on local customs Romanticism
and manners. The main poets of the period were
Cadarso, Nicasio Gallego and Alberto Lista. Fi- Romanticism, the artistic and literary expres-
nally, in the field of letters, the 18th century was sion of liberal thinking, arrived late in Spain
noted for two great figures – Father Feijoo and (it had its heyday between 1830 and 1840)
Jovellanos. and with a distinctly French flavour. Its main
In architecture, the Baroque style gave way exponent was Mariano José de Larra (1809-
to Neoclassicism. The Bourbons brought nu- 1837), whose influence continued into and
merous foreign artists to Spain and Charles III well beyond the second half of the century in
commissioned major public infrastructure the poetry of Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (1836-
works. Ventura Rodríguez and Juan de Vi- 1870) and the plays of the first Spanish re-
llanueva were the most important Spanish ar- cipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature: José
chitects of this period, renowned for creations Echegaray.
such as the Royal Palace, the Prado Museum Romanticism was succeeded by the cos-
and the Alcalá Gate, all in Madrid. tumbrista works of Mesonero Romanos, the
By contrast, painting experienced a period poetry of Espronceda and the dramatic scripts
of decline. The Spanish and international pain- of the Duke of Rivas and José Zorrilla.
ters commissioned to decorate the palaces In the second half of the 19th century, the
were all of mediocre quality. Finally, however, romantic exaltation of national values fuelled a
in the final decade of the century, one the great- revival of Spain’s regional cultures. In Catalonia
est painters of all time emerged: Francisco de this led to the restoration of the Jocs Florals (the
Goya. Regarded as the father of all the “isms”, Floral Games poetry contest) and ushered in
Goya painted a vast range of works, including the so-called Catalonian Renaissance with the
light-hearted cartoons for the Royal Tapestry works of Rubio i Ors, Verdaguer and Guimerá.
58
Romanticism also inspired the flourishing A large group of writers reacted to this
of Galician literature, whose two key figures event by exploring its causes and proposing
were Rosalía de Castro and Curros Enríquez. their own remedies for the regeneration of
In the final third of the century, a counter- Spain. Together they formed the so-called
part to the Romantic Movement emerged in Generation of ’98 which, although it includ-
the form of the more or less costumbrista rea- ed great literary figures, transcended the field
lism of Fernán Caballero, Alarcón and Pereda. of literature to encompass science, medi-
However, the two great figures of this period cine, history and the essay genre.
were Juan Valera and Benito Pérez Galdós. At the same time, Modernism was emerg-
Considered the father of the contemporary ing. A contemporary of pictorial and musical
Spanish novel, Galdós created a gigantic his- Impressionism, this movement was particularly
torical novel world in his National Episodes. important in Catalonia, which has always been
His work paved the way to Naturalism, which more open to the winds of change blowing in
was embodied by three great figures: Leopoldo from Europe. Its main exponent was the genius
Alas “Clarín”, Emilia Pardo Bazán and Vicente architect Antonio Gaudí, and it was also linked
Blasco Ibáñez. to the Renaixença (Renaissance) of Catalonian
culture based on the prosperity of an educated
The Generations of 1898 and 1927 industrial class increasingly open to regionalist
ideas. The unique style of Gaudí is replete with
The late 19th century was a hotbed of political, plant and animal evocations in groundbreak-
literary, philosophical, artistic and scientific ing works such as the incomplete Church of La
analysis. The institutions that had been found- Sagrada Familia and the fantastic gardens of
ed at the beginning of the century – the Ate- the Parque Güell. This same Modernisme, as
neos or athenaeums (cultural centres inspired the movement was known in Catalonia, even-
by classical Athens and devoted to humanist tually produced the extraordinary painter Pa-
values and freethinking) and artistic and lite- blo Picasso.
rary academies – came into their own, and The late 19th century in Spain was also
Joaquín Costa and Giner de los Ríos launched characterised by the arrival of echoes of the
a movement of national revival. The outstan- musical nationalism that had spread through-
ding figures in the field of historical research out Europe. Two Spanish composers achieved
were Amador de los Ríos, Menéndez Pidal, international recognition in this field: Isaac
Rafael Altamira, Milá and Fontanals, while Albéniz and Enrique Granados.
Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo was the key fi- In painting, Ignacio Zuloaga’s works, with
gure in the context of traditional thinking. their emphatic drawings and typically Spanish
Scientific research began a slow recov- characters, expressed a certain affinity with the
ery, especially in the field of medicine, with literary world of the Generation of ’98. Mean-
figures such as Jaime Ferrán, Pío del Río Hor- while, the Valencian artist Joaquín Sorolla can
tega and the future Nobel Prize winner, San- be described as a colourful Post-Impressionist;
tiago Ramón y Cajal. beneath the anecdotal surface of his canvases,
Despite the political and social unrest in the unique light of the eastern shores of Spain
Spain during the first third of the 20th century, is the true protagonist of his beach scenes.
literary creation experienced a glorious re- The Generation of ’98 – preoccupied al-
vival that some analysts have called a Silver most to the point of obsession with what be-
Age, spanning the period between 1898 and gan to be known as “the problem of Spain”
the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in – orchestrated a brand-new style that had lit-
1936. tle in common with the characteristic rheto-
The first of these dates marks the loss of ric of the 19th century.
the last Spanish colonies and, in general, the Some of the representatives of this trend
end of a decline initiated in the 17th century. achieved a genuinely universal stature. Such is
Nearly all of these authors contribute regu-

larly to the press, which they use as vehicles of
dissemination and cultural pedagogy in an at-
tempt to renew national sensitivity and pro-
mote an open attitude towards European
modernity.
In the 1920s, the refreshing winds of the
aesthetic vanguards blew strongly in Europe
and a group of universal figures emerged –
Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí and Luis Buñuel.
Picasso sought his inspiration in Hispanic
roots and in the extravagant, Baroque and
highly contrasting temperament that seems
to characterise Spanish art, developing a Cu-
bist style that has gone down as the first page
in the history of 20th-century painting.
Other major influences on contemporary
From left to right, José María Hinojosa, Juan Centeno,
painting were Juan Gris, who succeeded in re-
Federico García Lorca, Emilio Prados and Luis Eaton- ducing objects to their chromatic masses and
Daniel at the Residencia de Estudiantes, 1914. basic geometries, and Joan Miró, the Surrealist
master whose profoundly poetic and original
works reveal an apparently childlike yet in-
the case of Miguel de Unamuno, who culti- credibly astute vision. Another figure tied to
vated all literary genres and whose work The the Surrealist movement was the painter Salva-
Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Peoples was a dor Dalí, highly skilled in the art of drawing
precursor of Existentialism. Another great fi- and with a fondness for using calculated ges-
gure was his contemporary Pío Baroja, a re- tures to shock bourgeois tastes. During the
nowned novelist who was much admired by 1920s Dalí had lived with Luis Buñuel and Fe-
Hemingway. Azorín, famed for his masterful derico García Lorca at the Residencia de Estu-
skill as a narrator, and Ramón María del Valle- diantes in Madrid. This institution, famed for
Inclán, who invented esperpento or the theatre its intellectual atmosphere and for promoting
of the grotesque, were also crucial figures of great artistic sensitivity amongst its occupants,
this movement. has survived to this day under the protection of
In the poetry field, the main figures are An- the Higher Council of Scientific Research.
tonio Machado, whose works combine sym- Except for in the early 17th century, Spain
bolism and social reflection, and Juan Ramón had never known such a simultaneous emer-
Jiménez, another Nobel laureate, whose poems gence of poetic talent as that embodied by
evolved from a kind of sentimentality to a much Jorge Guillén, Pedro Salinas, Federico García
deeper, abstract and complex lyricism. Lorca, Rafael Alberti, Nobel laureate Vicente
A common trait shared by all intellectuals Aleixandre, Luis Cernuda, Dámaso Alonso and
during this period was the attempt to incorpo- Gerardo Diego. Culturally, the Generation of
rate the latest trends in European culture and ’27 represents a unique moment in time when
thinking. The philosopher Ortega y Gasset the vanguard movements, an enthusiasm for
founded the magazine Revista de Occidente, modern art, and the European optimism of the
one of the first intellectual publications in Eu- interwar period all joyfully combined and ac-
rope at the time. Ramón Pérez de Ayala’s es- ted as the prevailing influences.
says and novels expressed the liberal spirit of Young creators would enthusiastically em-
the British, while Eugenio d’Ors added a whole brace the world of cinema, the “city lights”,
new slant to the criticism of Baroque art. the break with bourgeois values and realist art,
60
and the dream of an aesthetic and political of the Álvarez Quintero brothers). The plays
revolution. written by Arniches feature a similar idea, al-
Years later, they all fell victim to the tre- though he used an original and highly appea-
mendous divide created by the Spanish Civil ling formula – grotesque tragic comedy, com-
War. Federico García Lorca was executed, bining both comedy and pathos.
and Rafael Alberti, Luis Cernuda, Pedro Sali- But Spanish drama of the 20th century was
nas, Jorge Guillén, Rosa Chacel and María marked by two great authors: Valle-Inclán and
Zambrano were all forced into exile. The García Lorca. Although both reacted against con-
poetry of this generation, which had imbued ventional, bourgeois, naturalist drama, García
the genre in Spain with the ideal of perfec- Lorca explored the poetry of drama and a new
tion, of “pure poetry,” became worldlier and style of tragedy, while Valle-Inclán developed a
more pensive. brand new device: esperpento, or grotesque dra-
The same fertile atmosphere of the Residen- ma. In his works, the heroes and princesses are
cia de Estudiantes also produced the Aragonese all reflected in concave and convex mirrors, pro-
film-maker Luis Buñuel, who worked from his ducing a deformation or caricature of reality in
exile in Paris to carve out a place for himself in keeping with the author’s conviction that Spain at
the international arena. Temporally connected the time was a deformation of Europe.
to the Surrealist movement, his work possesses a The works of García Lorca transcend Anda-
corrosive strength and critical violence that bear lusian folklore to encompass the mythical roots of
certain similarities to the pictures of his fellow all human beings: passion, sterility, society that
countryman, Francisco de Goya. thwarts human fulfilment.
Another important figure at this time was
the Catalonian musician Pau Casals, a world- From the Post-War Period
class cello player and tireless defender of the to the Present Day
republican cause and Catalonian nationa-
lism. His famous versions of Bach’s suites oc- Due to the situation created by the Civil War, nu-
cupy their own place in the history of contem- merous intellectuals opted to go into exile. This,
porary musical performance. Meanwhile, in addition to the limitations imposed by the new
Spanish cultural nationalism was embodied regime, gave rise to a cultural parenthesis from
by Manuel de Falla; thanks to his work, fla- which Spain was slow to recover. However, from
menco music – the spontaneous expression of their exile abroad, people such as Francisco Aya-
popular Andalusian vocal music – first gained la, Ramón J. Sénder, Max Aub, Gil Albert and Pau
recognition as a sophisticated art form. Cassals worked unstintingly to promote Spanish
The new vanguard movements also in- culture.
fluenced Spanish sculpture. Lesser known Meanwhile, in Spain itself a dual move-
than Picasso and Dalí but equally deserving ment emerged. Some intellectuals embraced
of their place in the history of contemporary the political ideals of Franco’s regime, while
art are the sculptors Julio González, Pablo others pursued their intellectual or artistic
Gargallo and Alberto Sánchez. activities as a form of opposition.
Spanish drama also flourished in the first Poetry abandoned the aesthetic ideals em-
third of the 20th century, especially thanks to the bodied by Luis Rosales and Leopoldo Panero in
work of Jacinto Benavente, yet another Spanish favour of either the social realism of figures such
recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature. as Blas de Otero, Gabriel Celaya, José Hierro
As a counterpart to this high drama, musi- and Carlos Bousoño, or the reassertion of na-
cal and non-musical farce became the most tionalist or avant-garde movements, represented
important popular genre. This form of simple, by Salvador Espriu, the Novísimos (a group of
costumbrista and sentimental drama focused innovators led by Barral, Castellet) and others.
in particular on the daily life of the Andalu- The work of the Generation of ’27 remains
sian working classes (embodied in the works as valid as ever, and in 1977 Vicente Alexan-
dre was awarded the Nobel Prize for Litera- In the visual arts, there was a move to-
ture. Twelve years later, in 1989, the same wards pictorial abstraction (embodied by
prize was awarded to Camilo José Cela. Tápies, Saura, Canogar, Millares and Guino-
Meanwhile, in the 1940s the creation of vart), which subsequently gave way to the criti-
the national theatres brought together a se- cal realism of Genovés and Pop Art (Equipo
ries of authors who managed to overcome Crónica). In recent years, Antonio López has
the restrictions imposed by the regime and consolidated the sure merits of his radical real-
develop a type of drama open to new trends ism and Miquel Barceló’s creativity has tri-
emerging around the world. Antonio Buero umphed in the temples of contemporary art. In
Vallejo and Alfonso Sastre were instrumental the field of sculpture, the study of forms and
in breathing new life into Spanish drama. volume is a constant in the work of artists such
The novel also recovered slowly and as Chillida and Oteiza.
adopted life under Franco as its central theme. Over a period of three decades (1940-
This is particularly evident in works such as 1970), Spanish film attained unprecedented
Camilo José Cela’s The Hive and Luis Martín heights of fame. The “imperial films” promo-
Santos’s Time of Silence. “Other important noted by CIFESA gradually gave way to the re-
velists included Gonzalo Torrente Ballester, freshing approach of Bardem and Berlanga
Miguel Delibes, Carmen Laforet, Sánchez Fer- and Saura and Buñuel’s later work.
losio, Fer-nández Santos and Juan Goytisolo. At the beginning of the 1990s, the Spa-
In the 1970s Juan Benet renewed the lite- nish film industry was rejuvenated by a ge-
rary scene, and the following decade wit- neration of young directors such as Pedro
nessed the emergence of writers such as Javier Almodóvar, Fernando Trueba and most re-
Marías, Muñoz Molina and Pérez Reverte, cently Alejandro Amenábar, all of whom are
whose works acquired an unprecedented in- currently in their professional prime and
ternational importance and readership. have won international acclaim.
CHAPTER III
THE ORGANISATION
OF THE STATE
THEORGANISATIONOFTH
ESTATETHEORGANISATION
OFTHESTATETHEORGANIS later confirmed by the King; four are appointed
by the same majority in the Senate; two are
ATIONOFTHESTATETHEOR named by administration in office; and the re-
maining two are designated by the General
GANISATIONOFTHESTATET Council of the Judiciary Power.
The members are appointed for nine years.
One-third of the court is renewed every three
HEORGANISATIONOFTHE years, and members cannot be re-elected. Its
competences can be divided into three major ar-
THE SPANISH
eas: firstly, it controls the constitutionality of laws;
CONSTITUTION OF 1978 secondly, it settles conflicts of competences aris-
ing between the autonomous regions, and be-
Described as the constitution of consensus, this tween them and the State; and finally, after ex-
document was drafted on the basis of negotia- hausting ordinary judicial procedures, it is
tions and agreements between the different po- empowered to safeguard citizens’ basic rights by
litical parties with parliamentary representation. handling appeals brought on grounds of violation
The 1978 constitution approved by Spaniards in of constitutional rights and liberties, which may
the referendum held on 6 December entered be lodged after exhausting all ordinary legal ave-
into effect on 29 December of that same year. nues for the purpose of reviewing alleged viola-
With a preamble, 169 articles divided into tions of said rights. Citizens, the Ombudsman and
10 sections and several provisional and addi- the Crown Prosecution Office are entitled to file
tional provisions, the present-day constitution such appeals.
is the longest in Spanish history after the Con-
stitution of 1812. The Institutions
Article 1 declares Spain to be a social and
democratic state that advocates freedom, jus-
The Crown
tice, equality and political pluralism as the fun-
damental values of its legal system. Further- The political form of the Spanish state is that of
more, it establishes that national sovereignty a parliamentary monarchy. The king, in his ca-
rests with the Spanish people, from whom the pacity as the head of state, symbolises the unity
state derives its powers, and that the political and permanence of the state. He arbitrates and
form of the Spanish state is that of a parliamen- moderates in the regular running of institutions
tary monarchy. and acts as the highest representative of the
The constitution includes an extensive list Spanish state in international relations.
of the fundamental rights and public liberties of
all citizens and establishes a State of Autono- The Legislative Branch
mous Regions.
Mention must also be made of the princi- Spanish Parliament (Cortes Generales). The legis-
ple of separation of the legislative, executive lative authority of the State is exercised by the
and judicial branches of government. Spanish Parliament which represents the Spanish
The Constitutional Court. This judicial body people and controls the administration’s actions.
is the supreme authority on constitutional inter- It has two houses: the Congress of Representatives
pretations. It operates independently of other con- and the Senate. This is, therefore, what is known
stitutional authorities and is subject only to the as an “imperfect bicameral” parliamentary sys-
Spanish constitution and the regulations estab- tem, because the powers of the two houses are
lished in Constitutional Law 2/1979 of 3 October. not equal; the Congress takes precedence over
Its twelve members are appointed as fol- the Senate in many areas of parliamentary action.
lows: four are first proposed by a three-fifths Representatives and senators are elected for four
majority of the Congress of Representatives and years. It is possible for the Spanish Parliament to
The Organisation of the State 65
be dissolved ahead of time at the Spanish presi-

dent’s request.
The Congress of Representatives has 350
members. Every draft and proposed law, with-
out exception, must be studied first by this
house. The Senate has the power to veto or
amend the texts written by the Congress,
which is then responsible for the final decision
after studying it again. Likewise, it is Congress
that confirms and confers powers upon the
president, which means that this house can
bring about his resignation by either passing a
motion of censure or refusing a vote of confi-
dence requested by the president’s administra-
Congress of Representatives.
tion.
The Senate. Designed by the constitution
as the house of territorial representation. In this stands out above other figures in the internal
9th Legislature, this house has a total of 264 organisation of the executive branch, to such
senators, of which 208 are elected by direct an extent that Spain’s constitutional regime
universal suffrage. The remaining 56 were ap- could technically be described as a prime min-
pointed by the legislative assemblies of the Au- ister system.
tonomous Regions, which are entitled to select The executive’s governing body is the Coun-
one senator each, plus another for every one cil of Ministers consisting of the president, the
million inhabitants in their territories. vice-president(s) and the ministers who usually
meet once a week. The current administration
The Executive Branch consists of the president, three vice-presidents,
each of whom holds a ministerial office, and a
The Administration. The text of the Spanish total of 17 ministers. Over half of the ministries
constitution barely differs from common con- are headed by women.
temporary parliamentarianism as regards the
administration’s functions. The administration Monitoring Institutions
is responsible for exercising executive powers,
initiating legislative activity and drafting the There are two institutions directly answerable
general national budget and it is also empo- to the Spanish Parliament with specific respon-
wered to govern using emergency legislation si-bilities deriving from the constitution for the
(which must be ratified by Congress). The ad- purpose of controlling and monitoring public
ministration directs domestic and foreign po- government bodies:
licy, civil and military administration and na- The Court of Auditors. According to article
tional defence. 136 of the constitution, this court is the highest
In Spain, the administration is created in authority on matters of national and public ac-
two different stages. In the first phase, the presi- counts auditing and budget management. As
dential candidate submits his/her administra- mentioned above, it is answerable to the Span-
tion programme to be considered by Congress. ish Parliament, and any disputes that may arise
In the second phase, after the president has in relation to its competences and attributed
been approved by Congress and appointed by powers are settled by the Constitutional Court.
the King, he presents the King with his pro- It is regulated by Organic Law 2/1982 of 12
posed list of ministers. This proposal power and May. Its chairman is appointed by the king from
the responsibility of overseeing governmental among its members, based on the proposal of
action means that the figure of the president the plenary assembly, for a three-year term. The
66
plenary assembly consists of 12 councillors posed by a three-fifths majority of Parliament and

and the Chief Prosecutor. appointed by the King. Twelve of theses council
The Ombudsman. The Spanish constitution members must be judges or magistrates.
of 1978 created the office of ombudsman as the The Supreme Court. This is the state’s highest
“High Commissioner” of the Spanish Parlia- jurisdictional authority, except on matters of cons-
ment charged with safeguarding and protecting titutional guarantees which fall to the Constitu-
basic rights. To this end, the ombudsman is re- tional Court. Its chairman, who also chairs the
sponsible for supervising the activities of all General Council of the Judiciary Power, is pro-
public government bodies. posed by this body and appointed by the king.
The ombudsman is elected by a three-fifths The Chief Prosecutor. This individual is pro-
majority in each house of the Spanish Parlia- posed by the administration and appointed by
ment, for a five-year term pursuant to Organic the king after consulting with the General Coun-
Law 3/1981 of 6 April, regarding the office of cil of the Judiciary Power. The purpose of the
om-budsman. At the regional level, this office Crown Prosecution Office is to take or instigate
tends to be assigned much more generalised all necessary judicial actions for safeguarding
responsibilities. citizens’ rights and public interests protected by
law, either ex-officio or at the request of the in-
The government’s consultative bodies terested parties. The office is also responsible for
preserving the independence of the courts and
The Council of State is the administration’s ensuring that the interests of society are served
highest consultative body, regulated by Organ- by the courts. The Prosecutor’s Office can lodge
ic Law 3/1980 of 22 April. Its main function is appeals on grounds of violations of rights and
consultative and confined to issuing opinions liberties before the Constitutional Court.
about the subject of the enquiry.
The Economic and Social Council. This is a The Symbols of the State
high-level body which the government consults
on socioeconomic matters, as well as a forum The Flag. The flag of Spain was originally insti-
of understanding for social and economic tuted by a Royal Decree issued by King Charles
agents, whose primary purpose is to develop III on 28 May 1785. It is defined by the 1978
and apply the Social and Democratic Rule of constitution in the following manner: “The flag
Law. It consists of a chairman and sixty mem- of Spain consists of three bands, red, yellow
bers: twenty councillors designated by labour and red, with the yellow band being twice as
union organisations, another twenty chosen by wide each of the two red bands”. Furthermore,
business organisations, and twenty others from article 1 of Law 39/1981 states that “the flag of
various associations and organisations. Spain symbolises the nation. It is a sign of the
sovereignty, independence, unity and integrity
The Judiciary Branch of our homeland and represents the noble va-
lues enshrined in the Constitution.”
According to the constitution, justice rests with The Coat of Arms. The Spanish coat of
the people and is administered on the King’s be- arms has undergone a series of modifications
half by the judges and magistrates of the judiciary over the years since its creation in the times of
branch. Emphasis must be placed, above all, on the Catholic Monarchs. It is now officially de-
jurisdictional unity; in Spain, justice is adminis- fined by Law 33/81, Royal Decree 2964/81 of
tered by a single corps of judges and magistrates. 18 December and Royal Decree 2267/82 of 3
The General Council of the Judiciary Power. September.
This is the body that governs judges and magis- The National Anthem. On 10 October
trates. This council is led by the chairman of the 1997, the characteristics and provisions go-
Supreme Court, and consists of 20 other mem- verning the use of the national anthem were
bers who serve 5-year terms and must be pro- approved by the Council of Ministers and Royal
Decree 1560/97 was published the next day in

the Official Gazette of the Spanish State. This
decree acknowledged that the national anthem
originated with the Grenadier March or the
Royal March.
The Territorial Organisation

of the State
The Autonomous Regions and Cities

with Statutes of Autonomy
The 1978 Constitution acknowledged and
guaranteed the right of the nationalities and re-
gions that comprise the Spanish nation to be
autonomous, and the solidarity between them
all. The development of the provisions of the
constitution has led to a complete overhaul of
the territorial organisation of the state, involv- The Flag and Coat of Arms of Spain.
ing the creation of seventeen autonomous re-
gions and two autonomous cities (Ceuta and
Melilla) and the ensuing redistribution of politi- gions, powers shared by the State and the
cal and administrative power between the cen- autonomous regions, and the concurrent com-
tral and regional authorities. petences in which both the State and the auto-
As a result of this process, Spain has be- nomous regions can intervene. The exclusive fa-
come one of the most decentralised countries in culties – of both the State and the autonomous
Europe. By strengthening cohesion and solida- regions – encompass legislative jurisdiction and
rity, it has promoted the harmonious develop- executive authority, whereas shared competen-
ment of the political, social and cultural diver- ces may entail a different distribution of the leg-
sity that has shaped our history, while bringing islative and regulatory authority between the
institutions closer to citizens, improving demo- State and the autonomous regions, which are
cratic qualities and making a significant contri- usually endowed with executive authority in
bution to the important economic, social and such instances. Any conflict of authority is settled
cultural progress that Spain has attained. by the Constitutional Court, as occurs in other
Each autonomous region has its own statute politically decentralised states.
of autonomy, ratified by organic laws, which The autonomous regions have a parliamen-
constitutes the basic institutional regulations of tary system of government and their basic institu-
the autonomous region and governs certain ba- tions are the regional parliament, the president of
sic considerations such as the structure and the autonomous region and the regional admin-
management of its parliament and government, istration. The autonomous regions have conside-
the powers and responsibilities of the autono- rable economic and financial autonomy, being
mous region, its administration, identifying empowered to approve their own annual bud-
symbols and distinguishing features such as lan- gets and obtain their own resources by levelling
guage or civil law, and relations with the State taxes, duties, surcharges, special contributions
and other autonomous regions. and public prices. The general funding system of
The distribution of powers between the State autonomous regions, which also includes taxes
and the autonomous regions is based on the dis- transferred by the State and a share in state taxa-
tinction between the responsibilities resting ex- tion, is set multilaterally by the State and the au-
clusively with the State or the autonomous re- tonomous regions and, by means of a variety of
68
financial mechanisms, ensures inter-territorial while the provinces are overseen by provincial
solidarity and a guaranteed minimum level of ba- councils. The Balearic and Canary Islands oper-
sic public services provided equally throughout ate under a special local regime of inter-island
the national territory. councils.
The future of the State of Autonomous Re- The town councils comprise the mayor
gions. The experience of developing the State of (who chairs the council), the deputy mayors,
Autonomous Regions over a period of almost the governing board and the plenary assembly,
thirty years, with a clearly positive outcome, has consisting of all the councillors directly elected
made it possible to pinpoint operational areas in by the inhabitants of the municipality. Elections
need of improvement. It has also become clear are held using open lists in municipalities with
that an overhaul of the funding system is needed between 100 and 250 inhabitants, and closed
in order to enhance autonomy and financial self- lists in townships with more than 250 inhabit-
sufficiency, as well as increase the fiscal co- ants, by proportional representation.
responsibility of autonomous regions, thereby The mayor is elected by an absolute major-
ensuring solidarity and territorial cohesion. ity of the town councillors. If there is no abso-
In order to perfect the State of Autonomous lute majority, the councillor heading the list
Regions in this respect, most autonomous re- that receives the most votes is proclaimed may-
gions have undertaken a revision of their Sta- or, and in the case of open-list munici-palities,
tutes of Autonomy in the last two years. At this the councillor obtaining the most votes from
time, the revised statutes of Andalusia, Aragón, the people in the councillors’ elections is pro-
Castile-León, Catalonia, Valencia and the Ba- claimed mayor.
learic Islands have been approved, and the re- A special Open-Council system is used in
form proposals for the statutes of Castile-La municipalities with fewer than 100 inhabitants,
Mancha and Extremadura are being debated in as well as in certain towns that choose to adopt
Parliament. it (either because of historical tradition or by
The socialist administration led by José Luis virtue of a municipal decision ratified by the
Rodríguez Zapatero set a precedent by orga- regional authorities). Under this unique system
nising the first annual conference of regional of government and administration, resident vot-
presidents, with the goal of furthering a territo- ers directly elect their mayor using the simple
rial model of governance that has so far proved majority system – an authentic example of di-
to be tremendously successful. rect democracy at work.
Furthermore, the national government and Not only Spanish voters have the right to
the autonomous regions have agreed to reform active and passive suffrage in local elections;
the general system of regional funding. citizens of the European Union with legal resi-
dence in Spain are also entitled to vote in the
Local Authorities same conditions as Spaniards. The same right is
extended to non-EU citizens residing in Spain
According to the latest official population sta- whose native countries allow Spaniards to vote
tistics, as of 1 January 2008 (Royal Decree in their elections, under the terms of a specific
2124/2008 of 26 December), there are 50 treaty (article 13.2 of the EC and 176 of Or-
provinces and 8,112 municipalities, whose ganic Law 5/1985 of 19 June on the General
numbers of inhabitants are very unevenly dis- Election System). The provincial councils are
tributed. Hence, 4,861 municipalities (59.2% chosen by town councillors of the province
of the total) have populations of fewer than from among their ranks, and their basic task is
1,000 inhabitants, while 6,822 (84.09% of the to help and cooperate with the municipalities,
total) are municipalities with fewer than 5,000 particularly those with the least financial and
inhabitants. Only 145 municipalities (1.78% of management capacity, and likewise to ensure
the total) have populations of more than 50,000 the mandatory minimum services that the mu-
inhabitants. nicipalities are required to provide by law.
From an organisational standpoint, the ins- The Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands
titutions responsible for running and adminis- are governed and administered by the inter-is-
tering the municipalities are the town councils, land councils.
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF ANDALUSIA
• Location • Capital: Seville
• Socio-economic data
Surface area (km2) 87,598
Population, 2008 electoral register 8,202,220
Population density (inhab. / km2) 93.6
GDP mp (millions) 2008 149.909.9
Regional GDP mp / national GDP (%) 2008 13.7
GDP (PPP) per capita (EU27 average=100) 2007 82.0
• Flag
BREAKDOWN OF 2008 GDP
• Coat of Arms
Agriculture: 4.6% Construction:14.1%

Industry: 11.3% Services: 70%
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF ARAGON
• Location • Capital: Saragossa
GDP mp (millions) 2008 34,371.6
• Flag GDP (PPP) per capita (EU27 average=100) 2007 116.6
• Coat of Arms
Agriculture: 4.7% Construction: 11.4%

Industry: 22.8% Services: 61.2%
70
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF PRINCIPALITY OF ASTURIAS
• Location • Capital: Oviedo
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF THE BALEARIC ISLANDS
• Location • Capital: Palma de Mallorca
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF THE CANARY ISLANDS
• Location • Capitals: Sta. Cruz de Tenerife and

Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF CANTABRIA
• Location • Capital: Santander
Population, 2008 electoral register 582,138
• Coat of Arms

72
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF CASTILE-LA MANCHA
• Location • Capital: Toledo
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF CASTILE AND LEON
• Location • Capital: Valladolid
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF CATALONIA
• Location • Capital: Barcelona
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF EXTREMADURA
• Location • Capital: Mérida
• Coat of Arms

74
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF GALICIA
• Location • Capital: Santiago de Compostela
GDP (PPP) per capita (EU27 average=100) 2007 89,0
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF LA RIOJA
• Location • Capital: Logroño
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF MADRID
• Location • Capital: Madrid
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

Industry: 13.3% Servicies: 76.5%
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF MURCIA
• Location • Capital: Murcia
• Coat of Arms

Industry: 15.9% Servicies: 66.7%
76
AUTONOMOUS REGION OF NAVARRE
• Location • Capital: Pamplona
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF THE BASQUE COUNTRY
• Location • Capital: Vitoria-Gasteiz
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF VALENCIA
• Location • Capital: Valencia
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

AUTONOMOUS CITY OF CEUTA
• Location • Capital: Ceuta
Surface area (km2) ) 19.0
Population density (inhab. / km2) 4,073.1
• Coat of Arms

78
AUTONOMOUS CITY OF MELILLA
• Location • Capital: Melilla
Surface area (km2) 13.0
Population density (inhab. / km2) 5,496.0
• Flag
• Coat of Arms

RELATED LINKS
The following links are suggested for official web sites of interest:
a) For general information regarding the State of Autonomous Regions, various data can be consulted on the
Ministry of Public Administrations website at the following URLs:
– For autonomous regions:
http://www.map.es/documentacion/politica_autonomica/estado_autonomico.html
– For local government institutions:
http://www.map.es/documentacion/entes_locales/registro_alcaldes.html
b) For links to the official web pages of territorial authorities, please consult the following URLs:
– For autonomous regions:
http://www.map.es/enlaces/administraciones_autonomicas.html
– For local government institutions:
http://www.map.es/enlaces/entidades_locales.html
THE LANGUAGES OF SPAIN prestige spread throughout Europe, particularly

to the Italian states and Flanders, but also to
According to article 3 of the constitution, Castil- France, Great Britain and Germany.
ian Spanish is the official language of Spain and The crucial moment of its spread across the
all Spaniards are duty-bound to know it and enti- world was undoubtedly the discovery of America
tled to use it. The other languages of Spain are in 1492. Castilian Spanish was exported to the
also official in their respective autonomous renew overseas territories, where it absorbed many
gions pursuant to their statutes. The constitution words from the native languages. Christopher Co-
also declares the different linguistic modalities of lumbus himself recorded some of these new
Spain to be a cultural heritage and wealth which words in his diaries: canoa (canoe), hamaca
must be granted special respect and protection. (hammock), tiburón (shark), tabaco (tobacco) and
This is the first time in the history of Spain caimán (alligator). Over the course of five centu-
that the right of the autonomous regions of the ries, Castilian Spanish took root and spread from
Basque Country, Galicia, Catalonia, the Balea- Tierra del Fuego to the Rio Grande and beyond,
ric Islands and the Region of Valencia to use reaching as far as the Philippines in Asia. The old
their languages (Basque, Galician, Catalan and language of Castile had become Spanish.
Valencian) is acknowledged, without detriment The Spanish language has been growing
to Castilian Spanish. since the 16th century and has not ceased to
spread over the years. By the late 19th century,
it had some 60 million speakers. One hundred
Spanish and the languages of Spain,
years later, with almost 400 million speakers, it
a vibrant cultural heritage
is the fourth most spoken language in the world
The official state language, Castilian Spanish, is after Chinese, English and Hindi, and every-
the language of the former kingdom of Castile. thing suggests that this expansion will continue
As it spread across in the globe in the 16th and well into and even beyond the 21st century.
17th centuries, it became increasingly known as At present, it is the official language of
Spanish. Since then the two names have co- about twenty countries around the globe and
existed. It is generally understood that Spanish one of the three languages usually considered
is the appropriate term for the language on the to be an official or working language by count-
international scene, while Castilian Spanish is less international organisations. The USA, with
preferred inside Spain, where there are other over 35 million Hispanics, is the fifth nation in
languages that are also equally Spanish. This is the world in terms of Spanish speakers after
why the constitution says, “Castilian Spanish is Mexico, Spain, Colombia and Argentina.
the official language of the State.” Spanish speakers account for approximately
Castilian Spanish, like the other Romance 6% of the world’s population – taking into ac-
languages, took shape during an extended peri- count only those nations where it is the official
od of time that lasted from the fourth to the tenth language – in comparison with English speakers
century, as a consequence of the fragmentation (8.9%) or French speakers (1.8%). Another sig-
of Latin. By the 13th century, it was already a lan- nificant fact is that Spanish is spoken by 94.6%
guage of culture. Epic folk poetry gave rise to the of the population living in the countries where it
Cantar de Mio Cid, an anonymous, twelfth-cen- is an official language, a far higher percentage
tury poem so masterfully written that it suggests than French (34.6%) or English (27.6%).
a preceding, older literary tradition. Meanwhile, The Cervantes Institute was created in 1991
the monks in the monasteries created the cleri- to promote Spanish internationally and spread
cal verse form, masterfully exemplified by the culture in the Spanish language. This non-profit
work of Gonzalo de Berceo. body is governed by its board of trustees, of
In the early 16th century, Castilian Spanish which His Majesty the King of Spain is the hon-
had spread across the Iberian Peninsula and orary chairman. The executive chairmanship is
had begun to be an international language. Its occupied by the president of Spain.
80
Catalan. Catalan is, together with Spanish, Diccionari ortogràfico (1917) and Gramàtica
the official language of Catalonia (1979) and the catalana de Fabra (1918).
Balearic Islands (1983). Outside Catalonia, it is Valencian. Article 7 of Valencia’s statute of
spoken in the Principality of Andorra, along the autonomy states that the region’s two official
Aragonese-Catalonian border, in the trans-Pyr- languages are Valencian and Castilian Spanish,
enees territories of Roussillon and Cerdaña, and and goes on to say that the Valencian Regional
in the Italian city of Alghero (Sardinia). Government will safeguard the normal and of-
Catalan first appeared in written docu- ficial use of the two languages and will take
ments in the latter half of the 12th century. Le- such measures as may be necessary to ensure
gal, economic, religious and historical texts in the knowledge of the same, in addition to af-
Catalan have survived from this period. The fording particular protection and respect to the
earliest known text penned entirely in Catalan recuperation of Valencian.
is the translation of a short excerpt of Liber iudi- Its literary splendour peaked in the 15th and
ciorum, the Visigothic Law Code, dating from part of the 16th centuries. Under the Dukes of
the latter half of the 12th century. Calabria, writings in Valencian gradually began
The first great, universal literary master in to acquire Castilian Spanish forms, although it
Catalan was Ramón Llull in the 13th century. He remained alive in everyday use.
was the first writer to use Catalan in literary In the late 19th century, the movement
prose as an everyday vehicle of communica- known as the Renaixença brought about a mi-
tion and also as a useful tool for cultural ex- nor revival in the use of the language in literary
pression. But it was not until the 15th century publications and competitions that lasted until
that the Catalan narrative reached glorious the opening decades of the 20th century.
heights with Joanot Martorell, whose work Ti- In the year 1932, the Castellón spelling
rant lo Blanc is deemed to be the first modern rules were signed, which Valencian men of let-
novel of European literature. ters abided by without problems for forty years.
As a consequence of the War of Spanish In Law 7/1998 of 16 September, the Valen-
Succession (1705-1715), Philip V dissolved all cian Parliament ratified the creation of the Va-
the governing institutions still in existence in lencian Language Academy, whose function is,
Catalonia and applied common laws to all the according to its 3rd article, to determine (and
territories under the Crown of Castile. Catalan create, when applicable) the linguistic rules of
underwent several periods of prohibition and the Valencian language.
repression, and the varying degree of implanta- Basque. One of the oldest languages in Eu-
tion and use of the language in its own territory rope, the origins of the Basque language are the
since the 18th century is the outcome of politi- subject of wide range of hypotheses. Because of
cal rather than strictly socio-cultural reasons. certain similarities with Georgian, some lin-
The 19th century saw the dawn of an eco- guists believe it may be related to Caucasian
nomic, cultural and national revival known as languages. Today, Basque is spoken in the Spa-
the Renaixença. The Catalan language began to nish Basque country, Navarre and the French
blossom once again as a vehicle for literary cul- Basque territory.
ture thanks to the Juegos Florales literary awards The first known texts written in Basque date
and leading figures including Jacint Verdaguer, from the 16th century, when Bernard Dechepare
Narcís Oller and Àngel Guimerà. published Linguae Vasconum Primitiae in 1545.
The Renaixença raised awareness about the Later, in 1571, Joanes Leizarraga translated the
lack of unity in the use of the language (there New Testament into Basque (Testamentu Berrria).
was no common model for the written lan- In 1979, the statute of autonomy declared
guage) and the need to establish set spelling Basque to be the official language of the Basque
rules. The creation of the Institut d’Estudis Cata- Autonomous Region, and since then, many regu-
lans (1907) made regulation possible with the lations have been implemented and many bodies
publication of Normes ortogràfiques (1913), and institutions have been created in order to re-
cuperate the knowledge, use and status of over the political organisation of the Old Regime
Basque. was nipped in the bud and a period fraught with
Galician. This tongue is spoken almost eve- conspiracies, sectarianism and exiles began.
rywhere in Galicia and in bordering areas of The major political changes of nineteenth-
Asturias, Leon and Zamora. Its literature flou- century Spain did not occur because of the cons-
rished splendidly in the Middle Ages. The Can- titution itself, but rather due to political positions
tigas de Santa María by King Alfonso X, also in favour of or against the very notion of a consti-
known as Alfonso the Wise, are a fine example tution as the instrument for determining national
of its use and prestige as a language of literature sovereignty. In other words, these changes result-
in the closing years of the 13th century. ed from battles between the principle of demo-
The 19th century witnessed the Rexurdi- cracy and the principle of the monarchy. The
mento (resurgence) of literature and move- typically doctrinarian idea of shared sovereignty
ments in defence of the singular nature of Gali- enjoyed much more widespread support in Spain
cia in many aspects, including its language. than democratic ideals. One example shows this
The publication of Cantares Gallegos by clearly: the constitutions based on the idea of na-
Rosalía de Castro in 1863 was a literary res- tional sovereignty or popular sovereignty (i.e.
ponse to the language of a people who re- those of 1812, 1837, 1869 and 1931) were in
mained faithful to their culture. The year 1905 force for a total of twenty-two years, in compari-
saw the constitution of the Royal Academy of son with the seventy-two years of duration of all
Galicia, which marked the institutionalisation of the constitutions in which sovereignty was
of the process to recover the language. shared by the monarch and the parliament (those
The Irmandades da fala (Language Fraterni- of 1834, 1845 and 1876).
ties), the Nós group and other social movements The Spanish people’s advocacy of one consti-
support and revitalize people’s loyalty to the lan- tutional concept or another ended abruptly with
guage, which also suffered the onslaught of the the military coup of 18 July 1936 and the Spanish
Spanish Civil War and its consequences. Those Civil War that broke out between the revolting
dramatic circumstances were overcome, and military and forces loyal to the legally constituted
from 1960 onwards what Celso Emilio Ferreiro government. Despite the bitterness and injustices
described as the Longa noite de Pedra (Long night arising from the Civil War and Franco’s dictator-
of stone) started to become a thing of the past. ship, the political change that took place after
General Franco’s death in 1975 was the paradigm
of a peaceful transition to democracy. Its founda-
THE POLITICAL ARENA: tions are rooted in the 1970s, when the Spanish
economy experienced a boom that undoubtedly
HISTORICAL AND
fed the increasing demands for an opening-up of
CONSTITUTIONAL the political system while emphasising the outda-
FOUNDATIONS ted nature of the dictatorship. A singular paradox
of the Spanish democratic transition lies in the fact
Over the course of the 19th century and until the that the legal and political regulations of the dicta-
Civil War broke out in 1936, Spain had had seven torship, or Fundamental Laws as they were called,
constitutions, as well as several similar projects were used to draft a new Fundamental Law that
and amendments that were never enacted. served as a bridge to cross over from the past to a
In fact, this trait of the history of the Spanish new democratic regime.
constitution dates back to its very origins. The This law, known as the Political Reform Law,
text of the first truly Spanish constitution, enact- was drafted by President Adolfo Suárez’s adminis-
ed in the city of Cadiz in 1812, was abolished by tration in September 1976, and was endorsed al-
King Ferdinand VII upon his return to Spain two most unanimously by the parliament inherited
years later. As a result, the intention of allowing from the previous regime, thereby condemning
the principle of national sovereignty to prevail its own existence. At the end of the year, a refer-
82
endum, in which the opposition unsuccessfully pacity, and even fewer have a significant repre-
promoted abstention, passed the law with an sentation in regional or national parliaments.
overwhelming majority. Its provisions enabled The political parties that currently consti-
the first democratic elections to be held in June tute the Congress of Representatives are orga-
1977. nised in the following parliamentary groups:
Without the restraint and caution shown by
most political and social forces, and without Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (Partido
the responsibility shown by Spanish society as Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE)
a whole and the staunch commitment of H.M. This party is currently in power. It is the oldest
King Juan Carlos I to the democratic change, political party in Spain, founded in 1879 by Pa-
none of this would have been possible. blo Iglesias, who also founded the General
Workers’ Union (Union General de Trabaja-
The Political Parties dores, UGT) some years later. Since the 1970s, it
has embraced a Western European socio-demo-
Pursuant to article 6 of the Spanish constitution, cratic ideology, and the party is situated on the
the political parties are an expression of political centre left of the Spanish political spectrum.
pluralism; they take part in shaping and manifes- In the general elections of 1977 and 1979,
ting the people’s will and are a fundamental in- the PSOE became the main opposition party, and
strument for participation in politics. The constitu- in the 1979 local elections it came to power in
tion protects their creation and their activity and many of Spain’s most important mayors’ offices.
determines that they must be structured and run In the parliamentary elections of October 1982,
in a democratic manner. with 202 seats, it acquired an absolute majority
Organic Law 6/2002 concerning political that was maintained until the 1993 elections,
parties, governs the parties’ legal bylaws. It lists when it received enough votes to remain in the
and specifies the constitutional requirements government with a relative majority until the fol-
concerning how they are organised, run and lowing elections, in 1996, which were won by
operated, subject to the constitution and the the People’s Party. In the 2000 elections it con-
law, particularly with regard to the democratic tinued to be the main opposition party and the
principles and constitutional values that must second party with most votes. The 2004 parlia-
be respected in their internal organisation and mentary elections enabled the PSOE to return to
external activities. Its objectives include safe- power with 164 representatives and a relative
guarding the running of the democratic system majority, and the 2008 elections permitted the
and the basic liberties of citizens, thereby pre- party to maintain that relative majority.
venting any political party from repeatedly The socialist parliamentary group includes
making serious attacks on this democratic re- the seats won by the PSOE and those obtained
gime of liberties, justifying racism and xeno- by the PSC-PSOE (Socialist Party of Catalonia)
phobia or providing political support for the
violence or activities of terrorist groups.
RESULTS OF THE 2004 AND 2008 SPANISH
Organic Law 8/2007 concerning the fun- PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS
ding of political parties lays the foundations for (CONGRESS OF REPRESENTATIVES)
the public financing of parties on the basis of
their parliamentary representation. Party Seats 2008 Seats 2004
The moderate, pluralist party system is cha- PSOE-PSC 169 164
racterised by the existence of regional and na- PP 154 148
tionalist parties that reflect the autonomous sys- CIU 10 10
PNV 6 7
tem and the territorial organisation of the State.
ERC 3 8
Approximately 3.200 parties are officially IU-ICV 2 5
inscribed in the Political Party Register, although BNG 2 2
only a few have a minimum of organisational ca- CC-PNC 2 3
UPyD 1 –
NA-BAI 1 1
EA – 1
CHA – 1
in the provinces of the Autonomous Region of pendence ideology. In the 1993 parliamentary
Catalonia. elections, it won its first seat in the Congress of
Representatives and hung on to it in the 1996
People’s Party (Partido Popular, PP) and 2000 elections. In 2003, this party held the
This group was founded in 1977 by Manuel balance of power in the Catalonian parliament.
Fraga under the name of the People’s Alliance It made considerable advances in the last parlia-
(Alianza Popular, AP); its present-day name was mentary elections (2004), winning eight seats,
adopted in 1989. The PP occupies a position on but this number dropped three in 2008, relegat-
the centre-right of the party system. ing the party to the Mixed Group.
Its results in the 1977 elections were res-
pectable, but in 1982 it became the second Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista
most-voted party and the main opposition Vasco, PNV)
force. It obtained more seats in the 1991 re- This party was founded in 1895 by Sabino Arana;
gional elections. In the 1993 parliamentary it is a moderate nationalist, Christian party. The
elections, more seats were won, and it came PNV first came to power in the Basque Country in
into power in 1996 with a relative majority that 1980. More recently, it won the 2001 regional
was to become absolute when 183 seats were elections thanks to a coalition with Eusko Alkar-
won in the 2000 general elections. In 2004, tasuna, a move that was repeated in the 2005
with 148 deputies, it became the second most- elec-tions and enabled them to govern with sup-
voted party and the main opposition party. In port from Ezker Batua. In the 2008 election it won
the 2008 elections, with 154 seats, it consoli- six seats. In the regional elections of 2009, it won
dated its status as the second most-voted party. 30 seats while the PSOE won 25 and the PP 13;
In the 2009 regional elections in Galicia, the as a result, the PNV lost its absolute majority and
PP won an absolute majority with 39 seats, fol- control of the regional government.
lowed by the PSOE (24 seats) and the nationalists
(12 seats), ending the hegemony of the socialist- Nationalist Galician Bloc (Bloque Nacionalista
BNG coalition in this region. Galego, BNG)
In 1931, Galician nationalist organisations led
Convergence and Union by Castelao y Bóveda founded the Galician
(Convergència i Uniò, CIU) Party (Partido Galleguista). They drew up party
This party began as an electoral coalition in statutes and presented them to President Azaña
1977. Since 2002 it has been a federation con- for ratification on 15 July 1936, but they were
sisting of two moderate nationalist parties: never approved due to the onset of the Civil
Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (Con- War. In 1960, various Galician cultural associ-
vergència Democrática de Catalunya, CDC) of ations emerged. The Union of the Galician Peo-
a liberal slant, and Democratic Union of Cata- ple (Unión do Povo Galego) was created in
lonia (Unió Democrática de Catalunya, UDC) 1964. When the 1978 Constitution was passed,
of a Christian democratic slant. It governed the a statute was drafted and eventually approved
Autonomous Region of Catalonia from 1980 to in 1981. The BNG, founded in 1982, has go-
2003. After the parliamentary elections of verned the region with the PSG until 2009.
1993 and 1996 it played a key role in helping
the administrations of the PSOE and the PP to United Left - Initiative for Catalonia Ecologists
obtain a parliamentary majority, as the elec- (Izquierda Unida-Iniciativa per Catalunya
tions had only won them relative majorities. Verds – IU-ICV)
Currently this parliamentary group has two
Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra seats and consists of:
Republicana de Catalunya, ERC) United Left (Izquierda Unida, IU): emerged
Founded in 1931, this Catalonian political party in 1986 as a party coalition. In 1992 it was entered
has a progressive, republican and pro-inde- the Party Register as a political and social move-
84
ment. It is now a federation of parties to the left of and Democracy (Unión Progreso y Democra-
the political spectrum. Of the parties that com- cia, UPyD) both with one seat.
prise this federation, the Communist Party of Spain
(Partido Comunista de España, PCE) stands out be-
Parliamentary, Regional, Local
cause of its weight and influence, being the party
and European Elections
that the federation’s main leaders belong to.
Initiative for Catalonia Ecologists (Inicia- Spaniards participate in politics via their repre-
tiva per Catalunya Verds, ICV): is the outcome sentatives who are elected by means of free,
of the fusion of several socialist and green par- equal and direct universal suffrage cast by se-
ties. It was consolidated as a political party in cret ballot in four different types of elections:
1987 and adopted its current name in 1998. It
has held seats in the Congress of Representa- Parliamentary Elections
tives since 1986. The aim of these elections is to designate the rep-
Canary Coalition (Coalición Canaria, CC): resentatives in the Spanish Parliament (Cortes
started out as an election coalition and became Generales). Each of the two houses in the Span-
a federation of parties in 1997. It is a group of ish Parliament – the Congress and the Senate –
small political parties from the Canary Islands has its own electoral system.
that share a moderate nationalist outlook. Since The system in the Congress of Representa-
2005 it has consisted of the Independent Her- tives is one of modified proportional repre-
rera Group (Agrupación Herrera Independiente, sentation. The constituencies are delimited by
AHI), the Independent Canary Groups (Agrupa- the provincial demarcation lines (plus Ceuta
ciones Independientes de Canarias, AIC), Ca- and Melilla) and are pluri-nominal. Candi-
nary Initiative (Iniciativa Canaria, ICAN) and the dates are submitted in closed, blocked lists.
Majorera Assembly (Asamblea Majorera, AM). The number of representatives to be elected
It heads the government of the Canary Islands in each constituency is determined by alloca-
Autonomous Region. ting a minimum of two to each and distribu-
Mixed Group (Grupo Mixto): the current mem- ting the others proportionately on the basis of
bers of the Mixed Group are: the Republican population. Ceuta and Melilla have one re-
Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Cat- presentative each.
alunya, ERC), with three seats, the Canary Coa- The Senate uses a limited majority voting sys-
lition (Coalición Canaria, CC), United Left tem in pluri-nominal constituencies. Each voter
(Izquierda Unida, IU) and the Nationalist Gali- can vote for up to three of the four candidates as-
cian Bloc (Bloque Nacionalista Galego, BNG) signed to each district. The lists are open and not
with two seats, and the Navarre-Yes coalition blocked which allows voters to choose candi-
(Nafarroa-Bai or Na-Bai) and Union, Progress dates from different parties and does not require
them to vote for the candidates heading up the
respective lists. Voting involves marking the can-
didates chosen from a single list that features all of
RESULTS OF THE SPANISH PARLIAMENTARY the candidates in alphabetical order. This is the
ELECTIONS: SENATE (208 SENATORS) procedure used to elect 208 senators, as well as
Party Seats 2008 Seats 2004 the 56 (in the 9th Legislature) designated by the
PP 101 102
houses of representatives of the Autonomous Re-
PSOE 89 81 gions (each has one senator plus one for every
PSC-ERC 12 12 million inhabitants).
ICV-EUIA The Senate’s electoral system is an excep-
CIU 4 4 tion in the Spanish political panorama, since
PNV 2 6 the other elections (regional, local and Euro-
CC-PNC – 3 pean) use systems similar to that of the Con-
gress of Representatives.
Regional Elections will then elect the mayors. The constituency in

The members of the parliaments of the 17 au- these elections is the electorate of townships.
tonomous regions are elected, as are the mem- A special election system is employed in
bers of the assemblies of the autonomous cities towns with fewer than 100 inhabitants that
of Ceuta and Melilla. Their composition ranges operate using Open Councils, and likewise in
from 22 to 135 seats, according to the popula- those that, either traditionally or by a municipal
tion of each autonomous region, except in the decision and with the approval of the regional
Basque Country, which is allocated twenty-five authorities, have adopted this singular govern-
seats for each historical territory regardless of ment and administration system in which the
the number of inhabitants, and the cities of inhabitants eligible to vote elect the mayor di-
Ceuta and Melilla, whose assemblies have 25 rectly by majority.
members.
European Elections
Local Elections These elections designate the Spanish repre-
These are held at the same time as the regional sentatives in the European Parliament (Spain
elections of 13 autonomous regions (the excep- had 54 in the 2004-2009 legislature, 50 in the
tions are Catalonia, the Basque Country, Gali- 2009-2014 legislature, and when the Lisbon
cia and Andalusia, which hold their elections Treaty enters into effect it will have 54). The
on different dates due to the competences they constituency is the entire territory of the State.
have adopted) and the elections to the assem- The lists, as in the case of the Congress of Rep-
blies of the cities of Ceuta and Melilla. The out- resentatives, are closed and blocked. Seats are
come is the simultaneous election of council- allocated using D’Hondt’s modified propor-
lors in more than 8,000 municipalities, who tional representation formula.
ORGANISATION OF ELECTIONS IN SPAIN
Spanish Parliamentary Elections for Local Elections European Elections to

Elections Regional Parliaments for Town the European Parliament
and the Cities of Ceuta Councils
and Melilla
50
European MPs
50 65,347
208 1,186
350 Members Councillors
Senators Representatives
Representatives
of 17 1,036
Regional Provincial Representatives
56
Parliament
Senators for
41 Presidents of Provincial
autonomous
Councils
regions
17 Presidents 153
Island Councillors
7 Presidents of Inter-Island
Councils
153 Special representatives

in Regional Parliaments
8,111
Mayors 3
General Council Presidents
of Historical Territories
86
THE DEFENCE OF LIBERTIES The Fight Against Terrorism

The right to life and personal safety, as well as
State Security Forces the freedom of expression, are fundamental
rights guaranteed by the Spanish constitution.
Public security is the responsibility of the state As in other countries, these rights are at risk of
alone and is upheld by the government. These being curtailed by terrorism, which is now the
security responsibilities are regulated by the main threat faced by citizens.
Organic Law of 1986 concerning State Security The terrorist activities of ETA began in Spain
Forces, which include: in the 1970s, before the onset of democracy,
a) The State Security Forces answerable to with one clear aim: the use of violent means to
the government, which operate throughout forcibly gain independence for the Basque
Spain. They consist of the National Police Force Country, including activities such as crime, kid-
and the Civil Guard. Their main mission is to napping and blackmail.
safeguard the exercise of rights and liberties With the onset of democracy, which opened
and to ensure citizen safety. up channels for the activities of all parties and
The National Police Force is a civil, armed organisations regardless of their aims and ideas,
corps answerable to the Spanish Ministry of the and following a general amnesty in 1977, Spa-
Interior. It operates in provincial capitals and in nish society as a whole hoped that ETA would
the municipal districts and urban areas speci- abandon their armed struggle. But this hope was
fied by the administration. dashed; not only has the terrorist group failed to
The Civil Guard is a security force founded relinquish its violent ideology, it has actually in-
in the mid-19th century. It is an armed military tensified its criminal activities indiscriminately.
institution answerable to the Spanish Ministry On 8 December 2000, the People’s Party
of the Interior and Ministry of Defence. It is and the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party signed
operative in territories not covered by the na- the Agreement for Liberty and Against Terrorism
tional police and its territorial waters. which stipulated that “the Government of Spain
b) The police forces of the autonomous re- is responsible for leading the fight against ter-
gions. Some Autonomous Regions, pursuant to rorism” and expressed “the determination to
the competences recognised enshrined in their eliminate counter-terrorism policies from the
statutes, have created police forces to perform the sphere of legitimate political or electoral con-
duties of guardianship and protection set forth in frontation between our two parties.” The agree-
the Constitution and the Organic Law of State Se- ment also affirmed that “terrorist violence shall
curity Forces. This group includes Catalonia’s not, under any circumstances, be used to ob-
Mossos d’Esquadra, the Basque Country’s Ertza- tain any political return or benefit whatsoever.”
intza and Navarre’s Policía Foral, among others. This document was ratified by the main agents
c) The police forces answerable to local au- and groups of Spanish society.
thorities. These are civil, armed forces with a In the fight against terrorism, Spain receives
hierarchical structure and organisation. Local support and collaboration from other countries
police forces are competent in everything re- where terrorists have been known to hide. Col-
lated to the application and execution of spe- laboration with France is increasingly close-knit
cifically local regulations within the scope of in both political and juridical terms. Spain and
their faculties and jurisdiction. France have several Joint Investigation Teams
In recent years, public authorities have (ECIs) to combat terrorism perpetrated by ETA
made a significant effort to improve coordina- and radical jihadists. Furthermore, extradition
tion between the State Security Forces, Regio- from many European and Latin American coun-
nal Police Forces and Local Police Forces. To- tries has become standard practice, as these na-
gether they have over 200,000 agents working tions have intensified their cooperation with
to ensure public safety in Spain. Spain in the struggle to eradicate terrorism.
CHAPTER IV
FOREIGN POLICY
FOREIGNPOLICYFOREIG
NPOLICYFOREIGNPOLICYFO
REIGNPOLICYFOREIGNPOLI to European relations and established a direct
and insistent dialogue that, on 5 February 1979,
CYFOREIGNPOLICYFOREIG resulted in the opening of negotiations for
Spain’s accession.
NPOLICYFOREIGNPOLI The administrations of Leopoldo Calvo-So-
telo and Felipe González led the negotiations
with the backing of an ample parliamentary
CYFOREIGNPOLICYFOREIG majority. The addition of a large economy such
as Spain’s, lagging behind Europe in terms of
SPAIN AND THE
development, necessarily posed questions of
EUROPEAN UNION mutual adjustment. These were worked out af-
The European Union is an organisation open to ter seven years of re-negotiations thanks to the
the world, founded on common values of free- establishment of transitional deadlines that
dom, democracy, the rule of law and respect gave Spain time to gradually implement Euro-
for human rights. Its strategic objectives include pean policies in the fields of agriculture, the
the consolidation of a stable and united Europe fishing industry, customs union, monopolies
with a unique and independent voice in the in- and services. This flexibility was designed to
ternational arena. The EU has increasingly mitigate the impact of our entry in the EEC on
more responsibilities and influence in the the Spanish economy.
world, commensurate with its economic, com- Finally, on 12 June 1985, Spain and Portu-
mercial and diplomatic weight. The EU is the gal signed the Treaty of Adhesion to the Euro-
largest commercial power in the world, with pean Community. After the treaty was signed in
one of the strongest currencies on the market, Lisbon, the President of Spain (Felipe González),
and it is the leading provider of humanitarian the Minister of Foreign Affairs (Fernando
aid. Morán), the Secretary of State for Relations with
The European Community was initially the European Community (Manuel Marín) and
formed in the 1950s (beginning with the Euro- the Permanente Representative Ambassador
pean Coal and Steel Community or ECSC in before the European Community (Gabriel Fer-
1951 and the European Economic Community rán) signed the Treaty of Spain’s Adhesion to the
and EURATOM in 1957) without the presence European Community in the Salón de Colum-
of Spain, which was excluded due to the nature nas of the Royal Palace in Madrid. The treaty
of its political regime. With the transition from was later unanimously ratified by the Congress
dictatorship to democracy, Spain began to es- of Representatives.
tablish closer relations and seek equivalency
with Europe, and this process culminated in
Over twenty years of membership:
Spain becoming a member of the European
Community in 1986. Spain had requested ad- An active presence
mission before, in 1962, and it had signed a More than twenty years have passed since
preferential trade agreement with the Common Spain signed the Adhesion Treaty. These years
Market in 1970 that made it possible for the have constituted one of the most important pe-
Spanish economy to gradually integrate with riods in our recent history. They are years in
the larger community economy. which Spain has worked to consolidate its po-
The Spanish government presented its re- litical regime and the development and mo-
quest before the Council of Ministers of the Eu- dernisation of our society and economy, boost-
ropean Community on 26 July 1977, which of- ed by the modernisation, growth and cohesion
ficially signalled the beginning of the process that came as a result of joining the European
that would culminate in Spain’s admission to project.
the European Economic Community. The ad- The European Union has been generous to
ministration of Adolfo Suárez gave top priority Spain and its society. The current economic
Foreign Policy 89
Felipe González, 3rd

Constitutional President,
signing the Treaty of
Adhesion to the EEC in the
presence of His Majesty the
King of Spain.
and social development is partly owing to the From the social and cultural perspective,
process of European integration. A series of EU social funds have reached millions of peo-
data will clearly indicate what belonging to Eu- ple. With regard to youth, new possibilities
rope has meant to Spain over the past twenty have opened up to them through educational
years. programmes such as Lingua and Erasmus
From an economic standpoint, we have re- (which celebrated its 22nd anniversary in 2009),
ceived net funds from the EU equivalent to from which 270,000 students have benefited to
0.8% of our GDP on an annual basis since date. In the health-care field, Spaniards who
1987. Our per capita income in 1986 regis- travel to other EU countries now carry a Euro-
tered at only 68% of the Community average. pean Health Insurance Card that entitles them
Spain has moved closer to the European aver- to medical and surgical treatment should the
age at a rate of 1 percentage point per year, and need arise. In the cultural arena, by way of an
consequently we have now managed to equal example, the European Commission has helped
this average (99.2% or 23,083 euros in 2007). to finance numerous projects such as the resto-
EU financial aid has created around 300,000 ration of the Courtyard of the Lions at the Al-
jobs per year in Spain, and 90% of the invest- hambra in Granada, the Monastery of Guada-
ments that Spain receives from the entire world lupe or work to repair damages caused by the
come from the EU. The EU receives approxi- fire at the Liceo Theatre in Barcelona.
mately 71% of our exports and 60% of our im- All of this data reflects how much Europe
ports come from EU nations. Finally, without has given to Spain. However, Spain has also gi-
going into too much detail, some specific data ven something back to Europe. Over the past
from a special sector of activity – infrastructu- twenty years as a member of the Community
res – is well worth mentioning. Four out of every project, Spain has evolved into one of the most
ten kilometres of the motorways stretching active member-states in proposing new initia-
across our territory were financed by Commu- tives in the heart of the Union. The EU initiatives
nity funds. Moreover, the expansion of the Ma- in which Spain has played a prominent role and
drid and Barcelona airports, the Seville under- been particularly active are:
ground, the Ciudad de las Artes in Valencia and • The introduction and consolidation of the
the expansion of the Las Palmas Port are just idea of a “Citizens’ Europe” and developing it
some of the large-scale projects that have been with concrete measures (concept of “European
made possible thanks to the assistance of the citizenship” or the European passport, among
European Investment Bank. others).
90
• The proposal of a social Europe along for the fourth time, although this is the first time
with the concept of an economic and monetary that it will be representing 27 different nations
Europe: defence and application of the Euro- which together comprise the most important
pean Union’s economic and social cohesion united region in the world. Another first is that
and job creation as a driving force of that cohe- Spain work with two other nations (Belgium
sion. and Hungary) to form a triple-shared presiden-
• An emphasis on developing a common cy that will lead the Council of the EU until 30
European policy in matters of Justice and the June 2011.
Interior, especially for the purposes of fighting
international organised crime, drug trafficking
Spain’s lines of action
and terrorism.
• The process of developing and institu- for its presidency of the Council
tionalising EU-Latin American relations, the of the EU
best example of which is the European Union • To consistently promote and reinforce the no-
– Latin American and Caribbean Summits (held tion of a Citizens’ Europe by improving and ex-
in Rio de Janeiro in 1999, in Madrid in May panding initiatives of citizen participation and
2002, in Guadalajara, Mexico, in May 2004, in communication.
Vienna in May 2006 and in Lima in May 2008). • To consolidate EU leadership in the glo-
The next summit will be held in Spain in the bal response to the challenge of climate change,
first six months of 2010. energy security and the promotion of renewa-
• Ensuring political stability in the Mediter- ble energy sources.
ranean basin: intensifying cooperation ties with • To defend the need for maintaining a so-
Mediterranean na-tions in North Africa; active cial Europe by promoting the 2010 European
mediation work in the Middle Eastern peace Social Agenda.
process; and hosting the Conference on Secu- • To encourage gender equality policies,
rity and Cooperation in the Mediterranean in both in the heart of EU institutions and in its
Barcelona. In addi-tion, in 2008 Spain become member-states and other nations.
home to the seat of the Secretariat of the Union • To work for a more integrated domestic
for the Mediterranean, located in Barcelona. market by revitalising the Lisbon Strategy with
Since its accession in 1986, Spain has occu- an intensification of R&D and innovation.
pied the rotating presidency of the European • To safeguard the maintenance of a multi-
Union on four occasions: functional common agricultural policy, conve-
• First six months of 1989. At the Madrid niently adapted to the new international situa-
Summit in June, the Delors Report was ap- tion.
proved, which later led to the Treaty on Euro- • To participate in negotiations for the
pean Union or the Treaty of Maastricht in forthcoming revision of the community budget,
1992. defending the preservation of those policies
• Last six months of 1995. The Madrid Euro- that Spain considers strategic – such as cohe-
pean Council, held in December, decided that sion and policies of technological development
“euro” would be the name of the future Europe- and innovation – while promoting policies that
an currency. The initiative for Euro-Mediterra- will enable the EU to face 21st-century cha-
nean cooperation known as the Barcelona Pro- llenges such as immigration, climate change
cess was launched. The New Transatlantic and energy.
Agenda was launched in December 1995. • To continue promoting an EU with an in-
• First six months of 2002. The euro went dependent voice in the world. In this regard,
into circulation in the countries of the Econom- Spain will defend the strengthening of EU rela-
ic and Monetary Union. tions with its most important historical commu-
• During the first six months of 2010, Spain nity – Latin America – without forgetting our
occupies the presidency of the European Union renewed its to Africa; the promotion of the Bar-
Foreign Policy 91
The President of Spain, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, the Prime Minister of Belgium, Herman Van Rompuy, and the Prime
Minister of Hungary, Gordon Bajnai, present the shared logo of the three EU presidencies. Brussels, 29 October 2009.
celona Process in its new phase of Union for The president of Spain has repeatedly ex-
the Mediterranean; the consolidation of EU ties pressed:
with its partners in the East, particularly Russia, • Our confidence in efficient, active multi-
and with our closest ally, the United States; and lateralism and our steadfast support of the
the creation of a strong, vigorous and inde- UN’s leadership in the struggle to overcome
pendent European External Action Service. the new global challenges (food and energy
• To achieve a safer, more secure Union shortages, spiking levels of hunger and pover-
for its citizens by consolidating and expanding ty, climate change, access to and management
a real Space of Freedom, Security and Justice, of drinking water) with efficiency, creating
and by facing the challenges and opportuni- spaces of consensus and promoting political
ties of immigration as a united front through commitment.
the creation of a truly common policy in this • The priority our country attaches to our
area. commitment to development aid, particularly
• To promote the Union’s reinforced action the Millennium Development Goals, which in-
towards the Ultra-Peripheral Regions, a highly volves generating new sources of development
relevant issue for the Autonomous Region of funding, consolidating our voluntary contribu-
the Canary Islands. tions to the Funds, Programmes and Agencies
of the United Nations system and providing the
benefit of our experience in Latin America and
SPAIN AND INTERNATIONAL Sub-Saharan Africa.
• The Spanish government’s support for the
ORGANISATIONS
current process of reforming the United Na-
Spain is a member of all major international tions, its Secretariat-General and its principal
bodies and has permanent representatives be- bodies, and for improving the coordination of
fore the United Nations and its specialised bo- policies and management of the United Na-
dies, the Organisation for Security and Coopera- tions system, particularly in the areas of devel-
tion in Europe, the Organization of American opment, humanitarian aid, the environment
States (OAS), and the Organisation for Econo- and gender issues.
mic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in • The goal of consolidating Spanish initia-
addition to the European Union and the North tives in the UN, such as the Alliance of Civilisa-
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). tions, the founding of a bilateral Spain-UNDP
92
United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and Spanish President José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero with the
participants of the High-Level Meeting on Agriculture and Food Security, held in Madrid on 26 and 27 January 2009.
Fund for achieving the Millennium Develop- tional law and the purposes and principles out-
ment Goals, the moratorium on the application lined in the United Nations Charter.
of the death penalty and the abolition of the The United Nations must be prepared to ef-
same for minors and the disabled by 2015 as a fectively meet the needs and challenges facing
first step towards the complete abolition of this the international community, which can only
penalty in the future, the fight against piracy be overcome through solidarity and concerted
and the Zaragoza Charter on sustainable water efforts. Spain, which is the eighth largest con-
use. tributor to the organisation’s ordinary budget
• Our desire to help strengthen the United and to its peacekeeping operations, is a strong
Nations’ capacities and authority in the area proponent of reinforcing its capacities in this
of safeguarding and consolidating peace, area, based on the conviction that develop-
maintaining an adequate level of participation ment, peace and security and human rights are
in authorised peacekeeping missions under the pillars of the United Nations system.
the command of the Security Council, provid- Some of Spain’s priorities in the UN, in addi-
ing military troops and national security forces tion to the aforementioned issues of peacekeep-
and providing the UN with access to the infra- ing and security and the reform of its system, in-
structures it needs to improve its logistical ca- clude international development cooperation,
pacities. The UN has decided to establish the the promotion and protection of human rights,
Southern Europe Logistics Base for PKOs in food security, climate change, gender equality
the town of Quart de Poblet in Valencia. and the empowerment of women.
The United Nations Organisation Other United Nations organisations

Spain firmly supports the United Nations as an and programmes
effective guarantor of international peace and Spain participates actively as a member-state of
security, and collaboration with this organisa- the international organisations within the United
tion is one of the pillars of the present adminis- Nations system – the international financial insti-
tration’s foreign policy. Key elements of this tutions and the funds and programmes of the or-
policy include a scrupulous respect for interna- ganisation – and is now one of the most impor-
Foreign Policy 93
tant contributors to the same. The specialised tional Decade of Action “Water for Life.” In re-
bodies, funds and programmes of the United Na- cent years, our country has hosted numerous
tions, known collectively as the UN system, have international events and conferences.
become the organisation’s instruments of action
in a wide range of fields such as health (WHO),
Other organisations: the OSCE
sustainable development and the fight against
climate change (UNEP, UNIDO), gender issues and the Council of Europe
(UNIFEM, INSTRAW), education and children The Organisation for Security and Cooperation
(UNESCO, UNICEF), agriculture and food secu- in Europe (OSCE) is a pan-European security
rity (FAO, WFP, IFAD) and emergency response agency whose 56 participating states (the Unit-
to humanitarian crises and natural catastrophes ed States, Canada, every European nation and
(UNHCR, OCHA, WMO). And the UNDP. all the former Soviet republics) span the geo-
Spain has participated and continues to graphical area from Vancouver to Vladivostok.
engage actively in the design and implemen- Recognised as a regional agency in accordance
tation of the operational activities of all these with Chapter 8 of the United Nations Charter,
agencies, in both the office and the field, giv- the OSCE is active in early warning, conflict
en that the majority of their principles and prevention, crisis management and post-con-
goals coincide with those outlined in the vari- flict rehabilitation in the region.
ous Master Plans for Spanish Cooperation. The Operating with the conviction that respect
financial efforts that Spain has made to fund for plurality and human rights is the best way to
these activities, which have been recognised preserve peace and stability, and based on a
and applauded by Secretary-General Ban Ki- broad and cooperative approach to security,
moon, have given our country increasing in- the OSCE and its institutions structure their ac-
fluence and importance within the United Na- tivities around three focal points or dimensions:
tions system. the politico-military dimension, the economic-
Spain is home to several international or- environmental dimension and the human di-
ganisations, most notably the specialised UN mension. As a result, the OSCE addresses a
organisation WTO, whose headquarters are lo- wide range of security-related issues, which in-
cated in Madrid. Zaragoza was also chosen as clude arms control, measures intended to build
the seat of the UN Office to support the Interna- trust and security, human rights, minority rights,
The Prince of Asturias and the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Miguel Ángel Moratinos, attending the meeting of the
Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, held on 12 May 2009 in Madrid.
94
democratisation, policing strategies, combating organisation and one of its most active mem-
terrorism and economic and environmental ac- bers. The Council of Europe is the guardian of
tivities. Decisions are made by reaching a con- democratic security in Europe, a security based
sensus among members that is politically but on respect for human rights, democracy and the
not legally binding. rule of law. In January 2008, Lluís María de Puig
As the seventh-largest contributor to this or- was elected president of the Parliamentary As-
ganisation’s budget, Spain actively participates sembly of the Council of Europe. The first Com-
in all three dimensions of the OSCE. In recent missioner for Human Rights of the Council of
years, Spain has played an increasingly promi- Europe was also a Spaniard, Álvaro Gil-Robles,
nent role in the central institutions and in field who held this post from 1999 to 2006. In addi-
missions and operations (with personnel de- tion, Spain chaired the Council of Europe’s
ployed on missions to Croatia, Bosnia-Herze- Committee of Ministers from November 2008 to
govina, Kosovo, Serbia, the Former Yugoslav Re- May 2009. During its chairmanship, Spain was
public of Macedonia and Georgia, and staff able to introduce measures that improved the ef-
handling Mission Chief duties in Croatia and ficiency of the European Court of Human Rights.
Azerbaijan). It also plays an important part in
another significant area of activity – the observa-
tion of electoral processes, in which Spanish SPAIN AND THE DEFENCE
observers regularly participate.
OF HUMAN RIGHTS
In 2007, Spain chaired the OSCE and rein-
forced this organisation’s facet as a forum for dia- The defence and promotion of human rights
logue. At the Ministerial Council held in Madrid around the world is a top priority for Spanish
on 29 and 30 November, the Declaration on En- foreign policy. We believe that an effective ap-
vironment and Security was adopted to further plication of human rights and the strengthening
boost the organisation’s work in this area, placing of its international instruments of protection
it at the vanguard of regional international organ- contribute to international peace and security.
isations in terms of environmental security. They Since the beginning of the previous legisla-
also adopted a decision on the countries that will ture, the Spanish government has adopted the
chair the OSCE until 2011: Greece in 2009 (after following initiatives as part of its Foreign Policy
Finland completes its chairmanship in 2008), Ka- on Human Rights:
zakhstan in 2010 and Lithuania in 2011. The • Ratification of the Optional Protocol to
Spanish chairmanship underscored the impor- the United Nations Convention against torture
tance of the issue of tolerance. The celebration of and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treat-
the High Level Conference on Intolerance and ment or punishment.
Discrimination against Muslims (Cordoba, Octo- • Ratification of the UN Convention on the
ber 2007) was the first initiative related to dis- Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Op-
crimination against Muslims to be held in the tional Protocol.
framework of this organisation. • Ratification of Protocols 12 and 14 of the
The primary goals of the Council of Europe European Convention on Human Rights.
(Europe’s oldest political organisation, founded • Adoption of an active policy to fight dis-
in 1949) are the defence of human rights, the crimination against women and gender-based
promotion of parliamentary democracy and the violence.
pre-eminence of the rule of law. The Council of • Advancement of the fight against terror-
Europe, whose headquarters are located in Stras- ism based on efficient multilateralism and re-
bourg, France, currently includes 47 European spect for human rights.
member-states, and observer status has been • Participation in peacekeeping opera-
granted to five other nations: the Holy See, the tions.
United States, Canada, Japan and Mexico. Spain • Reinforcement of the Office of the High
is currently the sixth-largest contributor to the Commissioner for Human Rights.
Foreign Policy 95
The United Nations

Secretary-General and the
Spanish Vice-President sign
an agreement to create a UN
Peacekeeping Operation
Centre in Quart de Poblet
(Valencia). Madrid, 28
January 2009.
• Stepping up international electoral ob- same vein, it is expected that the Plan of Action
servation efforts. of the UN’s High Commissioner for Human
• The search for mechanisms to control Rights will bring about important reforms in the
the phenomenon of immigration while ensur- so-called Treaty Bodies.
ing the utmost respect for human rights. In the European region, the primary organi-
• Collaboration with the International sation responsible for protecting human rights
Criminal Court. is the Council of Europe, whose Court of Hu-
• The fight against intolerance and the man Rights is also undergoing reforms necessi-
drafting of a National Human Rights Plan in ac- tated by the overwhelming number of cases
cordance with the recommendations of the presented before it, which undermine its effi-
United Nations. cacy as an instrument of justice.
• The Death Penalty Initiative, which pro- Taking action on the European and global
poses two major goals for the year 2015: a stage is not sufficient for implementing an effec-
worldwide moratorium on the application of tive policy of promotion and defence of human
the death penalty, and its universal abolition for rights; this action must also be complemented
minors and disabled persons. by specific measures in the bilateral arena. Hu-
The consolidation of foreign policy with re- man rights are an integral component of Spain’s
gard to the defence of human rights also coin- relations with every other nation and are ex-
cided with a time of internal changes within the pressed in a variety of ways, ranging from the
major international organisations. As part of the use of general action frameworks (such as the
United Nations’ reform process, a new Human Africa Plan) to general principles (the horizontal
Rights Council was created to replace the out- priority of the “defence of human rights” stipu-
dated model of the old Commission. Spain lated in the 2005-2008 Master Plan for Spanish
played an important role in the establishment Cooperation) or specific bilateral actions (dia-
of this new Council and it is hoped that this logues, consultations, projects and seminars). In
agency will turn over a new leaf in the human addition to the dialogue on human rights esta-
rights agenda of the United Nations as the de- blished with Cuba, which is already yielding re-
fender one of three cornerstones of UN activity sults (with another round of talks scheduled to
(the other two being peacekeeping and interna- be held in Havana in January 2009), bilateral
tional security efforts and the promotion of de- mechanisms with Argentina and Mexico have
velopment) described in Secretary-General Kofi been institutionalised, a model that will conti-
Annan’s report “In Larger Freedom.” In the nue to be applied in the future.
96
With regard to foreign affairs, the goal of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean, where
the National Action Plan for Human Rights is to the dawn of a new era in Euro-Mediterranean
synchronise actions in the different internatio- relations was signalled by the introduction of a
nal arenas and follow through on the list of spe- series of projects in strategic areas (such as
cific measures proposed – a list that remains transport, promotion of small and medium
open to changes and additions as new priorities businesses and renewable energy sources) and
come to the forefront. The plan is currently be- the development of a new institutional frame-
ing reviewed with civil society organisations. work articulated around a system of North-
Finally, interaction with civil society and South co-presidencies and the creation of a
particularly with non-governmental organisa- permanent secretariat – all within the scope of
tions, which speak for the citizens who are what became known as the “Barcelona Proc-
committed to protecting human rights, is essen- ess: Union for the Mediterranean.”
tial for the purpose of defining specific priori- The Euro-Mediterranean Conference of
ties and policies. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs Foreign Ministers held this past 3 and 4 No-
and Cooperation maintains regular and fre- vember in Marseilles concreted the form of
quent contact with NGOs and other civil so- the commitments made by the Heads of State
ciety organisations to keep them informed of and Government and, among other important
developments, but also to gauge their opinions decisions, unanimously chose Barcelona as
so that they can become active participants in the seat of the Secretariat of the Union for the
designing the various aspects of foreign policy Mediterranean. At this stage, and in accord-
that affect human rights. During its time as ance with the mandate of the Heads of State
chair of the CE Committee of Ministers, Spain and Government, the ministers deemed that
improved the efficiency of the European Court the phase of the process involving the creation
of Human Rights. of a true union articulated around projects
had been concluded, fully justifying the
change to the new denomination of “Union
SPAIN AND for the Mediterranean.”
The great novelty of this union will be a sec-
THE MEDITERRANEAN
retariat located in Barcelona. This office concen-
The Mediterranean is a priority region for Spa- trates its efforts on identifying projects and dis-
nish foreign policy. Spain plays a very active role covering and pursuing new sources of financing,
in this area in promoting peace, stability and the and it will also play a key role in the new archi-
socio-economic progress of Southern Mediter- tecture of the institution. These projects will fo-
ranean nations. The main pillars upon which cus on areas of high strategic importance such as
Spain’s foreign policy in this region rests are the transport, renewable energy and promoting
Euro-Mediterranean Barcelona Process, the small and medium businesses in the Euro-Medi-
Mediterranean Forum and the 5+5 Dialogue. terranean region.
The latter is an initiative aimed at reinforcing bi-
lateral and multilateral cooperation among the
The Western Mediterranean
nations of the Western Mediterranean region.
The Euro-Mediterranean Barcelona Process or the Maghreb
is a project shared by EU nations and the coun- The Western Mediterranean region, also known
tries along the southern and eastern shores of as the Maghreb, is one of the priorities of Spa-
the Mediterranean. It was created in 1995, at nish foreign policy by virtue of its geographic
Spain’s request, and it recently celebrated its proximity, its historical ties to Spain and the
tenth anniversary in November 2005 at the Eu- level of human, economic and cultural ex-
ro-Mediterranean Summit held in Barcelona. changes that currently exist. Spain wishes to
This summit was followed by a period of contribute to stability and prosperity in this re-
reflection (2005-2007) that ended in 2008 with gion through the effective tools of solidarity, co-
Foreign Policy 97
operation and consensus, all of which is con- Union and the Maghreb region. Morocco, Al-
templated in the 2009-2012 Master Plan. geria and Tunisia already have well-defined re-
The Maghreb poses global challenges that lations with the EU thanks to their respective
call for a global approach: there are notable dif- Association Agreements. Morocco was the first
ferences in average income between the north- Southern Mediterranean country to sign an
ern coastal region and the south, an intense agreement to reach an Advanced Statute that
south-north demographic and migratory pres- would reinforce its strategic commitment to
sure and phenomena of organised crime and ter- the EU. Algeria is planning to draft a priority
rorism, but there are also significant oppor-tuni- agenda as part of its Association Agreement,
ties to further modernisation processes. The lack while Tunisia has expressed an interest in mo-
of regional cohesion is an obstacle for the ving towards closer relations with the EU and
progress of the nations of the Maghreb, and it is negotiating an expansion of the free trade
has an economic, social and political price tag. agreement for industrial products. With regard
Consequently, there is a growing awareness of to Libya, Spain supports the regularisation of
the need to make headway on the integration of its relations with the international community
this geographic region, which Spain encourages and the establishment of a stable relationship
particularly via the Arab Maghreb Union, as a with the EU through a future framework agree-
guarantor of stability and development. ment for which negotiations began in Novem-
Spanish foreign policy in the region is gov- ber 2008.
erned by both intense bilateral relations with With regard to the political situation in
each nation and the need to address them as a Mauritania, Spain has denounced the coup
regional whole. Of particular importance are d’état of 6 August and has supported the transi-
relations with Morocco, given the scope, depth tion process set out in the Dakar Accord. In this
and variety of existing bilateral links, and with respect, Spain has actively contributed to the
Algeria due to the mutual need for cooperation democratic transition process in Mauritania,
on energy or security issues. Spain also main- and it also supported the elections held on 18
tains excellent relations with the other coun- July 2009 by sending a team of electoral ob-
tries of this region. Spain has signed Treaties of servers and providing €500,000 in funding via
Friendship, Good Neighbourhood and Cooper- the United Nations Development Programme.
ation with Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Mau- The thorny issue of the Western Sahara is
ritania as well as a framework agreement of bi- followed with great interest. Spain is actively
lateral relations with Libya. Moreover, Spain committed to finding a fair and lasting solution
aspires to become a bridge spanning the Medi- that every party can agree upon, based on res-
terranean divide between Europe and the pect for international law, the principle of self-
Maghreb. This regional outlook is supported bi- determination and the guidelines established
and multilaterally through regional coopera- by the UN. From its position as a member of the
tion forums, most notably the 5+5 Forum for Group of Friends of Western Sahara on the Se-
Dialogue in the Western Mediterranean, an in- curity Council, Spain has helped to draft Reso-
formal and flexible forum that brings the five lutions 1754 and 1783 of 2007 and Resolution
member-states of the Arab Maghreb Union (Al- 1813 of 2008, which have launched a process
geria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania and Tunisia) of direct negotiations with no preconditions
together with the five major Mediterranean na- within the framework defined by Security
tions of the western and southern EU (Spain, Council resolutions. The Manhasset Process, as
France, Italy, Malta and Portugal). it is known, aims to achieve a fair, lasting and
With the upcoming Spanish and Tunisian mutually acceptable political solution that will
presidency of the next 5+5 Foreign Affairs Dia- respect the right to self-determination.
logue and Spain’s EU presidency in 2010, one Our humanitarian commitment to the Sa-
of the top goals of Spanish foreign policy will harawi people is expressed in the assistance of-
be to intensify relations between the European fered by the central, regional and local govern-
98
ments, NGOs and associations as well as shows The Spanish President’s visit to the Middle
of solidarity such as the practice of taking in East was divided into two stages. The first, in
Saharawi children over the summer in homes October 2009, included visits to Syria, Israel,
all across Spain. Spain is also the largest con- the Palestinian Territories, Jordan and Lebanon.
tributor of humanitarian aid for the residents of During his tour the President, accompanied by
the Tindouf refugee camps. his Minister of Foreign Affairs, was able to share
his government’s vision for the Spanish presi-
dency of the EU in the first six months of 2010.
The Eastern Mediterranean
The president backed the peace efforts of Presi-
Spain has continued to step up its diplomatic dent Obama, with whom he met in Washing-
activity in the Middle East throughout 2009. ton the day before setting out on the above-
With regard to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, mentioned tour, and he informed the American
Spanish and EU foreign policy is committed to leader of Spain’s desire to see peace negotia-
supporting peace negotiations that will lead to tions resumed as soon as possible. President
a comprehensive, fair and lasting solution for Rodríguez Zapatero also underscored Spain’s
both parties, based on the coexistence of two past contribution to the renewal of the Peace
sovereign states that will benefit the region. Process with the notable participation of Span-
Such negotiations must be based on the princi- ish troops in UNIFIL (Lebanon) and its impor-
ples of the Madrid Peace Conference (specifi- tant humanitarian efforts, which have made
cally the principle of “land for peace”), the Se- Spain the leading EU donor to reconstruction
curity Council resolutions, the Arab Peace efforts in Lebanon and the second-largest con-
Initiative and the Road Map for Peace. tributor of aid to the Palestinian people.
In December 2008 and January 2009, the In Israel, the President was able to confirm
interna-tional community was shaken by the the good state of relations with Israel, based on a
sudden onset of the Gaza crisis. Spain worked spirit of friendship and mutual respect. Miguel
to achieve a ceasefire and, in an official state- Ángel Moratinos also became the first European
ment on 4 January, President Zapatero con- minister to visit Israel in September 2009 after
demned both the “irresponsible and provoca- Prime Minister Netanyahu formed his new ad-
tive conduct of those who violated the truce as ministration. While in Israel, the President was
well as the disproportionate reactions contrary also able to reaffirm Spain’s commitment to com-
to international human rights laws.” Spain ac- bat anti-Semitism. The 2005 OSCE Summit on
tively participated in the efforts to achieve a Combating Anti-Semitism held in Córdoba, the
ceasefire and in the summit at Sharm el-Sheikh celebration of Holocaust Memorial Day each
attended by the Heads of State and Government year since 2005, the public recognition of the Yad
of Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Germa- Vashem Memorial (which the President visited on
ny, Italy, Turkey, Jordan and Egypt and the Secre- his trip) with the 2007 Prince of Asturias Award
tary-General of the United Nations. The Presi- for Concord, and Spain’s decision to join the Task
dent of Spain also participated in the subsequent Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust
meeting with Prime Minister Olmert. Education, Remembrance and Research (which
The Minister of Foreign Affairs and Coop- aims to combat anti-Semitism with training ac-
eration, Miguel Ángel Moratinos, went on a tivities for teachers and meetings between ex-
diplomatic tour of the Middle East in 2009 dur- perts) are good examples of Spanish efforts in this
ing which he visited Egypt, Syria, Israel and the arena. The trip also served to give an important
Palestinian Territories. In addition to reinforcing boost to cooperation in the fields of science and
bilateral relations with these countries and rei- research thanks to the presence of Cristina Gar-
terating Spain’s commitment to the Middle mendia, Minister of Science and Innovation.
Eastern peace process, Moratinos also laid the In the Palestinian Territories, the President
groundwork for President José Luis Rodríguez of Spain was granted the Medal of Honour –
Zapatero’s subsequent visit to the region. the highest distinction awarded to a foreign
Foreign Policy 99
The President of Spain

meeting with H.M.
Abdullah II of the
Hashemite Kingdom
of Jordan at the Royal
Palace of Amman.
16 October 2009.
leader – by the Presi-dent of Palestine, Mah- Mediterranean dialogue, etc.) and international
moud Abbas. President Za-patero reiterated policy (the Millennium Goals, the Alliance of Ci-
Spain’s commitment during its EU presidency vilizations, UN reform, the Initiative Against Po-
to seeking the creation and recognition of a Pa- verty, etc.). These relations have been further
lestinian state as soon as possible, as stated in strengthened by Jordan’s status as an active mem-
his speech before the General Assembly of the ber of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership.
United Nations. The President also expressed The President of Spain also travelled to
his desire that Palestinians would soon over- Lebanon, where he visited the Spanish troops
come their differences and present a strong working to restore peace and stability to Leba-
united front under the leadership of President non as part of the United Nations peacekee-
Abbas, who represents the best hope for peace. ping mission (UNIFIL), and President Sleiman
The President’s visit to Damascus con- reciprocated by coming to Spain in 2009 – the
firmed that Spain and Syria enjoy excellent bi- first official visit paid by a Lebanese head of
lateral relations. Spain has always made an ef- state since 1957. The President’s time in Spain
fort to maintain a policy of open dialogue with served to consolidate Spain’s solid commit-
Syria in difficult times, and it is also an active ment to the stability of Lebanon, evidenced by
proponent of signing the EU-Syria Association the Spanish involvement in UNIFIL, and to es-
Agreement. Syria has a pivotal role to play in tablish a framework of collaboration and dia-
the Middle East peace process and the eventual logue with Lebanon that will allow the two
solution to this region’s problems, and Syrian countries to combine and intensify their efforts
authorities have expressed their desire to con- in areas of common interest. Two memoranda
tinue prioritising relations with Spain. of understanding were signed on the occasion:
Jordan also occupies a strategic position in one for cooperation in the field of tourism and
the Middle East. King Abdullah was the first Arab another for political consultations.
leader to visit President Obama, bearing a mes- Spain, together with Italy and France, played
sage of peace on behalf of various other Arab a key role in solving that crisis by supporting the
countries. Spain has great regard for the construc- Arab League’s initiatives in that respect. The Spa-
tive role of Jordan and maintains a mutually be- nish contingent participating in the UN peace-
neficial political dialogue and close collaboration keeping mission in Lebanon (UNIFIL), which
with Jordanian authorities. Jordan and Spain comprises approximately 1,100 soldiers and a
share similar views on matters of regional (the dozen Civil Guards, is the third largest after those
Peace Process, the Barcelona Process, NATO’s of Italy and France. Spain is also the top contribu-
100
tor to the Leba-non Reconstruction Fund created Relations and mutual understanding be-
after the 2006 war and the leading benefactor of tween Spain and the Arab nations have re-
the project to rebuild the Nahr al-Bared camp, ceived a boost with the creation of Casa Árabe
begun in 2009. (Arab House) and its International Institute of
The second stage of the President’s tour of Arab and Muslim World Studies. The institute
the Middle East took place on 24 and 25 No- has offices in Madrid and Córdoba, and since it
vember and included visits to Egypt and Saudi opened in January 2007 it has been organising
Arabia. An excellent opportunity to continue debates and cultural activities with the partici-
promoting relations between the two countries pation of many prominent representatives of
presented itself in Egypt with the celebration of Arab and Islamic culture. The Casa Sefarad-Is-
the first Egypt-Spain High-Level Meeting in ap- rael (Sepharad-Israel House) has also done
plication of the Treaty of Cooperation and much to familiarise Spain with the Jewish peo-
Friendship that the nations signed when Their ple and Israeli nation.
Majesties the King and Queen of Spain visited
Egypt in February 2008.
Spain and Egypt share many common in- SPAIN AND
terests, particularly in the Euro-Mediterranean
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
arena. Egypt’s role in this sphere was rein-
forced following the Mediterranean Summit In 2006 the Spanish government launched a se-
held in Paris in 2008, where Egypt began the ries of initiatives designed to make Africa one
co-presidency of the Union for the Mediterra- of the top priorities of our action abroad. The
nean, as the Barcelona Process: Union for the 2009-2012 Master Plan for Spanish Coopera-
Mediterranean is now known, which it has tion called for a substantial quantitative and
held throughout 2009. Spain actively partici- qualitative increase in cooperation with the na-
pates in the UftM, promoting the development tions of Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly with
of its organisational structure and supporting its priority partners, and support for the AU and
the specific projects proposed within that the ECOWAS. A first summit was held with
framework. The Spanish city of Barcelona is ECOWAS in Nigeria in 2009, and a second is
also the headquarters of the organisation’s Sec- planned for the last six months of 2010 in the
retariat-General, which will serve to stream- Canary Islands. Spanish Official Development
line the Euro-Mediterranean process. Aid (ODA) for this region went from 122 mil-
The visit to Saudi Arabia, whose importance lion euros in 2003 to 879 million euros in
as a leading economic power is on the rise due 2007. The ODA for Sub-Saharan Africa in 2008
to the fact that it is the world’s top producer and is estimated at over 1 billion euros and is ex-
exporter of crude oil and a member of the G-20, pected to reach the goal that Spain has set of
presented an opportunity to address key issues of 0.7% of our GDP by 2012.
Spain’s EU presidency with the Saudi authorities, In addition, the Spanish government has
such as EU-GCC relations or global financial approved its own national strategy, the Africa
governance. Political relations between the two Plan (2006-2008), an ambitious set of measures
nations are excellent, in part thanks to the close affecting politics, trade, culture and coopera-
friendship between their respective royal families tion over a period of several years. The Africa
evidenced in the recent reciprocal meetings at Plan marked the dawn of a new era in Spanish-
the highest levels (King Abdullah’s visits to Spain African relations, which must translate into a
in 2007 and 2008, the Saudi Crown Prince’s visit sustained long-term effort. The enactment of
to Madrid in 2008, and H.M. the King of Spain’s the 2nd Africa Plan (2009-2012), presented by
trips to Saudi Arabia in 2006 and 2008). There- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation
fore, at this juncture, the priority of both parties is on 25 May 2009, will concrete the broad lines
to reinforce Spanish-Saudi economic and trade of actions laid out in the first plan and focus
relations. more intensely on other aspects such as the re-
Foreign Policy 101
gional dimension of our relations with the Afri- in the international spotlight. China and India
can continent. have become important economic players and
Spain’s influence in the area of migratory other nations like Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia
cooperation, both bilaterally and in the Euro- and Indonesia are rapidly moving towards great-
pean context, is unquestionable, as evidenced er economic and social development. Japan, the
at the 1st Euro-African Conference on Migra- world’s second most powerful economy, and
tion and Development held in Rabat in July South Korea, with a level of development similar
2006. Countries from Northern, Western and to European countries and strategic industrial
Central Africa as well as the EU participated in importance, have and will continue to play a
this conference, which produced a plan with key role in the global economic and security
specific proposals for action based on shared systems that Spain is committed to supporting.
responsibility and solidarity. These were recent- The recent rapid development of Asia’s
ly renewed in November 2008 in Paris at the most populous countries has prompted a major
2nd Euro-African Conference on Migration and restructuring of the global economic, political
Development. In December 2007, Lisbon also and financial balance, which has affected the
hosted the 2nd EU-Africa Summit, where Presi- everyday lives of citizens in other places around
dent Rodríguez Zapatero introduced the debate the world over the past several years thanks to
on migration, mobility and employment on be- the globalisation of the economy, communica-
half of the European delegations. tions and knowledge.
Strengthening our ties with Sub-Saharan For over a decade, Spain has been imple-
Africa requires fostering our mutual under- menting its strategy for adapting our country and
standing. This is the main reason for the crea- its foreign policy to this new international sce-
tion of Casa África (Africa House), an initiative nario in which Asia plays a starring role. As a
promoted by the government in conjunction continuation of the actions taken during this pe-
with the regional and local authorities of the riod, over the next four years (2009-2012) the
Canary Islands that was inaugurated in Las Pal- 3rd Asia-Pacific Plan, presented on 3 March
mas in 2006. Casa África aspires to become a 2009, will be enacted. This is an ambitious initia-
centre of reference that will help improve mu- tive that contemplates nearly four hundred diffe-
tual understanding and appreciation as well as rent actions in 23 countries through bilateral and
cooperation and harmony between the peoples multilateral programmes. It will also expand and
and societies of Africa and Europe. intensify Spanish institutional efforts laid out in
In the political arena we have attained an previous plans, in accordance with the conti-
unprecedented degree of trust and communica- nent’s economic and political evolution.
tion. The reinforcement of our diplomatic and With this plan, the Spanish government has
consular presence on the African continent as set itself three major goals: to increase our pres-
well as the opening of new sector and liaison ence and visibility on the continent, to consoli-
offices is proof of this. Important diplomatic ad- date the achievements of past years with regard
vances have been made with the opening of six to the defence and advancement of Spanish in-
new embassies (Sudan, Cape Verde, Mali, Niger, terests and to seek out new ways to promote
Guinea and Guinea-Bissau) and two permanent the image and activity of Spain in Asia.
outposts in Gambia and Liberia-Sierra Leone. Asia is home to two of the world’s ten largest
economies and it holds over two-thirds of the
world’s currency reserves. For the time being,
SPAIN AND however, Spanish trading and investment in this
continent is limited. Consequently, the new Asia-
THE ASIAN-PACIFIC REGION
Pacific Plan will focus on this area to increase
The evolution of Asia’s importance in the global Spain’s economic presence in Asia and match
economy and politics over recent decades has the level of involvement of other developed na-
earned the continent a position of prominence tions. To this end, Spain will reinforce the existing
102
country. Spain must also address the larger and

perhaps more important task of projecting an in-
creasingly more accurate and current image of
our country in the region’s key centres of eco-
nomic and political decision-making. To this
end, celebrations were organised in China to
celebration the Year of Spain in 2007, which
boasted a number of excellent cultural activities
and had a great impact on the Asian giant’s main
forums of opinion.
Some of the most important challenges in
terms of international security today can be
found in Asia. Spain is actively involved in Af-
ghanistan with the presence of military and se-
curity forces as part of a larger plan of interna-
Vice-President M.ª Teresa Fernández de la Vega with the
activist and winner of the 2007 Queen Sofía Prize, Anuradha tional cooperation for rebuilding this country,
Koirala, at the First National Congress on Gender-Based improving security for the civilian population
Violence and Health. Santiago de Compostela, 11 February
2009. and supporting its political transition. Our con-
tribution includes a Provincial Reconstruction
Team in the province of Baghdis and a Forward
structures in priority countries (the Secretary of Support Base in Herat. This commitment was
State for Commerce has already introduced her made by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs
four Comprehensive Market Development Plans and Cooperation at the Conferences of London
for China, India, Japan and Korea) and will work in 2006 and Paris in 2008, and it entails a cost
on the territorial diversification of efforts to proof 150 million euros over five years (2006-
mote trade and investments so that they will 2010) that will be used for projects involving
grow and spread to other important economies professional training, governance, infrastruc-
of South East Asia such as Indonesia, Malaysia, ture rebuilding, health, education, gender and
Vietnam, Thailand and the Philippines. the fight against drug trafficking.
Spain is the foremost exponent of a culture The Asia Plan also calls for greater efforts to
whose popularity is on the rise – the culture of promote human rights, particularly actions to
the Spanish language. In Asia, the interest in promote two intersecting goals to which Spain
Spanish language culture is enhanced by the attaches the highest priority: the fight to abolish
economic and trading potential of our language the death penalty and the improvement of the
in the Pacific region, where it is one of the pri- status and situation of women. Both issues have
mary tongues. In light of this interest, the 3rd been an important part of Spanish foreign po-
Asia Plan calls for various actions that will rein- licy in recent years and inform Spain’s current
force those carried out by Spain in the past. political dialogue and cooperative efforts with
Thus, this year the King and Queen and the the countries of Asia.
Prince of Asturias inaugurated the new Cervan- The Asia Plan focuses particularly on the in-
tes Institutes in Sidney and New Delhi, respec- volvement of civil society in foreign policy. Casa
tively, joining those already active in other im- Asia (Asia House) plays an important part in this
portant Asian cultural hubs (Beijing 2006, Tokyo area of Spanish-Asian relations, and in a short
2008). In the Philippines, where Spanish had time it has become a particularly valuable vehi-
practically fallen into disuse, the government cle for developing initiatives that strengthen the
has decided to reincorporate the language in its ties between Spain and the Asian continent
education system, a decision that Spain supports through their civil societies. Since its inception,
through a programme of technical and educa- Casa Asia has been very active in establishing
tional cooperation designed specifically for this links between civil societies in every area, with
Foreign Policy 103
a particular focus on the cultural and academic grown at a faster pace than their respective ex-
spheres. Based in Barcelona, this institution changes with the rest of the world. As a result,
opened in 2007 an office in Madrid that has the two economies are increasingly more im-
served to consolidate its activity. bricated and it is estimated that 200 million eu-
ros flow between France and Spain each day.
France is currently the largest consumer of
SPAIN AND ITS BILATERAL Spanish exports and is Spain’s second-largest
supplier. In turn, Spain is France’s second most
RELATIONS
important client and its fourth-largest supplier
after Germany, Italy and Benelux.
France
Spain and France maintain excellent political
Portugal
relations due to their geographic proximity and
their common membership in numerous inter- Spanish-Portuguese relations are currently go-
national organisations, most notably the EU. ing through a very positive phase. Portugal is a
Contact between the two governments is both strategic ally of Spain in a wide range of areas.
frequent and at several levels. The Evora (2005), Braga (2008) and Zamo-
Political relations are institutionalised via ra (2009) Summits represented a qualitative
the annual bilateral summits between the Presi- leap forward in our relations given that techno-
dent of the French Republic and the President logical and scientific cooperation was added to
of Spain, accompanied by a large group of min- the already extensive bilateral agenda.
isters, which the two nations host alternately. The creation of the Spanish-Portuguese Insti-
The 21st bilateral summit, which took place tute for Research and Development of New Tech-
in Madrid on 28 and 29 April 2009 during the nologies and the signature of the Agreement on
French president’s official visit, focused on im- the Headquarters of the International Iberian Na-
proving and promoting energy and transport in- notechnology Laboratory, located in Braga and
terconnections and on bilateral cooperation in managed by both countries, shows a renewed
the educational and scientific fields. The two na- political determination to move forward together
tions also signed a declaration on domestic se- and make the most of existing synergies to de-
curity which extends the scope of agreements re- velop new areas of bilateral cooperation.
garding bilateral anti-terrorism cooperation to Parallel to the 2008 Braga Summit, the first
include efforts to fight organised crime. meeting of the Spanish-Portuguese Security and
To date, France and Spain have held two Defence Council was held. This council is
High-Level Meetings on Cross-Border Coope- chaired by the heads of government and the na-
ration (Barcelona in 2005 and Zaragoza in June tions’ respective ministers of foreign affairs and
2008) attended by the French prime minister defence participate in it. A decision was also
and the presidents of the Spanish autonomous reached to re-launch the Spanish-Portuguese
regions on the French border. Forum of Dialogue.
The two countries have created a Franco- The bilateral Zamora Summit on 22 Ja-
Spanish Defence and Security Council, chaired nuary 2009 established a new framework of
by the two presidents, in which the ministers of relations between Spain and Portugal, charac-
foreign affairs and defence participate. The terised by an unprecedented level of trust and
council has five specific work groups. In addi- openness based on a constant increase in bi-
tion, the Franco-Spanish Forum brings together lateral cooperation and communications. The
important figures in the civil societies of both presence of over a dozen ministers and high-
countries and usually meets at the same time as ranking officials, the plan to hold joint Ministe-
the summits are held. rial Councils and the exchange that involves
Since Spain became a member of the Euro- sending Spanish diplomats to the Portuguese
pean Community, economic exchanges have embassy in East Timor and Portuguese diplo-
104
Spanish President José

Luis Rodríguez Zapatero
and Portuguese Primer
Minister José Sócrates
give a press conference
at the end of the Spanish-
Portuguese Summit held
in Zamora on 22 January
2009.
mats to Spain’s embassy in Panama are unde- tions. Spain is Portugal’s most important sup-
niable proof of this. plier and exports consumer. The two countries
This Summit was preceded by the 1st Spa- have also launched important bilateral projects
nish-Portuguese Parliamentary Forum, which such as the Iberian Electricity Market (MIBEL),
contributed decisively to the preparations for the construction of cross-border energy infra-
the subsequent encounter – not only because structures and high-speed rail connections.
of the new institutional dimension it lends to Cultural and educational relations are also
bilateral relations, but also because the two at a positive juncture, due to a shared interest
governments took good note of the conclusions in further collaboration. The Cervantes Institute
reached by the participants in the Forum. has a centre in Lisbon, which has recently been
The importance of cross-border coopera- joined by the House of Iberian Languages that
tion as an opportunity for economic and social focuses on teaching, researching and promo-
development and the incorporation of the re- ting the languages of the Iberian Peninsula. We
gions adjacent to the extensive border shared also maintain a significant level of regional co-
by the two nations is reflected in the presence operation thanks to the Cross-Border Coopera-
of the presidents of the bordering Autonomous tion Agreement signed at the 2002 Valencia
Regions and the presidents of the Regional Co- Summit and fleshed out during subsequent
ordination and Development Commissions. meetings in Zamora and Badajoz.
In addition to the summits system, there is
a close and constant communication between
Germany
the two governments at every level, with fre-
quent contacts and visits. On matters related to Spain and Germany have shared the same basic
European construction or the international policies for over thirty years, independently of
agenda, they coordinate positions and initia- the political views of their administrations, due
tives, given the numerous interests and affini- to their mutual perception as reliable allies and
ties (geographic, cultural, historical, economic a solidarity stemming from multiple motivations
and political) that our two nations share. that blossomed after the fall of the Berlin Wall.
Given the importance of our economic This solidarity has enabled the two countries to
ties, these play a central role in bilateral rela- organise joint initiatives on a wide variety of is-
Foreign Policy 105
sues: firm support of the shared European NATO. The existence of annual bilateral sum-
project, protecting the environment against cli- mits and a forum of dialogue denote the impor-
mate change by promoting renewable energies, tance that Spain gives to its relations with Italy.
the fight against terrorism, the European security In Europe, the only other countries with which
and defence policy, the management of migra- Spain enjoys a similar level of institutional dia-
tory flows or the strengthening of R&D&I (re- logue are France, Portugal and Germany.
search, development and innovation) policies, Spain and Italy face a series of common
to name a few. challenges: controlling illegal immigration, im-
German-Spanish relations are currently at a proving competitiveness and productivity, deve-
culminating moment thanks to the fluid and loping relations with our Mediterranean neigh-
constant communications to agree upon posi- bours and fighting the threat of terrorism, among
tions in different forums and to develop com- others. This requires the two countries to use
mon projects. During the 21st Bilateral Summit, their combined influence in the heart of the Eu-
held in Palma, Majorca, on 31 January 2008, ropean Union to promote and defend their
they decided to take joint action on key matters shared interests.
such as climate change, energy and technologi- The Spanish-Italian Ibiza Summit in Fe-
cal innovation, immigration and integration, as bruary 2007 marked a turning point in their rela-
well as common approaches to European, inter- tions, reactivating the so-called Madrid-Rome
national and defence issues. axis and widening the spectrum of fields of co-
Germany is the largest supplier of Spanish operation. At the last meeting, the 15th Summit,
imports, which amounted to nearly 40 billion eu- held in Naples in December 2007, discussions
ros in 2008, and Spanish exports to Germany continued along these same lines. Some of the
amounted to 19.899 billion euros. The trade ba- central themes addressed at this summit includ-
lance reflects a surplus for Germany and is cur- ed a review of the three places in which the two
rently Spain’s largest bilateral deficit (even larger countries maintain troops deployed under UN
than the deficit that exists with the United States). command (in Lebanon, the Balkans/ Kosovo and
The gross investment flow from Germany to Afghanistan), issues related to industry and
Spain was over 530 million euros between Ja- trade, and the development of maritime infra-
nuary and September 2007, excluding invest- structures or “sea highways.”
ments in securities holding companies, while The 16th Spanish-Italian Summit was held
Spain’s investment in Germany for the same pe- in September 2009 on the island of La Madd-
riod amounted to 2,395 million euros, tripling alena. At this meeting, the two countries re-
the 709 million invested in 2006. Thus, the val- viewed their bilateral cooperation policy, prio-
ue of Spanish investments accumulated in Ger- rities for the Spanish presidency of the EU were
many is practically equal to that of German in- presented, and attempts were made to stren-
vestments in Spain. gthen cooperation on domestic and justice issues
Contact between our respective civil socie- in the Mediterranean.
ties is close and consistent. Approximately Another fundamental instrument of bilate-
160,000 German citizens are permanent resi- ral relations is the Spanish-Italian Forum, a space
dents of Spain, and over 10 million Germans of convergence for civil societies at the highest
visit our country each year, constituting one of level. Of a markedly academic nature based on
the largest groups of foreign tourists. an analysis of the future of certain European
policies, this forum has become a platform of
increas-ing relevance in which political and
Italy
economic questions essential to bilateral rela-
Italy is an ally of Spain for historical, cultural and tions are debated. The 10th Forum was held in
commercial reasons. The fact that they are both Madrid on 27 and 28 October 2009, and was
Southern states allows them to work together to attended by His Majesty the King of Spain and
further their interests in the European Union and President Giorgio Napolitano.
106
Another area in which this strategic closeness guage in the United Kingdom, one of the Euro-
is reflected is the Alliance of Civilisations, given pean countries where the study of Spanish has
that Italy is one of the countries enlisted in the most increased in recent years.
Group of Friends of the Spanish-Turkish initiative. Our bilateral political relations are those of
The volume of economic exchange is com- EU and NATO partners and allies, and both
mensurate with the importance of political dia- countries meet frequently at every level to con-
logue. Spain is Italy’s third-largest supplier with sult their respective positions on matters of com-
exports valued at 15.074 billion euros in 2008 mon interest. Although bilateral relations are in
and its third most important client, making pur- all other respects excellent, the controversial is-
chases valued at 21.424 billion euros. Spain was sue of Gibraltar and its various dimensions re-
visited by 3.7 million Italians, making Italy our mains the only matter of contention in our fo-
fourth-largest outbound market. In addition, reign relations. In a process separate from yet
Spanish investments in Italy have been more parallel to that of Brussels, the Forum of Dialogue
buoyant over the last several years. This interest on Gibraltar was launched in 2004 to address
has materialised primarily in the sectors of ener- matters of local cooperation with a view to im-
gy and gas, construction, urban services, hotel proving the living conditions of people in the
management and financial management. Spanish territories bordering Gibraltar and in Gi-
braltar itself. Three ministry-level meetings of this
forum have been held thus far, in Córdoba (Sep-
United Kingdom
tember 2006), London (July 2008) and Gibraltar
The growing bilateral interaction between the (July 2009).
United Kingdom and Spain involves govern-
ments, institutions and civil society.
Poland
In economic terms, Spain and the UK are
two of the most open and dynamic economies The only country in the former Eastern Bloc
in Europe. The United Kingdom is Spain’s fourth with which Spain held yearly bilateral summits
largest client and supplier. Spain, in turn, is the during the Aznar administration was Poland.
UK’s seventh largest client and ninth largest These were continued by the Zapatero admi-
supplier. The United Kingdom is among the top nistration, and the most recent took place on 9
three recipients of Spanish foreign investment, November 2009 in the Polish seaside city of
and recent years have registered notable trans- Sopot, where participants addressed matters
actions in sectors such as banking, transport such as coordinating EU presidencies (Poland
services and telecommunications. Both coun- will take over this responsibility in the second
tries have large companies established in each semester of 2011), encouraging political dia-
others’ territories that help to improve mutual logue, and financial investments. The 2010
perception and ties between their societies. Summit is scheduled to be held in Palma, Ma-
Hundreds of thousands of British citizens jorca, where the bicentennial of Chopin’s birth
live seasonally or permanently in Spain. The will also be celebrated.
United Kingdom has thirteen general consu-
lates open in major Spanish cities. Our country
Andorra
receives 17 million British tourists per year, and
in terms of numbers the UK is Spain’s most im- Relations with Andorra are influenced by our
portant inbound tourist market. traditional bond of friendship, the presence of a
There are also profound and intense cul- large Spanish colony in the Principality and the
tural relations between the two countries. This intense tourist traffic and business dealings be-
is manifested in the way that British culture and tween our countries.
the English language has penetrated Spanish Spain and Andorra enjoy a close relation-
society in recent decades and in the growing ship of cooperation. In the political arena there
interest in Spanish culture and the Spanish lan- is an open line of bilateral communication that
Foreign Policy 107
has gained strength in recent years and is nies established in Turkey and participating in
present at every level. various emblematic projects, such as the high-
In February 2007, the Minister of Foreign Af- speed Ankara-Istanbul railway line.
fairs and Cooperation paid an official visit to An-
dorra which served to further improve our bila-
The United States
teral relations. Spain supports closer relations
between Andorra and the European Union, The trans-Atlantic relationship is of vital impor-
which have improved dramatically since the An- tance to Spain, and every Spanish administra-
dorra-EU Cooperation Agreement was signed, tion has striven to maintain the best possible
and it is working to include Andorra in European relations with its American counterparts, ac-
cross-border cooperation structures. Spain also cording to the specific circumstances of each
supported Andorra’s entry in the Ibero-American period. As friends and allies, we share common
Community of Nations, which took place in values, principles, interests and responsibilities
2004. with the United States, and the level and
Spain is currently Andorra’s most important number of exchanges and visits is consequently
trading partner, and it supports the process of very intense. In addition to being an ally in the
economic reform in Andorra to establish a fis- international arena, Spain is an increasingly
cal framework that would eliminate it from the important economic partner and a leading cul-
OECD list of tax havens. tural reference for a significant sector of Ameri-
Finally, Spain is eager to work with Andorra can society.
in the area of infrastructures to improve access Our dialogue with the US on international
to the Principality, and we have given these issues and regions of mutual interest, such as
projects top priority in budget allocations. Latin America, is constant, and Spain makes
important military contributions in areas of
strategic interest to Europe and the US such as
Turkey
Afghanistan, Lebanon and the Balkans.
Relations between Spain and Turkey can also be Bilateral relations in the area of defence are
described as excellent. Political relations were very important, both at the bilateral level and
basically defined in the Joint Action Plan for the within NATO. Our bilateral ties are governed by
Development of Relations between Spain and the Agreement on Defence Cooperation be-
Turkey, signed on 22 July 1998. On the Spanish tween the Kingdom of Spain and the United
president’s visit to Turkey in November 2006,
the Action Plan was reinforced with the signing
of a “Strategy for Reinforcing Bilateral Relations
between Spain and Turkey,” which sets out new
lines of cooperation.
Spain and Turkey have similar positions on
many international issues. One notable exam-
ple is the Spanish-Turkish initiative of the Alli-
ance of Civilisations, which the UN Secretary-
General has adopted.
Spain firmly supports Turkey’s candidacy to
join the European Union. Turkey is Spain’s third
largest trade partner outside the EU after the
United States and Mexico. Spain is now an im-
portant investor in Turkey, where Spanish assets
– which have historically been almost non-exis- The President of Spain, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero,
meeting with the President of the United States, Barack
tent – have increased exponentially in recent Obama, at the White House. Washington, D.C.,
years. At present, there are 74 Spanish compa- 13 October 2009.
108
States of America, signed on 1 December 1988, and another is planned for San Juan in Puerto
as amended by the Protocol of Amendment of Rico, in addition to the one already existing in
10 April 2002. These agreements give US forces Miami.
the right to use certain “support facilities” at two Spain has an extraordinary opportunity to
Spanish military bases (Rota and Morón). This increase its presence in the United States on the
agreement will remain in effect until 2011, al- economic, cultural and political stages by de-
though it does contain an automatic extension veloping relations with American Hispanic
clause. Spanish military facilities are of high stra- communities. These communities, which re-
tegic value given their characteristics and their present more than 45 million people, already
proximity to the regions of the Mediterranean, constitute the largest minority group in the US
the Middle East and North and West Africa. and are proving to be tremendously dynamic.
Spain and the US are the two Western na-
tions that have suffered the most brutal terrorist
Russia and the nations of the CIS
attacks to date, which is why we share a special
awareness of this problem with the US and we Russia is an essential partner for Spain. Rela-
actively cooperate in such matters on both the tions between the two countries are very good,
bilateral and the multilateral level. and our mutual cooperation is of great interest
Our economic relations are characterised by to both Spanish and Russian businesses. EU-
the sharp increase of Spanish investments in the Russian relations will be a priority for Spain
United States; in 2004, 2% of Spanish foreign in- during its presidency of the European Union in
vestments were made in the US, but in 2007 they the first six months of 2010. The Spanish presi-
represented over 10%. This same year Spain was dent, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, visited St
the fourth-largest foreign investor in the US, be- Petersburg on 1 October 2008 at the invitation
hind Canada, the UK and the Netherlands, with of the president of the Russian Federation,
a very relevant presence in strategic sectors such Dmitri Medvédev. During this meeting, the
as finance, infrastructures and alternative energy leaders analysed issues related to the interna-
sources. Historically, the United States has been tional political situation, Russia’s relations with
one of Spain’s most important foreign investors, the European Union after the conflict in Geor-
although the volume of its investment has de- gia, measures to combat the current financial
creased since 2004. There has also been notable crisis, the possibilities of developing trade rela-
growth in the bilateral trade balance, particularly tions between the two countries and other mat-
of Spanish exports to the US, which allowed us ters of mutual interest.
to reduce our deficit in recent years. Spain’s approach to international relations is
In the United States, there is enormous inte- based on the defence of multilateralism, preven-
rest in Spanish language and culture: 60% of tive diplomacy and a leading role for the United
American university students who study a fo- Nations, which can assist in our dialogue with
reign language choose Spanish, and Spain is the Russia. This trip was a chance to overcome our
second most popular destination for Americans differences based on respect for international
studying abroad after the United Kingdom. The law and peaceful conflict solutions. With regard
government actively promotes the dissemination to Kosovo, Spain – which has not recognised its
of Spanish language and culture in the US declaration of independence – agrees with Rus-
through an extensive visiting professors pro- sia that the solution must be agreed upon by
gramme, under which approximately 1,200 the parties involved and backed by the United
Spanish academics teach a variety of subjects at Nations. Before the International Court of Jus-
high schools across America. This goal is also tice, which is evaluat-ing the legality of this
pursued by the three Cervantes Institutes and the declaration of independence, Spain has also
Cervantes Classroom established on US soil. maintained a logical position of defending the
A new cultural centre will soon open in principle of territorial integrity and refusing to
Washington (“Casa España” or “Spain House”) recognise unilateral declarations or possible
Foreign Policy 109
Their Majesties the

King and Queen of
Spain receive the
Russian president Dmitri
Medvédev and his wife
at the Royal Palace of El
Pardo on 2 March 2009.
situations of independence. This is also our po- paved the way to achieving a Free Trade Agree-
sition with regard to Georgia. ment between the EU and Russia.
Spain sees the conflict between Russia and Spanish-Russian bilateral trade relations
Georgia in the Caucasus as an isolated territorial have increased spectacularly since 2007. Ma-
problem. Diplomacy, political acumen and se- jor infrastructure projects have presented new
renity must be brought to bear on the situation in opportunities for Spanish companies, particu-
order to achieve understanding, rectify the situa- larly in the energy, transport, infrastructure
tion and support Georgia, but they must also and banking sectors. For its part, Russia is in-
serve as tools for achieving understanding and terested in increasing cooperation with Spain
dialogue with Russia. And the European Union with regard to rail networks, and there is al-
is the great international agent that can ensure ready a degree of cooperation between au-
this stability. In this respect, we must point out thorities and companies from both countries
that Spain has also contributed a contingent of in this area.
nine members to the civil mission in Georgia. The Russian Federation’s Deputy Prime
The European Union Monitoring Mission Minister, Mr. Alexander Zhukov, visited Spain
(EUMM) in Georgia is an unarmed civil mission at the head of a delegation that participated in
whose aim is to help stabilise, normalise and re- the meeting of the Spanish-Russian Joint Eco-
establish order in this country and to ensure nomic and Industrial Committee held on 12
compliance with the agreements reached with November 2008, where the Spanish represen-
Russia regarding Georgia. tation was chaired by the Minister of Industry,
Relations between the EU and the Russian Tourism and Trade, Miguel Sebastián. Zhukov
Federation are governed by the Partnership and also attended a dinner with the Spanish CEOs
Cooperation Agreement that came into effect in who had created the “Spain-Russia Council”
December 1997, the renewal of which is cur- Foundation in September 2008. This founda-
rently being negotiated. Spain recognises the tion also represents Spain in the Spanish-Rus-
need for a new agreement between the EU and sian Forum of Civil Societies, which was found-
Russia, and we are pleased that the negotia- ed in Sochi on the occasion of the Spanish
tions were resumed after the problems gene- president’s visit in 2007.
rated by the situation in Georgia. Spain also Central Asia is a region of increasing geos-
supports Russia’s request to join the WTO and trategic importance. Kazakhstan is of particular
110
interest to Spain because of its key role in main- within the framework of international consen-
taining the region’s stability and the vast energy sus and respect for Spain’s commitments to in-
resources that it has only begun to tap. Lately, ternational organisations, as the Ministry’s new
we have intensified our bilateral political con- name (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Coopera-
tacts – Foreign Minister Miguel Ángel Moratinos tion) accurately reflects. The Spanish Ministry of
travelled to this country in July 2009 – and inves- Foreign Affairs and Cooperation has entrusted
tigated the possibilities of further economic co- the Office of the Secretary of State of Interna-
operation. Spain supported Kazakh-stan’s bid for tional Cooperation (SECI) with directing, draf-
the OSCE chairmanship in 2010, which will al- ting, monitoring and evaluating its international
low us to cultivate closer relations with the development cooperation policy. The specific
Common-wealth of Independent States (CIS), as body within this office that handles these re-
will the fact that Spain’s presidency of the EU in sponsibilities is the Directorate-General of De-
the first six months of 2010 will coincide with velopment Policy Planning and Evaluation.
Kazakhstan’s OSCE chairmanship. In addition to this internal structure, there are
The Spanish chairmanship of the OSCE in many other actors on the Spanish stage of coo-
2007 gave us a chance to strengthen our rela- peration – autonomous regions, local administra-
tions with the republics of the Caucasus and tions, solidarity funds, development NGOs, uni-
Moldavia. Spain is considering an increased dip- versities, labour unions and businessmen – that
lomatic presence in the near future that would play strategic roles in ensuring both the quantity
lead to the opening of embassies in those na- and quality of cooperation efforts in our country.
tions. The delicate situation of the conflicts in the Without their work, we would not be able to
territories of Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno- achieve the goals we have set.
Karabakh and Transnitria, the location of these The Spanish Agency for International Deve-
countries in a major hydrocarbon production lopment Cooperation (AECID) – supervised by
and transit region and their increasing coopera- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation
tion with the EU under the European Neighbour- through the Office of the Secretary of State for
hood Policy are the catalysts of these relations. International Cooperation – is responsible for im-
Spain has closely followed the democratic plementing and managing development coope-
developments in Ukraine and this country’s ration projects and programmes. These tasks may
desire to establish closer ties to the European be carried out directly, with its own resources, or
Union and NATO as a result of the increasing indirectly, through collaboration with other na-
importance this country attaches to Western national and international entities and non-govern-
tions and institutions after the «Orange Revolu- mental organisations. The agency is also charged
tion.» The consolidation of these tendencies and with coordinating Food and Emergency Aid.
Ukraine’s importance as an energy transit coun- To fulfil these duties, the AECID relies upon
try to Europe are two important reasons for Spain an extensive external network comprising 42
to strengthen bilateral relations with this nation. Technical Cooperation Offices, 16 Cultural Cen-
Our diplomatic relations will soon be enhanced tres and 4 Training Centres located in those
with the opening of a consulate-general in Kiev. countries where the agency carries out its most
important cooperation projects. Aside from
these important resources, Spanish cooperation
SPANISH COOPERATION: depends upon another fundamental ingredient:
human resources. In May 2006, the Council of
A NEW POLICY FOR
Ministers approved a statute that sets out their
DEVELOPMENT AND THE specific rights and obligations, schedule of in-
ERADICATION OF POVERTY compatibilities, training, equivalency of services
rendered and social welfare categories, pursuant
International development cooperation is an es- to the provisions of Law 23/1998 of 7 July on
sential part of the government’s foreign action, International Cooperation for Development.
Foreign Policy 111
The Law on International Cooperation for democratic governance and the promotion of
Development establishes the basic priorities of human rights, gender in development, envi-
the AECI’s work, which are periodically laid out ronmental sustainability, and consideration for
in detail in the quadrennial Master Plan for the cultural dimension and respect for diversity.
Spanish Cooperation and the Annual Interna- The Master Plan identifies a total of 12 sin-
tional Cooperation Plans (PACI). In the Millen- gle-sector priority areas:
nium Declaration, world leaders committed to 1. Democratic governance: promote quali-
join forces in order to achieve the 8 general ty democracy and respect for basic rights by
goals and 18 specific targets that will pave the ensuring the real and effective involvement of
way for progress in development and reduce citizens, the exercise of human rights and the
world poverty by the year 2015 or earlier. This capacity to favour development.
series of challenges is known as the Millen- 2. Rural development and the fight against
nium Development Goals. hunger: help guarantee the basic human right
With the intention of making significant to sustenance and improve living conditions
progress in the promotion of human and sus- and food safety among the rural and urban
tainable development and the eradication of population.
poverty, the new cycle of Spanish cooperation 3. Education: help guarantee the right to
outlined in the 3rd Master Plan for 2009-2012 basic, inclusive, free, quality education by rein-
began in 2009. In addition, the draft for a new forcing public school systems and civil organi-
Law to Reform the Development Aid Fund sations in countries and groups with lower edu-
(FAD) was submitted to the Spanish parliament. cation levels.
As a result, eradicating poverty and pro- 4. Health: make an effective contribution
moting human and sustainable development to securing conditions that will improve the
have now become the primary goal of coope- health of human populations, particularly the
ration for development. Bearing in mind the ef- poorest and most vulnerable, by promoting
forts of multilateral organisations – the guide- sustainable human development.
lines of the OECD Development Assistance 5. Water and sanitation: promote the human
Committee (DAC), those of the European Union right to water, and improve access to drinking wa-
and the declarations made at the Ibero-Ameri- ter and basic sanitation, guaranteeing the sus-
can Summits – the activities of Spanish coope- tainability and responsible management of the
ration and development policy will be aimed complete hydrological cycle.
at increasing capacities and ensuring the nec- 6. Economic growth to reduce poverty: sup-
essary conditions for achieving decent living port and promote inclusive, fair, sustained
conditions for the present and future genera- and environmentally friendly economic growth,
tions in developing countries. Today, improv- based on the generation of permanent econo-
ing the efficacy and quality of the aid provided mic, business and associative networks in part-
is a pressing need, and this will require adap- ner nations, on the principles of decent employ-
ting our cooperation policy to comply with the ment, and on economic policies that fight po-
stipulations of the Paris Declaration, the Accra verty and favour social cohesion.
Agenda for Action and the European Union 7. Environmental sustainability, combating
Code of Conduct. The fight against poverty, the climate change and habitat: contribute to a sus-
defence of human rights, gender equality, en- tainable management of natural resources and
vironmental sustainability and respect for cul- development models that can improve the wel-
tural diversity were the horizontal priorities es- fare and quality of life of the population.
tablished in the preceding four-year plan that 8. Science, technology and innovation: pro-
covered 2005-2008. mote the processes of generating, assimilating
The horizontal priorities for the 2009-2012 and using scientific and technological know-
period established by the latest Master Plan are ledge to improve living conditions, stimulate
social inclusion and the fight against poverty, economic growth and achieve social parity.
112
Geographic priorities of Spanish development assistance.
Geographic
Prioridades
Priorities
Geográficas
Latin America
Latinoamérica Latin America
Latinoamérica
Group
Grupo A A –- Asociación amplia
Extensive partnership Honduras
Honduras Colombia
Colombia
Nicaragua
Nicaragua Medio
With Less Developed
Con Países Countries
Menos Adelantados, Países Low
or de Income
Bajo Salvador Middle
OrienteEast
El
El Salvador y Próximo
Ingreso o Países
Countries wheredethere Media
Rentaare Baja en los que
opportunities to Guatemala Iraq
Irak
Guatemala
Haití Lebanon
Líbano
existen oportunidades para establecer un marco
establish a long-term partnership that permits Haiti
Paraguay
de asociación a largo plazo que permita Paraguay
Bolivia África
Sub-Saharan Africa
the channelling of important amounts of ODA Bolivia
Perú Subsahariana
Equatorial Guinea
la canalización de elevados volúmenes de AOD Ecuador
Peru Guinea Ecuatorial
Sudan
and
y el uso application
the de of a broad
un amplio espectro spectrum of
de instrumentos República
Ecuador Sudán
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea Bissau
instruments. Dominican
Dominicana Re- Gambia
Gambia
Magreb
public Angola
Angola
y Oriente D.R. Congo
R.D Congo
The
MedioMaghreb and
Guinea-Conakry
Guinea Conakry
Marruecos
the Middle East
Group Special focus
Grupo B -–Asociación partnership
focalizada Mauritania
Morocco Asia y Pacífico
Asia and the Pacific
With Less Developed Income Countries Argelia
Mauritania Timor
East Oriental
Timor
Con Países Menos Adelantados,
or LowPaíses de Bajo Territorios Palestinos Afganistán
Algeria Afghanistan
where o Países
Ingreso the de Renta Media
cooperation programme los que
Baja en does not Población Saharaui Camboya
Palestinian Terri- Cambodia
Bangladesh
el programa
allow for a de cooperación
type no permite
A partnership una
and impact is África
tories Bangladesh
Subsahariana
Population of
asociación del tipo A y aumenta su impacto
greater if aid is concentrated on a single key en Etiopía
desarrollo si se centra en un único sector clave, Western
Malí Sahara
sector, or on more than one but with a specific
o en más de uno, pero bajo un único enfoque Sub-Saharan
Mozambique Africa Latin America
Latinoamérica
Senegal
Ethiopia Costa Rica
Costa Rica
focus and
y con un using
uso selectivo
onlydeselect instruments.
instrumentos Cabo Verde
Mali Brasil
Brazil
Níger México
Mozambique Mexico
Asia y Pacífico
Senegal Venezuela
Venezuela
Filipinas Panamá
Panama
Cape
VietnamVerde
Argentina
Argentina
Niger
Group
Grupo C -–Asociación
Partnershippara la
to consolidate Uruguay
Uruguay
Cuba
Asia and the Pacific Cuba
development de logros de desarrollo
consolidaciónachievements The Philippines Magreb,
With que permiten
Paísescountries establecimiento
thatelallow de
the establishment Vietnam The Maghreb and
Oriente Medio
the Middle East
y Próximo
estrategias
of specific de asociación concretas
partnership strategiespara
to promote Syria
Siria
la promoción del desarrollo a través
development by strengthening inclusive del Tunisia
Túnez
fortalecimiento de políticas públicas inclusivas, Egypt
Egipto
public policies, Jordan
Jordania
la promoción de lapromoting
cooperacióntrans-southern
sur-sur, la
and triangular cooperation, providing África
Sub-Saharan Africa
cooperación triangular y la provisión
and de bienes Subsahariana
Namibia
global public
públicos globalesassets. Namibia
Foreign Policy 113
9. Culture and development: encourage ganisational capacity of Spanish cooperation ef-

the tangible and intangible cultural opportuni- forts deployed in the partner country, and the
ties and abilities of individuals and communi- viability of establishing a framework of partner-
ties as essential ingredients of sustainable hu- ship in a given country – defined by the nation’s
man development. own potential as a development partner and the
10. Gender in development: help guaran- relative position of our cooperation abilities in
tee the full exercise of human rights and wo- comparison with other donors. These criteria are
men’s citizenship through empowerment, as a used to establish three categories of partnership:
mechanism for overcoming poverty and the in- • Extensive partnership: with Less Deve-
equality and injustice suffered by women in loped Countries or Low Income Countries where
their gender relationships. there are opportunities to establish a long-term
11. Migration and development: promote partnership that permits the channelling of im-
the positive reciprocal effects of migration and portant amounts of ODA and the application of
development by encouraging co-development, a broad spectrum of instruments.
empowerment of migrant collectives, and sup- • Special focus partnership: with the same
port for drafting and implementing appropriate kind of countries, but where the cooperation
and consistent public migration policies in programme does not allow for an extensive
countries of origin, transit and destination, pro- partnership and impact is greater if aid is con-
tecting the rights of migrants at every stage in centrated on a single key sector, or on more
the process. than one but with a specific focus, identified in
12. Peace building: contribute to the progress collaboration with the partner country. At least
of peace, justice, equality and safety in situations 85% of the geographically assignable ODA for
of conflict or post-conflict by introducing preven- 2012 will be distributed among extensive and
tive actions, respect for international laws, the de- specific-focus partner countries.
fence of human rights, support for victims and the • Partnership to consolidate development
restoration of the physical, economic and social achievements: with countries that allow the es-
order, including actions to reinforce government tablishment of specific partnership strategies to
authority, transitional justice and the empower- promote development by strengthening inclu-
ment of civil society. sive public policies, promoting trans-southern
With regard to multi-sector priorities, Spa- and triangular cooperation, and providing glo-
nish cooperation efforts will particularly target bal public assets.
groups in a situation of special vulnerability
that suffer most acutely from social exclusion
and marginalisation, such as children and SPAIN AND LATIN AMERICA
young people, indigenous peoples and individ-
uals of African descent. Latin America is a substantial part of Spain’s
Moreover, the Master Plan contains specific identity, which cannot be understood without
sections addressing humanitarian aid, conside- considering the historical bonds that unites us
ration for the specific needs of each crisis situa- and the present we share with the peoples and
tion, and peace building, which is considered a citizens of Central and South America. Conse-
fundamental pillar of cooperation work. quently, Latin America must be and is a cons-
Geographic priorities must be assigned to tant priority in Spanish foreign policy. In this
ensure the effectiveness of the aid provided, and respect, the Spanish government has launched
these are established in the Master Plan accord- initiatives in various areas in order to give
ing to our international commitments and the Spanish-Latin American relations the privileged
recommendations made to Spain by the Deve- status they deserve. Spain has worked to esta-
lopment Assistance Committee of the OECD. blish open lines of communication with every
The criteria applied to determine these priorities country in the region, motivated by the convic-
are numerous: development, presence and or- tion that maintaining close, continuous and di-
114
rect dialogue with national leaders will allow litical systems to meet their legitimate expecta-
us to strengthen our presence and influence in tions of economic welfare and development
Latin America and, as a result, to better defend and to make headway in the effort to mitigate
our interests there. In addition, Spain now has inequalities. Social cohesion and equitable de-
sufficient economic power and the firm politi- velopment are challenges that demand a res-
cal determination to contribute substantially to ponse. The Spanish government wishes to rein-
the development and prosperity of the Latin force Spain’s involvement in strengthening the
American people. institutions of Latin American nations; in this
The present administration’s policy with re- respect, we can offer the benefit of our recent
gard to Latin America is a reflection of the de- experience in the successful creation and con-
sire to combine the defence of our interests solidation of our own democratic system.
with the needs and ambitions of this region’s In addition to the reinforcement of institu-
countries and peoples. tions, the intense poverty and inequalities that
exist in Latin America must also be reduced in
order to achieve greater stability. Many nations
New factors
have already launched efficient economic re-
Our policy takes into account that, although forms to boost their economies, but the cha-
the substratum of this relationship is the same llenge of generating an economic change to
as ever (a common identity and a shared histo- promote equality has yet to be addressed.
ry), there are now new manifestations that af- Spain has contributed its own resources to
fect it. The first of these is the spectacular in- help fight poverty and strengthen social cohesion,
crease of Spanish investment in the region, and it will continue to do so. However, Spain also
particularly in the largest and most important has defended and will continue to defend a more
countries. We are now the second largest in- flexible position in international forums regarding
vestor in Latin America (or the first, depending Latin America’s reasonable demands in matters of
on the criteria used) and we play a decisive role finance and the access of their products to the
in strategic sectors such as banking, communi- markets of developed countries.
cations, energy and public services in general. Spain’s development cooperation policy is
In recent years, Spain has also received a one of the fundamental instruments of our cur-
significant influx of Latin American immigrants. rent Latin American policy. A significant part of
Given its recent history as a nation of emigrants, Spain’s cooperation efforts target this region,
Spain sees this phenomenon as a positive deve- primarily in the form of programmes of institu-
lopment and values the contribution of Latin tional reinforcement and the meeting of basic
American immigrants to our economic welfare. needs in an attempt to fight poverty and ine-
We are also well aware that Latin America quality.
is now facing new challenges. Twenty years The government has also emphasised the
ago, the challenges consisted of re-establishing need for Spanish investors to adopt corporate
democratic, civil and representative regimes social responsibility policies (almost all of them
and solving armed conflicts in Central Ameri- already do), based on the conviction that the
ca. Spain made a significant contribution to the best way to guarantee their interests is to ensure
restoration of democracy in the southernmost the stability and development of the countries
region of South America and the peace pro- where they operate.
cesses in Central America. Today, most of the The government also intends to introduce
countries in the region have democratically bilateral mechanisms to ensure that the inte-
elected governments rests of Spanish companies have greater legal
The primary goal of democratic regimes, at protection, are better defended and contribute
the dawn of the 21st century, must be the era- more effectively to the development of the
dication of poverty and social exclusion. Latin countries where they operate. In this respect,
American societies want their democratic po- agreements to promote and protect investments
Foreign Policy 115
Group photo of the Heads of State and Government who participated in the 19th Ibero-American Summit held in
Estoril (Portugal), 30 November 2009.
and avoid double taxation have been signed The 19th Ibero-American Summit held from
with almost every Latin American country. 29 November to 1 December 2009 focused on
The Spanish government believes that multi- the theme of “Innovation and Knowledge”. All
lateralism and integration are the best responses of the participating nations agreed to make in-
to the dangers of globalisation. Obviously, this novation a priority in their national development
also applies to the present-day reality of Latin strategies and to create a new Ibero-American
America and our relationship with the region. programme for applied research and technologi-
Spain supports the different sub-regional pro- cal innovation.
cesses of economic and trade integration: MER-
COSUR, the Andean Community and the Central
American System. Further-more, Spain actively THE ALLIANCE
promotes free trade agreements between the Eu-
OF CIVILISATIONS
ropean Union and these integration mecha-
nisms. Independently of these agreements, we Since the Spanish president presented the propo-
believe it is essential for the EU to increase its sal for an Alliance of Civilisations before the Ge-
involvement in Latin America, which is why neral Assembly of the United Nations in Septem-
Spain actively participates in the EU-Latin Ame- ber 2004, the initiative has made great headway.
rica and Caribbean Summits that began thanks to In a short time, it has become a new instrument in
a joint initiative of the Spanish and French go- the hands of the international community for fac-
vernments. In May 2008, the 5th Summit in Lima ing problems deriving from the management of
addressed two highly relevant themes: poverty, diversity and, in particular, for mobilising mode-
inequality and social inclusion, and sustainable rates in the Western and Arab-Islamic world,
development and climate change. Latin Ameri- which constitute the vast majority, in an effort to
can issues will be a particular focus of the Spa- isolate the extremist minority.
nish presidency of the EU in the first six months The aim of the Alliance of Civilisations is to
of 2010, when the 6th EU-Latin America and help narrow some of the gaps that exist in to-
Caribbean Summit will be held. day’s globalised world, especially those related
116
to culture and religion. To this end it advocates rection, the High Representative has invited the
the application of specific political measures in nations committed to the Alliance to draft na-
four fields that have been identified as high- tional plans or strategies that translate the prin-
impact: youth, education, migration and the ciples of the Alliance into concrete political
media. measures. Spain approved its own national
The initiative enjoys an ample political plan in January 2008.
support base in the international community. In Moreover, the Alliance aspires to work in tan-
2005 the Secretary-General of the United Na- dem with international and regional organisa-
tions adopted the initiative with the co-spon- tions that work in the field of intercultural dia-
sorship of the Spanish and Turkish govern- logue. It hopes to become a horizontal instrument
ments. There is also a Group of Friends of the of the United Nations system that will serve to
Alliance of Civilisations that has grown larger highlight the political importance of what these
since that time and currently includes over 90 organisations do to improve the management of
nations and international organisations. diversity. To this end, the High Representative has
The Alliance of Civilisations is part of the signed collaboration agreements with interna-
Spanish government’s efforts to promote effi- tional organisations such as UNESCO, the Arab
cient multilateralism and the reinforcement of League and the Council of Europe.
the United Nations’ role in today’s world. In Another of the main proposals included in
April 2007, the UN Secretary-General named both the Report of the High Level Group created
Jorge Sampaio, the former president of Portu- in 2005 by the Secretary General and the High
gal, as his High Representative for the Alliance Representative’s Action Plan is the celebration of
of Civilisations. This prominent appointment a Forum of the Alliance of Civilisations. Con-
ushered in a new phase in the initiative’s histo- ceived as the Alliance’s great event where asso-
ry, granting it a higher political profile and la- ciation agreements will be forged and commit-
ying the foundations for moving towards its ments to specific actions and projects will be
practical implementation. A few weeks after his made, the Forum is intended to serve to identify
appointment, the High Representative announ- good practices, share experiences and unders-
ced an Action Plan that sets out a specific work core the obstacles that must be overcome in or-
programme for the two-year period from 2007 der to improve mutual understanding.
to 2009. The plan highlights three areas of prio- The first Forum of the Alliance of Civilisa-
rity action for the Alliance: tions was held in Madrid on 15 and 16 January
• As a tool that can be used by those who 2008. The event brought together numerous
wish to launch intercultural dialogue coopera- countries and international organisations, as well
tion projects. as distinguished representatives from the politi-
• As a forum for proposing and supporting cal, academic, religious and business worlds. It
projects that focus on improving intercultural was a great success in terms of the level and
relations in the areas of education, youth, mi- number of participants, the contents of the de-
gration and the media. bates and the results achieved.
• As a space for facilitating dialogue and a On the intergovernmental level, it is worth-
political tool available to those who promote while noting that the during the Forum a High
moderation and mutual understanding in times Level Political Dialogue meeting of the Group
of crisis. of Friends was held, which 81 of the then 83
The Alliance will gain strength as the va- members of the group attended. 35 of the par-
rious nations gradually integrate it in their own ticipating nations were represented by minis-
national policies. It is destined to inspire our ters and 10 of the 13 international organisa-
instruments of conflict management, our inter- tions pertaining to the group were represented
national cooperation policy and our internal by secretary-generals.
sectorial policies in education, youth, migra- The Forum’s success has proven the perti-
tion or the media. To move forward in this di- nence of this initiative. The Alliance of Civilisa-
Foreign Policy 117
tions is “the right initiative at the right time,” in

the words of the High Representative. Some of
the specific results achieved are as follows:
1. Spain and New Zealand presented their

National Plans, and Turkey announced the
elements of its National Strategy for the Al-
liance of Civilisations.
2. The High Representative signed five Me-
moranda of Understanding with various in-
ternational organisations – UNESCO, the
League of Arab States, ISESCO, ALECSO
and United Cities and Local Governments
(UCLG) – as well as a Letter of Intent with The President of Spain, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, the
the Council of Europe. Turkish Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the Secretary-
General of the UN, Ban Ki-moon, and the High Representa-tive
3. Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser al-Missned, for the AoC, Jorge Sampaio, at the 2nd Forum of the Alliance
consort of the Emir of Qatar, announced of Civilisations held in Istanbul on 6 and 7 April 2009.
the launch of “Silatech,” a global initiative
for youth employment set up with an initial
investment of 100 million dollars. The ini- will work in the field of intercultural dialogue,
tiative includes collaboration agreements the creation of an Alliance of Civilisations net-
with the World Bank and the private busi- work of goodwill ambassadors, and the drawing
ness sector. up of a catalogue of good practices in the busi-
4. Queen Noor of Jordan, on behalf of the ness sector as regards intercultural dialogue.
King Hussein Foundation, announced the The 2nd Forum of the Alliance of Civilisations
launch of an Alliance of Civilisations Me- was held in Istanbul on 6 and 7 April 2009. This
dia Fund to fight against stereotyping in the forum served to consolidate the Alliance of Civili-
media by signing collaboration agreements sations as a major political platform for intercul-
with well-known producers, distributors tural dialogue and has reinforced its international
and Hollywood agencies. The fund is en- prestige as a result of the growing number of
dowed with an initial private investment of countries and international organisations that
10 million dollars. have joined the Group of Friends (100) and were
5. The Alliance of Civilisations Clearinghouse in attendance at the meeting. This same group
was launched and set up with a pilot project also showed a greater interest and commitment
in the field of media literacy education. to pursuing the collaboration possibilities offered
6. The Rapid Response Media Mechanism was by the Alliance.
launched, which will establish a public da- Moreover, the 2nd Forum consolidated the
tabase of global experts in intercultural dia- Alliance of Civilisations as a place of encounter
logue accessible to journalists and the me- and dialogue with civil society, with a signifi-
dia, especially during crisis situations. cant turnout of social agents, political and reli-
7. The Youth Solidarity Fund was created, gious leaders, corporations, academic and cul-
which aims at providing small-scale assis- tural centres, etc., in Istanbul. The Forum
tance for youth programmes in the sphere provided progress reports on projects currently
of intercultural and interfaith dialogue. under-way, some of which were launched at
Other important commitments were also the Madrid Forum, and introduced new initia-
made to further the goals of the Alliance of Civi- tives. Agreements were made and cooperation
lisations, such as the creation of a worldwide possibilities discussed among the members of
network for information and good practice shar- the Group of Friends and between these na-
ing between foundations and individuals that tions and participants representing civil society.
118
Some of the most notable results of this • The “Dialogue Café” project, which en-
conference were: courages video-conference communications
• The presentation of 10 new National Plans between public, private and local groups.
and Strategies for intercultural dialogue (Alba- • The “Restore Trust, Build Bridges” initia-
nia, Algeria, Argentina, Brazil, Malaysia, Mon- tive which, in collaboration with the Anna
tenegro, Portugal, Russia, Qatar and Slovenia) Lindh Foundation, includes a series of projects
and the signing of Memoranda of Understanding aimed at mitigating the effects of the recent
with various international organisations. Gaza crisis.
• The launch of two Regional Strategies for • The launch of the “Plural +” project, a
southeast Europe and the Euro-Mediterranean youth-produced film festival about migration.
Region and the presentation of a third Strategy • The presentation of the report “Doing
for the Ibero-American Region. Business in a Multicultural World: Challeng-
• The launch of the Global Youth Move- es and Opportunities”, prepared jointly by
ment for the Alliance of Civilisations. the Alliance of Civilisations and the UN Glo-
• The creation of a Clearinghouse on Reli- bal Compact on good practices in the private
gions and Beliefs for the purpose of providing sector.
resources, guides, tools and teaching and • The launch of the Rapid Response Media
learning materials on these themes. Mechanism for the Euro-Mediterranean region,
• The Alliance Fellowship Programme for in partnership with the Anna Lindh Foundation
young leaders from the United States, Europe and the European Commission.
and the Muslim world to encourage exchanges
in collaboration with foundations, intergovern- For further information:
mental organisations, think tanks, etc. www.aecid.es
• The launch of an AoC Research Network www.maec.es
in collaboration with 12 universities. www.unaoc.org
CHAPTER V
DEFENCE
POLICY
DEFENCEPOLICYDEFENCE
POLICYDEFENCEPOLICYDEF
ENCEPOLICYDEFENCEPOLIC tion must be approved with the active partici-
pation of the Spanish Parliament.
YDEFENCEPOLICYDEFENCEP For the purposes of carrying out these ac-
tions, on 3 November 2005 the Spanish Parlia-
OLICYDEFENCEPOLICYDEFEN ment passed the National Defence Law. This
legislation states that the Armed Forces are re-
sponsible for ensuring the sovereignty and in-
CEPOLICYDEFENCEPOLICY dependence of Spain, defending the integrity
of its territory and constitutionally defined dis-
THE ARMED FORCES: tribution, preserving the welfare of its citizens
AN INSTRUMENT FOR against threats, calamities and catastrophes
and other public needs, and constituting a key
ACTION ABROAD element of the State’s foreign action by par-
Spanish defence policy is firmly committed to ticipating in international missions.
the universal principles enshrined in the Unit- With regard to foreign interventions, the
ed Nations Charter of respect for human life law stipulates that the administration shall first
and rights and to supporting peaceful relations consult the Congress of Representatives and
and efficient cooper-ation among all the peo- obtain its authorisation before ordering fo-
ples of the world, as set out in our constitu- reign operations that are not directly related to
tion. The end goal is to help create an interna- the defence of Spain or of national interests.
tional system that is increasingly more just, Said operations must comply fully with in-
peaceful and safe, but one that is also capable ternational laws, and must be ordered only in
of facing the security threats that exist in the response to an express request from the gover-
world today. ning authority of the territory where action is to
In this respect, Spain’s foreign activity is be taken, or to a resolution of the United Na-
based on a scrupulous respect for internation- tions, NATO or the European Union. Previous
al laws. Two conditions must be met before consent from Parliament shall not be required
our Armed Forces will intervene in foreign af- for legitimate defensive responses to an aggres-
fairs: the United Nations or another multina- sion against Spain or its national interests.
tional organisation to which Spain belongs In February 2009, the Royal Ordinances
must first issue a decision, and the interven- for the Armed Forces were presented to com-
H.M. the King of Spain

at the closing ceremony
of the 10th Command
Training Course at
CESEDEN (Advanced
Centre for National
Defence Studies)
on 29 July 2009
Defence Policy 121
Defence Minister
Carme Chacón during
the qualifying trials for
pilots on the “Príncipe
de Asturias” aircraft
carrier. 10 February
2009.
plement the National Defence Law. This new Agreements were also signed with the uni-
version of the code of conduct is the result of versities of Vigo, Zaragoza and Cartagena,
a sweeping reform to adapt the military code which will allow commissioned officers who
of practice to reflect the new missions as- study at participating military academies to
signed to Spain’s Armed Forces and to the obtain a university degree that is recognised
changes that have taken place in modern so- by the civil authorities. In 2010, the education
ciety. Among other issues, the ordinances ad- received by NCOs will also be considered
dress vital matters such as those related to in- equivalent to a vocational degree.
ternational human rights or the protection of In the framework of security and defence,
cultural heritage and the environment. Europe is our primary area of interest and, in
The defence policy of Spain determines this respect, Spain shall pursue a truly Europe-
the objectives of national defence and the re- an security and defence policy. This priority is
sources and actions needed to achieve them. combined with a strong, balanced trans-Atlan-
These objectives are defined in the National tic relationship, in which Spain occupies the
Defence Directive, which constitutes the basis role of a firm ally with a clear commitment to
of National Defence Planning and military the North Atlantic Alliance.
policy. The National Defence Directive was The Mediterranean basin is of particular in-
approved by the president of Spain on 30 De- terest to Spain, which firmly supports all multi-
cember 2004. It was subsequently replaced in lateral initiatives proposed by the European
late 2008 with a new directive brought before Union, NATO and the Organisation for Securi-
Parliament in November by the Minister of ty and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) for the
Defence, Carme Chacón. Mediterranean region. Spain is also one of the
Acting upon one of the recommendations driving forces behind the 5+5 initiative, which
of the National Defence Directive, on 30 Oc- aims to develop multilateral cooperation to re-
tober 2007 the Spanish Parliament approved inforce mutual understanding and trust in the
the Military Career Law to adopt an updated western Mediterranean.
structure of corps and ranks, promotion sys- Latin America is another priority area, which
tems that reward merit and ability, and to re- is why Spain actively promotes bilateral relations
form the military training system. In June and military cooperation with Latin American
2009, the new corps and ranks system was states and shall support regional initiatives de-
made effective, with the result that the num- signed to reinforce multilateral cooperation
ber of ranks for officers was reduced to a total among nations of the Latin American community.
of 23. This new organisation has introduced a In addition to these three areas that have
fairer and more rigorous system of evaluation traditionally been given priority in international
and promotion that has already been applied defence policy, the 2008 National Defence Di-
in over 6,000 cases. rective also underscores the necessity of Spa-
122
EVOLUTION OF NUMBER OF GROUND AND NAVAL TROOPS
90,000
88,061
88,000
NEW TROOP MODEL
LAW ON ENLISTED
86,000 DEFINED IN LAW
PERSONNEL PASSED
8/2006 84,836
GOVERNMENT
84,000 APPROVES DRAFT
OF LAW ON ENLISTED 81,607
82,000 PERSONNEL
79,128 79,218
80,000 NEW WAGES 78,058
ANNOUNCED 77,321
78,000 76,401
ORGANISATIONAL
76,000 CHANGES IN THE ARMY
73,641
74,000 LONG-TERM SERVICE
71,937 COMMITMENTS SIGNED
72,000 70,632
EMERGENCY MEASURES
70,000
JAN 05
JUL 05
JAN 06
JUL 06
JAN 07
JUL 07
JAN 08
JUL 08
JAN 09
JUL 09
DEC 09
Source: Under-Secretariat of Defence. Directorate-General of Recruitment and Military Training. Subdirectorate-General of Recruitment.
DISTRIBUTION OF TROOPS BY FORCES nish involvement to ensure stability in other

regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa and the
14,109 Asian-Pacific region.
The Armed Forces: 131,000

professional members
The staff plans approved by the administration
12,526
60,773 in June 2009 for the 2009-2013 four-year pe-
riod define the size of our Armed Forces in ac-
Army
cordance with our defence needs and Spain’s
Navy Air Force
geographic, social and economic characteris-
tics. Specifically, the goal is to achieve between
80,000 and 90,000 troops for ground and naval
forces and a maximum of 50,000 officers.
All members of the Armed Forces are pro-
DISTRIBUTION OF TROOPS BY GENDER
fessionals, given that mandatory military ser-
vice ended on 1 January 2002. Although there
14,672 was a shortage of recruits in the three years
leading up to 2005, since that year the number
of enlisted personnel has been gro-wing con-
tinuously.
The number of women in the Armed For-
ces has also increased. At the end of 2009,
72,736 women accounted for 17% of all military staff;
this same percentage was just 0.1% in 1991
Men Women and 11.5% in 2005. Women were first admit-
Defence Policy 123
ted to the Armed Forces in 1988. At present,

there are over 14,000 women in the Spanish
Armed Forces, and in 2009 the rank of Lieu-
tenant Colonel was awarded to a woman for
the first time.
Law 8/2006 on Enlisted Personnel was en-
acted for the purposes of completely profes-
sionalising the Armed Forces and making the
military an appealing profession. This legisla-
tion provides greater stability for the profes-
sional lives of soldiers and sailors by offering
The Spanish flag at NATO Headquarters in Brussels.
long-term service contracts (until age 58,
transfer to the reserve or retirement) or short-
term contracts of two or three years, renewa-
ble for up to six years. This law also offers ser- ment in security and autonomy and are
vicemen and women the option of remaining already being deployed in operation areas.
in the army until age 45, at which time they Moreover, the possibility of acquiring one of
become entitled to a monthly stipend roughly the latest models of 8x8 armoured vehicles is
equivalent to the minimum wage. This pay- also being considered.
ment is compatible with other income ob- In the first months of 2010, the Military
tained in the private sector, but it is not com- Technological Institute of La Marañosa will be-
patible with unemployment benefits. come fully operational; this institute will com-
bine six previously independent centres in a
The Armed Forces: More modern new organisation with a view to promoting
and efficient interdisciplinary knowledge and integrating it in
the Spanish and European industrial and techno-
Despite the general climate of cost contain- logical framework.
ment, funding for modernisation programmes Continuing the tradition of scientific mis-
covers all of the commitments already made sions, the Armed Forces have maintained a
for 2010 and maintains all current pro- constant presence in Antarctica for over twenty
grammes. This ensures that Spain’s armies years at the Gabriel de Castilla Base on Decep-
will be provided with the resources they tion Island. The campaign begun in October
need on time, thus guaranteeing an optimum 2009 involves 42 scientists and 18 troops, who
level of the forces’ operational capacity and will carry out 10 research projects and studies
the best possible security for our troops. in fields of interest to the military such as satel-
The projects for modernising our Armed lite communications, telemedicine, geodesy
Forces that are currently underway include and material and equipment testing.
naval resources such as the F-100 frigates,
the Strategic Projection Vessel, the Combat Spain’s participation in NATO
Supply Ship, maritime action ships and the
S-80 submarines; air programmes in cooper- Spain has participated in the Atlantic Alliance’s
ation with other European countries such as activities since its inception on 30 May 1982.
the Eurofighter aircraft, the A-400M transport As an active member of NATO, Spain and its
aircraft and the Tigre and NH-90 helicopters; allies have helped to efficiently implement the
and ground resources such as the mine-re- profound internal and external transformations
sistant 4x4 armoured vehicles, the Leopardo experienced by this organisation.
tanks and the Pizarro infantry combat vehi- Some of the most important aspects of
cles, and particularly the RG31 platoon vehi- NATO’s internal transformation in recent years
cles, which represent an important improve- include a significant reduction in forces and
124
command centres, as well as the creation of Strategy and established three main objectives:
multinational units. Another important change extending the security zone around Europe; re-
consisted of replacing the concept of “enemy” inforcing international order based on effective
and developing the notion of “cooperative se- multilateralism; and addressing new threats. In
curity.” According to this approach, coopera- December 2008, the “Report on the Implemen-
tion among nations is the best prevention tation of the European Security Strategy” was
against the threat of conflicts; it eliminates bar- presented, which evaluated the five-year pe-
riers between nations, making them feel more riod since the strategy was first implemented
secure in an increasingly more interdependent and revised the list of the most important
world. threats facing the European Union. This list in-
In 2010, Spain will contribute funding to cluded challenges such as nuclear prolifera-
cover 4.5% of NATO’s costs, making it the se- tion, terrorism and organised crime, cyber se-
venth largest donor nation. curity, energy security and climate change.
The Lisbon Treaty, which entered into force
The future of European defence on 1 December 2009, ushered in the new Com-
mon Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) and
After the Treaty of Amsterdam came into effect introduced two important novelties in the area
in April 1999, a process for developing new EU of security and defence. The Mutual Assistance
security and defence policies was set in mo- Clause stipulates that if one member-state is the
tion. victim of armed aggression on its territory, the
The document “A Secure Europe for a Bet- other member-states shall have towards it an
ter World” described the European Security obligation of aid and assistance by all the means
in their power. Meanwhile, the Solidarity Clause
addresses the obligation of the member-states to
assist each other in the event of a natural or
manmade catastrophe or a terrorist attack.
During the first six months of 2010, Spain
occupies the presidency of the Council of the
European Union. Spain’s priorities in the areas
of security and defence will be to facilitate the
consensus needed to fully implement the Com-
mon Security and Defence Policy and to de-
velop its institutions. It will also push for a qual-
itative leap in civilian and military crisis
management capacities and encourage the
Mediterranean nations to become more in-
volved in the CSDP.
The Armed Forces: Cooperative efforts

Some of the Spanish Armed Force’s most funda-
mental missions are maintaining international
peace, security and stability, as well as active
participation in collective security and defence
organisations, particularly NATO and the Euro-
The Minister of Defence, Carme Chacón, arriving at pean Union.
the Forward Support Base in Herat (Afghanistan) after
In Spain, the solidarity and selfless spirit of
presiding at the transfer of authority of the civil and
military airport facilities at Kabul for a six-month period, the Armed Forces in the face of natural catastro-
1 October 2009. phes were evidenced by the actions of the Mili-
Defence Policy 125
tary Emergency Unit (UME). The UME, created in

October 2005, has partici-pated in all level-2
fires where the regional authorities have request-
ed its assistance. During 2009 the UME deployed
troops to help contain over 30 fires as well as
flood situations and other natural disasters.
Spanish participation
in international missions
The Spanish Armed Forces maintain several con-
tingents stationed on foreign soil. At the end of
2009, for-eign deployment figures were as fol-
lows: 262 soldiers in Bosnia-Herzegovina as part
of the EU “Operation Althea” to help the country
progress towards a situation of greater stability; Medical evacuation in the ISAF contingent in February
1.061 soldiers in Afghanistan, deployed in Ka- 2009.
bul, Herat and Qala-i-Naw with the International
Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan; 1,002
men and women in the United Nations Interim
Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL); and 288 stationed in
Djibouti and on naval vessels in the Indian
Ocean as part of Operation Atalanta. In addition,
Spain has seven liaison officers in Bahrain, Tam-
pa, Astana, Lebanon and Afghanistan and four
military observers on missions to verify compli-
ance with peace accords in the Democratic Re-
public of the Congo and in Kosovo.
Peace-keeping operations have progressive-
ly acquired tremendous importance in Spain’s
defence and security policy. Spain has focused
particularly on these kinds of missions by main-
taining a constant presence.
Since the year 1989, Spain has participated
in a total of 52 peace-keeping and humanitarian The Spanish detachment in Afghanistan distributing aid
operations, which nearly 100,000 troops from to local residents.
its three standing forces have made possible
with their presence on four different continents.
In December 2008, the limit on the number December 2004 under the aegis of UN Security
of soldiers deployed abroad – 3,000 troops at Council Resolution 1575 and Chapter VII of the
the time – was removed. Thus, the only limit United Nations Charter. The aim of this opera-
now is the operating capacity of the Armed For- tion is to ensure compliance with the military
ces, which is estimated at approximately 7,700 aspects of the Dayton Agreement. At the meet-
troops. The risk inherent to these missions is un- ing of the General Affairs and Foreign Relations
deniable. Tragic proof of this is the 150 men and Council of the Council of the European Union
women who have died in the line of duty while held in May 2008, the future of the mission was
carrying out their assigned missions. discussed and the member-states decided to
The European Union launched the EUFOR turn it into a non-executive mission comprising
Operation Althea in Bosnia-Herzegovina on 2 approximately 200 troops to train and build up
126
the capacities of the Bosnian Armed Forces. The tachment deployed in nearby Djibouti. Despite
defini-tion of this new mission has already be- the difficulty of monitoring a geographic area
gun and it may be launched during Spain’s three times the size of the Mediterranean, the
presidency of the European Union in 2010. mission has managed to reduce the number of
Spain could make a substantial contribution of successful pirate attacks by half. In the coming
troops to the new mission, in a proportion simi- months, Spain will promote the creation of a So-
lar to its current involvement in Althea. mali Security Force and will propose that sur-
In July 2006, Hezbollah perpetrated a cross- veillance of the ports used by pirates and the in-
border attack on Israel which triggered the crisis terception of mother-ships be added to the tasks
known as the Israel-Lebanon crisis. In August of of this operation.
that same year, the UN Security Council issued In August 2003, NATO took command of
Resolution 1701 which increased the strength of the ISAF operation in Afghanistan with the mis-
the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon sion of supporting the Afghan government in its
(UNIFIL), created in 1978, to 15,000 troops and efforts to expand its authority throughout the
expanded the mission’s mandate. Spain was country. Spain participates with contingents of
committed to this cause from the beginning, and troops deployed there to stabilise the country
after obtaining the necessary authorisation from and strengthen its institutions, particularly by
parliament, a Spanish contingent was sent to helping to train the Afghan National Army. Spain
Lebanon. At present, 29 countries and 12,292 is also responsible for a Provincial Reconstruc-
troops are involved in the mission, and 1,002 of tion Team in Baghdis province, and the Spanish
those forces come from Spain. On 8 December Agency of International Cooperation works from
2009, the UN Secretary-General appointed the provincial capital of Qala-i-Naw on health,
General Alberto Asarta as Head of Mission and education and basic infrastructure projects. In
Force Commander of UNIFIL, who is expected addition, Spain participates in the Forward Sup-
to take command of the operation on 28 January port Base at Herat, where its forces support the
2010. work of various provincial teams in western Af-
Spain and France have been the principal ghanistan.
driving forces behind the launch of a European In December 2009, the troops began using
Union operation in the waters of the Indian a new base at Qala-i-Naw, which is larger and
Ocean near Somalia to protect humanitarian more secure than the existing facility and should
and commercial shipping vessels and the fishing be fully operational by spring of 2010. Mean-
industry from pirate attacks. This operation, while, a Spanish contingent of 66 soldiers and
dubbed Atalanta, was initiated early in 2009 and four civil guards is heading up the management
Spain has played an active role since that time. of the airport in Kabul, the main point of entry
At present there are eleven countries involved into Afghanistan.
which supply a total of 1,801 troops. Spain’s For further information, please consult the
contribution at the end of 2009 was 288 troops, official website of the Ministry of Defence:
divided between a frigate and the Orion Air De- www.mde.es.
CHAPTER VI
ECONOMIC
POLICY AND
THE SOCIAL
PROTECTION
MODEL
ECONOMICPOLICYANDTHE
SOCIALPROTECTIONMODEL
ECONOMICPOLICYANDTHE maintaining very competitive positions with res-
pect to other operators in the sector thanks to
SOCIALPROTECTIONMODEL their favourable efficiency ratios.
These changes can be attributed not so
ECONOMICPOLICYANDTHE much to the process of opening initiated with
the Stabilisation Plan of 1959 as to the Mon-
cloa Pacts signed in 1977 by the administration
SOCIALPROTECTIONMODEL of Adolfo Suárez and social agents, as part of
an integrated strategy to facilitate the moderni-
INTRODUCTION sation of the Spanish economy and to help the
TO THE ECONOMIC POLICY country emerge from the oil crisis. However,
the impact of new oil price pressure on West-
In recent decades, the Spanish economy has ern economies, in a climate of low growth and
undergone an unprecedented transformation high inflation, seriously limited the capacity of
that has affected not just the productive struc- new reforms to foster the growth of Spain’s
ture of the economy but also the role played by economy.
economic policy. Between 1986 and 1989, growth rates
Spain has gone from an economic system reached almost 5% (with average annual
inherited from a country shackled by strict au- growth of 4.7% for the period as a whole and
tocracy in the 1960s, characterised by a high almost 20% during this four-year period),
level of interventionism and little integration thanks to extremely dynamic domestic invest-
with the outside world, to form part of the Eco- ment and consumer demand, which fuelled
nomic and Monetary Union, where the Euro significant growth in employment and further
zone represents the most advanced state of consolidation of public spending.
economic integration known today. However, due to strong domestic demand,
Integration in the European Economic the foreign trade imbalance became more pro-
Community (EEC) in 1986 served as a stimulus nounced and the first signs of inflationary pres-
for the country to open up to the outside world sure started to appear.
and to embrace liberalisation, in search of In 1993, Spain’s economy plunged into a
greater efficiency in the goods, services and severe crisis that inevitably slowed down the
factors markets. To bolster this process, impor- process of convergence towards the income
tant reforms were introduced to regulate the levels of its European Community partners. This
economy with a view to fostering the moderni- prompted a dramatic increase in unemploy-
sation of markets by improving their perfor- ment, which affected around 25% of the work-
mance and facilitating their integration, initially ing population, accompanied by rapidly rising
in European circuits and then worldwide. inflation rates and a worsening of public fi-
The role of agriculture in the economy has nance imbalances.
declined, as its contribution to national pro- The European Monetary Union became a
duction and employment has diminished. reality on 1 January 1999, when eleven mem-
The contribution of industry to the econo- ber states adopted a single currency. The most
my has also waned, although this has been immediate implication of the creation of the
compensated by strong growth in services, single currency was undoubtedly the system of
which currently account for around 66.7% of monetary policy-making, control of which was
Spanish Gross Domestic Product (GDP). definitively passed over to the European Cen-
The financial system has also undergone a tral Bank (ECB). As a result, the Bank of Spain
truly extraordinary transformation, as evidenced lost direct control over the design of monetary
by the extraordinary dynamism of the major policy strategy.
Spanish banks in the international markets, in- Spain’s entry in the Euro zone generated a
creasing their presence in other countries while climate of confidence, which was also boosted
Economic Policy and the Social Protection Model 129
by other factors that were partly exogenous but teen years of continuous growth, displaying
which undoubtedly helped to consolidate the great dynamism, unlike the economies of most
dynamism of the economy and to prolong the European countries which, despite the expan-
growth phase of the cycle currently enjoyed by sive nature of monetary policy, have been una-
the Spanish economy. ble to achieve more robust levels of growth due
In fact, the fixing of an exchange rate that to sluggish demand.
favoured Spain when it entered the Euro zone These factors have meant that since 1999
(since it clearly improved the competitiveness Spain has accumulated a substantial growth
of Spanish products and consequently boosted differential with respect to other countries in
exports), coupled with a more than substantial the Euro zone; it boasts an average growth of
reduction in interest rates as a result of conver- 1.4 percentage points. As a result of this growth,
gence and the commitment to budgetary disci- Spain’s GDP per capita is now higher than the
pline, stimulated growth during the second half EU-27 average and has progressed to 95.5% of
of the nineties and early 2000s, enabling the the Euro-zone average.
country to make significant progress in conver- In recent years, the growth of the Spanish
gence towards the living standards in other Eu- economy has been driven largely by dynamic
ropean Community countries. internal demand, and in particular by the dyna-
The National Reform Programme, approved mism of consumer demand and investment in
by the European Commission in October 2005, construction. The aim of the economic policy is
is the fundamental reference for the govern- to place a greater emphasis on investment in
ment’s medium-term economic policy and es- capital goods in order to reinforce the quality of
tablishes the strategic objective of achieving growth in coming years.
complete convergence with EU income levels Meanwhile, the contribution from the fo-
by the year 2010. This goal was already reached reign sector has moved from negative to posi-
in 2006, as reflected in the data published by tive as a result of the decline in the trade deficit.
Eurostat. A variety of factors have contributed to this,
Furthermore, the substantial injection of such as less dynamic internal demand, falling
structural funds from European Union coffers international oil prices in recent months and
and the influx of immigrants had a positive im- the sustained growth of exports, despite slug-
pact on GDP growth, job creation and macro- gish economies in the principal Euro-zone
economic consolidation, helping to reduce countries.
public debt and curb inflation rates. Different As such, the foreign sector went from sub-
reforms were also introduced during this period tracting 0.2 growth points from the GDP in the
in the labour, goods and factors markets. first quarter of 2008 to contributing 0.8 points
Spain’s economy has enjoyed more than thir- in the third quarter of the year.
GROWTH OF GDP IN SPAIN AND IN THE EURO ZONE 2006-2009
6
Spain
4
Euro zone
-2
-4
-6
2006 2007 2008 2009
Source: EUROSTAT.
130
THE SPANISH terms of Gross Added Value (GAV) and employ-

ECONOMY TODAY: ment has declined in recent years.
ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
BY SECTORS Industry
In the last four decades, the relative weight of According to the Industrial Company Survey,
the different sectors in the economy has varied in 2007 the industrial sector had an added
substantially, with the services sector enjoying value of over 153 billion euros and employed
strong growth at the expense of the primary 2,580,375 people. Industrial investment
sector and industry, whose contribution in stands at 28.121 billion euros.
Since 2000, this sector has experienced
growing levels of productivity, surpassing
those of the economy as a whole (National
GDP PER CAPITA (PPP). EU-27=100 Accounts). This trend was interrupted in the
Year 2008 first nine months of 2009, when the sharp
drop in industrial GAV situated the sector’s
EU-27 100.0
productivity at a level below that of the ge-
Euro zone 109.1
neral economy.
Belgium 115.1
An analysis of the business structure of
Bulgaria 41.3
industry by company size (number of em-
Czech Republic 80.4
ployees) reveals that, in 2007, companies
Denmark 120.1
with more than 1,000 employees generated
Germany 115.6
29.9% of the sector’s total turnover. If we in-
Estonia 67.4
clude all companies with over 100 emplo-
Ireland 135.4
yees, this figure jumps to 65.7%.
Greece 94.3
The major contributor to industry reve-
Spain 102.6
nues was the food, beverages and tobacco
France 108.0
sector, which accounted for 15.4% of total
Italy 102.0
sector revenues, metallurgy and the manu-
Cyprus 95.8
facture of metal products (13.8%) and trans-
Latvia 57.3
port material (12%).
Lithuania 61.9
Production (IIP) in high-technology sec-
Luxembourg 276.4
tors dropped 11.4% between January and
Hungary 64.4
September 2009 after growing 7.3% in 2008.
Malta 76.1
These and medium-high-technology sec-
Netherlands 134.0
tors represent 32% of industry in terms of ad-
Austria 123.3
ded value and are noted for their high levels of
Poland 56.4
productivity.
Portugal 76.0
Romania 47.0
Slovenia 90.9 Energy
Slovakia 72.2
Finland 117.2 The primary energy sector in Spain produced
Sweden 120.0 30,751 KTOE (kilotons of oil equivalent) in
United Kingdom 116.2 2008. In terms of energy sources, most primary
Croatia 62.7 energy produced in 2008 came from nuclear
Macedonia 32.6 energy (57.9%), followed at a distance by re-
Turkey 45.5 newable energy sources (17.6%), coal (16.5%)
Iceland 120.6 and hydraulic energy (7.6%). Oil and natural
Norway 191.2 gas combined accounted for less than 1%.
Switzerland 140.7
United States 154.7
Japan 110.7
Source: EUROSTAT.
Construction true that other industrialised countries have en-

Construction has been the most dynamic sector joyed periods of strong growth in employment
in the Spanish economy for several years, clear- coupled with very dynamic productivity due to
ly influencing other activities since its produc- the emphasis in economic policy on the capi-
tion involves a high level of intermediate con- talisation of the three pillars of the economy:
sumption. capital in infrastructures, human capital and
Thanks to this buoyancy, the GAV of the technological capital.
construction industry reached 10.8% of the The administration is well aware of the im-
GDP in 2006, though this percenage dropped portance of productivity for guaranteeing me-
to 10.1% in the first nine months of 2009. In- dium and long-term economic growth. It has
vestment in construction, which in 2006 had therefore made productivity one of the corner-
reached 17.9% of the GDP, had dropped to stones of its economic policy strategy, combined
14.6% by the end of the third quarter of 2009. with stability and macroeconomic rigour and the
This sector’s growth has had an obvious im- quality and transparency of public actions.
pact on the job market, employing 13.5% of With these principles in mind, in March
the national workforce in 2007 according to 2005 the government presented the Plan to Dy-
the Working Population Survey. This percen- namise the Economy and Enhance Productivity
tage went down to 10.1% between January and (Dynamisation Plan), the result of intense ana-
September 2009. lysis and consultation among the different mi-
nisterial departments and sectors concerned.
Services The Plan was accompanied by a set of specific,
urgent measures to be implemented in the short
The importance of the services sector in the econ- term.
omy has gradually increased, accounting for The Dynamisation Plan is structured around
65.5% of GDP in the first nine months of 2009. the following six pillars:
According to the Annual Services Sur- • Defence of competition.
vey, service sector revenues in 2007 totalled • Products and services markets.
1,290,059,800,000 euros, maintaining the • Factors markets.
strong upward trend observed in previous years. • Quality and efficiency of public spen-
This increase has fostered significant ding.
growth in employment in the services sector; • R&D&I.
according to the same source, this industry em- • Transparency and quality of the regula-
ployed 9.6 million workers in 2007. tory framework.
In terms of branches of activity, retail ac-
counts for most production and employment, The Balance of Payments
followed by services, tourism and transport.
At present, the internationalisation of the Spa-
nish economy has intensified, as shown by the
THE POLITICAL-ECONOMIC greater opening up of the economy in recent
decades.
MODEL BASED ON
MACROECONOMIC
Spain’s Current Account
STABILITY AND
PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH In the first 11 months of 2008 the trade ba-
lance registered a deficit of 87.132 billion
In Spain, productivity has grown at a slower euros, 2.2% lower than in the same period of
pace than in most neighbouring countries. Al- 2007. The export cover rate (percentage of ex-
though this has partly been due to the very dy- ports in relation to imports, which estimates
namic employment in recent years, it is also the capacity of the former to cover the costs of
FOREIGN TRADE: BREAKDOWN BY ECONOMIC SECTOR (JANUARY-NOVEMBER 2008)
132
Exports Imports Balance

Millions € % total % 08/07 Millions € % total % 08/07 Millions € % 08/07
Food 24,431,2 14.0 8.5 23.890,1 9.1 7.6 541,1 77.0
Fruit and vegetables 9,459,9 5.4 3.3 3,012,0 1.1 1.5 6,447,9 4.1
Fish 2,163,7 1.2 -2.3 4,409,7 1.7 -6.5 -2,246,1 -10.2
Beverages 2,417,1 1.4 7.7 1,562,9 0.6 3.1 854,3 17.3
Meat 3,010,9 1.7 20.8 1,467,2 0.6 -12.3 1,543,7 88.4
Other foods 7,379,6 4.2 15.3 13,438,3 5.1 18.6 -6,058,7 22.8
Energy products 11,285,1 6.4 49.0 52,936,4 20.2 42.7 -41,651,3 41.0
Oil and derivatives 10,017,6 5.7 44.6 40,511,3 15.5 41.3 -30,493,7 40.3
Gas 158,8 0.1 14.9 10,016,4 3.8 47.9 -9,857,6 48.5
Coal and electricity 1,108,8 0.6 118.7 2,408,7 0.9 45.1 -1,299,9 12.7
Raw materials 3,406,8 1.9 0.3 9,385,1 3.6 0.0 -5,978,3 -0.2
Animal and plant 1,838,5 1.1 6.0 2,926,7 1.1 -7.2 -1,088,2 -23.3
Minerals 1,568,3 0.9 -5.6 6,458,4 2.5 3.6 -4,890,1 7.0
Non-chemical semi-manufactures 23,047,7 13.2 3.9 22,256,1 8.5 -10.8 791,7 -128.4
Non-ferrous metals 3,483,4 2.0 -0.5 4,095,9 1.6 -17.0 -612,5 -57.3
Iron and steel 9,009,0 5.1 12.5 9,841,1 3.8 -7.1 -832,2 -67.8
Paper 2,870,1 1.6 1.7 3,367,5 1.3 -7.9 -497,4 -40.6
Ceramics and similar products 2,754,3 1.6 -2.7 710,8 0.3 -9.3 2,043,5 -0.2
Other semi-manufactures 4,930,9 2.8 -1.8 4,240,7 1.6 -15.2 690,2 3.114.7
Chemical products 23,515,9 13.4 8.1 32,509,1 12.4 7.8 -8,993,2 7.1
Organic chemical products 2,919,3 1.7 -9.5 6,523,3 2.5 4.9 -3,604,0 20.4
Inorganic chemical products 828,7 0.5 35.2 1,639,9 0.6 30.2 -811,2 25.5
Medicines 6,787,7 3.9 23.7 8,887,6 3.4 18.1 -2,099,9 3.0
Plastics 6,560,1 3.7 0.4 7,664,8 2.9 -5.0 -1,104,8 -28.2
Fertilisers 482,4 0.3 71.7 715,7 0.3 42.4 -233,4 5.4
Colouring and tanning materials 1,619,6 0.9 2.3 1,214,4 0.5 -6.6 405,2 42.6
Essential oils and perfumes 2,467,5 1.4 3.9 2,370,2 0.9 3.8 97,3 5.6
Other chemical products 1,850,6 1.1 11.7 3,493,2 1.3 17.0 -1,642,5 23.5
Equipment 35,485,2 20.3 -1.4 57,914,4 22.1 -3.9 -22,429,3 -7.7
Industrial machinery 9,866,0 5.6 5.6 14,858,0 5.7 -11.2 -,992,1 -32.5
Specific machinery 3,467,3 2.0 10.2 5,273,5 2.0 -15.6 -1,806,2 -41.7
General machinery 6,398,7 3.7 3.3 9,584,6 3.7 -8.7 -3,185,9 -25.9
Office and telecommunications equipment 2,155,6 1.2 6.0 17,472,7 6.7 17.1 -15,317,1 18.8
Data processing machinery and office equipment 713,6 0.4 -2.8 4,970,3 1.9 -6.7 -4,256,7 -7.3
Telecommunications equipment 1,441,9 0.8 10.9 12,502,4 4.8 30.3 -11,060,4 33.3
Transport material 8,938,9 5.1 -15.9 6,438,0 2.5 -32.1 2,500,9 118.4
Railway 554,6 0.3 21.1 502,3 0.2 41.4 52,3 -49.1
Road 5,665,4 3.2 -2.4 3,432,1 1.3 -23.3 2,233,4 68.6
Ships 611,5 0.3 -74.1 543,2 0.2 -77.9 68,4 -168.2
Aircrafts 2,107,4 1.2 5.1 1,960,5 0.7 -10.4 146,9 -180.7
Other equipment 14,524,7 8.3 3.9 19,145,8 7.3 0.1 -,621,0 -10.4
Engines 1,114,2 0.6 -7.5 1,168,0 0.4 -11.1 -53,8 -50.7
Electrical apparatus 7,300,2 4.2 6.2 9,286,1 3.5 3.5 -1,985,9 -5.5
Precision apparatus 1,164,7 0.7 -10.4 3,030,0 1.2 -1.0 -1,865,3 6.0
All other equipment 4,945,7 2.8 7.5 5,661,7 2.2 -2.2 -716,0 -39.6
Automotive sector 30,827,7 17.6 -0.3 31,243,2 11.9 -18.0 -415,5 -94.2
Automobiles and motorcycles 20,393,1 11.7 1.5 15,276,7 5.8 -26.7 5,116,5 -796.0
Economic Policy and the Social Protection Model
Auto parts 10,434,6 6.0 -3.6 15,966,6 6.1 -7.6 -5,532,0 -14.3
Durable goods 4,784,6 2.7 -8.1 7,182,0 2.7 -12.2 -2,397,4 -19.3
Electrical appliances 862,0 0.5 -18.1 1,610,1 0.6 -13.5 -748,2 -7.5
Consumer electronics 2,009,1 1.1 -2.9 2,432,7 0.9 -10.4 -423,6 -34.4
Furniture 1,460,7 0.8 -7.1 2,505,1 1.0 -11.5 -1,044,4 -17.0
Other durable goods 452,8 0.3 -11.6 634,1 0.2 -17.8 -181,3 -29.9
Consumer articles 14,368,7 8.2 -0.9 23,791,2 9.1 -3.3 -9,422,5 -6.8
Textiles 7,619,4 4.4 0.5 12,738,4 4.9 -2.2 -5,119,0 -6.1
Clothing 4,704,2 2.7 11.0 9,243,4 3.5 1.5 -4,539,2 -6.8
Footware 1,803,5 1.0 -6.7 1,816,0 0.7 4.8 -12,5 -106.3
Toys 672,8 0.4 -1.1 2,018,1 0.8 2.8 -1,345,3 4.8
Other consumer articles 4,273,1 2.4 -1.0 7,218,8 2.8 -8.4 -2,945,8 -17.4
Other goods 3,889,3 2.2 19.3 1,071,8 0.4 -24.5 2,817,5 53.2
TOTAL 175,042,1 100.0 4.6 262,179,3 100.0 2.3 -87,137,2 -2.2
133
Source: Deputy Directorate-General of Analysis. Strategy and Evaluation. based on data provided by the Customs and Special Taxes Department of the Tax Office.
134
FOREIGN TRADE: PRINCIPAL STATISTICS

Exports Imports Balance Margin (%)
Millions € % var, vs, Millions € % var, vs, Millions € % var, vs
Period Previous period, Previous period, Previous period,
2005 155,004,7 5.5 232,954,5 11.8 -77,949,7 26.8 66.5
2006 170,438,6 10.0 262,687,2 12.8 -92,248,6 18.3 64.9
2007 185,023,2 8.6 285,038.,3 8.5 -100,015,1 8.4 64.9
2008 188,184,4 3.7 282,251,3 0.6 -94,066,9 -4.9 66.7
January 14,928,3 6.9 24,080,3 11.5 -9,152,1 20.1 62.0
February 16,621,4 11.9 24,695,4 13.5 -8,074,0 17.2 67.3
March 15,881,6 -2.6 25,484,1 5.7 -9,602,5 23.0 62.3
QUARTER I 47,431,3 5.1 74,259,8 10.1 -26,828,6 20.2 63.9
April 17,963,8 24.8 26,011,8 17.9 -8,048.,0 5.1 69.1
May 16,621,3 3.8 24,584,7 2.7 -7,963,5 0.5 67.6
June 15,464,0 -4.0 24,126,4 -1.2 -8,662,4 4.2 64.1
QUARTER II 50,049,1 7.6 74,723,0 6.1 -24,673,8 3.2 67.0
July 17,188,9 12.2 25,200,9 5.1 -8,012,0 -7.5 68.2
August 12,121,8 0.0 19,718,9 -1.1 -7,597,1 -2.9 61.5
September 17,290,4 16.0 24,723,2 6.0 -7,432,8 -11.6 69.9
QUARTER III 46,601,2 10.0 69,643,1 3.6 -23,041,9 -7.4 66.9
October 16,671,5 -0.2 23,316,8 -10.4 -6,645,3 -28.6 71.5
November 14,289,0 -13.8 20,236,6 -19.9 -5,947,6 -31.6 70.6
December 13,142,3 -7.4 20,072,0 -16.5 -6,929,7 -29.5 65.5
QUARTER IV 44,102,8 -7.1 63,625,4 -15.5 -19,522,6 -29.9 69.3
Source: Deputy-Directorate General of Analysis, Strategy and Evaluation, based on data provided by the Customs and Special Taxes Department
of the Tax Office.
purchasing goods abroad) reached 66.8% in Meanwhile, the evolution of imports in

the same period (1.6 points higher than in the 2008 was conditioned by the increase in the
first 11 months of 2007). value of energy product imports (42.7% year-
The correction of the trade deficit is ex- on-year in the first 11 months of the year), as a
pected to continue in the future. result of the sharp increase in the prices of
In fact, available data points to stronger these products on the international markets
growth of goods and services exports, which during the first half of the year.
increased from 0.9% in the first quarter of 2005
to 1.5% in the third quarter of 2008 according
to Quarterly National Accounting figures. AGRICULTURE
From a sectorial and geographical stand-
AND FISHING IN SPAIN
point, an analysis of Spanish foreign trade re-
veals a specialisation profile typical of ad- In Spain, agriculture is a strategic sector of
vanced economies with exports destined enormous social, territorial, environmental and
primarily for countries with similar income economic importance.
levels. By sector, the data confirms that capital It is important to remember that more than
goods exports and semi-manufactured goods half of the surface area in Spain is directly used
exports 20% and 26.5%of all exports respec- for agriculture (38% of the land for crops and
tively) have stabilised at high levels. 14% for meadows and pastureland).
The agri-foodstuffs industry is one of the In relation to non-European tourists, the

booming sectors in the Spanish economy. Agri- United States remains the leader with 2% of all
cultural production continues to increase and entries.
is now valued at more than 45 billion euros. The arrival of tourists has traditionally been
The Spanish agri-foodstuffs industry is the concentrated in the summer months (from June
country’s main industrial sector (it employs to September), with 45.3% of all entries occur-
around 500,000 people and generates 17% of ring during this period. However, this trend has
total industrial sales). begun to change in recent years, with the influx
It must also be noted that agri-foodstuffs of tourists now being slightly more evenly dis-
exports have recorded consistently positive tributed throughout the year, leading therefore
trade balances. to a gradual process of de-seasonalisation.
(Agriculture is covered in a chapter on the In terms of distribution via route of access,
natural, rural and marine environment.) of all the tourists who visited Spain in 2008,
77.5% arrived by air; 19.6% by road; 2.7% by
Foreign fishing trade sea and 0.2% by rail.
29.8% of the tourists who visited Spain
Spain is one of the world’s major fish consu- purchased a tourist package, 4.5% less than for
mers, with consumption per capita currently the same period in 2007.
standing at 36.5 kg per year – double that of the 63.9% of the international tourists – 36.6
EU (15 kg/ year). Domestic production is there- million – used hotel accommodations, repre-
fore unable to satisfy market demand, so Spain senting a decline of 2% in relation to the same
is forced to import a large percentage of the fish period of the previous year.
it consumes. Travels by residents in Spain during 2008
Spain is one of the top ten countries in amounted to 168.8 million, reflecting a varia-
terms of fish product sales in international tion rate of 6.8%.
trade. Annual fish imports total 1,670 million In 2008, revenue from tourism in the ba-
tons and are valued at 5,150 million euros, lance of payments dropped by 0.4% in relation
with 31% originating from the EU. to the previous year, generating 41,900,900,000
Exports total 920,000 tons and are valued euros and a trade deficit cover rate of 32.0%.
at 2,287 million dollars, with 77% destined for The importance of tourism activity in em-
non-EU countries. ployment is reflected by the fact that in 2008
13% of the working population had a tourism-
related job. According to the data provided by
SPANISH TOURISM POLICY the 2008 Working Population Survey, this re-
presented 2.62 million jobs and, in year-on-
Current situation year terms, an increase of 1.8% compared with
of Tourism in Spain the previous year.
The distribution of these jobs by branch of
In 2008, Spain received 57.3 million interna- activity was as follows: 55.3% in the hotel and
tional tourists, representing a variation rate of catering industry; 2.4% in travel agencies;
-2.3%. The majority of the tourists who visit 26.2% in transport (air, sea and land) and the
Spain – 93.4% of the total – come from other remaining 16.0% in a variety of activities in-
European countries. The three main tourism cluding vehicle hire, leisure, culture and sports.
markets are the United Kingdom, with 15.8
million visitors and a variation rate of -3.1%; Objectives of the Tourism Policy
Germany, with 10.07 million and a variation
rate of -0.1%; and France, with 8.2 million and On 8 November 2007, the Council of Minis-
a variation rate of -9.0%. These three countries ters approved the Horizon 2020 Spanish Tou-
represent 59.4% of all entries. rism Plan. This plan, which aims to make the
136
Spanish tourism Industry more competitive of the Horizon 2020 goals. That same year, a
and sustainable while ensuring the highest qualitative and quantitative leap was made
possible degree of social wellbeing, is des- with the creation of the Office of the Secre-
tined to become a milestone in Spanish tou- tary of State for Tourism and granting tourism
rism policy after its approval by all regional the largest budget it has ever had.
authorities and the tourism industry itself, re- This office organised a Council of Ministers
presented by the Spanish Tourism Council and in 2009 dedicated to the single theme of tou-
the Sectorial Tourism Conference. Tourism 2020, rism in which 14 ministeries were involved. At
thus based on the principle of shared leader- this meeting, a package of measures valued at
ship, establishes a strategic long-term working 1 billion euros was approved.
framework to successfully overcome the chal-
lenges faced by the Spanish tourism system. The Policy for Promoting
The plan’s objectives and strategies place it Tourism Abroad
within the context of the Lisbon Strategy, in
what has come to be called a new tourism TURESPAÑA is the independent body of the
economy where special emphasis is placed on national government entrusted with promo-
creating value for the customer and on the ting Spain as a tourist destination in interna-
model’s sustainability in a competitive envi- tional markets. It has a network of 34 Spanish
ronment. Tourist Offices around the globe, with the re-
Tourism 2020 is set in motion by the 2008 cent opening of new offices in Mumbai (In-
Operative Plan, drafted by the Secretariat- dia) and Canton (China). The Spanish Tourism
General of Tourism and conceived as a spring- Institute (TURESPAÑA) has prepared a strate-
board for advancing towards the achievement gic plan called the “Plan of Objectives for the
The Cardona Tourism Parador (Barcelona) is a medieval castle with a tower and Romanesque church,
situated atop an 11th-century fortified promontory.
International Promotion of Tourism. This plan • To promote our country on internet

is divided into three parts: an analysis of the sites where tourism is discussed.
situation of the sector and international • To create our own online products
trends in tourism, combined with a segment- adapted to the current needs of users.
based diagnosis of demand; the formulation
of strategies for products and markets; and
the promotional activities to be performed THE TAX SYSTEM
every year in each source market, via the es-
tablishment of specific action plans. The current public revenues system in force in
The plan aims to consolidate and im- Spain is similar to that used by most developed
prove the position of Spanish tourism pro- countries, comprising mainly direct taxes and
ducts and destinations by promoting the con- in particular Value Added Tax (VAT) as the prin-
sumption of potentially more profitable cipal indirect tax. This structure means that re-
products for the Spanish tourism sector, venues, together with a large proportion of ex-
through a combination of all or some of the penditure, act as automatic stabilisers of the
following factors: greater spending by tou- economy. In other words, in periods of stronger
rists; increased consumption of tourist ser- growth, tax collection increases at a higher rate
vices and infrastructures; development of than GDP, thus mitigating inflationary pressure;
tourism in new territories and destinations; in less favourable climates, however, tax col-
and “de-seasonalisation” and the promotion lection diminishes, which encourages econo-
of sustainable social and environmental demic growth.
velopment.
The policy for the international promo-
The Legal Budgetary Framework.
tion of tourism is based on five pillars of ac-
tion established in the plan: market research, The 2010 National Budget is designed to res-
image and positioning, development and pond to the recession that is currently affecting
marketing of Spanish tourism products, on- the Spanish economy in three fundamental
line marketing and management excellence. ways. Firstly, the budget seeks to mitigate the lin-
The Plan of Objectives for the International gering effects of the recession in 2010, particu-
Promotion of Tourism is further developed in larly in the first six months. To this end, it main-
annual action plans. tains and reinforces social safety nets by
One of the principal lines of action of the consolidating the system of dependency, im-
Spanish Tourism Institute in recent years is proving pensions, increasing the contribution to
public-private collaboration, which is achie- complement minimum pensions, etc.; it pro-
ved by signing agreements for joint promo- vides the funding resources needed to cover the
tion with autonomous regions and tourism deficit of the National Public Employment Ser-
companies. vice (SPEE) caused by the rise in unemployment;
Another important achievement is the and it maintains certain economic stimulus
improved quality of the information and pro- measures, such as the new State Fund for Em-
motional appeal of the www.spain.info web- ployment and Local Sustainability.
site with the launch of the new comprehen- Secondly, the budget strives to maintain the
sive system of tourism information on Spain. current high levels of public investment in infras-
Bearing in mind that tourism is one of the tructures, R&D and innovation and education.
sectors most influenced by the internet, a As these areas are pivotal for effecting a change
technological evolution was necessary. in the production model, such investment is the
This new project, known as V2, aims to best bet for the future of Spain’s economy.
introduce the tools that will make it possible Thirdly, the budget lays the foundation for
to radically transform how Spanish tourism is rebalancing the public accounts with the goal of
publicised online in two major ways: bringing the economy back within the limits of
138
the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) – a deficit the recession and stimulate economic recovery.
below 3% of the GDP in 2012 – although the Nevertheless, and in anticipation of the immi-
new margins granted by the European Union nent economic recovery, Spain must launch a
must be taken into account. To this end, the process of fiscal consolidation that will allow it
budget calls for an adjustment of direct taxes, to honour its commitments to the Stability and
with a two-point increase in the general rate and Growth Pact.
a one-point increase in the reduced rate for VAT If our production model is to be sustaina-
in the last six months of 2010, by which time ble, our public finances must also be sustaina-
economic recovery will have begun. All expen- ble in the medium and long term. This will re-
ditures have also been revised, with a particu- quire a monumental effort which the national
larly significant reduction in transfers and re- government cannot take on alone – it must be
placement investment, and staff and running the product of the concerted action of all go-
costs have been cut. vernment institutions at every level.
The result is an austere budget that marks To achieve this goal, the administration has
the beginning of the effort to reduce the deficit chosen to pursue a course of combined action
but maintains many of the fiscal incentives intro- based on a moderate increase in revenue com-
duced in 2008 and 2009, which will still be ne- bined with the strict containment of public ex-
cessary in 2010. The moderated and gradual tax penditure.
reform makes it possible to maintain an expan- The administration’s actions with regard to
sive fiscal policy while improving the budget revenue are concentrated on two areas. Firstly,
balance for 2010. certain tax incentives will be phased out gra-
The response to the recession contemplated dually; and secondly, new tax measures of lim-
in this 2010 National Budget is complemented ited scope and, in some cases, temporary ap-
by other actions of a structural nature that have plication will be introduced to facilitate the
already been implemented by the administra- recovery of public revenue:
tion, such as those deriving from the application • Increased progressivity of tax on personal
of the Services Directive and those stipulated in savings: the first 6,000 euros will be taxed at 19
the Law of Sustainable Economy. per cent and the rest at 21 per cent.
• Elimination of the 400-euro tax deduc-
Rebalancing public finances tion on Personal Income Tax.
• Reduction of Corporations Tax for small
The discretionary actions of the administration businesses that maintain jobs and for self-em-
to mitigate the effects of the recession, com- ployed individuals on Personal Income Tax.
bined with the free operation of automatic sta- • Increase in VAT rate: two points for the
bilisers, have inevitably led to a significant in- general rate and one point for the reduced rate.
crease in the deficit and public debt. Thus, the All of these tax measures will bring in nearly
estimates presented with the National Budget 11 billion euros in additional revenue, of which
predicted an overall deficit of 9.5% of the GDP 6.5 billion will be cleared in 2010.
for all government institutions for the year Together with the increase in the Tax on the
2009. Public debt will also reach 53.4% in Tobacco Industry and the Hydrocarbons Tax in
Spain, though this is still below the Eurozone June 2009, these measures represent the first
average of 77.7%. moderate yet firm steps with which the admi-
This prediction regarding the public deficit nistration aims, in terms of revenue, to reduce
for 2009 and the deficit recorded in 2008 the public deficit, without forgetting its obliga-
(4.1% of GDP) reflect the effects of automatic tion to assist those who are suffering the worst
stabilisers (which have a significant impact gi- of the recession or the need to stimulate eco-
ven the progressive nature of the fiscal system nomic recovery.
and the coverage of social expenditure) and the The fact that tax pressure in Spain was at
proactive tax policy to mitigate the effects of 33.1 per cent in 2008, well below the Euro-
zone average of around 40 per cent, has given moratorium on payments due to the national
the administration some leeway to implement government dating from 2008.
the actions described above. This additional revenue and the extended
Measures of austerity have been adopted for payment deadline will allow them to honour
public expenditure, particularly in those areas their commitment to keep the deficit under
whose contribution to achieving priority goals is control.
minimal.
Therefore, the budget calls for a moderate A budget to mitigate the effects
pay rise of 0.3 per cent for government emplo- of the recession
yees in 2010. For the second consecutive year,
the salary freeze of high-ranking employees of The measures adopted by the administration
the administration and other national institu- in the last two years to help families and com-
tions will remain in place. Moreover, the bud- panies cope with the recession amounted to
get will significantly reduce the public employ- 1.8 per cent of GDP in 2008 and will surpass
ment offers posted by both national and regional 2 per cent of GDP in 2009. These measures
government bodies. have been set out in the Spanish Plan for Eco-
Real investments have been cut by 9.4 per nomic Stimulus and Employment (Plan E).
cent due to the reduction in the ministries’ re- It is also important to highlight the adminis-
placement investment, though contributions to tration’s commitment to social welfare measures.
productivity investment will be maintained. In 2009, the national government made an ex-
The combination of austerity in expendi- traordinary contribution of 16.898 billion euros
ture and the recovery of public revenue means to the SPEE as a result of the steep increase of
that the 2010 National Budget will have, in unemployment. For 2010, the contribution will
terms of the national accounts, a deficit of 5.4 amount to 16.49 billion euros. In total, 30.612
per cent of the nominal GDP, which is below billion euros have been earmarked to cover
the stability objective approved by the Spanish unemployment benefits in 2010. There is also a
parliament in July 2009. special benefit of 420 euros for unemployed indi-
The estimated deficit of the autonomous re- viduals whose benefits have run out and a bo-
gions is 2.5% of GDP, and municipal govern- nus to complement minimum benefits. Credits
ments are expected to have a deficit of 0.4%. amounting to 1.581 billion euros have been set
Thus, the predicted deficit for all government aside for the gradual implementation of the Law
institutions at every level for 2010 is 8.1% of of Dependency, which is 36.5 per cent higher
GDP. than the initial endowment in 2009, without pre-
For its part, the Social Security Budget main- judice to the fact that the effective application of
tains the goal of achieving a surplus of 0.2 per this law must continue in 2010. Moreover, the
cent of GDP. This solid financial situation will State Fund for Local Investment, which funds job-
make it possible to continue adding to the Re- creating initiatives, will be accompanied in 2010
serve Fund with a contribution of 2,249,160,000 by the State Fund for Employment and Local Sus-
euros in 2010. tainability, endowed with 5 billion euros.
In keeping with the Agreement of the Fiscal Along these lines, another social welfare
and Financial Policy Council to reform the priority is the pensions policy, which in 2010 will
Funding System of the Autonomous Regions, be allocated 108.283 billion euros (2.1 per cent
the National Budgets contemplate the advance more than in 2009). The administration will con-
payment of additional funds to which the re- tinue its past efforts to improve minimum pen-
gional governments are entitled. sions, which this year will experience an average
In addition, and as a result of the approved increase of 2 per cent. Other pensions, including
tax modifications, the autonomous regions and those paid under contributory and non-contri-
municipal governments will receive comple- butory schemes, and family aid will increase by
mentary revenues. They will also be granted a 1 per cent.
140
ESTIMATED DEFICIT/SURPLUS 2009-2010

Capacity (+) Need (–) for funding (as % of GDP)
Area 2009 2010
Central Government (State + Autonomous State Entities) -8.1 -5.4
Social Security 0.4 0.2
Autonomous Regions -1.5 -2.5
Local Entities -0.3 -0.4
Total Public Administrations -9.5 -8.1
Source: MEH.
Thus, in 2010 the administration will main- The administration’s main lines of action in
tain the levels of social welfare, which represent this area for 2010 include:
51.6 per cent of the consolidated expenditure • Opening the new High Speed Madrid-
budget. Cuenca-Valencia/Albacete rail line, adding
440 kilometres of new tracks to the Spanish
Maintaining the basic goal of rail network.
redirecting the growth model • Adapting the rail lines included on the
routes of the trans-European freight transport
In addition to mitigating the effects of the reces- network.
sion, we must also make progress on the task of • Improving suburban commuter trains.
redirecting our growth model towards a more • Adding 465 new kilometres to the high-
sustainable model of production. To this end, capacity road network (motorways and dual
and despite the current economic climate carriageways).
which has created a high public deficit, the Na- • Inaugurating 2,200 new metres of run-
tional Budget continues to prioritise key areas ways and 400,000 new square metres of airport
for achieving more balanced long-term growth. terminal buildings. The new wing of Málaga
Indeed, although all government ministries Airport is scheduled to open this year.
will make an effort to cut costs by 1.9 per cent, • Continuing to promote the creation of
the funds allocated to certain priority areas will marine highways.
be increased. This effort is particularly signifi- The administration will therefore continue
cant given the general atmosphere of austerity to invest in infrastructures given their signifi-
mentioned above. cant impact on long-term growth potential.
Thus, investment in infrastructures is main- In the area of R&D and innovation, the
tained given the industry’s contribution to the notable increase in public funding provided
change of economic model and with a view to by previous budgets has contributed to the im-
encouraging similar investments in the private portant progress made in recent years, signifi-
sector. Between 2004 and 2008, public invest- cantly narrowing the technological gap that
ment of all government entities grew by 45 per separates us from neighbouring countries. To-
cent in Spain, more than double the average of day, these activities must continue to be a prio-
the Eurozone (22 per cent). Public investment rity. Therefore, despite the current climate of
represented 3.8 per cent of GDP, in compari- public cost containment, the government will
son with the 2.5 per cent average of the Euro- continue to invest heavily in R&D and innova-
zone. tion. In fact, the R&D and innovation budget
In 2010, the infrastructures policy of the for 2010 is 2.7 times higher than it was in
entire national public sector amounted to 2004, having jumped from just under 3 billion
24.005 billion euros. euros to nearly 8 billion.
The government will continue to invest in model, which will in turn stimulate the Spanish
R&D and innovation with the goal of promoting economy, through initiatives such as the Law of
qualitative criteria such as maximum effective- Sustainable Economy and the application of
ness of public funding applied to this policy, se- the Services Directive.
lection of the best projects and evaluation of The Draft Law of Sustainable Economy will
actions carried out, which will bring us closer to facilitate this change by establishing a stable le-
the general goals set out in the 2008-2011 Na- gal framework in which economic agents can
tional R&D+i Plan. carry out this transformation.
Consequently, although the priority of this The tools to achieve this are the Fund for
budget is combating the effects of the econo- Sustainable Economy, endowed with 20 billion
mic recession, the administration has not for- euros donated by the public and private sec-
gotten the goal of achieving a more balanced tors, and the State Fund for Employment and
long-term growth model in which the Spanish Local Sustainability with 5 billion euros.
science and technology system will gradually The new model must be based on the prin-
acquire greater relative importance in the na- ciples of efficiency and equity, for the present
tional economy. and for future generations. In this respect, sus-
In addition to infrastructures and R&D and tainability must be understood as a broad con-
innovation policies, education is a fundamen- cept with implications for the economic, social
tal tool for promoting social cohesion, equal and environmental dimensions.
opportunities and the recovery of the job mar- The application in Spain of Directive 2006/
ket. Therefore, since the last legislature the ad- 123/CE passed by the European Parliament and
ministration has been working to increase Council on 12 December regarding services in
funding for education, despite the fact that the the domestic market constitutes another signifi-
autonomous regions are ultimately responsible cant step towards achieving a more productive
for managing this sector. and efficient economy.
The funds allocated to this policy have The administration has prepared two draft
been increased by 101 million euros in 2010 laws to apply this directive. The first, the draft
for a grand total of 3.088 billion euros. law on free access to and free exercise of ser-
The principal actions in the field of educa- vice activities, encapsulates the general princi-
tion are: ples of the directive and provides a legal frame-
• Commitment to excellence in university work for the entire services sector. The second
education. piece of legislation, the draft law to modify va-
• The Escuela 2.0 Programme for equip- rious laws to adapt them to the regulation go-
ping classrooms with computers. verning free access to and free exercise of ser-
• The conclusion of the Organic Law on vice activities, expresses the ambitious nature
Education. of the reform of this sector and modifies a sig-
• The continuation of the Educa3 Plan. nificant number of laws affecting specific sub-
Finally, and despite the difficult economic sectors.
circumstances and the current climate of cost The administration has also approved the
containment, funding for student grants and fi- Draft Law to Reform Law 7/1996 of 15 January
nancial aid has increased by over 3.86 per cent regarding the management of retail trade and
since last year and will amount to 1.394 billion other complementary regulations, which adapts
euros. trade regulations to comply with the Services
Directive.
Other structural actions Nevertheless, this work begun by the cen-
tral government must be continued, within the
In addition to budgetary measures, the eco- same guidelines, by the rest of Spain’s govern-
nomic policy contemplates a series of actions ment bodies in the areas they are responsible
aimed at promoting a change in the production for legislating.
142
As a result of this significant legislative un- putting Spain on a par with the world’s most
dertaking, our services sector will have a set of developed nations has been fulfilled beyond
regulations that are more efficient, transparent, our expectations.
simplified and predictable for economic agents, In the future, the transport system still has
which will provide an important boost to eco- an important role to play in the process of eco-
nomic activity and help establish a more ba- nomic recovery and modernisation, leading
lanced growth model. Spain towards greater economic, social and en-
Although, strictly speaking, it does not fall vironmental sustainability.
within the sphere of economic policy, the re-
cently approved 2009-2012 Strategic Plan for The 2005-2020 Strategic
the Modernisation of the Justice System can also Infrastructures and Transport Plan
be considered an important instrument for sti- (PEIT)
mulating the economy as its goal is to achieve a
more streamlined and efficient judiciary. Within this process of national modernisation,
The plan is divided into three major poli- the PEIT is the planning tool responsible for
cies: modernisation, protection and transpa- guiding the development of the transport sys-
rency, and cooperation. It calls for an important tem in Spain until the year 2020.
budgetary allocation, which will entail a 48 per This plan establishes the priorities for
cent increase in funding over these three years. achieving an integrated, intermodal transport
In 2010, it means that funding for the moderni- system that will help us make the transition to
sation of the justice system will increase by 205 cleaner modes of transportation.
million euros. Spain aspires to create a transport system
These efforts will make it possible for the that maximises the efficiency of economic ex-
courts and tribunals of Spain to be connected changes, thereby increasing the buoyancy of
to a justice network and communicate with our markets and the competitiveness of our
each other in real time. companies. This system must also fuel social
and territorial cohesion and focus on the needs
of citizens – in other words, it should be sensi-
THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM tive to the users’ growing demand for quality
services.
IN SPAIN
To achieve these goals, the PEIT forecasts
The impressive growth of the Spanish transport investments of 248.892 billion euros, the lar-
system is one of the factors responsible for the gest investment in infrastructures and transport
tremendous economic and social leap that in the history of Spain. This represents an avera-
Spain has made in recent decades. ge annual investment of more than 15.5 billion
There is no doubt that our society’s pro- euros and average investment of around 1.5%
gress has gone hand-in-hand with the develop- of GDP throughout the effective term of the
ment of communications, which in turn have plan (2005-2020).
served to unite our territory and improve our The government is already well on its way to
quality of life. achieving this goal; since the PEIT was appro-
In terms of transport infrastructures, Spain ved, the national budgets from 2005 to 2008
is now one of the world’s most modern nations: have set aside an average of 16.34 billion euros
we have one of the most important high-capa- for investments in transport infrastructures.
city rail networks in Europe; we are among the In 2009 and 2010, the investment in trans-
countries with the most kilometres of high- port infrastructures increased even more, with
speed rail tracks; and our companies are also over 19 billion euros allocated for each of these
global leaders in the infrastructures sector. years.
After decades of hard work, today we can The aim of this new investment boost is to
proudly affirm that the historical ambition of create jobs at this time of economic recession
and accelerate the modernising effect that this

kind of infrastructure has on national develop-
ment.
Railway Network
The railway is the cornerstone of the PEIT’s
strategy for developing the intermodal system
of passenger and freight transport, given that it
is one of the cleanest and most sustainable
transport methods.
Over the past five years, 32.8 billion euros
have been invested to improve and promote The high-speed AVE train.
rail transport in Spain – in other words, 49% of
the total amount that the administration has in-
vested to improve transport infrastructures The High-Capacity Network envisaged in
throughout the country. the PEIT comprises high-speed lines, as required
In 2010 annual investment in the railway by the European Directive permitting mixed pas-
network will amount to over 10 billion euros senger and goods traffic on most sections.
(10.207 billion to be exact) for the first time. In this sense, the PEIT represents a clear
This is largest annual investment to promote commitment to mixed passenger and freight
this mode of transportation in the history of traffic because it presents a dual opportunity:
Spain and represents 54% of the Ministry of • It extends the benefits of the conversion
Public Works’ total investment budget for to UIC gauge to goods and not just passenger
2010. transport in Spain.
This investment will be used to completely • It allows substantial investments in high-
transform our transport system, and Spain is al- speed railway systems to be used for freight
ready among the countries with the most kilo- transport and for other conventional passenger
metres of high-speed rail tracks in the world. traffic.
The railway network in service at 31 De- In terms of the conventional railway net-
cember 2008 comprised 15,476 kilometres, of work, the PEIT focuses on achieving interoper-
which 1,589 km correspond to the high-capa- ability of the Spanish network with the Euro-
city lines with a UIC gauge run across the pean network through gradual, rational and
mainland: orderly conversion to the UIC gauge.
• Madrid - Ciudad Real - Cordoba - Seville/ Although safety levels in rail transport are
Malaga line. better than those in other means of transport,
• Madrid - Guadalajara - Zaragoza (Hues- safety improvements are also a priority objec-
ca) - Lleida - Tarragona - Barcelona line. tive and special attention has been paid to
• Madrid - Toledo line. block safety systems and eliminating or in-
• Madrid - Segovia - Valladolid line. creasing the safety of level crossings.
The PEIT defines an ambitious High-Ca- This commitment to the rail network is al-
pacity Network with 10,000 km of track, offe- ready starting to bear its fruit in terms of modal
ring equal coverage nationwide. This is ten transfer in inter-city travel.
times the length of this type of network existing In 2008, one year after the high-speed
at the beginning of the Plan. After the Plan has lines to Barcelona, Málaga and Valladolid
been executed, 90% of the population will be were inaugurated, long-distance rail travel had
within less than 50 km of a high-speed railway grown by 24%. And on the Madrid-Barcelona
station and all the provincial capitals will have route, the demand for rail travel now equals
access to this service. that of air travel.
144
We must remember that high-speed trains Roads

are not just an improvement in terms of re- When the PEIT was first introduced, the struc-
duced travel time, comfort and safety – this tural road system in Spain’s mainland territory
mode of transportation is also one of the clea- consisted of nearly 25,000 kilometres belon-
nest, producing six times less CO2 emissions ging to the National Road Network, of which
than an automobile. almost 8,700 km (around 35%) were motor-
The Spanish administration is also focusing ways (6,698 km) and toll roads (1,951 km).
its attention on rail service in urban and metro- The PEIT calls for the creation of high-ca-
politan areas by promoting the use of suburban pacity infrastructures managed by the central
commuter trains. government. To this end, a High-Capacity Net-
Spain already boasts 2,138 km of commu- work of toll roads and motorways has been de-
ter rail lines and one and a half million passen- signed that will increase the nearly 8,700 km of
gers use these services each day. roads existing at the start of the plan to more
The introduction of the Suburban Commuter than 15,000 km and correct the current radial
Train Plans for Madrid and Barcelona will re- layout to form a grid system.
quire a joint investment of 9 billion euros over By the end of 2008, the National Road Net-
the next six years, and work is already underway work had 25,390 km of roads, of which 10,759
on commuter train plans for other important me- km (42.4%) are motorways (7,633 km), toll
tropolitan areas such as Seville and Valencia. roads (2,493 km) and dual carriageways (734
The commuter train plans of Madrid and km) corresponding to the high-capacity net-
Barcelona alone will reduce CO2 emissions by work managed by the central government. The
nearly 1 million tons each year. 3,339 km of roads belonging to the high-capa-
NATIONAL ROAD NETWORK. PEIT ACTIONS
NATIONAL ROAD NETWORK.

PEIT ACTIONS
High-performance inter-city actions.

Improvement and repair of dual carriageways and
motorways in service in 2004.
Adjustments of quality and safety conditions on the
secondary network.
Roads currently under study.
REGIONAL ROADS
In service in 2004 and new confirmed routes.*
* This only includes the provisions of structural routes confirmed.
city network managed by the autonomous re- In 2009, the project for marine highways
gions should also be regarded as part of this on the Atlantic seaboard was defined, and new
structural road network on the mainland. routes were established between the ports of
In the last five years, 2,300 km of new motor- Vigo and Nantes-Saint Nazaire and between
ways and toll roads have been opened, and ano- Gijón and Le Havre.
ther 1,500 are currently under construction and That same year a protocol was signed with
will therefore be ready for use within three years. the Italian government to create marine high-
Consequently, the road network will have ways between Spain and Italy for ports on the
increased from 8,000 km in 2004 to approxi- Mediterranean coast.
mately 12,000 km in 2012.
To date, 380 km of new high-capacity Airports and Air Transport
roads have opened in 2009.
With the PEIT, 94% of the population will The Public Business Entity Aeropuertos Es-
live less than 30 km from a high-capacity road pañoles y Navegación Aérea (AENA) (Spanish
and the high-capacity road network will pro- Airports and Air Navigation) is currently one
vide direct access to every provincial capital. of the main forces driving Spain’s integration
in a globalised economy. AENA plays a key
Seaports and Maritime role in the strategic consolidation of air trans-
Transport port infrastructures in our country. It is res-
ponsible for helping to improve these infras-
The actions envisaged in the PEIT regarding tructures through a programme of investments
maritime transport and seaports are aimed at envisaged in the 2005-2020 Strategic Infras-
achieving the following priority objectives: tructures and Transport Plan (PEIT) of the Mi-
• Strengthen the role of ports as nodes of nistry of Public Works and Transport, estima-
the inter-modal transport system. ted at 15.7 billion euros (6.31% of total PEIT
• Encourage the transport of freight by sea, in investments).
particular by promoting inter-modality with land The main objectives of the PEIT are to im-
transport and the development of high-quality in- prove the effectiveness of the air transport sys-
ternational connections: sea highways. tem, enhance social and territorial cohesion,
• Promote safer and more environmen- promote sustainability and foster economic de-
tally-friendly sea transport. velopment and competitiveness.
In this sense, it is important to highlight that Bearing in mind that Spain is the second
the PEIT increases port capacity by 75% most important tourism destination in the
through actions for: world in terms of revenue, it is also important
• Increasing berth lengths by one third. to note that four out of five international tourists
• Increasing land areas by 56%. who enter and exit Spain do so via its airports.
• Increasing protected waters by 17%. The network of airports managed by AENA
In 2009, investments in the state-owned currently comprises 47 airports and 7 airbases
port system amounted to 1.471 billion euros. open to civilian traffic, as well as one heliport
For 2010, this amount will be increased by (plus a second heliport currently under cons-
11.3% to a total of 1.637 billion euros – the truction) and 5 Regional Directorates of Air Na-
largest investment effort in the contemporary vigation.
history of Spanish ports. There are also projects underway to create
Another cornerstone objective of the PEIT is an additional 4 general-interest airports outside
to reinforce national and European short-dis- the AENA network, and there are 83 smaller
tance sea transport and to develop sea highways airfields (for ultralights and light aircraft) and 47
with a view to promoting inter-modal alterna- private heliports, as well as various flying clubs
tives to road freight transport, thus helping to re- and flight schools for different types of aero-
duce congestion and environmental impact. nautical training.
146
EUROPEAN AIRPORTS 2007 airport and air navigation infrastructures in or-

der to provide the services in demand with the
Airport Passengers % var. 07/06 best possible levels of safety and quality.
London-Heathrow 68,068,554 0.8 Between 2004 and 2008, AENA has in-
Paris-Charles de Gaulle 59,919,383 5.4 vested a total of 9.425 billion euros (an aver-
Frankfurt 54,161,856 2.6 age of 1.885 billion euros per year). This in-
Madrid-Barajas 52,122,214 14.0 vestment has been made primarily to satisfy
Amsterdam 47,793,602 3.7 the needs of customers and users with quality
London-Gatwick 35,218,399 3.1 and safety and to modernise the airport infra-
Munich 33,959,422 10.4 structures and services in a manner that fa-
Rome-Leonardo da Vinci 32,855,542 9.1 vours economic efficiency, respect for the en-
Barcelona 32,793,897 9.3 vironment and sustainable growth.
Paris-Orly 26,440,736 3.2 These investment initiatives target each
Istambul-Atatürk 25,561,357 9.9 and every one of the 47 airports (and the two
Milan-Malpensa 23,885,305 9.7 aforementioned heliports) in the network as
London-Stansted 23,777,194 0.4 well as the air navigation system. Some of the
Dublin 23,289,417 9.9 most important are:
Palma, Majorca- • Expanding the Madrid-Barajas airport
Son Sant Joan 23,223,963 3.7 (completed in February 2006), and the Barce-
Manchester 22,362,050 -1.8 lona-El Prat airport (whose new T-1 Terminal
Copenhagen 21,356,134 2.7 opened in June 2009) to consolidate their sta-
Zurich 20,686,986 7.8 tus as major European hubs. The expansion
Oslo 19,044,011 7.8 work has doubled the capacity of both air-
Vienna 18,768,468 11.3 ports.
Moscow-Domodedovo 18,755,098 22.0 • Promoting the airports at major tourist
Stockholm-Arlanda 17,968,023 1.7 destinations, such as Alicante, Valencia, the
Brussels 17,838,689 7.0 Balearic and Canary Islands and Málaga. The
Düsseldorf 17,831,248 7.5 new wing at Malaga airport is scheduled to
Athens 16,522,680 9.7 open in the first six months of 2010.
Moscow-Sheremetyevo 14,039,843 10.0 • Modernising and outfitting all airports in
Malaga 13,576,080 4.0 the network, most notably the new terminal
Lisbon-Portela 13,392,131 8.8 buildings at Albacete, Reus and Salamanca,
Berlin-Tegel 13,357,741 13.1 and the remodelling work on the terminal
Helsinki-Vantaa 12,956,754 6.7 buildings of the Federico García Lorca Grana-
da-Jaén, Zaragoza, Melilla, Valladolid, Mur-
Source: ACI for data on non-Spanish airports.
AENA for data on Spanish airports.
cia-San Javier and Santander airports.
• Improving security in airline operating
capacity, with the launch of 27 ILS navigation
systems, 13 of which are new.
Air transport has made significant strides • Integrating the air navigation systems in
in Spain in recent years. In 2003, the number the Single European Sky initiative.
of passengers who used Spanish airports was The investment budget for 2009, which
154 million; in 2008, just four years later, this amounted to 1.754 billion euros, has allowed us
number had increased by 50 million to a total to continue improving the infrastructures of the
of 204 million passengers. This represents a AENA network airports at a strategic juncture for
32.5% increase, with an average annual the airline industry, preparing them to handle
growth of 5.8%. the constantly growing volume of air traffic.
This important growth has required large An indication of the importance of Spa-
investments and the continuous adaptation of nish airports is the fact that six of them (Bara-
EVOLUTION OF PASSENGER TRAFFIC IN SPAIN

National International Other Traffic (1) Total
Year Total EU Non EU Total Total
2003 62,928,063 80,187,185 8,860,255 89,047,440 1,850,840 153,826,343
2004 68,509,068 83,999,680 11,594,156 95,593,835 2,043,295 166,146,198
2005 76,392,077 89,752,654 13,149,818 102,902,472 1,983,192 181,277,741
2006 81,529,720 94,651,638 15,255,514 109,907,152 2,116,306 193,553,178
2007 89,047,025 103,069,943 16,429,339 119,499,282 1,811,652 210,357,959
2008 82,164,854 — 18,729,198 120,095,139 — 203,793,594
Source: AENA. (1) Other Traffic: includes transit and other types of traffic (general aviation, airborne work, etc.).
jas, El Prat, Palma, Majorca, Málaga, Gran Ca- economic recession have made it difficult to
naria and Alicante) are among the top thirty achieve new wide-reaching agreements in this
European airports in terms of traffic volume. area. However, the negative evolution of em-
The first, Madrid-Barajas Airport, was fourth in ployment led social agents and the administra-
Europe in 2008, and Barcelona-El Prat is ninth tion to begin a new process of social dialogue
in the European ranking. (late in 2009) to determine the measures that
should be taken to get through the recession and
develop a new production model in Spain.
THE WORKING WORLD The most representative social agents in
Spain are the Spanish Confederation of Business
Social agents. Social Harmonisation. Organisations (CEOE) and the Spanish Confe-
deration of Small and Medium-Sized Businesses
The social dialogue and harmonisation that (CEPYME) for business owners, and the Workers’
have played such an important role since the Commissions (CC.OO.) and the General Wor-
transition. During the 2004-2008 period, this kers’ Union (UGT) for the workers.
process has resulted in over twenty agreements
with the most representative business organisa-
Agreement to Improve Growth
tions and workers’ unions, which have intro-
duced universal benefits of far-reaching signifi- and Stable Employment
cance. The most prominent include those Between 2004 and 2007, Spain’s economy grew
signed for the improvement of growth and em- by over 3% per year. In 2008, economic growth
ployment, the reform of the Social Security sys- was halted by the effects of the international fi-
tem, the implementation of the Law on Aliens, nancial and real estate crises. Similarly, job crea-
the drafting of the Law of Dependency, the re- tion rose steeply until 2007 and dropped in
valuation of pensions and the minimum wage, 2008 and throughout 2009.
the extension of collective bargaining agree- For four years, Spain’s generation of employ-
ments, the solution of conflicts outside the ment was four times higher than the European
courtroom, the improvement of unemployment average: three million jobs created between
safety nets for agricultural workers, ongoing 2004 and 2007. Since 2003 the unemployment
education and the prevention of occupational rate had fallen by more than 3 points to 8.6
hazards. points, and according to the 2007 4th Quarter
In the 2008-2009 period, the social dia- Working Population Survey it fell below 8% in
logue process was re-launched, but the changes the second half of that year, a level not seen in
that had taken place in the job market due to the Spain since the seventies.
148
However, in 2008 the unemployment rate Plan E includes an ambitious schedule of

rose again, reaching 17.9% in the third quarter modernisation, inspired by the conviction that
of 2009. Nevertheless, the last two years have accelerating structural reforms will not only lay
witnessed an end to one of the endemic pro- the groundwork for long-term growth but will
blems in our labour market: the high propor- also help Spain to break out of the recession by
tion of temporary employment. improving the confidence of economic agents
Until 2006, one in every three jobs – with regard to recovery potential.
33.8% – was temporary, with over half of such In the context of this plan, the government
jobs being occupied by young people. By the approved the State Fund for Local Investment
fourth quarter of 2009, this figure had fallen to with an endowment of 8 billion euros, which
25.9%, the lowest rate in many years. This sig- has provided jobs for over 420,000 people. At
nificant reduction in the precariousness of em- the same time, a new fund endowed with 5 bi-
ployment is partly a result of the Agreement for llion euros was approved for 2010; this fund
the Improvement of Growth and Stable Em- will be used to invest in projects on environ-
ployment, which was signed in May 2006 and mental sustainability, technology and social as-
came into effect the following July. This agree- sistance, and it is expected to create 200,000
ment includes all the actors involved in the ne- qualified job positions. In addition, the Fund
gotiations: the government, the employers’ or- for Boosting the Economy and Employment
ganisations, the CEOE and CEPYME, and the was approved with an endowment of 3 billion
most representative trade unions, CCOO and euros for investing in strategic sectors, environ-
UGT. It is the first relevant labour market mental and social improvements and public in-
reform agreement since the Interconfederal frastructures, which is expected to generate
Agreement for Stability in Employment of 1997, another 100,000 jobs.
signed by the employers’ organisation and
trade unions and later submitted to the govern- The Training for Employment Model
ment (which did not participate in the drafting
process) for presentation to Parliament and to In November 2008 the administration approved
reform the law. the Road Map for Vocational Training, an initia-
tive spearheaded by the Ministry of Education
Spanish Plan for Economic Stimulus and the Ministry of Labour and Immigration. The
and Employmentl principal measures set out in this document are
expanding the network of Integrated Vocational
However, the year 2008 has marked a departure Training Centres and improving their equipment
from past economic and employment trends due and infrastructure, and a plan to open 25 Na-
to the global recession. In an attempt to combat tional Benchmark Centres in the years leading
the intensity of the recession and the consequent up to 2011 that will be located in the various
destruction of jobs, in November 2008 the ad- autonomous regions. These innovation and ex-
ministration approved the Spanish Plan for Eco- perimentation centres will analyse new training
nomic Stimulus and Employment (Plan E). Plan E trends, establish benchmarks for other centres
was designed in accordance with the guidelines and promote networking with business associa-
set out by the European Council in December tions, unions and universities.
2008 and combines temporary tax stimulus Another system has been approved that
measures to bolster demand with structural re- will serve to evaluate and accredit professional
forms aimed at making the Spanish production skills acquired through job experience or unof-
system more competitive. The basic goal of Plan ficial training activities. A Virtual Platform has
E, in addition to supporting economic activity also been created for distance learning courses,
and employment, is to encourage productivity and the methods of accessing and graduating
and increase the potential growth of the Spanish from the Programmes of Initial Professional
economy. Qualification and post-secondary Vocational
Training have been simplified to facilitate life- companies are also represented, and the Coun-
long learning. cil also includes a group of professional experts.
The new vocational training system for em- The trade union and business organisa-
ployment has combined occupational training tion representatives and the representatives of
and ongoing training. The number of beneficia- the different sectors are all appointed by the
ries of this new system in 2008 was 3,093,458, government based on the nominations pre-
which represents a 38% increase from 2007. In sented by the corresponding organisations.
2008, a total of 201,030 companies created The experts are appointed by the central go-
ongoing training programmes (63,982 more vernment, after consultation with the organi-
than the previous year). sations represented on the Council. These are
The primary aim of the new system is to people with suitable credentials and recog-
train and find jobs for the unemployed (particu- nised experience in the socio-economic and
larly those who have been out of work for some labour arena.
time), women, young people, people over age
45, immigrants and the disabled. The Working Population
The Economic and Social Council The working population of Spain was at
22,993,500 in the third quarter of 2009, situa-
The Economic and Social Council (CES) is a ting the activity rate for the population between
body which advises the government on socio- ages 16 and 64 at 73.9%. Although the trend in
economic and labour matters. It is an inde- recent years has always been one of growth,
pendently constituted public law entity en- the current economic recession and the job cri-
dowed with full authority and organisational sis have caused the number of active workers to
autonomy to carry out its functions. It opera- remain practically the same.
tes under the aegis of the Ministry of Labour However, the statistics for men and wo-
and Social Affairs. men are proving to be very different in the re-
The CES was created by a law passed in cession. While men have showed a gradual
1991 for the purpose of fulfilling the constitu- drop in their activity rate since the third quarter
tional commitment to reinforce the participa- of 2008, the activity rate of women has conti-
tion of economic and social agents in eco- nued to rise and reached 65.7% in the third
nomic and social life, thus reaffirming its role quarter of 2009.
in the development of a social and democra- Meanwhile, the activity rate of foreign
tic state governed by the rule of law. residents is at 76.6% for ages 16 or over and
In addition to fulfilling this function, the only began to drop in the second quarter of
CES also acts as a permanent institutional plat- 2009.
form for dialogue and deliberation, insofar as it Since the economic recession first hit Spain
is the only body where a broad range of socio- and until the third quarter of 2009, a total of
professional organisations are represented. It is 1,476,100 jobs have been lost and unemploy-
also a permanent means of communication be- ment increased by 1,524,500 people. The recent
tween economic and social agents and the go- performance of the job market marks a depar-
vernment, thus ensuring more fluid relations ture from the trend of sustained growth enjoyed
and mutual collaboration. between 1994 and 2007, when employment in
The Economic and Social Council has 61 Spain grew by eight million people; half of those
members, including its president, representa- people were women, who doubled their activity
tives of trade unions, and business organisa- rate. In that same period, the unemployment rate
tions representing associations in the agricul- plummeted from 24.1% to 8.3%; however, in
tural and fishing industries. 2008, it rose again to 11.3% (annual average)
The Council of Consumers and Users, asso- and unemployment currently stands at 17.9%
ciations of cooperatives and worker-owned (third quarter of 2009).
150
Employment by Sectors 2,652,200 in the third quarter of 2009, al-

In recent years, the predominance of the ser- though this upward trend has levelled off in re-
vice sector has been confirmed. The construc- cent months as a result of the economic reces-
tion sector has also enjoyed spectacular sion.
growth, although in 2007 the first symptoms of Sustained economic growth and a bur-
a slowdown appeared, subsequently being fol- geoning job market in constant expansion,
lowed by symptoms of recession, which has led combined with the strategic geographic loca-
to a steep rise in unemployment in this sector. tion of our country, are the main reasons why
Between 1994 and 2007, over 1.5 million jobs Spain is an attractive destination for immigrants
were created, but in the last two years 917,000 arriving from points abroad. Based on an
jobs were lost in this sector. awareness that migratory movements will exist
Meanwhile, employment in agriculture has as long as there are great gaps between rich
continued its traditional decline, whereas in- and poor nations, the Spanish government will
dustrial employment, which had risen by continue to prioritise the regulation of migra-
around 700,000 jobs between 1994 and 2007, tory flows in accordance with the requirements
also registered a loss of just over half a million of the job market and the commitment to com-
jobs in the past two years. bat illegal immigration and promote the social
In recent years the most active sector in job integration of immigrants.
creation has been the services industry, reflect- The increase in the number of foreign wor-
ing the tertiarisation of the Spanish economy, kers registered with the Social Security system as
with employment in the sector rising by around a result of the Regularisation Process carried out
6.5 million people since 1994, although by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero’s administration
387,600 jobs were lost in the past year. in 2005 – nearly 600,000 foreigners emerged
The construction sector has been a driving from the informal economy – has continued
force in the Spanish economy in recent years, over the last three years, although the process
exploiting the strong demand generated by the slowed last year due to the recession. In Novem-
massive influx of immigrants since 2000, as ber 2009, the number of foreign workers regis-
well as lower interest rates following the intro- tered with the Social Security system was nearly
duction of the euro. This led to a sharp increase 2 million (1,863,344).
in the demand for housing, which in turn re- Various recently published studies reveal
sulted in a significant increase in prices. All of the positive effects of immigration on Spain’s
this has been halted by the international finan- economic growth. In this respect, three particu-
cial crisis, which has had a particularly notable larly relevant reports are those presented by
impact on housing construction. Caixa Cataluña, BBVA and the Economic Unit
of the Spanish Prime Minister’s Office. The lat-
ter study, entitled “Immigration and the Job
THE ROLE Market: 2009 Report” and prepared by the an-
thropologist Miguel Pajares, clearly explains
OF IMMIGRANTS
how immigrants helped correct defects and im-
IN THE ECONOMY balances in the Spanish job market between
1994 and 2008, when the country experienced
The Impact of Immigration continuous economic growth.
on the Spanish Economy It is clear that the migratory phenomenon
poses significant challenges to advanced socie-
Immigration is a positive phenomenon that has ties such as Spain, where the influx of immi-
radically altered the face of Spanish society in grants has taken place over a relatively short
recent years. Over the space of a short time, we period of time. Since 2004, when the new Im-
have witnessed the employment rate among migration Regulations were approved, the arri-
foreign nationals rise from 454,000 in 2000 to val of immigrants has been conditional upon
the labour market’s absorption capacity. Thanks SOCIAL SECURITY

to the administration’s emphasis on obtaining AND THE SOCIAL
employment contracts in their countries of ori- WELFARE SYSTEM
gin, Spain received 204,000 foreigners in 2006,
250,000 in 2007 and 180,000 in 2008. In the The origins of social welfare policy date back to
first nine months of 2009, this number dropped the Commission for Social Reform (1883),
to 15,000. which was set up to study and promote the ad-
The agreements that the government reached vancement and well-being of the working
with corporate interest groups and workers’ un- class. The first social security law was the Law
ions as well as political and social organisa- on Occupational Accidents, introduced in
tions in order to approve the Immigration Regu- 1900. The National Welfare System Institute
lations at the beginning of the previous legislature was created in 1908; this institute integrated
have been consolidated at the end of the same. Spanish savings banks which managed the dif-
In this context, the Office of the Secretary of ferent social security insurance schemes.
State for Immigration and Emigration within the Subsequent social security mechanisms in-
Ministry of Labour and Immigration has ob- cluded, most notably, the Workers Retirement
tained the backing of CEOE, CEPYME, UGT System (1919), Obligatory Maternity-Leave In-
and CCOO for its four years of immigration surance (1923), Compulsory Unemployment
policy. Insurance (1931), Medical Insurance (1942)
Another important development is the and Obligatory Old-Age and Disability Insu-
modification of the July 2009 Regulation rance (SOVI) (1947). It soon became clear that
which, proposed by the administration and the coverage provided by these social security
negotiated with social agents, is facilitating systems was insufficient, prompting the intro-
the reinsertion of immigrants in the labour duction of other welfare mechanisms through
market. The latest reform of the Immigration the Labour Mutual Funds. These were organised
Law was also undertaken based on social and by sectors and aimed to complement existing
political dialogue. This moderate, integrating welfare. Given the multiplicity of Mutual Funds,
reform, approved by the Spanish parliament in this welfare system led to discrimination among
2009, introduces the balance required for the the working population, produced financial im-
orderly and appropriate management of mi- balances and made rational and efficient ad-
gration. It is also the law that recognises fo- ministration very difficult.
reigners’ basic rights of association, assembly, The Basic Social Security Law was intro-
protest, strike, free legal counsel and educa- duced in 1963. Its main objective was the im-
tion; in short, the reform achieves a healthy plementation of a unitary and integrated social
balance between control and legality and in- welfare model, based on the distribution of
tegration and rights. funds, public administration and state partici-
During these years, the immigration policy pation in funding. In spite of this declaration of
continued to focus on achieving the integration principles, many of which were established in
of immigrant workers. A variety of measures, the General Social Security Law of 1966 that
affecting aspects such as education and innova- came into force on 1 January 1967, old contri-
tive integration programmes, were approved in bution systems still existed that failed to take
this respect over the course of the year. Simi- into account the real wages of workers and
larly, in light of the problems posed by the new were not revised on a regular basis, and the
economic cycle, the government also approved principle of unity was not established due to
a measure to provide financial assistance to the large number of overlapping organisations.
non-EU foreign workers who voluntarily return The 1972 Law on Funding and Improve-
to their countries of origin. During the first year ment of Social Welfare was introduced to cor-
of its application, 8,724 requests for this assis- rect existing financial problems but it ended up
tance were submitted. aggravating these by increasing the number of
152
social protection activities without defining the tory contribution periods for claiming benefit
resources necessary to fund them. It was there- and calculating pensions, the simplification of
fore not until the arrival of democracy in Spain the structure of the Social Security system and
and the introduction of the Spanish Constitu- the first measures to separate funding functions
tion that a series of reforms were introduced in to finance contributory benefits with social se-
the different areas of the Social Security system. curity contributions while non-contributory
Indeed, Article 41 of the Constitution re- benefits would be financed by general funds.
quires “public authorities to maintain a public So- This process enabled the gradual generalisation
cial Security system for all citizens, guaranteeing of health services. The Computer Technology
care and sufficient social benefits in situations of Department of the Social Security was also set
need, particularly in the case of unemployment, up in the eighties to coordinate and control IT
when care and complementary services will be and data processing services for the different
provided free of charge”. managing bodies.
The first major reform came with the publi- The 1990s brought a wide range of diffe-
cation of the Royal Decree Law 36/1978, of 16 rent social changes that had a strong impact on
November. In accordance with the Moncloa the Social Security system, including changes
Pacts, it created a system of institutional par- and greater mobility within the labour market
ticipation of social partners to promote the and the greater incorporation of women in the
transparency and streamlining of the Social Se- workplace, prompting the need to adapt social
curity system, as well as the establishment of a security protection to meet new needs.
new administration system comprising the fol- The implementation of the non-contributo-
lowing bodies: ry benefits, the streamlining of Social Security
• National Institute for Social Security: this legislation (through the new Revised Text of
body manages and administers benefits availa- 1994), the greater alignment between benefits
ble under the Social Security System. and previous contributions exemptions, the
• The National Health Institute: this insti- creation of the Social Security Reserve Fund,
tute manages and administers health services (it the introduction of flexible retirement mecha-
later changed its name to National Institute of nisms and incentives for extending working life
Health Administration). and measures to improve protection for per-
• National Social Services Institute: this sons on lower pensions are just some of the
body manages and administers social services examples of the changes introduced after 1990
(it later changed its name to the Institute for the in the area of Social Security.
Elderly and Social Services -IMSERSO). In recent years, the inter-generational pact
• The Social Insurance Institute for the that is the public pensions system has received
Merchant Navy, which manages the benefits an added boost of solidarity: during the last le-
available under the Social Security Scheme for gislature, minimum pensions rose by between
Seamen. 26% and 33%.
• The Treasury General of Social Security, In 2009 the purchasing power of the eight
the only institution in the system that operates million pensioners of the Social Security system
on the basis of financial solidarity. increased between 1.6 and 6 points because
A series of measures were introduced in their benefits rose that year: all contributory
the 1980s to improve and perfect welfare ser- pensions went up by 2%, and the 2.6 million
vices by providing broader-reaching benefits to pensioners who receive the contribution to
unprotected communities and greater econo- complement minimum benefits saw their in-
mic stability to the Social Security system. come increase by between 3% and 7.3%. Thus,
Noteworthy measures included the gradual Spanish pensioners have gained approximately
alignment of contributions with real wages, 1.28 trillion euros, as each tenth of a point of
pension revaluations based on variations in the inflation entails an outlay of around 80 million
consumer price index, the extension of obliga- euros.
At present, the state pays nearly eight and a and 475,600 in industry, in comparison with
half million pensions each month, and in No- the same quarter in 2008.
vember 2009 the average pension was 758.88 In October 2009 the unemployment bene-
euros. The evolution of this average amount is fits system provided assistance to 2,773,978 be-
very significant considering that the average pen- neficiaries. Of these, 1,594,318 are beneficia-
sion in 1990 was 267.23 euros, which means ries of contributory benefits, 911,287 receive
that pensions have almost tripled in under two the subsidy, 104,476 receive the active labour
decades. reinsertion income, and 163,897 receive the
The quantity of minimum pensions has also agricultural subsidy. In 2009, the government
multiplied in recent years. The statistics are im- approved an extension on benefits for people
pressive: in 1986, the minimum pension for re- who are still unemployed when their unem-
tirement with a dependent spouse was 195.69 ployment subsidy runs out. For six months,
euros, and 24 years later it is now 725.20 euros; these people will receive a monthly payment
the minimum pension for widowhood for peo- of 421 euros and must participate in persona-
ple over age 65 was 136.43 euros in 1986, and lised job search itineraries which include trai-
in 2009 it is 587.80 euros. The increase affects ning activities.
8.5 million contributory pensions and 455,747
non-contributory pensions, as well as 159,571 Social Agreements
pensions for disabled children.
Yet all this progress in social welfare would In April 1995, the Congress of Representatives
not have been possible without a positive evo- unanimously approved the “Report of the Com-
lution of employment. Despite the effects of the mittee for the analysis of the structural problems
recession on the job market, the number of of the Social Security System and of the main
contributors to the Social Security system has reforms that must be undertaken“, a document
grown by nearly two million since 2002 to a informally known as the “Toledo Agreement”.
total of approximately 18 million. Women have The report was approved with the consensus of
been the great protagonists of this increase, as all the political parties and supported by all so-
over 1.7 million women have joined the ranks cial partners. This Agreement introduced impor-
of Social Security contributors since 2002. tant changes and established a road map to
Another reason for the spectacular increase guarantee the financial stability and future bene-
in contributors is the excellent result of the im- fits of the Social Security System.
migrant regularisation process which took The Toledo Agreement is still in force and
place in 2005 and garnered nearly 600,000 the scope of its recommendations means that it
new contributors for the system. can be continually adapted to changes in the
economy. The implementation of its recommen-
Unemployment Protection dations has considerably improved the situation
regarding social protection, from a deficit sce-
The system offers two levels of protection: the nario to a continual surplus, enabling the crea-
contributory level, which provides benefits that tion of a Social Security Reserve Fund, which
depend on the base salary and the time the be- already contains 56 billion euros after the last
neficiary has worked, and the assistance level, contribution in February 2008. In 2008 alone,
which provides a subsidy to unemployed indi- the Reserve Fund grew by 11 billion euros.
viduals who meet certain requirements. The government has also adopted a dyna-
In the third quarter of 2009 there were mic approach based on a policy of agreements
nearly 19 million active workers and 4.1 mi- with social agents to change the economic and
llion unemployed. At that date, the activity rate welfare model. This process started in July 2004
was 7.3% lower than during the same period in with the Declaration for Social Dialogue signed
2008. In 2009, a total of 387,600 jobs were lost between the government and social interlocu-
in the services sector, 563,000 in construction tors at the Moncloa Palace. This Declaration es-
154
tablished the Agreement on Competitiveness, cils. This has brought social services closer to
Stable Employment and Social Cohesion. Since citizens. Nevertheless, the Spanish Govern-
then, more than fifteen agreements have been ment is still responsible for regulating social
signed with social agents, including, most nota- services. This is a priority for the current admi-
bly, agreements on the development of the Im- nistration. It is therefore committed to imple-
migration Law, the extension of collective labour menting a series of legislative measures that
agreements, extrajudicial dispute resolution, on- will involve all public administrations and be-
going training, occupational health and safety, nefit all citizens. The most important measures
improved protection of unemployed agricultural are described below.
workers and the promotion of the National Sys-
tem for Dependent People. The most important Law to Promote Personal Autonomy and Care
agreements signed recently include the Agree- for Dependant People. Effective and real pro-
ment for the Improvement of Growth and Em- tection for disabled people and all people
ployment (9 May 2006) and the Agreement on needing care is a priority for the Spanish go-
Social Security Measures (13 July 2006). vernment. It is also committed to mitigating the
This last major agreement led to the bill, consequences of such dependency, mainly on
subsequently enacted as a law, of Social Security families. This is the underlying principle of the
Measures, the most important legislative action future National System to Promote Autonomy
taken during the legislature in this area given and Care for Dependant People, which aims to
that it affects all of the system’s benefits and safe- resolve problems relating to equality and the
guards the present and future of state pensions recognition of the rights of all citizens – both
by maintaining a balance between improving care receivers and care providers.
benefits, guaranteeing the system’s financial In Spain, families, particularly women, are
health and increasing equality, while adapting to the main providers of care to dependent peo-
social changes. ple. However, this unfair social and economic
In recent years the Social Security system has model is in a state of crisis due to the growing
also undergone a series of reforms and incentives number of women entering the labour market
to ensure the future of pensions: the Law on So- and exercising their rights. This Law, currently
cial Security Measures mentioned above, the being debated in Parliament, was approved by
Self-Employed Workers Statute and the Law on the Council of Ministers on 1 January 2007,
the Integration of Self-Employed Agricultural and provides coverage to the Social Security
Workers in the Special Scheme for Self-Employed System. It promotes the regulation and neces-
Workers. sary coordination among the different public
These actions are accompanied by other administrations of the economic-financial bas-
less ambitious initiatives that aim to improve es for their development, the services network,
how the system works. These include the frame- the measures necessary to guarantee the quali-
work agreements signed with the Autonomous ty of the system, the portfolio of services and
Regions of Catalonia and Madrid to improve benefits and the model of beneficiary participa-
health care for workers, the improvements made tion in financing the cost of these services.
to the model for monitoring temporary incapa- This Law was prepared on the basis of the
city to work, and the ratification of international Agreement adopted by the Government with
legislation regarding benefits and assistance for economic and social agents on 8 July 2004. Ci-
family members. vil society played an active role in the drafting of
this bill through the main organisations repre-
Social Services: Other Benefits senting disabled people in Spain, namely CER-
MI, the State Council for the Elderly, the Natio-
Since the 1980s, social services competencies nal Council for the Disabled, the State Council
have gradually been decentralised and trans- of NGOs and the Spanish Federation of Munici-
ferred to regional governments and town coun- palities and Provinces. A consensus was also
reached with the autonomous regions, which rily provides more protection than the first le-
welcomed and approved the draft bill at the Sec- vel, will be co-financed by the central state
torial Conference on Social Affairs on 30 March administration and each autonomous region
2006. It was also endorsed by the Economic and under specific agreements, pursuant to which
Social Council and the Council of State. the autonomous regions will have to contribute
The core element of the Draft Law is the at least the same amount as the central state
recognition of a new civil right: the right of all administration needed to finance the agreed
dependent persons to receive health care. This minimum level.
is therefore a universal right, and no depen- • A third level of additional protection
dent people are left unprotected. This is also a which may be established by each autonomous
subjective and perfect right since it may be region with funding from its own regional
claimed judicially and administratively. It is budgets.
based on the principles established in Articles
49 and 50 of the 1978 Spanish Constitution, Law on Infringements and Sanctions relating
whereby public authorities are obliged to pro- to equal opportunity, non-discrimination and
vide care to disabled people so that they can universal access for disabled persons. This law
enjoy fundamental rights in equal conditions has been demanded for a long time by disabled
to other citizens and to promote the well-be- people. It addresses direct or indirect discrimi-
ing of elderly citizens through a system of so- nation, harassment, and non-compliance with
cial services. legally established measures in favour of disa-
This law is helping to build the so-called bled people. Such infringements may be pena-
“fourth pillar” of the Spanish welfare state, the lised with fines of between 301 and 1,000,000
other three pillars being education, health and euros.
pensions. These are all universal civil rights, The law penalises non-compliance with
and the right of dependent people to care will obligatory regulations governing safety and se-
become another universal right. curity and accessibility to shopping centres,
In quantitative terms, the holders of the educational centres and large public facilities,
rights established in the Law are all Spaniards occupational or sexual discrimination, harass-
residing in Spain. ment in the workplace or sexual exploitation,
In Spain there are currently 194,508 com- and, of course, audiovisual practices that
pletely dependent people, 370,603 severely de- breach privacy and intimacy rights or image
pendent people, and 560.080 moderately rights.
dependent people, giving a total of 1,125,190 de-
pendent individuals. Strategic Plan for Citizenship
In 2015, once the system has been fully im- and Integration
plemented, there will be 252,345 very dependent
people, 472,461 severely dependent people and Spain has been a target country for immigration
648,442 moderately dependent people. This since the mid-eighties in terms of annual im-
gives a total of 1,373,248 dependent people. migration flows, and in terms of immigrants re-
The Law establishes three levels of protec- siding in Spain since the early nineties. The in-
tion: crease in migratory flows in the last five years
• A minimum level of protection that will has put Spain at the top of the EU ranking in
guarantee beneficiaries partial coverage of the terms of the proportion of foreigners residing
cost of the services and benefits envisaged in in Spain.
the Law. The central state administration will The foreign population makes very impor-
cover all costs incurred in this first level. tant contributions to Spanish society at different
• A second level, agreed between the cen- levels but it also creates opportunities both for
tral state administration and each autonomous immigrants and their families and for Spanish
region. This protection level, which is necessa- society as a whole:
156
1. In the labour market because immigrant tite Immigration Labour Committee, the Inter-
work rates are twenty per cent higher than Ministerial Immigration Committee and the Eco-
those of Spanish nationals; immigrants also nomic and Social Committee.
perform many socially and economically use-
ful jobs. Cooperation and co-responsibility. The Strate-
2. In the country’s demographic structure gic Plan establishes a framework for state coo-
because, although immigration cannot com- peration. The plan, which has been extended to
pensate the unbalanced Spanish population cover the 2007-2011 period and has a budget
pyramid on its own, the structure of the immi- of 2,000 million euros, is designed as an instru-
grant population by sex and age can and does ment to develop policies, pool initiatives and
help to mitigate these imbalances, increase provide coherence to actions to support immi-
the birth rate and recover the fertility rate in grant integration undertaken by both public ad-
Spain. ministrations and the civil society.
3. In cultural spheres, because immigration In this respect, cooperation between the
contributes to a cultural diversity brimming central state administration and the autono-
with opportunities. mous regions is structured on the basis of an-
4. Immigrants help to improve the living nual regional action plans.
conditions of their direct relatives and the over-
all population in their countries of origin and The three guiding principles of the Plan are:
contribute to the economic, social and political 1. The principle of equality and non-dis-
development of their countries. crimination, which involves giving the immi-
grant population the same rights and obligations
A new immigration policy as the local population within the framework of
basic constitutional values.
Immigration legislation in Spain is formed by a 2. The principle of citizenship, which im-
complex network of international, EU, national plies the recognition of full civil, social, eco-
and regional regulations. nomic, cultural and political participation of
The Plan incorporates the “basic common immigrant citizens.
principles on integration” approved by the 3. The principle of inter-culturality, as a
Council of Ministers of Justice and the Interior in mechanism of interaction between people of
Brussels on 19 November 2004. different origins and cultures, as part of the va-
One of the premises of this Plan is that the luation of, and respect for, cultural diversity.
responsibility for the process of mutual adapta-
tion of nationals and immigrants must be shared The objectives of the Plan are to:
and must therefore involve all public administra- 1. Acknowledge full civil, social, econo-
tions, social agents (trade unions and business mic, cultural and political rights of immigrants.
organisations, NGOs, immigrants’ organisations, 2. Adapt public policies, in particular re-
etc.) and the receiving society as a whole. garding education, employment, social servi-
To guarantee shared responsibility from the ces, health care and housing, to the new needs
initial design phase of immigration policies and caused by the presence of immigrants.
measures, the development of the Strategic Plan 3. Guarantee the access of immigrants to
has been based on dialogue with the different public services, in particular education, em-
administrations. A process of reflection and con- ployment, social services, health care and
sultation involving all the relevant partners com- housing, in the same conditions as the autoch-
menced in mid-2005. Before its approval by the thonous population.
Council of Ministers on 23 June 2006, the Plan 4. Create a system to welcome newly ar-
was submitted for consideration to the High rived immigrants and immigrants in situations
Council on Immigration Policy, the Forum for of special vulnerability until they can access
the Social Integration of Immigrants, the Tripar- general public services.
5. Promote knowledge among immigrant 8. Promote political and co-development

men and women of the common values of the experiences with immigrants’ countries of ori-
European Union, the rights and obligations of gin.
residents in Spain, the official languages in dif- 9. Raise awareness of immigration in Spa-
ferent state territories and the social regulations nish society as a whole to improve intercultural
governing coexistence in Spanish society. coexistence, valuing diversity and promoting
6. Combat different types of discrimina- values of tolerance and respect, and supporting
tion, racism and xenophobia in all areas of the maintenance and knowledge of immi-
public and private social life. grants’ original cultures.
7. Introduce the gender perspective in im-
migration integration policies and in the appli-
cation of these policies.
WEBSITES
Ministry of the Economy and Treasury: www.meh.es

Ministry of Labour and Immigration: www.mtin.es
Economic and Social Council: www.ces.es
National Employment Institute: www.sepe.es and www.redtrabaja.es
Secretary of State for Immigration and Emigration: http://extranjeros.mtin.es
Secretary of State for Social Security: www.seg-social.es
CHAPTER VII
HEALTH
AND CONSUMER
AFFAIRS
H E A LT H A N D C O N S U M E
R A F F A I R S H E A LT H A N
DCONSUMERAFFAIRS bringing the management of health care closer
to citizens. Practical experience of relations be-
H E A LT H A N D C O N S U M E tween the state and the autonomous regions in
the area of health protection provide important
R A F F A I R S H E A LT H A N references for the development of cohesion in
the State of Autonomous Regions. All parties in-
volved are working to achieve a common iden-
DCONSUMERAFFAIRS tity for the National Health System, based on
the constitutional principles of unity, autonomy
HEALTH
and solidarity underpinning the State of Auto-
Introduction nomous Regions.
In today’s context of total decentralisation
The Spanish Constitution specifically recog- in health matters, with the autonomous regions
nises the right of all citizens to effective health determining how health services should be or-
protection and to equal, efficient and quality ganised and offered, the Ministry of Health and
health care. These rights are established in Ar- Social Policy has taken on a more supervisory
ticles 41, 43, 49 and 51 of the Constitution role in the National Health System and is res-
and represent a huge step forward socially ponsible for drawing up overall strategies for
since they recognise the right to health care as equity, quality and efficiency, acting as a basic
a public, objective, personal and non-contri- tool for cooperation to facilitate regional initia-
butory right, and guarantee both equality in tives.
terms of the contents of this right for each citi- Nevertheless, the national government is
zen, without any type of discrimination, and still exclusively responsible for the following
equal access to the material contents of this areas of health care: health care abroad and in-
service. ternational health relations and agreements,
As envisaged in the Constitution, the devo- the basic functions and general coordination of
lution to the autonomous regions of competen- health care, legislation governing pharmaceuti-
cies in the area of health and hygiene (public cal products, and the process of obtaining, issu-
health) started in 1979 and continued in the ing and approving of professional postgraduate
following years. Health care powers have now qualifications.
been transferred to all the autonomous regions
and the two cities with their own statutes of au- The National Health System
tonomy, Ceuta and Melilla. The decentralisa-
tion of administrative health care, managed by The Spanish Parliament approved the General
the National Institute of Health (INSALUD), be- Health Law on 14 April 1986. As established in
gan in 1981 with the devolution of powers in Article One of this law, its specific aim is to
this area to the autonomous region of Catalo- regulate all actions that enable the effective ap-
nia, and was later extended to Andalusia, the plication of the constitutional right to health
Basque Country, the autonomous region of Va- care. The law created a National Health System
lencia, Galicia, Navarre and the Canary Islands of universal, public coverage funded from the
between 1984 and 1994, and then finally to general national budget, and encompassing all
the remaining regions. The process was com- central administration and autonomous region
pleted in January 2002. The central government health services.
continues to administer health care services in The General Health Law constituted an im-
the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla via portant landmark in the transformation of
the National Institute of Health Management health care in Spain because it integrated all
(INGESA). existing public health care resources in a single
The devolution of health care competen- regulation, based on Social Security resources,
cies to the autonomous regions is a means of and integrated health promotion and disease
Health and Consumer Affairs 161
prevention policies and activities as well as cohesion within the National Health System by
medical and pharmaceutical services. fully protecting citizens’ rights throughout the
After the devolution of health care compe- Spanish territory. The CISNS comprises the Mi-
tencies to all the autonomous regions, the regu- nister of Health and Consumer Affairs and the
latory framework was completed with Law Regional Ministers of Health in the autonomous
16/2003 of 28 May on Cohesion and Quality in regions and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and
the National Health System. This law deals with Melilla.
the coordination and cooperation responsibili- The Inter-Territorial Board is chaired by the
ties of Public Health Administrations as a means Minister of Health and Consumer Affairs. The
for guaranteeing citizens’ rights to health care, Deputy Chair is held by one of the Regional
for the purpose of ensuring equal access to Ministers of Health who is elected by the mem-
quality health care and citizen participation. bers. The CISNS functions in plenum, with a
Executive Committee, Technical Committees
Coordination in the National and Working Groups. The Board’s agreements
Health System are expressed as official recommendations that
are approved, when appropriate, by consensus.
The Inter-Territorial Board of the Spanish Natio- The plenum meets at least four times a year and
nal Health System (CISNS) is the standing body because its members are all senior health chiefs
for coordination, cooperation, communication in their respective regions it is the highest au-
and information among Health Departments in thority in Spain. The Executive Committee as-
the autonomous regions and between them and sists in the preparation of the sessions and is
the national administration. It aims to promote composed of the General Health Secretary,
who acts as chair, a representative from every
autonomous region (the deputy minister or
equivalent) and a representative from the Mi-
The Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau (Barcelona) is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. The new hospital building nistry of Health and Social Policy, who acts as
is situated in the north section of the grounds near the secretary. Social participation in the National
Art Nouveau wings, which were designed by Domènech
i Montaner and are open to visitors. Health System is articulated via the Advisory
Committee, with representatives from the trade
union and business organisations, as well as
consumers and users.
Organisation
As provided in the General Health Law, the dif-
ferent autonomous regions have passed their
own laws regulating health services; this legis-
lation, while upholding the basic principles of
the General Health Law, determine the struc-
tural organisation of their respective resources
and Regional Health Services. To a greater or
lesser extent, the health service of each region
integrates all of its public health services and
centres into a single body responsible for ma-
naging all public health care services in each
region. Each health service depends, in turn, on
the corresponding health department (Conse-
jería de Sanidad) of the regional government.
Guidelines and regulations on funding, plan-
162
ning and public health within the community’s covers a population between 200,000 and
own geographical area are their responsibility. 250,000 inhabitants. Nevertheless, the specific
The NHS is organised in line with its basic characteristics of each territory mean that this is
principles. Since it aims to provide universal sup- only a guideline. The health areas are, in turn,
port based on the principle of solidarity, it has to subdivided into Basic Health Zones, which are
ensure equal access to services for all citizens. the territorial framework for Primary Health
Since it is financed with public funds, spending Care centre operations. The locations of these
must be based on efficiency criteria. The System centres are determined by the degree of demo-
is therefore organised at two care levels or envi- graphic concentration, the population’s epi-
ronments in which accessibility and technologi- demic history and local resources. Each zone
cal complexity are inversely related. covers a population ranging from 5,000 to
The first level – Primary Health Care – is 25,000 inhabitants. Each Health Area has a
characterised by extensive accessibility and general hospital for Specialised Care. In some
sufficient technical resources to resolve the Health Departments there are intermediate di-
most frequent health problems. The second le- vision between the Health Area and the Basic
vel – Specialised Health Care – has more com- Health Zone.
plex and costly diagnostic and/or therapeutic
resources which must be concentrated in order Services Covered by the National
to be efficient. Access is gained by referral from Health System
Primary Health Care.
Primary Health Care aims to provide basic The services offered by the Spanish National
services within a 15-minute radius from any Health System include preventive care, diag-
place of residence. The main facilities are Pri- nostics, therapeutics, rehabilitation and health
mary Care Centres which are staffed by multi- promotion and maintenance.
disciplinary teams comprising general practi- Primary Health Care covers general and pae-
tioners, paediatricians, nurses and administrative diatric health care services, as well as preventive
staff and, in some cases, social workers, mid- care, health promotion, health education and re-
wives and physiotherapists. Since this kind of habilitation programmes. These services are ren-
care is located within the community, it also dered by Primary Health Care teams according to
offers health awareness campaigns and preven- their “portfolio of services” planned according
tive health care. Maximum accessibility and to the health care needs of the local population
equity means that Primary Health Care can also (care for women, children, adults and elderly
be provided via house calls when necessary. people, oral and dental health, care for terminal
Specialised Care is given in Specialised patients, mental health care).
Health Centres and Hospitals for both inpa- Specialised Health Care covers outpatient
tients and outpatients. Once the service has and inpatient care, and offers all medical and
been completed, the patient is referred back to surgical specialities in acute and chronic relapse
the Primary Health Care doctor who uses the cases. Emergency care and emergency medical
full medical history as a basis for subsequent services are available around the clock.
treatment and overall care. This means that Access to Primary, Specialised and Emer-
continued care is given in equitable conditions, gency Health Care is free. Pharmaceutical drugs
irrespective of the place of residence and indi- are co-financed by users, who cover part of the
vidual circumstances, and care can be given at price of pharmaceutical products – 40% in the
the patient’s home if necessary. case of active workers. Pensioners and people
Within this organisational framework, each with chronic illnesses do not have to pay for
autonomous region establishes its own Health prescription drugs. This distribution of expendi-
Areas according to demographic and geo- ture also depends on the type of medication. In
graphic criteria aiming, above all, to guarantee the case of drugs for the treatment of chronic
service proximity for users. Each Health Area diseases, users pay only 10% of the cost with a
ceiling of 2.69 euros (e.g. AIDS treatments). Spain has 131,445 hospital beds for patients
However, prescription drugs for inpatients or with acute pathologies, of which 72.9% belong
specialised care patients are not co-financed. to the National Health System. Approximately
For historical reasons, civil servants are covered 37.2% of the 16,111 beds available for psychia-
by publicly financed mutual funds (Mutual tric care and 35.1% of the 13,425 for geriatric
Fund for State Civil Servants or MUFACE, the and long-term patients also belong to the NHS.
Social Institute for the Armed Forces or ISFAS Over half a million trained staff are regis-
and the General Legal Mutual Company or tered with one of the professional associations
MUGEJU for staff working for the judiciary) related to the provision of health care. The lar-
under which they contribute to pharmaceutical gest collective is made up of nursing staff, and
expenditure in a different way (co-payments of this group is also characterised by the highest
30% of the cost of medication for active wor- proportion of females in the profession.
kers and pensioners). There are 34,126 doctors (27,911 family
Most drugs authorised in Spain are eligible doctors and 6,215 paediatricians) working in
for pharmaceutical services. Only advertised, public centres offering primary health services,
cosmetic and beauty products are excluded. 27,433 nurses and 21,606 non-health staff. The
There is a list of non-financed products that in- number of primary care doctors per 10,000 in-
cludes drugs with low therapeutic usefulness/ef- habitants is 7.5.
fectiveness. The Spanish Medicine Agency (linked Hospitals and specialist centres in the Na-
to the Ministry of Health and Social Policy) is res- tional Health System employ 69,742 doctors
ponsible for evaluating medical products for reg- (15.4 per 10,000 inhabitants). Of these, 27.7%
istration and authorisation purposes. Pharmaceu- work in internal medicine and medical special-
tical services at the primary care level are ties, 22.8% in central services (clinical analyses,
rendered by chemists. Chemist opening licenses, microbiology, radiodiagnosis, etc.), and 18.1%
opening times or inspections are the responsibi- in surgery and surgical specialties. The number
lity of the autonomous regions. of doctors who work in public hospitals and spe-
The Public Health System provides com- cialist centres is 15.5 per 10,000 inhabitants.
plementary benefits such as orthopaedic and There are 16,555 doctors engaged in post-
prosthetic services, emergency and scheduled graduate training in hospitals, of which over
health care transportation, complex diets and 98% work in hospitals that belong to the Na-
at-home oxygen therapy. tional Health System.
Health centres and medical centres in the
National Health System Resources National Health System handle over 273 million
and Activities consultations a year. However, this figure rises to
300 million if emergency care provided outside
The National Health System has 2,914 Health normal working hours is included, and to over
Centres. There are also 10,202 medical centres 406 million when nursing activity is added.
in small towns to which staff from the zone’s The annual frequency of primary care me-
primary care centre travel in order to provide dical consultations per inhabitant is 6 (6.1 for
basic services to the local population. These are family medicine and 5.5 for paediatrics), 2.9
mostly in rural areas, which tend to have a high for nursing care and 0.7 for emergency care
proportion of elderly patients. outside normal working hours.
The National Health System also has 315 Meanwhile, in the specialised care sector,
public hospitals with 105,505 beds. There are there are over 5.2 million hospital admissions
also 20 hospital establishments owned by Mu- in Spain per year, of which 4 million (78.3%
tual Funds for Occupational Health and Safety, of the total) are funded by the NHS. Mean-
as well as 465 private hospitals in which 40% while, specialist doctors receive 77.1 million
of discharges are for patients whose hospital consultations per year (87.3% funded by the
care was arranged and financed by the NHS. NHS), 26.3 million emergency consultations
164
HEALTH CENTRES, HOSPITALS, BEDS AND PHARMACIES
Year 2009 Total Total per 100,000 inhab. % Public

Health Centres 2,914 6.4 100
Medical Centres 10,202 22.4 100
Hospitals 804 1.8 42.2
Bed installed 160,981 353.1 67.1
Pharmacies 21,057 46.2 –
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Health Information Institute. National Catalogue of Hospitals, 2009; Pharmacies: General Council of
Pharmaceutical Associations, 2008.
HOSPITALS AND BEDS ACCORDING TO TIPE OF HEALTH CARE
Year 2009 Total Total per 100,000 inhab. % Public

Acute Condition Care Hospitals 589 1.3 43.3
Beds 131,445 292.9 72.9
Psychiatric Care Hospitals 93 0.2 32.3
Beds 16,111 35.3 37.2
Geriatric and Long-Term Hospitals 122 0.3 27.9
Hospitalisation Care Beds 13,425 29.5 35.1
Total Hospitals 804 1.8 42.2
Beds 160,981 357.7 66.2
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Health Information Institute. National Catalogue of Hospitals, 2009.
LICENSED HEALTH PROFESSIONALS

Year 2008 Total % of women Professionals per 1,000 inhab.
Doctors 213,977 44.4 4.7
Odontologists and Stomatologists 25,697 43.3 0.6
Pharmacists 61,975 70.3 0.1
Veterinarians 28,188 40.4 0.6
Nurses 250,139 83.3 5.5
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Spanish Statistical Institute. Licensed Health Professionals, 2008.
NHS PRIMARY CARE STAFF
Year 2008 Total % of women Tasa per 10,000 inhab.

Family Doctors 27,911 47 6.1
Paediatrics 6,215 64 1.4
Nursing 27,433 77 6.1
Non-medical staff 21,606 75 4.8
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Health Information Institute. Primary Care Information System (PCIS).
PRIMARY CARE AT NHS CENTRES

Year 2007 Year 2008
Activity during regular hours 390,285,231 406,132,862
Total 266,547,209 273,557,142
Medecine Family medicine 232,380,253 238,575,309
Paediatric 34,166,956 34,981,833
Nursing 123,738,022 132,575,720
Emergencies handled after regular hours 29,590,478 30,002,020
Visits per inhabitant recorded by NHS 8.6 8.9
Total 5.9 6.0
Medecine Family medicine 5.9 6.1
Paediatric 5.4 5.5
Nursing 2.7 2.9
Emergencies handled after regular hours 0.7 0.7
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Health Information Institute. Primary Care Information System (PCIS).
ACTIVITY IN SPECIALISED CARE AND PERCENTAGE FINANCED

BY THE NATIONAL HEALTH SYSTEM
Year 2007 Total % NHS*

Discharges (thousands) 5,239.4 78.3
Discharges per 1,000 inhabitants 116.8
Average stay (days) 8.2
Consultations
Consultations (thousands) 77,114.4 87.3
Consultations per 1,000 inhabitants 1,718.5
Emergencies
Emergencies (thousands) 26,265.1 77.1
Emergencies per 1,000 inhabitants 585.3
Surgery
Surgical operations (thousands) 4,449.8
Surgical operations per 1,000 inhabitants 99.2
Mayor Outpatient Surgery (MOS) (in thousands) 1,134.5 79.5
MOS per 1,000 inhabitants 25.3
Obstetrics
Births (thousands) 366,481
Caesareans 124,561
% Caesareans 25.4
Total Births 491,042
*Percentage of activity financed by the National Health System.
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Health Information Institute. Statistics of Health Facilities with Inpatient Services.
166
TRANSPLANTS
Year 2008 Total Rate / million inhabitants

Kidney transplants 2,229 48.3
(Live donor) (156) (3.4)
Liver transplants 1,108 24.0
(Live donor) (28) (0.6)
Heart transplants 292 6.3
Lung transplants 192 4.2
Pancreatic transplants 110 2.4
Intestinal transplants 14 0.3
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Statistics of Health Facilities with Inpatient Services.
HEALTH EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF EUROS
Year 2005 Year 2006 Year 2007

Public health expenditure 53,127 58,466 63,768
Private health expenditure 22,144 23,598 25,060
Total health expenditure 75,271 82,064 88,828
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Prepared by the Subdirectorate-General of Economic Analysis and the Cohesion Fund
according to the SHA (System Health Account) method.
are handled (77.2% with public funding) and for long-term care, was 63.768 billion euros,
4.4 million operations are performed each year. which constitutes 6.1% of the GDP. Mean-
Spanish hospitals are some of the best in while, private health expenditure amounted to
the world with regard to organ and tissue trans- 25.060 billion euros, (2.4% of the GDP).
plants, which are performed at specially ac- Health expenditure is the largest budget al-
credited centres. Organ donation requires the location after pensions and, on average, ac-
donor’s consent. The technological resources counts for more than a third of expenditure in
provided by health centres and hospitals are on the autonomous regions. In terms of the expend-
a par with those offered in the most advanced iture breakdown, hospital and specialised serv-
countries, granting Spanish citizens access to ices account for the highest proportion (54.2%),
top-quality health care. State-of-the-art tech- followed by pharmaceutical subsidies (19.8%)
nology (Computerized Axial Tomography, Mag- and primary health care services (15.7%). At just
netic Resonance Imaging, Gamma Chambers 1.4%, public health services are seemingly ac-
and Particle Accelerators) is installed according corded relatively little importance, but this is be-
to criteria of need and usefulness. cause of the way this activity is defined and clas-
sified in the accounting systems – public health,
Funding and Public Health Expenditure prevention and promotion activities tend to be
channelled through the primary care network
Health care in Spain is a non-contributory serv- and not accounted for as a separate item.
ice funded by taxes, which since 2002, has In relation to the economic-budgetary classi-
been included in the general budget for each fication, if long-term care costs are excluded, staff
autonomous region. salaries at 43.4% account for the greatest propor-
According to figures from 2007, public tion of expenditure on public health. Govern-
health expenditure in Spain, including the data ment-subsidised activity accounts for 11.3%.
Citizens and the Health Care System

SATISFACTION WITH THE HEALTH SYSTEM
The Spanish health system covers practically all
Year 2008 % de opinión
Spanish citizens and residents who have ac-
Satisfactory 68.1
quired the right to health care by virtue of bila-
Needs changes 26.2
teral agreements. Law 8/2000 of 22 December
Needs complete overhaul 4.9
on the Rights and Freedoms of Foreign Nationals
living in Spain guarantees the right to health care Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Health Information
Institute and Social Research Centre (CIS). 2008 Health
for foreigners registered in the municipal census Care Poll.
in the same conditions as Spaniards, as well as
for minors under 18. Pregnant foreign women
are entitled to health care during pregnancy,
childbirth and postpartum. It also establishes for- Health System works well and 4.7% are of the
eigners’ right to receive emergency health care, opinion that it should be completely over-
irrespective of their legal status. The public hauled. However, nearly 26.2% of citizens be-
health system does not establish time limits, lieve that changes are required to improve the
grace periods or any other requirements for ac- system.
cess and these services are similar to those of- The positive results obtained in the health
fered by most European countries. system survey are also reflected in the excellent
The rights and obligations of citizens in re- health indicators of the Spanish population.
lation to public health are established in the Spain has a life expectancy rate at birth of 81.1
General Health Law (Article 10) and are aimed years, surpassing the EU-27 average of 79.1
at ensuring their right to equal access to high- years. With 3.7 infant deaths per thousand live
quality and efficient health care and respect for births, Spain is among the top ten EU-27 coun-
the principles of autonomy and freedom. Law tries with the lowest mortality rate, and is also
41/2002 of 14 November, which regulates the below the average infant mortality rate for all
patient’s autonomy and rights and obligations countries, which is currently 4.6 deaths per
regarding health documentation and informa- thousand live births.
tion, requires Health Services to inform citizens
of all their rights and obligations. This obliga- Future Challenges of the National
tion covers both the rights and obligations in- Health System
cluded in basic national legislation and those
established in the corresponding regional regu- The Spanish National Health System, like health
lations. One of the primary and most notewor- systems in neighbouring developed countries,
thy consequences of this basic law is that it is faces the challenge of having to improve the qua-
the first to guarantee the right of all citizens to lity of services offered to citizens without under-
request a second medical opinion. Another mining the sustainability of the existing health
new aspect introduced by this law, affecting its care model. The ageing of the population, which
implementation at the regional level, is related is having a strong impact on the way treatment is
to the regulation of “living wills” and informed provided and on the consumption of health ser-
consent. vices, coupled with the appearance of new diag-
All Spanish health system activities revolve nostic and treatment technologies and greater
around citizens and regular surveys are carried citizen health care demands, account for the sig-
out to gauge user satisfaction with the system. nificant rise in spending. This has necessitated the
Results show that citizens are generally very introduction of policies for improving health care
satisfied with the way the public health system efficiency and effectiveness.
works. The strategic actions included in the cur-
For example, the results from the survey rent health policies of both the Ministry of
conducted in 2008 reveal that, in general, two- Health and Social Policy and the autonomous
thirds of the population thinks that the National regions aim to improve the population’s health
168
PUBLIC HEALTH EXPENDITURE: BREAKDOWN BY FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
Year 2007
Capital expenditure 4.3%
2,582,585 €
Pharmaceutical 19.8% Public health services 1.4%
11,901,950 € 835,340 €
Collective health services 3.1%

1,839,048 €
Transfers, prostheses and
therapeutic equipment 1.8% Hospital and specialised
1,074,905 € services 54.0%
32,503,175 €
Primary health care 15.7%
9,438,423 €
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy, Subdir-Gen. of Economic Analysis and the Cohesion Fund, Public Health Expenditure Statistics.
Preview of 2002-2007 data.
INFANT MORTALITY PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS
Year 1980 Year 1990 Year 2000 Year 2007

UE-27 14.3 9,.9 5.9 4.6
Spain 12.4 7.6 4.4 3.7
Source: Spanish Statistical Institute (INE), Statistical Analysis of Municipal Census. WHO European Health for All Database (HFADB) –
August 2009 version.
LIFE-EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH BY SEX IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND SPAIN
Year 2007 Total Woman Men

UE-27 79.1 82.1 76.0
Spain 81.1 84.3 77.8
Source: Ministry of Health and Social Policy. Prepared by the Subdirectorate-General of Economic Analysis and the Cohesion Fund
according to the SHA (System Health Account) method.
STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION BY AGE GROUPS
Year 2008 % Population aged 0-14 % Population aged 65+

UE-27 15.8 16.9
Spain 14.4 16.5
Source: Spanish Statistical Institute (INE), Statistical Analysis of Municipal Census. WHO European Health for All Database (HFADB) –
August 2009 version.
and consolidate and improve the quality of the • Promotion of preventive care and health
National Health System, since this is a key protection and promotion policies.
component of the modern “Welfare State”. • Promotion of basic and applied health
These include the following actions: research.
• Improvement of the management of At the state level, the National Consumer

health organisations, encouraging greater inte- Affairs Institute (INC), an independent organi-
gration between different health care levels sation belonging to the Ministry of Health and
and the extension of clinical management, Social Policy, is responsible for implementing
case management and evidence-based medi- Article 51 of the Constitution. Its objective is to
cine. monitor compliance with consumer and user
• Streamlining of pharmaceutical services. rights, as well as to protect their safety, health
• Introduction of criteria for evaluating di- and legitimate economic interests. It carries out
agnostic and therapeutic technologies and different activities to achieve these objectives,
procedures to guarantee patient safety, excel- including market control to foster market unity
lence in clinical practice and efficient use of and equal protection of consumer rights
resources. throughout the country. These activities aim to
• Efficient use of information and commu- guarantee the quality and safety of goods and
nication technologies with a view to introduc- services offered to consumers. Analytical con-
ing interoperable medical records and elec- trol studies are performed by the Research and
tronic prescriptions throughout the system, Quality Control Centre, formed by a group of
based on the identification of users via the laboratories which carry out analyses and tests
electronic health card now operational in the on products sold in Spain to check if they com-
Spanish health system. ply with applicable regulations.
The safety of user and consumer products
is one of the main objectives of consumer pro-
CONSUMER PROTECTION tection. The Warning Network system is ex-
tremely useful in this area since it allows all EU
Public authorities have been entrusted with Member States to exchange information on un-
consumer protection since the introduction of safe products. The network is managed by the
the Spanish Constitution. Organic Law 9/92 of Directorate-General of Health and Consumer
23 December completed the process of hand- Protection, and in Spain by the National Con-
ing over practically all consumer protection sumer Affairs Institute.
competencies to the autonomous regions. The National Consumer Affairs Institute also
However, the central government is responsi- has a Centre for Consumer Information and
ble for promoting the necessary cooperation Documentation (CIDOC) which prepares and
instruments and for designing overall consum- disseminates information to consumers, organi-
er protection policies, with the participation of sations and administrations responsible for pro-
all the different public and private partners, as tecting consumer rights. General information on
well as for producing regulations on aspects the INC, with details of the main areas of activity
specifically established as the exclusive com- of this organisation, can be found on the web
petency of the state by the Constitution – basi- page www.consumo-inc.es. This information is
cally Civil, Mercantile and Procedural Law – aimed at users specialised in consumer affairs as
and for helping to elaborate EU regulations and well as the general public, who can find basic
transpose them to Spanish law. informative data (Consumer Guide) that is often
To guarantee equal rights and obligations classified by areas of interest (housing, telecom-
among Spanish citizens, as established in the munications, holidays, guarantees, etc.).
Constitution, different cooperation instruments The most important training activity under-
have been developed. One such tool is the taken by the National Consumer Affairs Insti-
Consumer Sectorial Conference, which defines tute is the Training Plan for Consumer Affairs
common consumer affairs policies to be imple- Professionals, approved by the Consumer Sec-
mented by the central government and the au- torial Conference, and aimed mainly at profes-
tonomous regions, and its executive body, the sionals working for different public consumer
Consumer Cooperation Commission. affairs departments and Consumer Protection
170
Associations. This plan provides up-to-date, of consumers and users before the central
multidisciplinary training for consumer protec- government and other state institutions and
tion professionals. organisations.
The National Consumer Protection Institute EU citizens can acquire goods and services
also implements, develops and disseminates in any country in the Union. The Support Net-
information on the Arbitral Consumer Protec- work formed by the European Consumer Pro-
tion System, a rapid, effective and easy-to-use tection Centres guarantee European consumers
extrajudicial procedure for resolving consu- the same protection and quality of information,
mer-related conflicts. assistance and support as they would receive in
The most representative consumer pro- their own countries. This network was created
tection association in Spain is the National following a European Commission initiative to
Consumers and Users Council. It is a nation- inform, help and support European consumers
wide representative and consultative body in the presentation of cross-border complaints
for consumers and users which acts on behalf and claims.
WEBSITES
Ministry of Health and Social Policy: www.msps.es
International organisations
World Health Organisation: www.who.int/es
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): www.oecd.org
European Union: www.europa.eu
CHAPTER VIII
EDUCATION
EDUCATION,SOCIALPOLICY
ANDSPORTSEDUCATION,
SOCIALANDSPORTSEDUCA and the LODE, and advocates universal quality
and fairness. Emphasis is placed on the inclusive
TION,SOCIALPOLICYAND nature of education, equality of treatment and
the non-discrimination of persons under any cir-
SPORTSEDUCATION,SOCIAL cumstances. The law also reaffirms the nature of
education as a public service, considering edu-
cation an essential community service that must
POLICYANDSPORTSEDUCA be made available to everyone without excep-
tion, offering equal opportunities, guaranteed
EDUCATION
regularity and continuity, and progressively
The Spanish Education System adapted to social changes. The service of public
education may be provided by public authorities
This brief description of the current education and by social initiatives.
system is divided into four broad sections: Prin- The main objectives of the system in terms of
ciples, Structure, Administration and Education the various types of education provided are as fol-
Policy. lows: to improve education and academic results;
The first section describes the major princi- to achieve success for everyone in compulsory
ples that underpin and govern the education education; to increase the number of pupils en-
system, within the framework of the Spanish rolled at the pre-primary level, in higher secon-
Constitution and as determined by the main dary education and in vocational training cour-
education acts. In the following section, the ses; to increase the number of graduates from
structure of the system is described, with brief secondary and vocational schools; to educate pu-
details of all the non-university levels and pils in democratic citizenship; to promote lifelong
branches of education. The next section presents learning; to reinforce the fairness of the education
an overview of the general administration of the system; and to synchronise our system with those
system, the various government levels and their of other EU member states.
functions, and the organisation of the system in The LOE defines basic education as ten
keeping with current legislation. The final sec- years of schooling, commencing at age 6 and
tion describes the current education policy pur- ending at age 16. Basic education is broken
sued by the Spanish Ministry of Education. down into primary education and compulsory
secondary education. The law also regulates
General Principles of the Education and effectively restructures pre-primary educa-
System: the Legal Framework tion, post-compulsory secondary education, art
education, sports education, foreign language
The legal framework governing the Spanish edu- education, adult education and distance learn-
cation system consists of the Spanish Constitu- ing within the framework of lifelong learning.
tion of 1978 and the following laws regarding It also contemplates the participative ap-
the principles and rights contained therein: proach and aspects concerning school organi-
• The 1985 Organic Law regulating the sation and management, reinforcing schools’
Right to Education (LODE). powers and organisational capacity. The po-
• The 2006 Organic Law on Education Act wers of the school councils and teaching staff
(LOE). are similarly regulated by this law.
• Law 5/2002, of 19 June, on Qualifica- The LOE also encourages cooperation be-
tions and Vocational Training. tween families and schools, promoting greater
The new Organic Law on Education ap- pupil and parent participation and responsibi-
proved in May 2006 regulates the structure and lity. The law focuses particularly on teachers,
organisation of the non-university levels of the whom it regards as crucial figures in the educa-
education system. It reiterates the principles and tion system, promotes ongoing training and
rights recognised in the Spanish Constitution adapts initial training to the degree and post-
Education 173
graduate degree system of the European Higher and post-compulsory secondary education (the
Education Area. As of 1 October 2009, univer- latter, higher secondary education and interme-
sity graduates who wish to become secondary- diate-level vocational training) – plus intermedi-
school teachers will be required to complete an ate-level vocational training in art, design and
official master’s programme comprising appro- sports. The higher education sector comprises
priate pedagogical and didactic training. The university education, higher art education, ad-
law also establishes diagnostic assessments of vanced-level vocational training, and advanced-
pupils’ skills on completion of the second cycle level vocational training in the arts, design and
of primary education and the second cycle of sports. Foreign languages, art and sport are all
secondary education. regarded as special branches of education.
In relation to vocational training, in June The law establishes that the various non-
2002 the new Law on Qualifications and Voca- university levels of the education system must
tional Training was passed. Its basic objective is be adapted to pupils with special learning
to adapt employment and business needs to the needs in order to guarantee these students’
reality of education in Spain today, in order to rights to enrol in, continue and advance
provide for the lifelong acquisition of modern through the system.
professional skills and competences. With regard to the distribution of powers be-
The purpose of this law is to articulate an tween the central government and the regional
integrated system of vocational training, quali- governments, the LOE establishes the mecha-
fications and accreditation that uses the vari- nisms of coordination and cooperation between
ous branches of training to effectively answer the various education authorities in order to de-
to social and economic needs. A National Sys- fine and reach a consensus on education policies
tem of Qualifications and Vocational Training and common criteria and objectives. Based on
will promote and develop the integration of the need to ensure the same provisions through-
the various vocational training options availa- out the country and guarantee the validity of the
ble with a National List of Vocational Qualifi- various degrees awarded, the Spanish govern-
cations. The National Institute of Qualifica- ment dictates the basic aspects of the curriculum
tions is the permanent body responsible for – namely, the objectives, basic skills, syllabus
analysing occupational changes in the labour content and assessment criteria – referred to in
market and the evolution of vocational quali- the LOE as the minimum core curriculum.
fications in the various economic sectors. This The basic content of the minimum core cur-
data is essential because it affects the range of riculum accounts for 55% of the school timetable
vocational training courses available and, in the autonomous regions with a co-official lan-
consequently, the list of qualifications. guage and 65% in the regions where Castilian
This law also aims to be compatible with Spanish is the sole official language.
European legislation and facilitate labour mo-
bility for both students and teachers. Pre-Primary Education
General Structure of the Education Pre-primary education is the first level in the
System education system. It is conceived as a single
education stage with its own characteristics de-
The Law on Education (LOE) stipulates the basic signed to meet the needs of children from birth
structure of the Spanish education system, or- to age 6. Although it bears a close resemblance
ganising it into different stages, cycles, academic to primary education, it has a different focus
years and levels of non-university training. from subsequent stages. Pre-primary education
In accordance with the LOE, the various is organised in two three-year cycles of an edu-
types of education provided are as follows: pre- cational and voluntary nature. The second cycle
primary education, primary education, secon- is free of charge. In relation to the first cycle,
dary education – which comprises compulsory which comprises the 0-3 age group, the Minis-
174
THE SPANISH EDUCATION SYSTEM (LOE)
Certificate of
Higher Education PhD
Music Master’s Degree
and Dance
Doctorate
University Education
Drama Studies
Higher Art Education
Graduate
Studies
Higher Education
Conservation
& Restoration
Certificate Certificate Certificate
of Cultural Assets
Degree of Advanced of Advanced of Advanced
Professional Professional Professional
Visual Education Education Education
Arts
Undergraduate
Design Studies
Advanced-Level Advanced-Level Advanced-Level
Vocational Visual Arts Sports Advanced
Training and Design Education
Foreign Language Education
Adult Education
Intermediate
Certificate of Higher
Vocational Secondary
Qualification Education Certificate of Certificate of Certificate of
Professional Professional Professional
Humanities and Social Sciences
Higher Secondary Education
Education Education Education

Science and Technology
Basic
2nd
Arts
Intermediate-Level Intermediate-Level Intermediate-Level

Vocational Visual Arts Sports
Training and Design Education
Vocational Music and Dance Studies
1st
Secondary Education
6 Years
Certificate of
Secondary Vocational
Education Qualification
Initial Vocational Qualification Programmes
Vocational and
Voluntary
General
Modules
Modules
Secondary Education
4th
Compulsory
3rd
2nd
1st
Basic Education
6th
5th
Primary Education
Primary Education
Elementary Music and Dance Studies
4th
3rd
2nd Free Education
Vocational Training
1st
Art Education
Sports Education
Second Cycle
Pre-Primary
Conditional Access
Education
Pre-Primary
Education
(3-6)
Standard Assessment Test
First Cycle
Entrance Examination
(0-3)
Education 175
try of Education in collaboration with the au- cycle of this stage, education authorities may
tonomous regions, has invested considerable also add a second foreign language. Subjects
effort in recent years to increase the school at- instrumental to the acquisition of other areas of
tendance rate. knowledge are given special consideration. In
The educational content of both cycles is addition to their specific treatment in several of
described in a pedagogical proposal drawn up the primary-level subjects, reading comprehen-
by each school. sion, oral and written expression, audiovisual
Both cycles are expected to promote chil- communication, information and communica-
dren’s physical, intellectual, emotional and so- tion technologies, and ethics are practised in
cial development, assisting them in the disco- all subjects. A time is set aside each day for
very of the physical and social characteristics of reading as a means of promoting this habit.
the environment in which they live and ena- Student evaluation is continual and global,
bling them to create a positive and balanced taking into account general progress in the full
image of themselves and acquire personal au- range of subjects. Pupils progress to the follo-
tonomy. During the second pre-primary cycle, wing cycle or stage when they have achieved
the education authorities are responsible for the relevant basic skills and the appropriate de-
promoting initial contact with a foreign lan- gree of maturity.
guage, reading and writing, basic numerical In order to ensure the continuity of the edu-
skills, information and communication tech- cation process, on completion of this stage of
nologies, art and music. their education, pupils are provided by the
education authorities with a report on their
Primary Education learning abilities, targets met and basic skills
acquired.
Primary education consists of six years of schoo-
ling, usually commencing at age 6 and ending at Secondary Education
age 12. It comprises three two-year cycles and is
structured around a series of subjects designed Compulsory secondary education (ESO), which
from a holistic and integrating perspective. commences at age 12 and terminates at age 16,
This compulsory stage and compulsory consists of four academic years. The structure of
secondary education are both provided free of this stage of the education system is articulated
charge and together represent basic education. around two principles: a focus on diversity and
Its purpose is to offer all children an education the right of all students to equal education.
designed to enable them to consolidate their The purpose of compulsory secondary edu-
personal development and well-being, acquire cation is to ensure that pupils acquire know-
the basic cultural skills concerning oral expres- ledge of the basic humanistic, artistic, scientific
sion and comprehension, reading, writing and and technological aspects of modern culture in
arithmetic, and develop social and emotional general; to develop and consolidate study and
skills, work and study habits, artistic sensitivity work habits; to prepare them for further study
and creativity. or the labour market; and to train them in the
Although structured into different subjects, exercise of their rights and duties as citizens.
the content is nevertheless designed from a glo- During this stage, special attention is de-
bal perspective. The compulsory subjects at pri- voted to the acquisition and development of
mary level are as follows: natural science, so- the basic skills, with particular emphasis on
cial and cultural environment, art, physical correct oral and written expression and the use
education, Spanish language and literature of mathematics. A time is set aside for reading
(plus the co-official language and its literature in every subject as a means of promoting this
in Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country), habit. The subjects taught at secondary level
a foreign language, mathematics, and civics are as follows: natural sciences, physical edu-
and human rights education. During the third cation, social sciences, history and geography,
176
Spanish language and literature (plus the co- quired to undertake social functions and enter
official language and its literature in Catalo- the labour market with an appropriate degree
nia, Galicia and the Basque Country), a fo- of responsibility and competence. It also pre-
reign language, mathematics, visual arts and pares pupils to enter university.
crafts, music, technology, civic and human Higher secondary education offers the follo-
rights education. The last year in this stage is wing branches of study: arts, science and tech-
of an orientational nature and offers students a nology, humanities, and social sciences. The arts
choice of more specialised subjects. A second branch offers two specialisations: plastic arts, de-
foreign language can also be learned over the sign and image; and performance arts, music and
course of this entire stage. dance.
Students advance from one level to the This stage is organised into core, branch-spe-
next when they have met the targets for every cific and optional subjects. Pupils may choose
subject studied or have failed to do so in two their subjects from a list of specific classes within
subjects at the most. In the event of failing three their chosen speciality. Each branch is organised
or more subjects, they must repeat the year. Ex- in a manner that enables students to specialise in
ceptionally, a pupil who has failed three sub- a specific area and thus facilitate access to higher
jects may progress to the next year if the tea- learning or the job market.
ching staff are of the opinion that the nature of At this level, student evaluation is continu-
these subjects is unlikely to affect the pupil’s ous and is carried out individually based on the
success the following year, if the pupil is ex- syllabus targets and assessment criteria es-
pected to re-sit and pass the subjects in ques- tablished in each autonomous region. Pupils
tion, and if progression to the next year is likely progress from the first year to the second
to benefit his or her academic development. year when they have passed all their subjects
Pupils may only repeat the same year once and or failed two at the most. Pupils who do not
may only repeat twice throughout compulsory progress to the second year are held back the
secondary education. first year, repeating the entire programme if they
For pupils who fail to obtain the Título de have failed more than four subjects. Those who
Graduado en Educación Secundaria, or Certifi- do not progress to the second year and have
cate of Secondary Education, the education au- three or four failed subjects may choose to re-
thorities may organise Initial Vocational Qualifi- peat the entire year or enrol in the failed subjects
cation Programmes, including three types of and two or three second-year subjects, in ac-
modules, to enable all pupils to attain vocational cordance with the terms prescribed by the edu-
skills appropriate to a level-1 qualification, to en- cation authorities.
ter the labour market as satisfactorily as possible, Pupils successfully completing any of the
and to improve their basic skills as a means of at- higher secondary specialties are awarded the Tí-
taining the Certificate of Secondary Education. tulo de Bachiller or Certificate of Higher Secon-
dary Education, which is valid for both vocational
Higher Secondary Education and academic purposes. All first-year and se-
cond-year subjects must have been passed to
Higher secondary education is non-compul- qualify for this certificate, which grants students
sory and lasts for two years. The entry require- access to the various types of higher education
ment for this level is possession of the Certifi- programmes.
cate of Secondary Education. In theory, students Access to university-level studies is also
enter higher secondary education at age 16 and contingent upon passing an entrance examina-
exit at age 18, but they may spend four years at tion which, together with the grades obtained
this level if necessary. in the higher secondary level, provides an ob-
The aim of higher secondary education is jective evaluation of academic maturity and
to provide pupils with the training, intellectual knowledge acquired as well as the ability to
and human maturity, knowledge and skills re- cope successfully with university-level studies.
Education 177
All students in possession of the Certificate of dependent on passing all the stipulated modules.
Higher Secondary Education, regardless of the Possession of the Título de Técnico Superior or
speciality or study course followed, are eligible Certificate of Advanced Professional Education
to sit for the university entrance examination. permits access to university-level studies.
Vocational Training Art Education
Vocational training comprises a series of train- The LOE regulates art education, the purpose of
ing measures designed to equip students with which is to guarantee quality training in the arts
specific skills related to different occupations, and provide a framework of qualifications for fu-
enabling them to enter the labour market and ture musicians, dancers, actors, artists and de-
become active participants in social, cultural signers.
and economic life. Vocational training is also Art Education comprises the following: ele-
characterised by its flexibility, enabling pupils mentary music and dance, vocational music and
to move freely between this type of education dance, and both intermediate and advanced-
and other branches of the education system. level training in the visual arts and design. It also
The purpose of vocational training is to encompasses higher studies in music and dance,
prepare pupils for employment in a professio- drama, conservation and restoration of cultural
nal field, equip them to cope with the changes assets, design, and the visual arts (including
that may occur in their employment circums- higher studies in ceramics and glass-making).
tances throughout their life, and contribute to Successful completion of vocational music
their personal development and the exercise of and dance studies leads to the relevant voca-
democratic citizenship. tional qualification. Students completing these
Vocational training is broken down into in- programmes are also awarded the Certificate of
termediate-level and advanced-level training. It Higher Secondary Education if they pass the
is organised in a series of modules of varying du- core higher secondary subjects, despite not
ration and theoretical and practical content in having followed the music and dance study
keeping with the various professional fields. The programme of the arts branch.
two levels must correspond to the National List Pupils who successfully complete interme-
of Vocational Qualifications and constitute, diate-level visual arts and design studies are
respectively, intermediate-level vocational train- awarded the Título de Técnico de Artes Plásticas y
ing and advanced-level vocational training. After Diseño or Certificate of Professional Education in
first consulting with authorities of the autono- Visual Arts and Design in their chosen specialty.
mous regions, the central government establishes This qualification permits access to the arts
the range of qualifications corresponding to vo- branch of higher secondary education. Students
cational training programmes, as well as the ba- who successfully complete advanced-level visual
sic curriculum components. arts and design studies are awarded the Título de
The access requirement for intermediate- Técnico Superior de Artes Plásticas y Diseño or
level vocational training is possession of the Cer- Certificate of Advanced Professional Education in
tificate of Secondary Education, while pupils Visual Arts and Design in their chosen field.
wishing to undertake advanced-level vocational Higher music and dance studies are orga-
training must be in possession of the Certificate nised into different specialities and comprise a
of Higher Secondary Education. Applicants for single cycle of varying duration, depending on
vocational training who do not meet the aca- their respective characteristics. Similarly, dra-
demic requirements may take a specific entrance ma education comprises a single higher-level
examination regulated by the competent educa- cycle with a duration appropriate to the charac-
tion authorities. teristics of this type of education. The conserva-
Learning is evaluated by vocational modules, tion and restoration of cultural assets is regar-
and successful completion of a training level is ded as a field of higher education.
178
The LOE created the Higher Council of Arts be included on the National List of Vocational
Education as a state advisory body and instru- Qualifications.
ment of participation with regard to this branch Programmes are organised into blocks and
of education. modules of varying duration, and they consist of
theoretical and practical subjects related to the
Foreign Language Education various professional fields.
The law also regulates foreign language educa- Adult Education

tion, to be provided by official language schools
and in keeping with the various levels recom- Nowadays, training is regarded as an ongoing
mended by the Council of Europe. The purpose process that lasts a lifetime. The value of learning
of foreign language education is to equip pupils is never lost, as economic and social changes
with the skills necessary for the appropriate use regularly require citizens to broaden their skills.
of the various languages, outside the ordinary Consequently, the provision of adult education
education system. The levels of skills offered are has increased. The LOE encourages lifelong
basic, intermediate and advanced, which corres- learning by offering young people and adults the
pond to levels A2, B1 and B2 of the Council of opportunity of combining study and training
Europe. This type of education aims to promote with their employment and other activities.
the learning of foreign languages, especially the The purpose of adult education is to offer
official languages of the European Union mem- everyone over the age of 18 – and, exceptio-
ber-states and the co-official languages in Spain, nally, young people over the age of 16 with a
as well as Spanish as a foreign language. contract of employment that prevents them
In order to be admitted to an official lan- from attending an ordinary educational esta-
guage school, pupils must be at least 16 years old blishment, or who are full-time sports profes-
in the year they begin their studies. Pupils over sionals – the chance to acquire, update, com-
the age of 14 may also be admitted to study a plete or broaden their knowledge and skills for
foreign language not provided as part of their personal and professional development pur-
compulsory secondary education curriculum. poses.
The organisation and methodology of adult
Sports Education education is based on self-learning processes and
takes into account personal experiences, needs
For the first time ever, sports education is now and interests. Training is offered through conven-
regulated by law. The purpose of this type of tional programmes (requiring the presence of the
education is to prepare pupils for a profession learner) and distance programmes. The methodo-
in a specific field or area, to facilitate their logy used is to be flexible and open in order to
adaptation to changes in the labour market and meet learners’ skills, needs and interests.
sports world, and to encourage active citizen- The range of adult education programmes
ship. It is organised around the various sports comprises basic education and post-compulsory
branches and specialities recognised by the education that offer learners the possibility of en-
Higher Council of Sports in accordance with tering higher secondary education and vocational
Article 8b of the Sports Law 10/1990 of 15 Oc- training. Appropriate measures are taken to en-
tober. The provision of sports education is or- sure that adults have access to a specific range of
ganised in association with the autonomous studies of this type, which are adapted to their
regions after consulting with their various unique circumstance. Public distance education
sports education bodies. programmes, including the use of information
Sports curricula are designed in accordance and communication technologies, are also of-
with the National Qualifications and Vocational fered.
Training System. Sports education is offered at People over the age of 25 are automatically
the intermediate and advanced levels, and may eligible to sit the university entrance examina-
Education 179
tion, regardless of whether they have any of the their capacity to cooperate with the central and
above-mentioned certificates. regional governments in the implementation of
education policy. Hence, the local councils as-
General Administration sist the education authorities in the creation,
of the Education System: Distribution construction and maintenance of state schools
of Powers between the Various and in the provision of complementary activities
Education Authorities and services. Municipal participation is also ar-
ticulated via the regional school councils and
Since the approval of the Spanish Constitution in the councils of each individual learning centre.
1978, the education system has undergone a ma- The Ministry of Education is the central go-
jor process of transformation involving the gra- vernment body responsible for the proposal and
dual transfer of functions, services and resources implementation of the government’s general
from the central government to the various guidelines on education policy. In order to exer-
autonomous regions. Hence, between 1 January cise these functions, the Ministry of Education,
1981, when Catalonia and the Basque Country Social Policy and Sports has created a series of
were granted the means and resources to exer- central units, which make up the basic structure,
cise their powers in education, and 1 January and peripheral units, which are responsible for
2000, when Asturias, Castile-La Mancha, Castile the management of tasks at the regional and pro-
and Leon, Extremadura and Murcia were granted vincial levels. In every autonomous region there
the same powers for all non-university-level edu- is a government body with the executive capa-
cation, all the autonomous regions took over the city to undertake the educational powers re-
full range of educational functions, services and served exclusively by the central government.
resources, including non-university and universi- This body is called the Alta Inspección or Go-
ty-level studies. vernment Inspectorate. In the autonomous cities
In this decentralised model of administra- of Ceuta and Melilla, the Ministry acts as the
tion, the educational responsibilities are divided competent education authority.
between the central government, the autono- Every autonomous region has created its
mous regions, local councils and the schools own model of education authority – in some
themselves. cases a Regional Ministry, in others a Depart-
The central government is responsible for ment – in keeping with the functions it has tak-
safeguarding the homogeneity and basic unity en over and the services granted by its statute of
of the education system, and guaranteeing the autonomy.
equality of all Spaniards in the exercise of their Not all towns have a designated body for
fundamental education rights as defined in the undertaking educational tasks, although in the
Spanish Constitution. These powers are mainly larger towns and cities there is usually a mu-
of a legal nature, concerning the regulation of nicipal education department.
the basic elements or aspects underpinning the The distribution of powers among the va-
system in general, although some of them are rious levels of government requires coordina-
of an executive nature. tion between the education authorities to
The autonomous regions are legally respon- guarantee the adequate execution of certain
sible for the implementation of state regulations functions, such as policy decisions that affect
and for governing the non-basic elements or as- the system as a whole and general planning,
pects of the system. With the exception of those the exchange of information for the compila-
reserved by the central government, they also tion of statistics, research in the field of educa-
have executive powers in the administration of tion, the general management of teachers and
the system in their own territory. in-service teacher training, and the accredita-
Although the law entrusts certain tasks to lo- tion of learning centres.
cal councils, it does not grant them the status of The body responsible for facilitating inter-
education authority. It does, however, recognise governmental coordination and the exchange of
180
information about the general organisation of At the different levels of educational admi-
the system is the so-called Sector Conference on nistration, including the schools themselves,
Education, whose members are the Regional there are various official bodies responsible for
Ministers of Education and the central govern- ensuring the participation of all sectors of so-
ment’s Minister of Education, Social Policy and ciety in the education community. At the nation-
Sports. The Conference is a consultative body al level, this body is the State School Council. At
with no decision-making powers. Additionally, the regional level, this function is undertaken by
there are several commissions with responsibi- the Regional, Territorial, Provincial, District and/
lity for inter-governmental coordination on a va- or Municipal School Councils. Finally, each
riety of issues. school has its own School Council and each uni-
versity its own Social Council.
Participation in the Education Community Meanwhile, there are various consultative
state bodies for institutional participation: the
The Spanish Constitution establishes that the au- General Council of Vocational Training, the Hig-
thorities are to guarantee the participation of so- her Council of Artistic Education and the Univer-
ciety in the general organisation of the education sity Coordination Council.
system. Social participation is regarded as one of The State School Council is the national body
the guiding principles of the education system. It responsible for social participation in the general
is conceived as a factor of democratisation that organisation of the system and for advice on bills
ensures greater sensitivity to social needs and as a and regulations proposed or dictated by the go-
crucial tool for promoting quality education. vernment. The members of this council represent
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

AND POWERS AT EACH GOVERNMENT LEVEL
Powers Government Structures

General management of the system, minimum standards Central units of the Ministry of
in schools, international cooperation in the fields of teach- Education.
ing, development and the general coordination of research, Peripheral units:
Government
general timetabling of education and regulation of acade- a) Government Inspectorates in

Central
mic and vocational qualifications. Government inspection, every autonomous region.

funding policy for the development, ownership and admi- b) Provincial Delegations in
nistration of state schools abroad, legal framework for fo- Ceuta and Melilla.
reign schools in Spain, education statistics for government
purposes, etc.
Government ownership in their respective regions, creation Regional Education Departments
Government
Regional
and authorisation of schools, management of staff, timeta- or Ministries of the various

bling of education, guidance and attention to pupils, grants Regional Governments.
and subsidies, etc.
Provision of land for the construction of state schools, con- Various municipal education
Government
servation, maintenance and remodelling of pre-primary and departments.

Local
primary schools, organisation of complementary activities

for school children, monitoring of compliance with compul-
sory school attendance, etc.
Source: Prepared by the Educational Research and Documentation Centre (CIDE) in line with current legislation.
Education 181
Educational Objectives for 2010

every sector of society involved in education. It
and the National Reform Programme
has a consultative status in relation to the general
organisation of the system and the basic regula- Within the framework of the Lisbon strategy
tions for the implementation of Article 27 of the and the creation of the National Reform Pro-
Constitution, as well as on general management gramme, a series of short and medium-term ob-
issues, the definition of the minimum core cur- jectives are to be met by the Spanish education
riculum and the regulation of academic qualifica- system. These objectives are shared and sub-
tions, the guarantee of equal rights and opportu- scribed by all the competent education autho-
nities in education, the establishment of minimum rities, and have been established in keeping
standards for schools and any other issues which, with those agreed upon by other European
by virtue of their importance, are entrusted to it by Union countries for 2010. The government is
the Minister of Education. totally committed to these objectives.
The Regional, Territorial or Area, Provin- However, the decentralised structure of the
cial, District and Municipal School Councils Spanish education system and the distribution of
are the senior bodies for consultation, advice powers that attributes responsibility for the exe-
and social participation in non-university-level cution of education policies to the autonomous
education in their respective geographical ju- regions means that objectives must be accepted
risdictions. by all the education authorities as well as the
The General Council of Vocational Training is individuals providing and receiving education:
the consultative body for inter-governmental insti- teachers, families and students. In the same way,
tutional participation, which acts as an advisory society must also make the necessary economic
board for the government. Although the Ministry effort to achieve said objectives.
of Education is represented on the council, it ac- For this reason that the Ministry of Educa-
tually belongs to the Ministry of Labour and Im- tion conducted a new survey of European points
migration. In addition to the central government, of reference and other relevant data that shed
a variety of union and business organisations are light on the current status of education in Spain.
also represented. As a result of this survey, three broad blocks of
The Higher Council of Arts Education, a con- educational goals and ten points of reference
sultative and participatory board, advises on this have been set for 2010. The blocks of goals are
branch of education, particularly at the higher as follows: to increase school attendance at the
levels. Participants in this council include the pre-primary and post-compulsory levels; to
Ministries of Education and of Culture, educa- achieve success for all pupils in compulsory
tional authorities, representatives of the teacher education; to promote lifelong learning, citizen-
and student bodies and individuals of renowned ship, equal opportunities and social cohesion.
prestige in this field. The autonomous regions have also been
The University Coordination Council under- asked to review and update their indicators and
takes the functions of management, coordina- points of reference. The General Education Com-
tion, planning, recommendation and advice in mittee commissioned two teams to report on and
the field of higher education. make recommendations for improving the results
obtained by pupils in compulsory secondary edu-
Education Policy cation (skills, qualification), improving the conti-
nuity of pupils in post-compulsory secondary
Currently, the main priority of the education pol- education (by reducing the drop-out rate) and in-
icy pursued by the Ministry of Education is the creasing the number of pupils obtaining exit quali-
fulfilment of the European Union’s objectives by fications in both higher secondary education and
2010, while the most important recommenda- intermediate-level vocational training. As a result
tions for action are measures to promote coo- of this work, a report has been drafted to monitor
peration, equality, and support and reinforce- the progress made towards achieving both Euro-
ment for pupils with special education needs. pean goals and the proposed benchmarks.
182
The establishment of Spanish goals for 2010 cially those at an intermediate level where, un-
and their adoption by all the competent educa- like advanced programmes, the percentage of
tion authorities are another indication – perhaps graduates is still a long way behind the Euro-
the most unequivocal – that only shared commit- pean average. The Ministry of Education in con-
ments and hard work from everyone concerned junction with the Ministry of Labour and Immi-
can lead to better and enduring educational gration, is therefore developing a “road map”
standards that satisfy the demands made of the to promote vocational training. Most notably,
education system by society in general. the principal measures include accrediting
knowledge acquired through experience to en-
Plan to reduce school drop-outs courage workers without any qualifications to
resume their studies; actively promoting the in-
Within the framework of this same line of consen- ternational mobility of vocational training stu-
sus and dialogue with all the education authori- dents; facilitating work-study combinations;
ties, the Ministry is developing a specific plan to creating a National Network of Reference Cen-
reduce school drop-outs. The plan has been ap- tres for the 26 professional fields; and expanding
proved by the Standing Conference on Education the Network of Integrated Vocational Training
and in 2009 it will be allocated 121 million euros Centres. The road map also establishes the spe-
from the ministry’s budget. The measures inclu- cific promotion of distance training, taking ad-
ded in the plan target all the sectors involved: stu- vantage of the possibilities afforded by informa-
dents, young people who have left school prema- tion and communication technologies.
turely, teachers, families, businesses and unions
and the local authorities. The aim is to halve the Grants Policy
percentage of young people between 18 and 24
who are neither studying nor have completed any In recent years the grant and bursary pro-
post-compulsory education, which has remained grammes have been continually improved with
stable for years at 30%. the dual aim of increasing the number of be-
The measures currently being developed neficiary pupils and the efficiency of bursaries
include providing more training options by di- as crucial instruments in the provision of equal
versifying the range of programmes offered and opportunities. As such, the annual budgets allo-
devising mechanisms to encourage young peo- cated to grants and other study bursaries have
ple without any qualifications to return to the risen steadily.
education system. Career guidance depart-
ments at primary and secondary schools are Reinforcement, Guidance and Educational
also being reinforced and teachers are to re- Support
ceive training in techniques for realising the po-
tential of their pupils. In relation to families, The Reinforcement, Guidance and Support
parent programmes will be encouraged and Plan (the so-called PROA Plan), devised by the
measures will be introduced to encourage pa- Ministry of Education, Social Policy and Sports
rental attendance at parent-teacher conferen- in association with the autonomous regions,
ces. The ministry is also promoting a change in was launched In 2005 with a contribution of
the education-work culture that will emphasise 4.5 million euros provided by the state govern-
the possession of the Certificate of Secondary ment, which has increased to 50 million in
Education as a basic qualification for young 2009. The plan consists of the following pro-
people wishing to join the job market. grammes:
• The School Mentoring Programme, for
Road map for promoting vocational training pupils with difficulties in the final cycle of pri-
mary education and the early years of secon-
Another priority for the government is to pro- dary education. These students receive educa-
mote vocational training programmes, espe- tional reinforcement outside of regular school
Education 183
hours from young mentors and/or members of Another aspect to note is the Educa3 Pro-
the teaching staff. The aim is to boost learning gramme, which aims to offer quality infant
and academic performance, thereby improving education for the 0-3 years stage while simul-
the pupils’ social integration. taneously addressing the need for families to
• The Reinforcement and Support Pro- be able reconcile their personal life with
gramme for socially and educationally disad- work. The programme is underpinned by the
vantaged schools. This programme aims to im- firm belief that infant education is a basic and
prove the running of schools and the results crucial factor for compensating for inequali-
obtained, working simultaneously with pupils, ties from the outset and that it also helps to
families and the local environment. The schools improve academic success at subsequent sta-
draw up an action plan in line with their spe- ges. It is an integrated programme designed to
cific needs, and the education authorities pro- promote the creation of new school places for
vide the funding for the implementation of the the 0-3 age group, and the facilities, educa-
project. tion provided and professionals who work
• The School Library Improvement Plan. The with these pupils are all governed by quality
Ministry of Education, Social Policy and Sports’ criteria. In order to achieve the objectives es-
mission to encourage reading habits among tablished in the programme, a total investment
schoolchildren, plus the improved use of and of 1.087 billion euros will be deployed be-
funding for school libraries, have resulted in an tween 2008 and 2012. Fifty per cent of this
explicit reference in the LOE to the status of libra- amount will be provided by the Ministry of
ries in schools, increased funding for libraries and Education and the remaining 50 per cent by
the use of these spaces by the community in ge- the autonomous regions.
neral. The Ministry of Education, Social Policy The priorities of the Ministry of Education
and Sports is simultaneously undertaking other also include promoting the use of information
initiatives to improve school libraries. The School and communication technologies (ICT) in the
Library Improvement Plan was launched in 2005 education system as a tool for improving
in association with the autonomous regions. Du- teaching and learning processes. To this end,
ring the first year it was allocated 25 million Euros on 4 September 2009 the Council of Ministers
in funding and another 9 million euros in each of approved the School Programme 2.0, an inno-
the following four years. The autonomous regions vative educational initiative designed to create
have each pledged a similar contribution. 21st-century digital classrooms. As part of the
The ARCE Programme contemplates the 2.0 programme, pilot experiences involving
creation of groups or networks of schools and over 7,000 pupils are being conducted in dif-
state educational institutions in the autono- ferent autonomous regions and Ceuta and Me-
mous regions and the autonomous cities of lilla, and training courses are being provided
Ceuta and Melilla for the purposes of under- to teachers all over the country. During this
taking common projects involving all the par- academic year (2009-2010), 392,000 pupils
ticipating schools and institutions. These team and 20,000 teachers in more than 14,400 to-
projects aim on the one hand to promote dia- tally digital classrooms around the whole of
logue between the schools and institutions, Spain will each be provided with an ultrapor-
and on the other to encourage the mobility of table laptop to assist their learning. The budget
pupils, teachers and other professionals, thus allocated to the programme for this academic
contributing to the acquisition and improve- year is 200 million euros, jointly financed by
ment of skills in the responsibilities, areas and the Spanish government (50 per cent) and the
subjects targeted by the project in question, as autonomous regions.
well as the capacity to work as part of a team. Within the framework of School 2.0, the
Educational networks will also be reinforced Ministry of Education has created the virtual
as a means of improving the quality of educa- school www.leer.es, with input from all the
tion in general. autonomous regions and institutions such as
184
the Spanish Royal Academy, the Instituto Cer- pulsory secondary school were phased in, as
vantes and various foundations. The aim of well as new vocational qualifications and the
this platform is to increase the importance at- elementary levels of music, dance and foreign
tached to reading, in every format, across the languages.
entire curriculum, and it therefore offers re- During the 2008-2009 academic year, the
sources and details of experiences, as well as new core curriculum for pre-primary will be
reflections and debates on reading, on the na- phased in, along with years 3 and 4 of primary,
ture of the process that enables us to become 2 and 4 of compulsory secondary, and year 1 of
competent readers, and on the conditions that higher secondary. The remaining core curricula
need to be met in order to guarantee acade- will be phased in during the 2009-2010 aca-
mic success through reading and avoid pre- demic year.
mature school leaving and academic failure.
Meanwhile, both the plan to fight premature
school leaving and the road map to promote vo- HIGHER EDUCATION
cational training make use of the advantages of
the ICTs to offer distance training programmes The Secretariat General of Universities is the di-
adapted to the needs of every pupil. Further- vision of the Ministry of Education which, un-
more, in line with teacher-training programmes der the executive management of the minister,
adapted to the European Higher Education Area, is responsible for administering all the central
future primary-school teachers will learn about government powers in university issues. In ac-
information and communication technologies, cordance with Royal Decree 1086/2009 of 3
how to apply them in the classroom, and how to July, which modifies and develops the basic
select audiovisual information that contributes structure of the Ministry of Education, this Sec-
to learning processes, citizenship training and a retariat General is subdivided into two Directo-
rich culture. Those who follow the master’s pro- rates-General:
gramme introduced this academic year 2009/ • The Directorate-General of University
2010 to become a secondary school teacher will Policy, which is responsible for the functions
acquire the skills to integrate their training in undertaken by the former Directorate-General
audiovisual and multimedia communication in of Universities and for providing assistance and
the teaching-learning process. support to the General Conference on Univer-
These initiatives complement those laun- sity Policy and the Universities Council.
ched in the previous legislature in association • The Directorate-General of Training and
with the Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade University Guidance, which is responsible for
and the Public Business Corporation Red.es, all functions related to the fully-comprehensive
such as the Internet in the Classroom Plan, provision of student services.
which was developed in close collaboration Organic Law 4/2007 (LOMLOU) of 12
with the autonomous regions. The plan includes April, which modifies the Organic Law on Uni-
instrumental measures related to equipment, versities 6/2001 of 21 December, addresses a
connectivity and technical assistance, as well as series of reforms designed to reinforce both the
specific actions designed to create an educa- independence and accountability of universi-
tional setting articulated around the natural, in- ties in fulfilling their functions. The changes in-
tegrated and efficient use of these resources, troduced are specifically aimed at improving
services and pedagogical applications. the quality of Spanish universities, and also at
facilitating their incorporation into the Euro-
Enactment of the LOE and the Implementation pean Higher Education Area (EHEA) and the
of the New Core Curricula incorporation of Spanish academic research
into the European Research Area (ERA) project.
During the 2007-2008 academic year, the first This principle has been promoted by the Euro-
two years of primary and years 1 and 3 of com- pean Union through the modernisation of its
Education 185
universities, the aim of which is to turn them agents, as well as society in general, the strategy
into active agents for making Europe the most has firm backing from the government. It is also
competitive and dynamic knowledge-based in keeping with the recommendations of the
economy in the world, capable of sustainable European Commission of May 2006 on “Deli-
economic growth with more and better jobs vering on the Modernisation Agenda for Univer-
and greater social cohesion. sities: Education, Research and Innovation”,
European universities have a crucial role to which was complemented by the Communica-
play in achieving this goal. They must become tion of April 2009 entitled “A new partnership for
the motors of a new paradigm based on the the modernisation of universities: the EU Forum
knowledge society and must also be competi- for University Business Dialogue.”
tive in the global context. This was outlined in To date, universities have achieved signifi-
the Communication of 2005 from the European cant advances in different areas of research and
Commission entitled Mobilising the brainpower have harnessed increasingly greater national
of Europe: enabling universities to make their and international resources. In this field, uni-
full contribution to the Lisbon Strategy. versities have much more than a symbolic va-
Meanwhile, one of the objectives of the lue: they have become a cornerstone for pro-
construction of the European Space for Higher moting innovation and competitiveness. Now,
Education, launched with the Bologna Decla- in addition to providing training and ensuring
ration of 1999, is the adoption of a common its relevance to the job market, they are called
framework of readable and comparable de- on to reinforce through their teaching and re-
grees as a means of enhancing the employabi- search the socalled third mission, known as the
lity and mobility of students and increasing “transfer and social responsibility function”,
the international competitiveness of European which centres among other things on collabo-
higher education. Similarly, the EU Council of rating in economic development.
23 November 2007 highlighted the role of uni- The transfer of university-generated know-
versities in the knowledge triangle model within ledge to the business world is nowadays recog-
the framework of “modernising universities for nised as crucial to a country’s development.
Europe’s competitiveness in a global knowledge Innovation will be a decisive factor in achie-
economy”. ving a high level of industrial competitiveness.
The contribution of the Spanish university This means that simply maintaining the current
system to the creation of the EHEA and the ERA, levels of achievement will not be enough. There
and its full integration with it, involves a com- must be joint action on a national scale to facili-
plete structural transformation. It also represents tate faster innovation and gain a competitive edge
a milestone in terms not only of its conception in the global economy. The projects to be under-
but also of the methodology and objectives it en- taken must be chosen very carefully. We need to
tails, offering an important opportunity for re- boost key technological advances and, in particu-
form. lar, advances generated in new fields such as na-
The so-called University Strategy 2015 has notechnology, biotechnology, biomedicine, inte-
been launched to give a new boost to the Spa- lligent machines, renewable energies, etc. Spain
nish university system. This is intended to act as boasts industries that are at the forefront of their
a catalyst for a wider debate on the role that uni- sector. Collaboration from universities can help
versities should play in the new social policies them to become leaders of innovation.
and sustainable knowledge-based productive The companies of the future will seek suc-
system, and on how a voluntary decision to im- cess and strength in the generation of know-
prove and modernise universities can lead to the ledge and technological innovation. For this,
formulation of a new social contract between they will need to rely on higher education insti-
universities and society. Led by the Ministry of tutions, which they will ask to provide new
Education in collaboration with universities, knowledge and R&D subjects. Universities
government departments, social and economic therefore have a vastly important role to play in
186
“open innovation” as dynamic generators of to enable these to award grants to universities

knowledge. Existing capacities can be optimised wishing to conduct Viability and IEC Conversion
by encouraging innovation and the full partici- Strategic Plans.
pation of companies, universities, research cen- Fifty-one projects were submitted (43 aggre-
tres and other agents. gations coordinated by state universities and
eight by private universities). The evaluation
process consisted of two phases. In the first
phase, an Expert Committee (EC) examined the
projects and made a short list of the best of them;
in total, 18 aggregation projects were selected
(15 projects coordinated by 17 state universities
2009 Action Plan for the Modernisation and 3 projects by private universities). In the se-
of Spanish State Universities within the cond phase, an International Committee made
Framework of University Strategy 2015 the final selection of projects, all of which have
obtained recognition and funding for their trans-
On 30 January the Council of Ministers ap- formation into IECs.
proved the 2009 Action Plan, which included a On 3 November 2009 the Ministry of Educa-
series of measures to step up the efforts re- tion website published the Ministerial Order ap-
quired to bring Spain in line with other OECD pointing nine experts, all with an international
nations in terms of grants and bursaries. In view reputation and standing, as members of the Inter-
of the current economic situation, it has been national Committee that would evaluate the
necessary to increase funding for grants in or- projects in the second phase.
der to meet social demand. The 18 projects shortlisted in the first phase
were publicly announced at a seminar in Madrid
International Excellence Campus (IEC) on 25 November 2009, which in addition to the
International Committee was attended by appro-
One aspect of University Strategy 2015 is the ximately 500 leading figures from relevant organ-
recently launched International Excellence isations (high-ranking officials from other minis-
Campus (IEC) programme, the aim of which is tries, members of the Expert Committee from the
to promote a new concept of the university first IEC phase, technology centres, science and
campus as a local and territorial knowledge en- technology parks, public research organisations,
vironment, where universities, research insti- hospitals, municipal councils, the Conference of
tutes, science parks, companies and other Spanish University Rectors, chambers of com-
knowledge-related agents can interact and de- merce, the autonomous regions, large companies
velop, and thus achieve excellence and inter- and business organisations, unions, student asso-
nationalisation. ciations, etc.).
The subsidies were granted via two sub-pro-
grammes: the Sub-Programme for the Develop-
ment and Implementation of a Strategic Plan, for-
mulated by the Ministry of Education, and the
R&D&I and Knowledge Transfer Sub-Programme
Order PRE/1996/2009 of 20 July established of the Ministry of Science and Innovation.
the regulatory bases for awarding public subsidies The 2009 competition funded € 54 million
for the implementation of the IEC programme in in subsidies, of which € 50 million correspond
the Spanish university system, announced the to Plan E (the Spanish Plan to Stimulate the
availability of such subsidies for the year 2009, Economy and Employment), plus € 150 million
and indicated the administrative procedures to be in loans for the governments of the autono-
followed in granting the IEC distinction and in mous regions. These loans are to be offered to
taking out contracts with the autonomous regions the chosen universities in the form of subsidies
Education 187
to enable them to implement their respective • Cantabria Campus Internacional with the
International Excellence Conversion Plans. University of Cantabria (+ Menéndez Pelayo In-
ternational University).
Results of the International Committee • Ad Futurum with the University of Oviedo.
• Campus Vida (Life Campus) with the Uni-
The minutes of the International Committee state versity of Santiago de Compostela
that the IEC programme is an excellent initiative Finally, a series of projects have received the
that will help to promote the international qua- Promising EIC Project designation and are being
lity of the Spanish university system. They also encouraged to invest additional efforts into ob-
praise the work conducted by the Expert Com- taining the necessary potential for achieving the
mittee in the first phase of the programme. international excellence level on completion of
In five cases, the International Committee was their respective projects. This is the cases of:
of the opinion that their respective strategic plans • Campus de Excelencia Internacional Ca-
had great potential for achieving international ex- taluña Sur (South Catalonia IEC) with the Rovi-
cellence level after implementation of the project. ra i Virgili University in Tarragona.
All of these will receive the 2009 International Ex- • Aristos: Pasión por la Excelencia (Aristos:
cellence Campus distinction. The projects and Passion for Excellence) with the Ramon Llull
universities in question are as follows: University.
• Barcelona Knowledge Campus with the • Campus UPF - Icaria Internacional with
University of Barcelona and the Polytechnic the Pompeu Fabra University.
University of Catalonia. • Campus Montegancedo: CEI Orientado a
• Ciudad Universitaria de la Moncloa: Cam- la Innovación Tecnológica (IEC Focused on
pus de Excelencia de la Comunidad de Madrid Technological Innovation) with the Polytechnic
(the Moncloa Excellence Campus of the Autono- University in Madrid.
mous Region of Madrid) with the Complutense & • Naunova/Ciudad Politécnica de la Inno-
the Polytechnic University, both in Madrid. vación (Polytechnic City of Innovation) with the
• Campus Carlos III with the Carlos III Uni- University of Valencia & the Polytechnic Uni-
versity in Madrid. versity of Valencia.
• UAB CEI: Apuesta por el Conocimiento y • Deusto Campus Mundus 2015 with the
la Innovación (Autonomous University of Bar- University of the Church of Deusto.
celona IEC: Commitment to Knowledge and In- • Campus Excelencia Internacional Granada
novation) with the Autonomous University of (IEC Granada) with the University of Granada.
Barcelona. • Horizonte 2015 (Horizon 2015) with the
• Campus de Excelencia UAM-CSIC (Au- University of Navarre.
tonomous University of Madrid-Higher Coun- • University of Seville: International Excel-
cil of Scientific Research IEC) with the Autono- lence Campus with the University of Seville (+
mous University of Madrid International U. of Andalusia)
In four cases, the committee valued their The final stage of the 2009 programme es-
high potential for achieving the regional Euro- tablishes a series of agreements with the auton-
pean excellence level after implementation of omous regions to support the projects selected
their respective projects. These have received in the form of grants (preferably subsidies in the
the 2009 Regional European IEC distinction. case of state universities, or loans).
The committee believes that the consolidation
of this regional excellence will soon enable
University Entrance Requirements
them to achieve international excellence. The
projects in question are as follows: On 24 November 2008, Royal Decree 1892/
• Campus Agroalimentario (Food Campus) 2008 of 14 November pertaining to the entry
with the University of Córdoba (+ U. Almería, requirements for official university degree
U. Cádiz, U. Jaén, U. Huelva). courses was published. The same decree also
188
regulates admission procedures for Spanish ficial university studies, explains the new sys-
state universities. tem and articulates the procedure for designing
Access to university-level studies is via a new qualifications.
new general entrance examination which, to- The new model of university education in
gether with the grades obtained during the Spain offers greater independence to universi-
higher secondary level, assesses the academic ties, which will be able to propose the qualifi-
maturity and the knowledge acquired by stu- cations they wish to offer and design the sylla-
dents during this stage of their education, and buses. The model is a flexible one in that it
the capacity to cope successfully with universi- facilitates the connection between different
ty-level studies. fields of knowledge and is adapted both to stu-
The new university entrance examination dents’ options and professional needs.
will come into force in June 2010 and will con- The new structure comprises three cycles:
sist of two phases: a general, compulsory phase degrees (240 ECTS credits), master’s degrees
and a voluntary specific phase which will test (between 60 and 120 ECTS) and doctorates.
students on subjects related to the degree Successful completion of the first cycle
course they wish to enrol for, thus providing leads to the qualification of Graduado (univer-
them with the opportunity to improve their sity graduate).
overall grade. The second cycle, a master’s programme
It will also take into account the different worth a minimum 60 credits and a maximum
higher secondary branches and pathways that 120 credits, offers advanced monographic or
students can follow, and will be based on the multidisciplinary training, and is designed ei-
subjects studied in Year 2. ther to offer academic or professional speciali-
In accordance with Article 38.5 of the Edu- sation, or to provide an initiation into research
cation Act 2/2006 of 3 May, access to Spanish activities. It leads to the qualification of Máster
universities is also open to students exiting the Universitario or University Master.
education systems in the member countries of The purpose of the third or doctorate cycle
the European Union or those of other countries is to provide students with advanced training in
that have signed reciprocal international agree- research techniques. Completion of this cycle
ments in this respect, as long such students sa- leads to the highest qualification offered by the
tisfy the university entrance requirements stipu- education system – Doctor.
lated in their respective education systems. The new degree programmes were rolled
The university entry requirements for these out in academic year 2008-09, although until
pupils are regulated by the aforementioned they have been completely phased in they will
Royal Decree 1892/2008 of 14 November. coexist alongside the programmes offered in
There are also university entrance exami- the former university system, namely those
nations for people over the age of 25. leading to the qualifications of Licenciado
For the first time ever, and in accordance (Bachelor), Ingeniero (Engineer), Arquitecto
with the stipulations of the Education Act, the (Architect), Diplomado (Diplomate), Ingeniero
same decree also regulates university entrance Técnico (Technical Engineer) and Arquitecto
requirements for people over 45, as well as ac- Técnico (Tecnical Architect). All of these will be
cess via the accreditation of work or profes- phased out by 1 October 2015.
sional experience for people over 40.
Adaptation of Qualifications
Current Organisation to the EHEA
of University Education
In 2009 the Ministry of Education reasserted
The structure of university education in Spain is the reasons that justify joining the Bologna
determined by Royal Decree 1393/2007 of 29 process, which offers benefits to students who
October, which establishes the structure of of- belong to the EHEA. Spain is firmly committed
Education 189
NUMBER OF APPROVED DEGREES AND MASTER’S

to turning its universities into a mirror of social PROGRAMMES BY FIELD OF LEARNING
reality, into a space designed for students, the
genuine protagonists of the process. The go- Approved degrees. Years 2008 and 2009
vernment believes that the best way of guaran- 45
teeing equal opportunities for students in the
EHEA is to improve the grants system; this is the 40%
40
true social dimension of the process.
As indicated, the graphics shows the ap-
35
proved degrees and master’s programmes as of 6
October 2009. In total, the Universities Council
has approved 1,275 degrees, 1,639 master’s pro- 30
grammes and 1,235 doctorate programmes.
In order to boost the adaptation of Spanish 25
universities to the EHEA, the Ministry of Educa-
tion has included loans for this purpose in the 20 18.4%
General State Budget. 16.6%
14.1%
Meanwhile, on 29 October 2009 the Com- 10.9%
10
mittee for the Definition of the Spanish Frame-
work of Higher Education Qualifications (known
in Spanish by its initials MECES) was formally 5
established, in accordance with Royal Decree
900/2007 of 7 July. 0
A comparison of the total number of de- Soc. & Legal Arts & Eng. &
grees approved to date with the number of first Sciences Humanities Architecture
and second cycle qualifications that existed in Health Sciences Sciences
2007-2008, the last academic year prior to the
introduction of the new degrees in 2008-2009, Approved master’s programmes. Year 2009
reveals that 47.8% of the qualifications have al- 40

ready been adapted. The fields of learning
where adaptation has been the fastest are 35.5%
35
Health Sciences (86.1%) and Arts and Humani-
ties (62.9%). These are followed by Sciences
30
(52.3%) and Social and Legal Sciences (50.0%).
The least adaptation has occurred in the field of
Engineering and Architecture, at just 26.4%. 25
In this academic year of 2009-2010, diffe-
21.4%
rent training structures coexist in Spanish uni- 20
versities: first and second cycle programmes, 15.0% 14.3%
13.8%
degree courses (this is the second year that these 10
have been offered), official master’s programmes
(which have been offered for the last four years)
5
and doctoral programmes (including those re-
gulated by Royal Decree 778/1998, currently
being phased out, as well as those regulated by 0
Royal Decree 56/2005 and the new doctorates Soc. & Legal Arts & Eng. &
Sciences Humanities Architecture
contained in Royal Decree 1393/2007).
Health Sciences Sciences
In academic year 2008-2009, there were
1,504,276 students enrolled at Spanish univer- Source: Ministry of Education - Universities (updated 6 October
sities, broken down as follows: 1,358,875 stu- 2009).
190
dents on first and second cycle courses; 18,353 the students enrolled on these programmes are
students on degree courses (programmes women.
adapted to the EHEA and offered for the first In the last decade, the number of university
time that year); 49,799 students on official mas- students enrolled in the first training level (first
ter’s courses; and 77,249 students on doctoral and second cycle) has fallen by 13.1%. Specifi-
programmes, including 5,987 adapted to EHEA cally for the last academic year, the figure was
guidelines. 0.9%. This decline in the number of university
54.2% of all university students are women students over the last decade can be explained
and there is a greater presence of women than by the decrease that is occurring in the univer-
men in every level of university training, as fol- sity-age population, namely among young peo-
lows: 54.4% among first and second cycle stu- ple between 18 and 24, which has fallen by
dents, 53.7% among degree students, 53.3% 18.3% during this time and by 2% last year.
among official master’s students and 52% These figures indicate that the number of uni-
among doctoral students. versity students is falling at a slower rate than
A higher proportion of women than men the population in the 18-24 age group. The net
hold university qualifications. In academic year rate of people aged between 18 and 24 in full-
2007-2008, 61% of the students who completed time education is 23.8%.
first and second cycle programmes were women, Social and Legal Sciences attract 50.9% of
55.3% of those who obtained a master’s degree the total students enrolled on first and second
and 51.9% of those who completed a doctorate cycle and degree programmes, followed by En-
(either in training credits or presentation of thesis). gineering and Architecture at 24.5%, Health
In relation to the distribution of women in the Sciences at 9.2%, Arts and Humanities at 9%
various fields of learning, there is a higher female and Sciences at 6.4%.
presence in Humanities and Health Sciences and The fall in the number of enrolments over
a lower presence in the technical branches: the last decade, brought about by the population
Health Sciences (73.6% for first and second cycle decline for this age group, has also led to a re-
programmes and 64.3% for degree programmes), duction in the number of university graduates
Arts and Humanities (61.6% for first and second (-5.9%), albeit to a smaller extent than in the
cycle and 62.1% for degrees) and Social and case of enrolments. In the last three years, since
Legal Sciences (62.5% for first and second cycle academic year 2005-06, the number of students
and 56% for degrees). However, in the field graduating from first and second cycle pro-
of Engineering and Architecture, less than 30% of grammes has stabilised at around 187,000. Spe-
RANGE OF PROGRAMMES BY UNIVERSITY TYPE AND FIELD OF LEARNING(1) YEARS 2007-2008 AND 2009-2010
1st & 2nd cycle. 2007-2008 Degrees. 2009-2010 % adapted to the EHEA
Total 2,669 1,275 47.8%
Field of (2)
Social & Legal 1,019 510 50.0
Engineering & Architecture 803 212 26.4
Arts & Humanities 372 234 62.9
Health Sciences 209 180 86.1
Sciences 266 139 52.3
1
To measure the percentage of degree programmes adapted to the EHEA in academic year 2009-2010, they have been compared to the
situation in 2007-2008, prior to adaptation.
2
1st and 2nd cycle fields of learning have been adapted to those for the new degree.
Source: Ministry of Education - Universities.
Education 191
STUDENT ENROLMENTS AND GRADUATIONS IN THE UNIVERSITY SYSTEM BY SEX. ACADEMIC YEAR 2008-2009
Enrolments Graduation(2)
Total % of women Total % of women
1st and 2nd cycle students 1,358,875 54.4% 187,813 61.0%
Social & Legal Sciences 692,615 62.5% 97,171 69.1%
Engineering & Architecture 335,279 27.1% 42,386 30.0%
Arts & Humanities 122,227 61.6% 13,692 66.8%
Health Sciences 122,310 73.6% 22,355 77.8%
Sciences 86,444 58.2% 12,209 66.6%
Degree students 18,353 53.7% – –
Social & Legal Sciences 8,041 56.0% – –
Engineering & Architecture 2,570 24.5% – –
Arts & Humanities 2,253 62.1% – –
Health Sciences 4,683 64.3% – –
Sciences 806 38.6% – –
Master’s students 49,799 53.3% 13,796 55.3%
Doctoral students 77,249 52.0% 23,499 51.9%
1
Provisional data. 2Graduations in academic year 2007-2008.
Source: Ministry of Education-Universities statistics.
EVOLUTION OF STUDENTS ENROLLED ON 1ST AND 2ND CYCLE PROGRAMMES AND DEGREES BY FIELD
OF LEARNING. ACADEMIC YEAR 1998-1999 AND 2008-2009
50.7% 50.9%
1998-1999 2008-2009
23.5% 24.5%
10.2% 9.0% 7.1% 9.2% 8.5% 6.4%
Social & Legal Engineering Arts & Humanities Health Sciences Sciences
Sciences & Architecture
DISTRIBUTION AND EVOLUTION OF STUDENTS IN DIFFERENT ACADEMIC YEARS.

(PROVISIONAL DATA)
55.8%
51.7%
1997-1998 2007-2008
22.6%
18.3%
9.1% 7.3% 10.1% 11.9%

6.7% 6.5%
Social & Legal Engineering Arts & Humanities Health Sciences Sciences
Sciences & Architecture

192
EVOLUTION OF TEACHING
AND RESEARCH STAFF (TRS)
2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008
Total % of women Total of women Total % of women
ALL 101,660 35.4% 102,300 36.1% 105,034 36.4%
State Universities 93,033 35.1% 93,372 35.5% 96,462 36.0%
Civil 52,441 33.5% 51,125 33.7% 51,262 33.9%
University Professors (UP) 8,786 14.1% 8,659 14.3% 9,075 15.0%
Permanent University Staff (PUS) 28,202 36.34% 28,069 36.6% 28,509 37.1%
University College Professors (UCP) 2,471 33.0% 2,348 33.0% 1,973 31.8%
Permanent University College Staff (PUCS) 12,108 41.3% 11,839 41.4% 11,480 41.4%
Others 874 31.9% 210 23.3% 225 28.9%
Contract Staff 40,592 37.1% 42,247 37.7% 45,200 38.3%
Private and Church-Funded Universities 8,627 39.3% 8,928 41.5% 8,572 41.2%
EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATIVE

AND SERVICES STAFF (ASS)
2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008
Total % of women Total % of women Total % of women
ALL 53,294 58.2% 54,286 58.6% 55,774 58.9%
State Universities 48,850 57.9% 49,651 58.4% 50,880 58.5%
Civil 26,583 43.3% 27,640 68.5% 29,067 68.3%
Group A 1,776 44.4% 1,855 48.8% 2,133 49.6%
Group B 4,061 43.7% 4,153 62.6% 4,289 62.3%
Group C 12,356 44.4% 12,899 69.9% 13,987 69.6%
Group D 7,434 41.3% 7,808 76.4% 7,686 76.5%
Group E 927 44.0% 896 50.1% 947 50.7%
Others 29 40.6% 29 51.7% 25 48.0%
Contract Staff 22,011 42.0% 21,735 45.4% 21,561 45.3%
I 2,759 45.8% 3,093 46.9% 3,113 46.9%
II 2,110 38.8% 2,280 39.8% 2,257 41.5%
III 7,399 34.2% 7,339 34.8% 7,192 36.7%
IV 6,666 53.3% 6,773 53.7% 6,013 55.8%
V 2,129 62.9% 1,599 62.0% 1,683 47.0%
VI 244 54.9% 0 – 228 31.1%
Senior 73 30.1% 94 31.9% 288 37.2%
Other 631 51.0% 557 51.7% 787 51.1%
International State Universities 256 66.8% 276 66.3% 252 61.5%
Private and Church-Funded Universities 4,444 61.6% 4,635 61.4% 4,894 62.7%
Education 193
cifically for academic year 2007-08, the number is a top priority in addressing the economic cri-
of students who graduated was 187,813. sis. The basic maximum family income deter-
Meanwhile, 105,034 people were em- mining grant eligibility has been raised, the
ployed as Teaching and Research Staff (TRS) in budget allotted to this purpose has been in-
academic year 2007-08, representing an increased and new types of grants and bursaries
crease of 2.7% in relation to the previous year. have been introduced.
Of these, 96,462 worked in state universities This government believes that education is
and 8,572 in private or church-funded universi- the best investment for the future of the country
ties. Of the total TRS in state universities, and that no one should be prevented from stu-
51,262 are civil servants and 45,200 are on dying for financial reasons, and it has provided
contract. the means to guarantee this.
Women account for 36.4% of TRS in state Meanwhile, guaranteeing access to educa-
universities and 41.2% in private universities. tion through an efficient university grants poli-
The percentage of women among the civil ser- cy is another government priority, despite the
vants is 33.9%, the female presence being the current restrictions on public spending.
lowest among university professors (15%) and Royal Decree 922/2009 of 29 May sets out
highest among the permanent staff of university the family income thresholds (including ear-
colleges (41.4%). nings and estate) and the different Ministry of
The largest category of TRS is Permanent Education study grants and bursaries for aca-
University Staff, with a total of 28,509 (60.8% demic year 2009-2010. Specifically, the decree
of all female staff and 52.9% of all male staff). details the different university and non-universi-
Among the latter, University Professors consti- ty study grants and bursaries for academic year
tute the second largest group (22.8%), while 2009-2010, income thresholds, scope, mobility
only 7.8% of women belong to this category. grants, etc.
In academic year 2007-2008, 55,774 peo- The grants programme for academic year
ple were employed as Administrative and Ser- 2009-2010, partly funded from the 2010 bud-
vices Staff (ASS), representing an increase of get, contained several improvements in relation
2.7% in relation to the previous year. Of these, to previous years, most notably higher income
50,880 work in state universities and 4,894 in thresholds to enable more families to benefit
private universities. Civil servants account for from the scheme. Specifically, the number of
57.1% of the total ASS in state universities. students eligible for a grant has risen by 5%.
Women are a majority (58.9%) in the ASS Furthermore, in order to help students
category. In state universities, there is an une- from families with smaller incomes to success-
qual presence of women among contract staff fully complete their university degree pro-
(45.3%) and civil servants (68.3%). In the most grammes, the grants scheme for academic year
specialised corps, known as Level A, there are 2009-2010 introduced a compensatory grant
equal numbers of women (49.6%) and men. for students commencing their studies. The ba-
Below this level, women are the majority pre- sic amount awarded for this type of grant is
sence in university administration services. 2,800 euros, rising to a maximum of 6,000 eu-
ros, including fees and mobility bursaries, etc.,
for students at the lowest income threshold.
Grants and Bursaries Policy
Similarly, a maintenance grant of 1,350 euros
The study grants and bursaries policy is a funda- has been introduced to ensure that no young
mental instrument aimed at guaranteeing the ef- person has to abandon the education system
fective exercise of the right to education in equal before obtaining the Certificate of Secondary
conditions. It is also a means for promoting mo- Education. The grant is linked to academic per-
bility as a factor of integration and social cohe- formance and is targeted at young people en-
sion in Europe, and for promoting knowledge rolled on Initial Vocational Qualification Pro-
and recognition. It is not just another policy – it grammes.
194
INCOME CEILING VALUES ACCORDING TO TYPE OF GRANT AND BURSARY

(ROYAL DECREE 922/2009 OF 29 MAY)
Modalidades de Beca Income Ceiling
13,577 € 30,287 € 36,421 € 38,831 €
Compensatory grant (2,800 euros)1 •
Inter-city transport (between 190 and 928 euros)1* • •
City transport (183 euros)1** • • •
Accommodation (2,531 euros)1** • • •
Materials (242 euros)1 • • •
Free exemption (1,200 euros, Average price)1, 2 • • •
Mobility without accomodation2
Special mobility 3,772 €
General mobility 1,592 €
Mobility with accommodation2
General mobility 5,828 €
Mobility with accommodation 3,303 € 3,303 €
1
For students enrolled at a university outside their autonomous region. *The maximum grant is 5,170 euros for students who live at home.
** The maximum grant is 6,956 euros for students who live away from home.
2
For university students studying outside their autonomous region. The maximum grant is 7,028 euros for students who live away from
home and 4,972 euros for those who live at home.
All of these measures will enable the gov- fulfil these requirements and are in possession of
ernment to fulfil its pledge to ensure that 50% a qualification that entitles them to follow a mas-
of secondary pupils and 30% of tertiary stu- ter’s programme at a Spanish university, regard-
dents receive some form of bursary.
The government’s goal for 2015 is to de-
vote sufficient efforts to improving the current HOMOGENEOUS BUDGETS 2009 AND 2010
indicator for Spain and bring the country closer
to the OECD average.
TOTAL M€: 1,342.09 1,393.91 3.86%
The grants policy also includes student
mobility bursaries for ERASMUS programmes, 51.80 M€
thus sustaining the vast efforts of the previous
two years, which demonstrate that students
who undertake study abroad improve their em-
ployability. Furthermore, the overall budget for
these grants has been increased by an addi- General
non-university 389.0 0.84%
tional 61.5 million euros to subsidise English grants & 385.7
courses for young people. bursaries
Meanwhile, Order EDU/2901/2009 of 28
October, which modifies Order EDU/2278/2009 General
of 13 August, announced a grant scheme to cover university grants 491.0 528.0
& bursaries 7.54%
the enrolment fee of official master’s pro-
grammes for legally unemployed university gra-
Homogeneous Homogeneous
duates. This ministerial order is targeted at budget budget
university graduates in the 25-40 age group who 2009 2010
Education 195
FUNDS ALLOCATED TO THE ERASMUS PROGRAMME
Million euros 66.0

60.0
50.4
41.2 43.1
32.0
17.8
4.6 5.1 5.6
2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010
European Funds Ministry of Education Funds
EVOLUTION OF LOANS FOR STUDENT GRANTS AND BURSARIES.

DATA FOR INITIAL LOANS
Euros
1,400,000.00
1,393,906.45
1,332,673.42 1,342,087.88
1,300,000.00
1.277,261.60
1,200,000.00
1,100,000.00
1,000,000.00 988,413.76
908,430.12
900,000.00
821,988.30
800,000.00
700,000.00
600,000.00
500,000.00
0.00
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years
less of their nationality. In 2009 the overall duced online application and status monitoring
budget for Séneca grants was 9.8 million euros. facilities.
Similarly, mobility bursaries for doctoral pro- The year 2009 also witnessed the introduc-
grammes have been made available to teachers tion of subsidies for Tutorial Action Plans (TAPs)
and students to promote the presentation of the- at Spanish universities, as well as grants for pro-
ses eligible for the European doctorate mention. moting the development of training, cultural
The overall budget for this programme is 2.8 mil- and scientific activities and student campaign
lion euros. programmes and activities related to EHEA
The government is significantly increasing adaptation.
the budget allocated to grants and bursaries, as The annual grants scheme for University
shown in the tables below, and it has also intro- Teacher-Training (UTT) was continued in 2009.
196
Under the auspices of this scheme, 950 tea- • To identify the R&D&I programmes tar-
chers will receive either a monthly training grant geted at universities or centres either attached
of 1,142 euros or an average monthly training to or dependent on universities, as well as the
contract of 1,368 euros. Ministry of Education programmes of actions
As of 2009, the Ministry of Education is that overlap with the scope of the Ministry of
also responsible for funding pre-doctoral Science and Innovation.
grants for the Salvador de Madariaga Pro- • To analyse the development of joint ac-
gramme at the European University Institute. tions.
With a total budget of 2.2 million euros, this • To ascertain the general activities planned
programme offers doctoral training for trainee by the two ministries.
research staff. • To ascertain which actions undertaken by
Efforts have been stepped up to create a both ministries as part of the National R&D&I
structure of programmes to facilitate the mobility Plan might be included in the common lines of
of university teaching and research staff as part action.
of an overall national R+D human resources • To coordinate the actions undertaken as
policy aimed at improving the groups and the part of the University Strategy 2015, and in par-
excellence of the different institutions. To date, ticular those related to promoting research and
1,380 stays abroad have been undertaken. transferring knowledge.
• Any other functions within its scope that
are attributed to the committee.
Constitution of the Ministry of Science
The two ministers will take turns to chair
& Innovation and Ministry of Education
the committee, occupying the post for a period
Coordination Committee
of 12 months. The Minister of Science and In-
On 6 November 2009 the Council of Ministers novation will be the first person to occupy the
approved by Royal Decree the constitution of chair. The committee will meet at least twice a
the Ministry of Science and Innovation and year and may create as many working groups
Ministry of Education Coordination Commit- as it deems appropriate.
tee. The purpose of the committee is to adopt The post of deputy chair will be occupied by
the necessary measures to coordinate R&D&I the minister who is not currently chairing the
action at universities, given that these establish- committee. There will also be three committee
ments play a crucial role in R&D&I. The com- members from each ministry, all of whom will
mittee’s functions are as follows: have the rank of Director-General or higher.
OFFICIAL WEBSITES
http://www.educacion.es/educacion/universidades
http://www.educacion.es/universidad2015/portada.html
http://www.educacion.es/universidad2015/programas-estrategicos/campus.html
http://www.educacion.es/educacion/universidades/investigacion.html
http://www.educacion.es/educacion/universidades/estadisticas-informes.html
http://www.educacion.es/educacion/universidades/convocatorias.html
CHAPTER IX
RESEARCH,
SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY
AND INNOVATION
RESEARCH,SCIENCE,TECHNOLO
GYANDINNOVATIONRESE
ARCH,SCIENCE,TECHNOLO proof of Spain’s firm commitment to the Lisbon
Strategy. Its mission is to promote the knowledge
GYANDINNOVATIONRESE economy by serving as a nexus between two
areas: research and innovation.
ARCH,SCIENCE,TECHNOLO In Spain, the articulation of a solid and
clearly defined science and technology policy
has occurred later than in many other European
GYANDINNOVATIONRESE countries. The turning point came in 1986 with
the drafting and approval of the so-called Sci-
The Ministry of Science and Innovation is the ence Law, which made research a permanent
central government department responsible for issue on the political agenda and gave rise to
drafting and implementing the administration’s the creation of a government framework for ac-
policy with regard to scientific research, techno- tion. This law recognised the important con-
logical development and innovation in every nection between science and socio-economic
field, and for coordinating all state-operated development in industrialised countries and
public research organisations. Specifically, it is recommended a coordinated focus based on
this ministry’s task to draw up, administer, moni- research goals on one hand and the policies of
tor and evaluate the nationwide programmes R&D sectors on the other.
and strategic actions conducted as part of the More than twenty years have now gone by
National Scientific Research, Development and since the enactment of the Science Law, and the
Technological Innovation Plan (also known as figures for research, science and technology in
the National R&D&I Plan). Spain show an advance in the field as well as
signs of change. The human and material re-
sources dedicated to research have increased
RESEARCH, SCIENCE, enormously.
The total expenditure on R&D activities
TECHNOLOGY
climbed from 0.43% of the GDP in 1980 to
AND INNOVATION 1.35% in 2008, although this is still a long way
Existe In the world’s leading developed coun- behind the figures recorded for the leading Euro-
tries there is a broad consensus on the impor- pean countries.
tance of science and technology in economies The number of researchers (with the equiva-
in which competitiveness and social welfare lent of full-time contracts) rose in relative terms
largely depend on the generation and applica- from 1.4 to 6.47 per thousand of the working
tion of new knowledge. Since the 1950s, these population between 1980 and 2008. Different
countries have also witnessed a steady growth of specific actions are being undertaken to boost
scientific activity and of the number of institu- these figures even higher, such as the I3 Pro-
tions and individuals dedicated to it. The view gramme aimed at encouraging long-term con-
of science as a tool for generating knowledge tracts for researchers at public research organisa-
that can be applied to technological innovation tions and universities.
is increasingly more widespread. The most important spenders on R&D
At a special meeting of the European Council (14.701 billion euros in 2008) are companies
in Lisbon in 2000, the European Union set the (54.9%) and higher education (26.7%). In terms
strategic objective of turning the Union into the of investment funding, corporate contributions
“most competitive and dynamic knowledge- – also well below the European average – ac-
based economy in the world, capable of sustain- count for 44.9% of the total.
able economic growth with more and better jobs As for results achieved, the Spanish system
and greater social cohesion, and respect for the is another example of the European paradox in
environment”, by the year 2010. The creation of that a relative success in the generation of
the Ministry of Science and Innovation in 2008 is knowledge is not accompanied by a commen-
Research, Science, Technology and Innovation 199
R&D EXPENDITURE. EVOLUTION
Millions of euros
16,000
14,000
•
•
12,000
•
10,000 •
•
• •
8,000
6,000 • • •
• •
• • • •
4,000
•• • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
2,000
•
• • •• •• •• •• •• •• • • •• • • •
•• •• •• •• •
• • • • • •
0 •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
• Total
• Government • Higher Education • Companies • Not-for-profit Private
Institutions
Source: EUROSTAT.
PERCENTAGE OF R&D EXPENDITURE IN RELATION TO GDP
1.40
•
1.30
• 10.2
1.20 •
1.10 • •
• • •
1.00
• •
• •
0.90
• • •
• •
0.80 • •• ••
•
0.70
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
• Total (base 95) • Total (base 00)
Source:Spanish Statistical Institute.

200
EQUIVALENT FULL-TIME RESEARCHERS
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
Government: 17.2%
Companies: 35.4%
Higher Education: 47.1%
100,000
50,000
0
Germany
France
United Kingdom
Spain
Italy
Sweden
Netherlands
Finland
Belgium
Austria
Denmark
Portugal
Greece
Ireland
Luxembourg
Source: EUROSTAT. 2007 Data. Provisional or estimated data.
PATENT APPLICATIONS IN THE PERIOD 2007-2008
Types 2007 2008 (+/-) Annual

National Patents 3,439 3,783 10%
PCT Patents (filed in Spain) 999 1,064 6.51%
Source: Spanish Patent and Trademark Office
surate application and use of scientific advan- The Technical-Scientific System

ces by the production network and society. In
terms of the publication of articles in interna- The generation and production of new know-
tional journals, Spanish scientific production ledge and technologies are usually described
now ranks ninth in the world. In contrast, the as a system, that is, a group of connected com-
evident dynamism of basic research in Spain is ponents that exchange resources and informa-
not matched by patent applications and con- tion on priorities and produce a series of results
cessions, which are still notably lower than the with impact for the production network and so-
European average. ciety in general.
The framework for the Spanish technical- promote the creation of technology-based
scientific system is established in the Science companies, boost innovation in every sector of
Law and comprises a variety of institutions: the the Spanish production network, guarantee ef-
public authorities, which provide planning and fective public-private collaboration, and design
funding, set the guidelines and priorities for re- efficient knowledge transfer systems.
search and define a framework of action for Within these bodies, the Spanish Foundation
R&D activities, as well as having bodies spe- for Science and Technology (Spanish acronym:
cialised in the management and application of FECYT) promotes the social dissemination of
scientific policy; the public R&D system, which scientific culture by identifying opportunities and
includes the public institutions dedicated to needs and drafting proposals for action, while
technical-scientific production as well as com- the Centre for Industrial and Technological De-
panies – organisations that are both producers velopment (Spanish acronym: CDTI) encourages
of technological innovation and recipients of the innovation and technological advancement
the knowledge and technological advances of Spanish companies. Support for innovative
generated by the R&D system. companies and non-technological innovation in
The system also relies on support infras- the country is the remit of the State Society for the
tructures, mainly of a public nature, such as Development of Design and Innovation (Spanish
liaison units between the public and private acronym: DDI). Dependent on the Secretariat-
sectors of the R&D system and other services General of Innovation, this organisation pro-
crucial to research activity, such as laboratories motes and disseminates design as a strategic fac-
and other scientific infrastructures. tor of innovation and business competitiveness.
With science and technology now firmly Another two bodies also contribute to the
on the political agenda, the government has tasks of institutional and geographic coordina-
defined a stable science and technology policy tion: the General Council of Science and Tech-
and allocated crucial funding to R&D activities. nology, designed to coordinate and cooperate
Hence, 43.7% of the total spending on R&D is with the autonomous regions; and the Science
provided by the public sector. In Spain, govern- and Technology Advisory Board, whose func-
ment promotion is particularly complex due to tion is to liaise with relevant economic and
the profound political decentralisation defined social agents, such as trade unions and emplo-
in the Constitution of 1978. Nowadays, the au- yers’ organisations and the scientific commu-
tonomous regions are also active in this field nity itself.
with their own organisations and specific ac- The public R&D network in Spain has a
tion plans. In fact, they actually provide around dual nature, its main agents being the universi-
half of all public funds for R&D. ties and the public research organisations
Within the Ministry of Science and Innova- (OPIs). The main research centre is the Higher
tion, the Secretary of State of Research compris- Council of Scientific Research (CSIC), which is
es the following: a Directorate-General of Re- multidisciplinary and multi-sectored, and there
search and Coordination of the National R&D&I are five other organisations specialised in food
Plan, which helps to define research policies; and agriculture (INIA-National Institute for
and a Directorate-General of International Co- Agricultural Research), fishing and oceanogra-
operation and Institutional Relations, whose phy (IEO-Spanish Institute of Oceanography),
purpose is to spread the knowledge generated soil and land (IGME-Geological and Mining
by the Spanish scientific and technological sys- Institute of Spain), energy and the environment
tem to other countries and to help define re- (CIEMAT-Centre for Energy, Environmental and
search policies in collaboration with the autono- Technological Research), astrophysics (IAC-As-
mous regions. trophysics Institute of the Canary Islands) and
Meanwhile, the mission of the Secretariat- health (ISCIII-Carlos III Institute of Health).
General of Innovation is to encourage the de- The CSIC, a government agency whose
velopment of Spain’s technological capacity, roots can be traced back to the centre and labo-
202
Almería Solar Platform. Interior of the solar furnace.
ratories created by the Board for the Expansion gether through joint CSIC-University units, uni-
of Scientific Studies and Research in 1907, is versity research institutes and other collaborative
currently Spain’s most important public research units with other public and private organisations.
organisation. It has 130 centres throughout the All of these are the result of a working methodol-
country, which are either run solely by the CSIC ogy that seeks to maximise efforts through col-
or operated jointly with universities and regional laboration and approach research problems and
authorities, and it employs 13,500 people, ap- subjects from a multidisciplinary perspective.
proximately half of whom are researchers. Its ac-
tivity is multidisciplinary and addresses a wide R&D and Innovation Intermediaries
range of sectors and every field of knowledge.
The CSIC conducts basic research such as tech- To support this network, the Spanish scientific
nological development, shares the knowledge system has a variety of organisations, bodies
gleaned from its work, helps create technology- and action frameworks that serve to place R&D
based companies and promotes the advance- at the disposal of the corporate world. Their
ment of scientific culture in society. With 6% of purpose is to permit the application of new
all Spanish researchers on staff, the CSIC is res- knowledge and technology to Spanish produc-
ponsible for 20% of the articles in international tion. These organisations and instruments in-
scientific journals published by Spanish authors clude the following:
and for 50% of the articles appearing in the most • Technological platforms, which involve all
prestigious publications. In 2007 it became a parties determined to promote R&D and innova-
government agency, a new legal status that will tion in a specific sector (businesses, technology
help this institute achieve its goal of contributing centres, universities, etc.). These are forums of
to the advancement of knowledge and to eco- great strategic importance given their contribu-
nomic, social and cultural development. tion to employment, competitiveness and know-
The state universities, the CSIC and other ledge-based growth. By identifying the existing
public research organisations work closely to- medium- or long-term technological needs, they
facilitate the creation of the so-called Strategic searchers as well as administration departments
Research Agendas, which provide orientation on and personnel. At present, there are 96 Tech-
regional, national and European investments of nology Centres in Spain, 72 of which applied
interest to that specific sector as well as on public for the financial aid packages offered by the
and private R&D investments that the sector may Ministry of Science and Innovation in 2008.
require. There are approximately 50 technology • The Singular Scientific and Technical Fa-
platforms in existence, which during the period cilities (ICTS) are one-of-a-kind centres that re-
2005-2008 received 6,675,119 euros in the form ceive public funding and support by virtue of
of government subsidies. their high investment and maintenance cost or
• Singular Strategic Projects (PSE) created their unique and strategic nature. There is a na-
to implement the Strategic Research Agendas. tional ICTS network of 55 facilities: 23 are al-
These are projects that facilitate the creation of ready operational, 24 have been approved and 8
large consortiums in which numerous public are in the works or under construction. Every fa-
or private representatives of the science and cility is co-funded by the autonomous region in
technology community participate, for the pur- which it is located. Examples of existing ICTS
pose of carrying out an action with a specific centres include the Antarctic Bases, the Solar
timeline and scope. Their structure includes Platform of Almería or the Iris Network of ad-
everything from a steering committee to scien- vanced telematic services for the science com-
tific and technical committees. In addition to munity. In addition to these ICTS, Spain partici-
applied research, they may address technologi- pates in major international facilities such as the
cal development and demonstrations. European Space Agency (ESA) and the European
• Technology Centres, non-profit organisa- Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN).
tions that conduct R&D and innovation projects • Finally, mention must be made of the net-
with companies. These are often described as work of Spanish companies, whose importance
intermediaries between public research and cannot be underestimated as it is they who put
productive output, but they are more than that: knowledge to work and make it profitable. They
they generate knowledge, have important fa- are the ones who develop innovations based on
cilities and laboratory equipment and boast the resources provided by other components in
their own staff of technological experts and re- the system, whether by improving production
The “Hespérides” vessel

in the Gerlache Strait
(Antarctic).
204
• Financial aid for research and innovation.

• Specific actions to improve the system’s
operative capacity with regard to the coordina-
tion and interaction of the system’s components
(public authorities, public R&D system and
companies), the training of human resources,
the promotion of basic research and public in-
vestment in scientific and technological infras-
tructure and other R&D support services.
This boost from the public sector is correla-
ted in the figures of public expenditure. The bud-
getary provisions for this kind of activity at the
national level have increased consistently in re-
cent years. In the draft version of the 2010 Na-
tional Budget, the national policy for research,
development and innovation was provided with
9.132 billion euros in funding, most of which
will be used to finance civil research (84.9%).
This budget for civil R&D and innovation (total-
ling 7.946 billion euros) has grown by 173%
Interior of CERN, the European Organisation for Nuclear
Research. since 2004. The funds are primarily managed
and assigned by the Ministry of Science and In-
novation.
processes or putting new goods and services on In 2005, a new strategic government initia-
the market. In 2008, Spanish companies spent tive came to light – the INGENIO 2010 Pro-
54.9% of Spain’s total expenditure on R&D and gramme. In addition to maintaining existing
their investment in R&D activities represented R&D support activities, this programme intro-
44.9% of the total. These R&D companies em- duced new resources and new actions aimed at
ploy 35.4% of the researchers with equivalent strengthening public-private collaboration in
full-time contracts. R&D and innovation. It is also an instrument for
promoting Spain’s participation in the Seventh
Research Funding and Grants European Union R&D Framework Programme,
increasing critical mass and encouraging excel-
Desde Since the mid-1980s, Spain has been lence in research and the full development of
working to design and implement scientific the information society.
policy to address the shortcomings of science The end goal of Ingenio 2010, in accordance
in our country. Today, after a series of planning with the Lisbon commitments, is to improve
initiatives (National R&D and Innovation Plans) Spain’s position in the context of the European
and other ad hoc programmes, public involve- Union and the OECD in terms of both the ge-
ment in the field of science and technology has neration of knowledge and competitiveness by
materialised in different types of actions: making use of technological innovation.
• Government coordination of the design The programmes laid out in INGENIO 2010
and implementation of policy and supporting have been incorporated into the 2008-2011 Na-
structures for management and evaluation. tional R&D and Innovation Plan. The four most
• Legislative and regulatory action aimed significant are: Euroingenio (to increase the be-
at creating a favourable general framework for nefits of Spanish participation in the 7th Frame-
research, both for research activity at universi- work Programme); Avanza (managed by the
ties and public R&D centres and for the private Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade, whose
sector via tax relief measures. goal is to help Spain reach the European average
of Information Society indicators); and CENIT technological development and innovation;

and CONSOLÍDER, two initiatives of the Minis- and strategic actions.
try of Science and Innovation. In order to meet these objectives in accor-
dance with the four areas described above, the
The National R&D and Innovation Plan plan identifies six Instrumental Lines of Action
that will be further developed through National
The National R&D and Innovation Plan, which Programmes:
is funded by the Spanish government and Euro- • Human resources.
pean Union structural funds, is one of the pillars • R&D and innovation projects.
of public action and the primary instrument for • Institutional reinforcement.
planning and assigning priorities in technologi- • Scientific and technological infrastructure.
cal research and development. It contains the • Use of knowledge and transfer of techno-
plan for actions to be taken over a four-year pe- logy.
riod and defines the strategic objectives and fo- • Coordination and internationalisation of
cal points of public action and specific pro- the system.
grammes in the different scientific fields that The National Plan aims to streamline tra-
determine the ranking of priorities. The plan now ditional management mechanisms with the
in effect covers the 2008-2011 period and main- publication of a single order regulating the
tains three general principles, which are the terms of each Instrumental Line of Action and
main guidelines that shape Spanish science and one call for applications per National Pro-
technology policy: gramme. In the case of the Strategic Actions,
• To serve the citizens, ensure the welfare of their specific instruments of action may be
society and promote sustainable development, consolidated in additional calls for applica-
with the full and equal participation of women. tions. Reducing the administrative workload is
• To contribute to the improvement of busi- one of the primary goals of the 2008-2011 Na-
ness competitiveness. tional Plan.
• To recognise and promote R&D as an es-
sential tool for generating new knowledge. The ENCYT and the New Science Law
In order to follow these guidelines, the Na-
tional Plan outlines the following strategic ob- La Identifying the capacities, opportunities,
jectives: problems, challenges and ways to meet the
• To make Spain a global frontrunner of needs of the entire Spanish R&D and innova-
knowledge. tion system has served to define the so-called
• To promote a highly competitive corpo- National Science and Technology Strategy (EN-
rate sector. CYT). This strategy outlines the major principles
• To develop a comprehensive policy on that must govern our research and innovation
science, technology and innovation. policies and programmes.
• To move forward in the international con- The ENCYT, which covers the period up to
text so that the system can make a qualitative 2015, was prepared in a collaborative effort be-
leap. tween representatives of Spain’s science and
• To create a favourable environment for technology system, of the national and regional
investing in R&D and innovation. governments, of R&D and innovation workers
• To promote the culture of science and (scientists and technological experts) and of civil
technology in society. society (unions and business associations),
The structure consists of four areas that are among others. Its was agreed upon at the Inter-
directly related to these general objectives: the ministerial Commission of Science and Techno-
generation of knowledge and of scientific and logy and the Conference of Presidents of Auto-
technological capacities; the promotion of co- nomous Regions in January 2007, thus becoming
operation on R&D activities; sector-specific an element of consensus and consolidation for
206
Spain’s science and technology policies. It also Internationalisation

laid the foundation for the creation of a frame- Science and technology are high on the list of
work of greater cooperation in the R&D field be- political priorities and they have also gained tre-
tween national and regional authorities. mendous importance in global society. Spanish
As stated earlier, science and technology in science has been completely European for some
Spain have made great progress and shown an time: we played an important part in the creation
obvious tendency towards change in recent of the ERA (European Research Area) during the
years. This is why it was necessary to prepare a Ljubljana Process, providing a scientific and legal
new Science Law to replace the existing legisla- framework that would allow researchers to work
tion from 1986. Although it is currently being in conditions of improved mobility.
drafted, some of the law’s basic aspects will be The Ministry of Science and Innovation is
as follows: involved in the Joint Technological Initiatives
• Establishment of the principles and ob- (JTIs) and the Research Infrastructures (RI), par-
jectives of Spanish science and technology, ticipating in the construction of pan-European
linked to modernisation and a change in the infrastructures such as X-FEL and FAIR. It also
model of production. oversees the construction of other major facili-
• Definition of the governance mecha- ties in Spain such as the European Neutron
nisms of the Spanish science and technology Spallation Source (ESS) and the European Ex-
system, particularly those related to the bodies tremely Large Telescope (E-ELT).
and instruments of coordination, planning and Spain is involved in all major European
participation. programmes and activities in the area of scien-
• Acknowledgement of the scope of public tific and technological cooperation, such as the
involvement in the Spanish scientific system, EU R&D Framework Progamme, the Eureka
whose agents and participants have increased programme, the European Organisation for Nu-
and diversified in recent years. clear Research (CERN, home of the LHC or
• Definition of the mechanisms for trans- Large Hadron Collider), the European Molecu-
ferring knowledge to production sectors and lar Biology Laboratory (EMBL), the European
promoting innovation. Space Agency (ESA) and the International Ther-
• Positive evaluation of the research activi- monuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER).
ties of public and private agents and improve- The goals now are to internationalise Spanish
ment of the mechanisms of communication be- science - already European - even further, to sup-
tween the two. port the internationalisation of the ERA and to
• Design of the various stages of university consolidate the Latin American and Caribbean
research studies. Knowledge Area.
• Streamlining of all existing instruments The Spanish presidency of the European
for promoting science and technology. Union also provides an excellent opportunity to
• Recognition of the European nature of reinforce these convictions, particularly because
Spanish research in terms of standards, regula- it coincides with a turning point in science and
tions and priority lines of action. innovation in Europe and with the need to define
• Internationalisation (beyond the EU) of a post-Lisbon scenario that places greater impor-
the Spanish scientific system and coordination tance on these activities.
of its participation in development cooperation Our presidency pursues three goals:
projects. • To develop and strengthen the ERA.
• Familiarisation and increased awareness • To promote Europe-wide links between sci-
about science in society, with measures to fa- ence and innovation.
cilitate a better understanding of the science • To use knowledge to fight poverty and so-
community’s efforts by publicising and encou- cial exclusion.
raging a science culture.
WEBSITES
Ministry of Science and Innovation: www.micinn.es

The National R&D&I Plan: www.plannacionalidi.es
INGENIO 2010: www.ingenio2010.es
The National Science and Technology Strategy:
http://web.micinn.es/contenido.asp?menu1=2&menu2=2&dir=05_Investigacion/01@APoliticas/02@Encyt
Public Research Organisations:
http://web.micinn.es/contenido.asp?menu1=6&menu2=0&dir=05_Investigacion/04-OPI
Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology: www.fecyt.es
Centre for Industrial and Technological Development (CDTI): www.cdti.es
Innpulso www.innpulso.es
Icono (Spanish Innovation and Knowledge Observatory): http://icono.fecyt.es
CHAPTER X
THE NATURAL,
RURAL AND MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
THENATURAL,RURALAND
MARINEENVIRONMENT
THENATURAL,RURALAND persuade developed countries to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions by between 80% and
MARINEENVIRONMENT 95% by 2050. Spain has publicly announced its
commitment to reduce its emissions by 80% by
THENATURAL,RURALAND 2050, which basically means gradually switch-
ing to a carbon-neutral economy to allow for a
reasonable evolution of emissions in developing
MARINEENVIRONMENT countries.
The fight against climate change must be
CLIMATE CHANGE articulated as a cross-cutting issue aimed at
transforming the current economic and energy
One of the identifying traits of the political scene model into a sustainable model for economic
in Spain and the European Union as a whole is growth in the medium and long term.
currently the fight against climate change. This is In order to recover confidence in the ca-
a global problem and as such requires an inte- pacity to advance and consolidate an econo-
grated solution. To address climate change suc- my based on less contaminating activities that
cessfully, the issue needs to be articulated within guarantee employment and quality of life for
the framework of the United Nations and it must all citizens, this transition towards a fairer and
also be compatible with the right to develop- environmentally sustainable economic model
ment of the different nations. must aim to moderate the social impact of
As a member of the European troika, both the measures to reduce greenhouse gases
Spain firmly supports the EU’s efforts to reach and to adapt to climate change.
an ambitious and binding agreement on cli- From the legislative point of view, great
mate change for the post-2012 period at the progress has already been made in incorpora-
forthcoming Copenhagen Conference. ting as national law the directives contained in
To this end, Spain is currently developing the EU’s climate change/energy package.
an intense programme of negotiations to per- Finally, the results for reducing green-
mit the European Union to adopt a common house gases are extremely promising: emis-
position at the climate change conference, sions fell by 18.76% in the period November
with a view to arriving at an ambitious, effec- 2008-November 2009.
tive and global consensus.
In December 2008, the EU adopted an inte-
grated climate change and energy policy which
includes a series of ambitious goals for 2020.
The aim of the policy is to steer Europe towards
a sustainable future, based on a low-carbon
economy and more rational consumption.
The EU has announced its unilateral com-
mitment to a 20% reduction by 2020 and has
pledged to raise this figure to 30% if other deve-
loped countries promise to make comparable
reductions in their emissions and if developing
countries contribute according to their capaci-
ties and responsibilities. Meanwhile, the Euro-
pean Council, on behalf of the European Union,
supported the Environment Council’s goal to
The Natural, Rural and Marine Environment 211
ENVIRONMENTAL • In large cities: exceedance of the maxi-

ASSESSMENT mum established nitrogen dioxide values,
mainly due to traffic.
The Environmental Impact • Exceedance of maximum sulphur diox-
Assessment Law ide values in certain industrial areas, due to
petrochemicals or thermal power stations
The government bill to modify the Amended fuelled by carbon with a high sulphur content.
Text of the Environmental Impact Assessment In Spain, air quality assessments reflect
Law, approved by Royal Legislative Decree both our special meteorological conditions
1/2008 of 11 January, was presented to the (higher solar radiation, which favours photo-
Congress of Deputies on 08/07/2009 and is chemical pollution and, therefore, the forma-
currently in the Senate (December 2009). tion of ozone, particle re-suspensions due to
Meanwhile, efficiency measures have been the shortage of rain, etcetera) and our special
introduced to improve environmental impact geographical conditions (episodes of particle
assessment procedures, maintaining the envi- intrusions from the Sahara).
ronmental guarantees and the rigour of en-
vironmental impact statements but speeding up Measures already underway
the process involved. and measures planned
Specifically, the information system on the
environmental assessment of plans, pro- Directive 2001/81/EC on national emission
grammes and projects (SABIA) has been intro- ceilings obliges member states to draw up and
duced. Based on a telematic system embedded publish inventories and emission forecasts, and
in the website of the Ministry of Environment to introduce national programmes to gradually
and Rural and Marine Affairs, this enables in- reduce the emissions from the specified pollu-
terested parties to access information on the tants.
status of environmental impact assessments Two National Emissions Reduction Pro-
currently being processed. grammes (PNRE) have been approved to date,
the first in 2003 and the second (II PNRE) at the
The protection of the atmosphere Council of Ministers on 7 December 2007.
In accordance with the Directive, these
The European Environment Agency (EEA) esti- Programmes include information on the poli-
mates that emissions of air pollutants will fall cies and measures adopted or planned, as well
across Europe over the next two decades thanks as the quantified estimations of the effect of
to the gradual implementation of legal instru- these policies and measures on the emissions
ments to monitor emissions, either already in from the pollutants by 2010.
force or in preparation, and to structural changes The second PNRE is articulated within the
in the energy system. Most of the reductions are “National emission ceilings action plan to im-
expected to affect energy-related emissions, es- plement the Second National Emissions Reduc-
pecially SO2, NOX, COV and primary PM2,5, with tion Programme”, which was publicised in an
fewer reductions in agricultural emissions. information campaign conducted between 9
Despite the measures introduced in the past, September and 9 October 2009 and is about to
both the assessments conducted across the whole be put before the Environment Advisory Coun-
of the EU as part of the CAFE Programme (Clean cil with a view to pursuing its immediate imple-
Air For Europe, 2001) and those carried out in mentation.
Spain by the autonomous regions in keeping with One of the key features of Law 34/2007 of
current legislation reveal that contamination le- 15 November on air quality and the protection
vels with highly adverse effects still exist. of the atmosphere is the List of Potential Air Pol-
The main problems detected in the latest as- luting Activities (CAPCA), contained in Appen-
sessments conducted in Spain are as follows: dix IV. This list details the activities covered by
212
the scope of the law and assigns the ones with Waste management policy
the greatest pollutant potential to a specific Waste generation and waste management are
group (A, B or C). These groups entail different serious environmental problems for modern so-
degrees of government intervention and com- cieties, which is why there is a European waste
pliance with different obligations for the parties policy.
involved. Waste dumping or incorrect management
This project has already been publicised produces a considerable impact on the receiv-
via an information campaign and, as in the ing environments. It can also lead to water, soil
case of the former project, is expected to be put and air pollution, contribute to climate change
before the Environment Advisory Council very and affect ecosystems and human health. How-
shortly. ever, when waste is managed correctly, it can be
turned into usable resources, thus helping to
The sustainable management save raw materials, preserve natural resources
of chemical products and the climate, and contribute to sustainable
development.
The greatest instrument for the sustainable Many of the objectives and measures con-
management of chemical products in the Euro- tained in the Integrated National Waste Plan are
pean Union is the REACH Regulation, which strategic and aim to inform the development of
was passed on 18 December 2006 and came specific waste policies for different fluxes and to
into force on 1 June 2007. Its principal aim is to change waste management in Spain.
safeguard human health and the environment Work on developing this Plan commenced
from the risks of chemical substances without in 2009 and the following fundamental objec-
undermining the competitiveness of the Euro- tives have been outlined:
pean chemical industry. • To promote the correct management of
One important aspect of the regulation is all types of waste, reduce waste generation in
that the information generated by manufactu- general and encourage the most appropriate
rers and importers and evaluated by the agency management practices.
in association with the member states will • To establish priorities in the available
greatly facilitate the implementation of other waste options, from prevention, reuse and recy-
regulations related to the prevention and con- cling to energy exploitation and, finally, elimi-
trol of pollution from chemical substances. nation.
To guarantee compliance with the regula- • Ensure that all the agents involved, from
tion, a bill has been drafted establishing the government bodies and economic and social
framework for sanctions contemplated in Article agents to consumers and users, accept their
126 of the REACH Regulation. This bill has now share of responsibility in relation to waste.
been approved by the Council of Ministers and • Ensure the existence of sufficient infras-
is continuing its progress through parliament. tructures to guarantee that waste is managed
The new regulation reinforces the obliga- correctly and, as far as possible, close to the
tion of the various government authorities to place where it is generated.
collaborate in ensuring compliance with the Meanwhile, the Ministry of the Environ-
law. The text also contains a list of infringe- ment and Rural and Marine Affairs and the au-
ments and sanctions. Other articles contem- tonomous regions have embarked on an initia-
plate a sliding scale of sanctions, the role of the tive which aims to introduce the electronic
autonomous regions in imposing sanctions and processing of the control procedures for dange-
a description of the various infringements and rous waste in every autonomous region and at
sanctions. Furthermore, the bill establishes the the central ministry by 2010. Certain regions al-
prevalence of criminal liability over administra- ready have access to the electronic system
tive liability and contemplates the concurrence while others are in the process of implementing
of sanctions. it. The relevant body in each autonomous re-
The national agricultural

policy
Within the framework of the CPA and the na-
tional agricultural policy, Spanish agriculture
has a specific priority: to consolidate and in-
crease secure, quality, market-oriented and
sustainable production, in terms of both its eco-
nomic and social viability and the respect for
environmental practices and regulations, and
to fulfil the functions assigned by society which
are not strictly productive.
Products
The value of agricultural production in Spain in
2007 rose to 40.2 billion euros, of which 60.6%
corresponded to crop production.
Due to the variety of climate and soil condi-
tions, Spain boasts a great diversity of crops and,
gion will provide information on the procedure consequently, of products: Mediterranean, tro-
to be followed in submitting documentation. pical and those associated with a temperate cli-
Furthermore, the year 2009 also witnessed mate. The value of fruit and vegetable produc-
the implementation of an initiative to monitor tion represents 58% of Spanish crop production.
the different actions currently being undertaken Other crops of considerable importance are oli-
to gradually reduce the use of plastic bags. ves and grapes.
Olive oil and table olives

THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT
Spain is the largest olive oil producer in the Euro-
Agriculture in Spain pean Union, providing 48% of the total and
boasting 2.5 million hectares of land given over
Agriculture in Spain is a strategic sector of great to olive groves. The value of olive oil production
social, territorial, environmental and economic represents 7.5% of the total crop production. In
importance. the 2007/2008 campaign, over 600,000 tons of
Half of the surface area in Spain is given over oil were exported. The principal destination for
to agricultural or livestock activities (32% corres- exports is the European Union (78%).
ponds to farmland and 17% to meadows and pas- The trade balance for table olives, like olive
ture land). The agri-foodstuffs sector is one of the oil, is also notably positive. The majority of the
most dynamic sectors of the Spanish economy. production is exported, the annual average
Agricultural products continue their upward ranging between 250,000 and 300,000 tons.
trend, currently bringing in over 40 billion euros.
The Spanish agri-foodstuffs industry is the Fruit and vegetables
largest industrial sector in the country (emplo-
ying around half a million people and with The value of production in the fruit and vegetable
sales in excess of 78 billion euros, representing sector rose to approximately 14.6 billion euros in
16% of total industrial sales). 2008 (35% of the value of Spain’s agricultural
Furthermore, exports of the agri-foodstuffs production). The 2008 trade balances for both
industry consistently reveal a positive trade ba- fruit and vegetables were positive: 3.439 billion
lance. euros and 2.844 billion euros, respectively. The
214
considerably reinforced since our country

joined the European Union.
In 2008, livestock production reached 15
billion euros, which represents 35.4% of the fi-
nal agricultural production.
The most important livestock sector in Spain
is pork, which contributes a third of the total val-
ue of livestock production. After Germany, Spain
is the largest pork producer in Europe with an
animal population of nearly 26 million. It is also
the most active sector in terms of international
trade, Spanish pork exports having risen to 33%
of national production. In the last six years, pork
European Union is the principal destination for exports (both intra-Community and extra-Com-
our exports, absorbing over 85% of the volume munity) have risen by 152.5%.
and over 90% of the value. Milk production accounts for 20.4% of
Fruit, processed vegetables and citruses livestock production, and, as a result of the ap-
reported a trade balance in excess of 1 billion plication of production quotas, the cow popu-
euros. lation has stabilised at around one million
heads.
The wine sector This sector is followed in importance by
beef and veal which, with an animal popula-
The estimated average wine production for the tion of 6 million, represented 16% of livestock
2009/2010 campaign is 37.8 million hectoli- production in 2008. The next largest sector is
tres of wine and grape must, broken down as that of fowl meats, accounting for 11.5%.
follows: 14 million hectolitres of quality wines The sheep and goat sector, with a popula-
with a geographical indication, 19 million tion in excess of 22.8 million heads, (of which
hectolitres of wines without any geographical 19.9 million correspond to sheep and 2.9 mi-
indication and 4.8 million hectolitres of grape llion to goats) accounts for 8% of final livestock
must. In 2008, a record 19 million hectolitres production. The egg production sector repre-
of wine and grape must were exported, with a sents 7%.
value in excess of 2.150 billion euros. In relation to the 2008 trade balance for the
The common market is the principal desti- principal livestock products, it was positive for
nation for our exports, absorbing approximate- meat and offal (1,684,420,000 euros), eggs and
ly three quarters of the volume exported. The honey (129.32 million euros), meat preparations
five main destination countries for our products (101.42 million euros) and other products of ani-
are France, Germany, Portugal, the United mal origin (37.83 million euros). However, the
Kingdom and Italy. Meanwhile, in 2007 our ex- trade balance was negative for the milk and dairy
ports to the United States rose by 19% in terms products sector, which reported 1,087,540,000
of volume and 11% in terms of value. euros.
The livestock sector supports quality-driven
production in keeping with the European produc-
LIVESTOCK BREEDING tion model based on high food safety standards
and respect for the environment and animal wel-
A longstanding tradition in Spanish agricultural fare, combined with the sustainable use of natural
production, this economic activity has been resources.
THE FISHING INDUSTRY Atlantic. The fleet employs 33,069 workers on

IN SPAIN board (Mariners’ Social Institute figures), prin-
cipally in Galicia and Andalusia, which repre-
The fishing fleet sent 70% of the total. Spain leads the European
Union in the value of offloaded fish, in tonnage
The Spanish government has made a great ef- of fleet and in numbers of fishermen. However,
fort to adapt the Spanish fishing fleet to the fish- it ranks third, behind Greece and Italy, in total
ing grounds in order to ensure the sustainability number of vessels; and second, behind Den-
of fishing resources, and bring it in line with the mark, in volume of total captures and offloads.
European Union framework. As of 31 Decem-
ber 2007, the Spanish fishing fleet comprised Fish sales
13,006 vessels, of which 96% operate in na-
tional fishing grounds (12,494). Another 233 The marketed volume of catches stands at
vessels operate in EU fishing grounds and 279 538,128 tons of fresh fish, 219,653 tons of fro-
in the waters of third countries, although ves- zen fish and 272,596 tons from aquaculture,
sels often alternate between fishing grounds. with a total value of 1.815 billion euros.
Of the total, 70% are in convergence re-
gions (Galicia and Andalusia) and 30% in non- The foreign fishing trade
convergence regions (the remainder).
Spain has one of the highest fish consumptions
Aquaculture per capita, currently standing at around 36.5 kg
per year and doubling the EU figure of 15 kg per
Parallel to traditional fishing, the aquaculture year. Consequently, our production cannot sa-
sector has experienced extraordinary growth in tisfy market demand and Spain therefore has to
Spain. Thanks to the degree of productive and import a high percentage of its fish.
technological development in recent years, and In relation to foreign trade, Spain is among
in terms of the sustainability of resources, this the top ten countries in terms of the market value
activity has become a complementary source of fish products. Imports rose to 1,707,022 tons
of food to extractive fishing. in 2007, with a value of 5.221 billion euros. Of
In 2007, the production of marine and these, 27% (31% in value) came from EU coun-
freshwater aquaculture rose to a total 400,000 tries.
tons, of which 301,865 tons corresponded to
mussels and 98,135 tons to other fish, molluscs
and crustaceans. The breakdown within the fish
group was as follows: 17,836.3 tons of gilthead
seabream, 9,438 tons of bass and 6,215 tons of
turbot in the marine category, and approxi-
mately 30,000 tons of trout in the freshwater
aquaculture category.
Production and employment in Spain

Total captures by the Spanish fleet reached
763,864 tons in 2007, of which 355,600 tons
were extracted from the Northeast Atlantic
(ICES); 102,200 from the Western Indian
Ocean; 84,700 tons from the Mediterranean;
81,500 tons from Central East Atlantic waters
and approximately 62,000 from the Southwest Mussel farming, San Carles de la Rápita (Tarragona).
216
Meanwhile, exports rose to 967,050 tons Throughout 2008, intense efforts have been
and a value of 2.432 billion euros, with EU dedicated to the following:
countries receiving 67% (78% in value). • River Basin District Plans: through the
publication of documents entitled “Outlines of
Important Issues” and citizen participation in
WATER their contents, a set of new plans will be drawn
up and approved.
• Modernisation of irrigation systems: the
Water Policy modernisations contained in the 2006-2007
The water policy pursued by the Ministry of the Emergency Plan are on the point of conclusion.
Natural, Rural and Marine Environment is under- The public investment in the modernisation of ir-
pinned by the principles of the protection and re- rigation systems was 2.5 billion euros, represen-
covery of water masses, together with a use of ting an increase of 73.49% on the planned level
same in line with the Water Framework Directive. of investment. A National Strategy for the Sustain-
An integrated system of water resources manage- able Modernisation of Irrigation Systems by 2015
ment is currently in place, based on recovery and is also being drawn up. Its aim is to achieve the
environmental management, the improved use of social and economic sustainability of existing ir-
water, increased investment (mainly for modernis- rigation systems by encouraging environmental
ing infrastructure) and planned management for sustainability, trying to achieve energy efficiency
natural disasters such as droughts and floods. New and promoting the use of renewable energy and
river basin plans are also being prepared that re- alternative water resources. The hectares of land
flect the needs and wishes of Spanish citizens. with localised irrigation continue to outnumber
The priority projects currently underway af- the hectares of gravity irrigation, which is one of
fect the availability of resources for water basins the objectives of the modernisation plan.
with deficits or serious problems such as the over- • Water quality. Currently, 90% of waste
exploitation and contamination of aquifers. water is treated and purified. Over 800 million
EVOLUTION OF IRRIGATED SURFACE AREA

(YEARS 2002-2009)
Surface
Area (ha)
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
1,200,000
1,100,000
1,000,000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Surface Localised
Desalination Plant,
Águilas (Murcia).
euros have been invested in improving quality within the framework of the European directive
and purifying water. on the assessment and management of flood
• Desalination. Eleven new desalination risks. Thus, in 2009 over 60,000 km of newly
plants are currently in operation, producing mapped floodable zones have been published
325 hm3 per year of water recovered from the on the internet, and work continues on new
sea, which required an investment of 795 mil- maps to complete the existing cartography for
lion euros. The volume of drinking water ob- the hydrographic confederations of the rivers Jú-
tained from desalination has doubled since car, Segura, Duero, Miño and Sil, and part of the
2004. Another 13 desalination plants are cur- Northern Hydrographic Confederation. Tenders
rently under construction which, thanks to an have been put out for the production of carto-
investment of 885 million euros, will provide graphy for the River Ebro Hydrographic Confe-
an additional 293.5 hm3 of water. deration, while the remaining confederations
In an attempt to reduce speculation and are at different stages in the production of their
excessive urban development, the Land Law respective cartographies.
establishes the binding nature of the manda- The information contained in these systems
tory reports published by the hydrographic will be made available to central, regional and
confederations on the availability of water prior local government bodies and will be publicised
to commencing any new urban development in keeping with the law that regulates rights of ac-
project. cess to information.
With regard to the protection, preservation
and improvement of fluvial ecosystems, enor- Water quality
mous efforts have been invested in the develop-
ment of the National River Restoration Strategy. In 2005 an Emergency Discharge Plan with an
With over 1,500 actions and a financial invest- investment of over 20 million euros was intro-
ment in excess of 150 million euros, the strategy duced to regularise the discharge of sewage into
has generated a considerable volume of direct inland waters. Up to December 2008, nearly
employment in the rural environment and the 70% of the discharges in Spain had been re-
participation of more than 40,000 volunteers. In viewed, including all the discharges of dangerous
relation to flood prevention, a National Map of substances, those from urban areas with over
Floodable Zones is currently being drawn up 10,000 equivalent inhabitants and discharges of
218
SITUATION OF THE AGUA PROGRAMME DESALINATION PLANTS

September 2009. All Capacity Figures In Hm 3/ Year
Girona: 10
10: La Tordera* Expansion
Barcelona: 60
60: Barcelona*
*Executed by the Generalitat de Cataluña
Castellon: 33
15: Moncofar
18: Oropesa Balearic Islands: 17
17 (4 plants)
Valencia: 8
8: Sagunto
Murcia-Alicante: 334
Almeria: 117 24: Antonio León
42: Carboneras I Martínez-Campos
6: Alicante I Expansion
20: Nijar
24: San Pedro del Pinatar II
5: Adra
20: Lower Almanzora 50: Valdelentisco
30: Campo de Dalias 24: Alicante II

70: Aguilas
Malaga: 100
20: Marbella 80: Torrevieja
60: El Atabal 4: Mojon Expansion
20: Western Costa del Sol 9: Denia
18: Campello/Mutxamel
Canary Islands: 19 20: Lower Vega
9
10
GENERAL BALANCE OF DESALINATION PLANTS

Situation Resources Investment
hm3/year millions of euros
Desalinated water at start of 2004 140
In operation since 2004 325 795
Under construction 293,5 885
Contract awarded or
Ceuta: 7,5 Melilla: 7,5 Publicy announced 113 370
7,5 7,5
Total promoted by the AGUA programme 731,5 2,050
GENERAL ESTIMATED TOTAL 871,5

refrigerator and fish farm wastewaters. Work will

continue on lesser discharges until every one of
the 24,033 discharges has been regularised.
The efficiency of the measures implemented
to improve the quality of discharges is monitored
via a series of networks that check the condition
of inland waters and also via the inspection of
discharges with serious problems of overexploita-
tion and the pollution of aquifers.
THE NATURAL The brown bear is in danger of extinction in Spain. Only a

few specimens remain in the Cantabrian Mountains and the
ENVIRONMENT Pyrenees.
AND BIODIVERSITY
Endangered species the richest variety of vascular flora in Europe and

the Mediterranean region.
Thanks to its wide array of habitats, Spain has a Law 42/2007 on Natural Heritage and Bio-
great diversity of species. According to one esti- diversity established the List of Species Requir-
mate, approximately 80,000 species are present ing Special Protection and the Spanish Register
on the mainland and islands, and Spain boasts of Endangered Species, which will include the
NATIONAL LIST OF ENDANGERED SPECIES

Number of taxa (species and sub-species) listed by endangerment category
Taxonomic In danger of Sensitive to Vulnerable Of special Totals
groups extinction habitat interest
alteration
139*
Flora 112* 7* 9* 11 137 taxa
42
Invertebrates 16 7 9 10 42 taxa
430*
Vertebrates 38 7* 43* 342* 423 taxa
11
Fish 4 0 6 1 11 taxa
22
Amphibians 1 0 1 20 22 taxa
51
Reptiles 5 3 1 42 51 taxa
287*
Birds 21* 3 12* 251* 283 taxa
59*
Mammals 7 1* 23* 28* 56 taxa
611*
TOTALS 166* 21* 61* 363* 602 taxa
* Contains taxa (species and sub-species) with populations in different endangerment categories.
220
B a y o f B is c a y
ean France
a
Se
c
an
ic O
ne
ugal
ra
er
ant
it
Port
ed
Atl
M
SCIs
SPAs
SCIs & SPAs
Natura 2000
M o ro c c o
Source: Regional Governments Scale: Mainland and Balearics
Date: November 2008, Madrid 1:6,000,000
Prepared by: Biodiversity Databank Canary Islands 1:7,000,000
threatened taxa or populations, subdivided into Spain’s contribution to the network compri-
the categories “in danger of extinction” and ses 25.8% of its total surface area, located in four
“vulnerable”, and the obligation to draw up a different bio-geographical regions (Alpine, Atlan-
recovery plan to guarantee their preservation. tic, Mediterranean and Macaronesian).
The law may also designate critical areas for
their possible inclusion in the Spanish Register Forestry policy: fires
of Habitats in Danger of Disappearance.
Forest fire prevention efforts and increased means
Natura 2000 for collaborating with the autonomous regions in
their fire fighting tasks have led to a significant
This is an ecological network of areas whose decline in the number of fires and the burned
biodiversity requires proactive conservation ef- area in relation to previous years. In 2008, the fo-
forts. It is the most ambitious initiative under- rest area affected by fire was the smallest of the
taken by the European Union to protect the last decade, with a total of 38,523.53 hectares
natural heritage of the member states and halt compared to the decade average of 127,143.41.
the loss of biodiversity.
Its purpose is to guarantee the long-term Rural development
survival of the most important natural habitats
and wildlife species at risk in Europe. The net- Spain’s rural environment differs considerably
work comprises Special Areas of Conservation from the urban environment in terms of deve-
(SACs), established in line with the Habitats lopment, a fact that is particularly noticeable in
Directive (92/43/EEC), and Special Protection certain rural areas. This trend has highlighted
Areas (SPAs) for birds, created under the aus- the need to modify public policies by adopting
pices of the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC). a territorial and integrated approach to the for-
mulation of programmes aimed at addressing In practical terms, the law will be applied
issues in regions, towns and villages that are through the Sustainable Rural Development
frequently marginalised. Programme, which is currently in the final sta-
As a result of this, on 13 December 2007 ges of preparation for its approval by Royal De-
Law 45/2007 on the sustainable development cree. The programme, which will cover the
of the rural environment was enacted. The law five-year period from 2010 to 2014, defines a
creates a framework for a specific rural policy rural development strategy, the priority rural
– with the status of national policy – fully areas where it will be implemented, the sus-
adapted to the particular economic, social and tainable rural development actions that will be
environmental conditions of Spain’s rural envi- introduced, the planning instruments for these
ronment. The law complements the application actions in the different rural areas, the frame-
of the instruments contained in both European work of collaboration to be established be-
and conventional sectoral policies and aims to tween the different government levels with
guarantee the sustainable development of the scope for action in the rural environment, and
rural environment. an assessment and monitoring system.
Different government levels and ministerial The preliminary version of the Sustainable
departments are all participating in the initiative Rural Development Programme is expected to
in order to ensure the coordination and consis- be implemented in 182 rural areas proposed by
tency of the various rural environment policies the autonomous regions in Spain, all of which
introduced. It will therefore be possible to esta- have participated in its preparation. Ninety of
blish horizontal rural development policies for these areas have been classified as rural zones
issues such as education, culture, health, hou- “to be revitalised”. Overall, the programme
sing, transport, communications between re- will affect 68% of the country and around 16%
gions and safety in the rural environment. of the Spanish population.
Kilometers
Rural zones to be revitalised

Classification of Rural Zones Intermediate rural zones
Rural zones in urban fringes
222
Rural development in the CAP: the 2007-2013

through Rural Development Programmes (RDPs)
national strategic plan, the national framework,
rural development programmes in the autonomous regions, coordinated by the
MNRME. The programmes are co-financed by
The Common Agricultural Policy, and specifi- EU funds, the central government (through the
cally the EAFRD Funds, establishes programmes MNRME) and the regional governments.
eligible for joint funding by the EU (contained The measures are divided into four main
in Council Regulation EC 1698/2005 of 20 areas of action associated with increasing the
September). The purpose of these funds is to competitiveness of the agricultural and forestry
promote rural development policies in line sector, improving the environment in general
with the Lisbon and Gothenburg objectives and the rural environment and quality of life in
(competitiveness and employment, and sus- rural areas, diversifying the rural economy and
tainable development and environment, res- the Leader+ initiative.
pectively). Other objectives to be fulfilled are In 2009 the aforementioned national and
improving the quality of life in the rural envi- regional programmes were amended to incor-
ronment and maintaining a financial priority in porate the agreements reached within the
the convergence regions and an integrated ap- framework for the “CAP health check”.
proach to equal opportunity.
For the implementation of this regulation in Food and the agri-foodstuffs industry
Spain, the MNRME, in conjunction with the
autonomous regions, drew up the 2007-2013 The Food Quality Law
National Strategic Rural Development Plan and The current salient aspect about the food sector is
the National Rural Development Framework. the preparation of the Food Quality Bill as part of
These include the national guidelines for rural a global strategy to improve the marketing and
development actions and establish specific hori- quality of agri-foodstuffs, which in turn will help
zontal measures to be adopted throughout the to create a basic nationwide structure for this eco-
country and, consequently, to be included in all nomic sector and guarantee its harmonious de-
Regional Rural Development Programmes. velopment in every autonomous region.
In the 2007-2013 period, these rural deve- The bill also satisfies the sector’s demands
lopment measures are being applied in Spain concerning the marketing of food products, si-
EVOLUTION OF ORGANIC FARMING PRODUCTION (1991-2007)

Number of
Surface Area (hectares) Farmers
1,200,000 20,000
17,500
1,000,000
15,000
800,000 12,500
600,000 10,000
7,500
400,000
5,000
200,000 2,500
0 0
1991 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
4,235 24,078 152,105 269,465 352,164 380,920 485,079 665,055 725,254 733,182 807,569 926,390 988,323
396 1,233 3,811 7,782 12,341 14,060 16,521 17,751 18,505 17,688 17,509 19,211 20,171
Surface Area (hectares) Farmers

multaneously maintaining market cohesion and logical and sedimentary environments around
equal operating conditions in the various autono- Spain’s shores.
mous regions. Activities such as fishing, coastal tourism
The main objectives are as follows: and commercial maritime transport, which are
• The transparency of food markets, with vital to the socio-economic and cultural deve-
the food price watchdog playing a crucial role. lopment of our country, have long been prac-
• The structuring of the food chain, assig- tised on the coastline. However, as a conse-
ning special importance to the Inter-Professio- quence of these activities, the Spanish coast
nal Agri-Foodstuffs Organisations and their ca- has undergone considerable transformation,
pacity to propose extensions of regulations on leading to the deterioration of a large part of the
aspects related to food quality, and including coastal area and even to the disappearance of
extremely useful structuring instruments such valuable natural spaces.
as contract farming and vertical integration. The management of the public domain on
• The Spanish system of differentiated quality land and sea is regulated by the Coast Law, the
linked either to geographical origin or tradition, purpose of which is to defend the integrity of
which incorporates recognised quality concepts the coastal environment, including its balance
such as Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), and physical evolution through the protection
Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) and Tra- and conservation of its natural merits and vir-
ditional Speciality Guaranteed (TPG). These tues and the rational exploitation of its resourc-
greatly enhance the prestige of our products and, es. This law also guarantees its use and enjoy-
consequently, are efficient instruments for im- ment by the public by making it accessible for
proving the competitiveness of our SMEs. everyone, with a few exceptions in the interest
• General and specific aspects of the food of the public good that impose strict limits on
quality control system, which not only concerns time and space for the purpose of taking appro-
the official control of market quality but also con- priation restoration measures.
templates new trends in control issues, such as The fulfilment of these objectives necessarily
self-monitoring and traceability, and control by implies fighting two phenomena: the physical de-
independent third parties (certification). struction and the privatisation of our coast.
• The common disciplinary system, which The management of this vast state-owned
establishes the general principles for identi- natural heritage (Art. 132.2 EC) must also con-
fying and measuring the gravity of administra- sider the various interests that converge therein
tive offences and describes the sanctions appli- (shellfish harvesting, fishing, leisure, tourism,
cable. ecology, ports, etcetera) but which are some-
All of these are justified in the attempt to times conflicting and even mutually exclusive,
guarantee market cohesion. Meanwhile, by hel- and which are all championed by those hoping
ping to structure the entire food chain, the future to see their expectations met. The various go-
law can play a strategic role within the European vernments (central, regional, local and even in-
Union. ternational), and the different bodies and or-
ganisations within each of them, also converge
in their jurisdiction over the maritime and ter-
THE MARINE restrial public domain, which means that con-
ciliation, coordination and harmonisation are
ENVIRONMENT
absolute priorities in the exercise of all these
The sustainability of the coast and sea jurisdictions.
To fulfil these objectives, the Ministry of the
Natural, Rural and Marine Environment carries
Management of land in the public domain
out the actions listed below:
The Spanish coastline is particularly unique, of- • The demarcation of the maritime and ter-
fering a wide variety of climates and marine, geo- restrial public domain. The conception of the
224
coast as an extremely sensitive, fragile and nar- the Natural, Rural and Marine Environment is
row band in our environment calls for the im- articulated around several projects which ac-
plementation of conservation and protection quire land adjacent to the maritime and terres-
measures. The demarcation of the public do- trial public domain of high ecological value or
main is vital because it permits the knowledge which is under pressure to be developed, there-
and delimitation of the assets it contains, as by ensuring its conservation and protection
well as the application of instruments esta- and, where necessary, leading to the demoli-
blished in the Coast Law to protect them. tion of existing constructions to restore these
The length of the Spanish coast is approxi- spaces to their natural state.
mately 10,099 kilometres, 84% of which are To date (2005-2008), several properties
demarcated. Work will continue on the demar- have been purchased, representing a total sur-
cation of the maritime and terrestrial public do- face area of 13,985,612 square metres.
main until it has been delimited in its entirety.
• Management of the maritime and terrestrial The integrated management of the coastal areas
public domain. This consists of guaranteeing that
the use and exploitation of the public domain on The Ministry of the Natural, Rural and Marine
land and sea, and the use of the adjacent terrain, Environment has been working on the follow-
comply with the stipulations of the Coast Law. To ing: the development of preventive measures
this end, the instruments of land and urban plan- for controlling the erosion and degradation of
ning management are enacted, the correspond- the coastline; the protection and recovery of
ing permits and concessions are studied and coastal ecosystems; the regeneration and resto-
processed, etcetera. ration of coastal spaces which have been de-
• Property purchase. The “Property Pur- graded; the correction of actions which are pre-
chase Programme” operated by the Ministry of venting or limiting a rational public use of the
MARINE RESERVES IN SPAIN MANAGED BY THE SECRETARIAT-GENERAL OF MARINE AFFAIRS
1. Marine Reserve of the Island of Tabarca 10

2. Marine Reserve of the Columbretes
Islands
3. Marine Reserve of Cabo de Palos and
Hormigas Islands 2
9
4. Marine Reserve of Cabo de Gata-Níjar
5. Marine Reserve of Graciosa Island and
the Islets of Northern Lanzarote
6. Marine Reserve of the Punta
1
Restinga-Mar de las Calmas Area
7. Marine and Fishing Reserve of Alborán
Island 3
8. Marine Reserve of La Palma Island
9. Marine Reserve of Cala Ratjada
10. Marine Reserve of Masía Blanca 4
7
5 SGMA: (Exclusive management)
8
6 Co-managed with autonomous
regions
coastline; actions to improve the environmen- for various fields. Furthermore, with an agenda of
tal quality and public use of the coast; and the between 7 and 9 annual campaigns and an ave-
installation of infrastructure associated with the rage operational capacity of 315 days per year,
environment, such as coastal footpaths, with they are a crucial part of our cooperation with
centres for environmental education and learn- third countries on fishing-related matters.
ing to appreciate nature.
Marine reserves network. The conserva-
The sea and coastlinel tion of marine biodiversity
The Ministry of the Natural, Rural and Marine The Ministry of the Natural, Rural and Marine
Environment is engaged in a wide variety of ac- Environment – specifically the Secretariat Ge-
tivities designed to protect the marine environ- neral of Marine Affairs – has been committed to
ment. Specifically, it participates in internatio- the marine reserves of fishing interest (MRFIs)
nal conventions for the protection of the marine for more than 20 years. Initially created to sup-
environment by attending technical, scientific port traditional fishermen, the reserves have
and political meetings, and conducting activi- proven their efficiency not only in preserving
ties derived from these conventions. Finally, it healthy, sustainable, traditional fishing me-
is also involved in activities aimed at protecting thods, but also in the conservation of marine
marine diversity, such as the preparation of biodiversity in areas of great aesthetic value.
conservation strategies. The traditional fishermen themselves backed
the creation of these spaces, which are contem-
Research and support vessels plated in Law 3/2001 on state maritime fishing
for the fishing industry and which have been protected by Spanish le-
gislation since 1980.
The Spanish fishing authorities own a fleet of This is no random coincidence. Healthy
research and support vessels for the fishing in- environments accommodate a diversity of sus-
dustry, all built in the last eight years, such as tainable socio-economic activities: by protec-
the Emma Bardán, the Vizconde de Eza and the ting these communities of self-employed fisher-
Miguel Oliver. men, we are also protecting the marine habitats
These are the most accurate and reliable which have enabled the associations to sustain,
tools for evaluating and analysing the status of even now in the 21st century, profitable fishing
fishing grounds and their marine resources. activities within a framework of self-control
Thanks to the multi-disciplinary campaigns and responsible fishing practices.
conducted, it is possible to apply the informa- In addition to the aforementioned advan-
tion obtained to a wide variety of scientific tages, the MRFIs afford numerous opportuni-
fields, including physics, chemistry, marine ties: they are ideal areas for marine research,
geology, biology and environmental studies. not only for the obligatory monitoring of the ef-
These floating laboratories are becoming a ficiency of all the marine reserves but also for
vital source of information for Spanish fishing and permitting other institutions to conduct scien-
scientific policy, and also for decision-making at tific studies on the habitat and communities
European and international levels, all thanks to they accommodate.
the rigorous technical information they provide www.marm.es
CHAPTER XI
EQUALITY
POLICY
EQUALITYPOLICYEQUALI
TYPOLICYEQUALITYPOLI
CYEQUALITYPOLICYE Within this framework, the mission of the
Ministry of Equality is to combine efforts to ef-
QUALITYPOLICYEQUALI ficiently fight gender-based violence, to ad-
dress female unemployment and the discrimi-
TYPOLICYEQUALITYPOLI nation of women in the workplace, to continue
to promote youth policies and, in short, to con-
tinue to increase the freedom and equality of
CYEQUALITYPOLICYEQUALI all people.
The road map is defined by the two afore-
mentioned laws and two new legal initia-
MINISTRY tives. The first of these, expected to be passed
OF EQUALITY in 2010, is a law on sexual and reproductive
The Spanish government has made equality one health and the voluntary interruption of preg-
of the cornerstones of its overall policy. The crea- nancy, which is designed to offer more gua-
tion of a Ministry of Equality has placed equality rantees to women and professionals, and to
between men and women at the very top of the improve sex and reproductive education in
political agenda to ensure that that equal oppor- order to reduce the number of unwanted
tunities are genuine and effective and that they pregnancies. The second is the preparation of
inform every government action. an integrated law on equal treatment be-
From the creation of the Institute of Wom- tween men and women, which aims to eradi-
en’s Affairs in 1983 to the enactment in the last cate all discrimination in Spanish society due
legislature of some of the most advanced laws in to reasons of religion and creed, disability,
Europe, such as the Integrated Protection against gender, sexual orientation, and racial or eth-
Gender Violence Law and the Effective Equality nic origin.
between Men and Women Law, the momentum Meanwhile, on 12 December 2008 the
of the advances in equality achieved in this Council of Ministers approved the Integrated
country in recent decades has been unstoppa- Plan on the Fight against the Trafficking of Hu-
ble. Nevertheless, certain issues of inequality man Beings for the purpose of sexual exploita-
and discrimination still exist. tion. This includes 62 measures and its aims
are to raise public awareness about the issue in
order to promote zero tolerance for crimes re-
lated to trafficking, to fight the causes of traf-
ficking through active cooperation with the
countries of origin, transit and destination, to
engage the participation of non-governmental
organisations to provide an integrated perspec-
tive in the preparation of the various measures,
to assist and protect victims, and to take deci-
sive action against traffickers and procurers.
Spain has also ratified the Council of Europe
Convention of 2005 for action against the traf-
ficking of human beings, which entered force
in August 2009.
Based on these premises, the Ministry of
Equality will address specific gender inequality
issues and the distinct needs of various sectors of
society, combining two strategies: the main-
streaming of or integrated approach to gender
and specificity.
Equality Policy 229
Ministry of Equality Actions priority for the ministry, not only from the so-
cial justice perspective but also from the point
The prevention of violence against women and of view of efficiency and economic profitability
the provision of protection and social assistance as instability, temporary work, precariousness
to women who are victims of violence are top and pay differences all mainly affect women.
priorities for this ministry. Last June marked the In order to guarantee greater equality in the
fourth anniversary of the enactment of the Law workplace, the Ministry of Equality is enforcing
for Integrated Protection Measures against Gen- the Equality Law via the preparation of gender
der Violence. Thanks to this law, there is now impact assessments and Equality Units. It has
greater social awareness about the problem, also approved Equality Distinctions for compa-
women enjoy greater protection, more women nies, a type of social responsibility stamp to re-
report gender violence and manage to escape ward enterprises that have an outstanding
the spiral of abuse, and women have recourse to record in equal treatment and opportunities for
social rights and incentives to join the labour men and women.
market when they need them. In short, the law is The Ministry of Equality is working in con-
an extremely powerful instrument that has junction with the Ministry of Employment and
launched the deployment of unprecedented Immigration to define an employment strategy for
efforts and means. the coming years in which equality will feature as
In 2009 Spanish courts were provided with one of the central areas of political action.
3,000 electronic devices to detect the proximi- In addition to improving working condi-
ty of agressors, aimed at monitoring and ensu- tions for women, the Ministry of Equality is also
ring full observance of the injunction measures actively promoting the creation of businesses,
passed by judges. The number of courts dealing self-employment and women’s cooperatives. To
exclusively with gender violence has risen to this end, it is continuing to offer different mi-
103, and the campaigns to raise social aware- crocredits for projects by women entrepreneurs
ness and prevent gender violence have conti- and specific grants to enable small and me-
nued, targeted mainly at the most vulnerable dium-sized businesses to implement equality
collectives, such as the immigrant population plans. Following the establishment of the
and young people. In keeping with these ef- Equality and Social Dialogue Steering Commit-
forts, the first-ever International Forum on Youth tee, the ministry has been working alongside
and Gender Violence was held in Madrid, at- unions and employers to create a register of
tended by over 1,200 young people from 54 equality plans with reliable indicators to mea-
countries. sure the evolution of equality in the workplace.
The discrimination of women in the work- Another crucial area of action in the field of
place and eliminating the wage gap is another labour equality is conciliation and co-responsi-
230
blity. The challenge is to enable more women to ropean Protection Order to offer full cover to
have the opportunity to work, to ensure that women who are victims of gender violence
young women joining the labour market do not throughout the European Union. This will be ac-
have to renounce motherhood, and to promote companied by the introduction of a free, dedi-
shared social and family responsibilities between cated telephone number – 116016 – to provide
women and men. assistance and information to victims of gender
Similarly, the Spanish presidency of the EU violence wherever they are in Europe.
calls for new steps to be taken in the construc- Another objective of the presidency is the
tion of European citizenship, and the incorpo- fight against all forms of discrimination in ac-
ration of the principle of gender equality in the cordance with Article 13 of the Treaty establish-
Europe 2020 strategy is a priority for the Span- ing the European Community, and Spain will
ish Presidency. therefore aim to push through a consensus be-
Ensuring that the fight against gender vio- tween member states on the proposed equal
lence is a common EU policy is another objec- treatment directive.
tive, aimed at creating a common diagnosis In short, the mission of the Ministry of
and set of indicators to establish a minimum, Equality consists of collaborating with all state
pan-European level of protection for victims. institutions and civil society to replace discri-
Through the ministries of Equality and Jus- mination with rights and inequality with re-
tice, the Spanish government is preparing a Eu- sources. www.migualdad.es
CHAPTER XII
HOUSING
POLICY
HOUSINGPOLICYHOUSIN
GPOLICYHOUSINGPOLICY
HOUSINGPOLICYHOUSIN funded by the central government in their res-
pective territories.
GPOLICYHOUSINGPOLICY The State Housing and Renovation Plan
2009-2012, which has a budget allocation of
HOUSINGPOLICYHOUSIN 10 billion euros, has been designed with two
strategies in mind. On the one hand, it offers a
series of stable benchmarks and a funding com-
GPOLICYHOUSINGPOLICY mitment from the government for the various
housing policy instruments aimed at improving
access to and the use of housing by the collec-
SPANISH HOUSING tives with the greatest difficulties. Its second
POLICY IN 2009 aim is to address the recession. The current situ-
ation calls for decisive measures to take advan-
Article 47 of the Spanish Constitution states tage of the surplus production of housing,
that all Spaniards have a right to decent and ap- which can be redirected to meet the popula-
propriate housing. The housing policy is res- tion’s housing needs. The plan therefore con-
ponsible for achieving this aim. However, templates a transitional system during which
while the central government is responsible for private housing either under construction or al-
the design and funding aspects, the Autono- ready completed will be turned into subsidised
mous Regions have the task of regulating and housing.
implementing the policy. One of the most im- One of the principal novelties is a firm
portant government measures in this field is the commitment to rentals, with 40% of all subsi-
Public Housing Plan, which covers a period of dised programmes being reserved for this form
several years and establishes the various modes of access to housing. This is based on the
of action and the income levels for beneficia- premise that Spain needs to strengthen its still-
ries eligible for subsidised housing. Following weak rental market, and the Ministry of Hou-
approval of the plan, the Autonomous Regions sing has therefore launched measures to in-
sign agreements with the Ministry of Housing crease the supply of available housing. One
to specify the aims of the housing policy to be such is the introduction of a new law that in-
The Mirador Building

in Sanchinarro,
constructed under the
subsidised housing
programme.
Housing Policy 233
Housing Minister
Beatriz Corredor with
the winners of the
last edition of the
Architecture, Urban
Planning and Housing
Quality Prizes, 18
February 2009.
cludes a set of instruments to promote and prove the energy efficiency, hygiene, environ-
speed up rentals and energy efficiency in buil- mental protection, safety, water-tightness and
dings. This modifies the Law of Civil Procedure accessibility of residential buildings. The plan
and the Urban Leases Law and is aimed at pro- also includes specific programmes aimed at the
viding greater legal protection to owners when comprehensive renovation and regeneration of
claiming unpaid rent and speeding up eviction urban and rural areas. The total budget for re-
processes. Another important reform approved novation policies articulated via the plan is 2
at the end of 2009 was the law pertaining to billion euros, from which 470,000 homes will
Real Estate Investment Trusts (known in Spain benefit between now and 2012.
by the initials SOCIMI). Finally, the State Housing and Renovation
The commitment to comprehensive reno- Plan includes a series of interim measures, out-
vation and urban regeneration is another im- lined in the temporary stipulations, designed to
portant characteristic to note. With over 25 inject liquidity into companies, simplify the re-
million homes in Spain, there is enormous quirements for transferring the unsold housing
growth potential for renovation if it is provid- surplus on the private market to the subsidised
ed with appropriate incentives. Half of these market and broaden eligibility for benefits, thus
homes are over 30 years old and nearly 6 enabling more families and citizens to access
million are over 50 years old. Furthermore, subsidised housing.
renovation is a labour-intensive and techno- In any case, the Housing Plan has other
logically advanced activity which has the tools for addressing housing policy. In addition
added merit of fostering the development of to a wide range of tax concessions related to
other industries and auxiliary services for the housing and renovation, another important as-
residential construction sector, thereby pro- pect to note is the crucial role of the two public
viding an excellent boost for the economic companies dependent on the Ministry of Hou-
reactivation of the business fabric. At the sing – the Public Land State Corporation (SEPES)
same time, it improves quality of life for citi- and the Public Rental Company (SPA).
zens, the habitability of towns and cities, and In 2010 the ministry will also continue to
the accessibility and energy efficiency of actively promote the access of young people
buildings and housing. to their first home, primarily through the Ba-
One of the most important aspects of the sic Emancipation Income, which more than
renovation policy is the package of grants con- 150,000 young people received on monthly
templated in the State Housing and Renovation basis in 2009. This measure, which consists
Plan for financing measures designed to im- of a monthly payment of 210 euros, plus
234
other benefits where guarantees and deposits and financial incentives aimed at achieving
are required, is targeted at young people in the triple goal underlying the housing policy:
the 22-30 age bracket who have a lease con- facilitating access to housing, promoting the
tract in their name and a maximum gross an- rental market and reinforcing urban regene-
nual income of 22,000 euros. It is payable for ration and renovation.
a maximum four years. www.mviv.es
Finally, the Sustainable Economy Bill in-
corporates new regulatory measures and tax
CHAPTER XIII
CULTURE
CULTURECULTURECULTUR
E CULTURECULTURECULTURE
CULTURECULTURECULTUR dación Telefónica). But this circumstance aside,
growing worldwide interest in Spanish is also
E CULTURECULTURECULTURE endorsed by the plethora of illustrious young
writers who have sold millions of copies of
CULTURECULTURECULTUR their books.
This success has been repeated in the world
of film. The Spanish film industry can now boast
E CULTURECULTURECULTURE a growing number of internationally-renowned
actors and directors and, despite often having to
THIRTY YEARS compete on unequal terms with films produced
OF CULTURE IN SPAIN by large multinational studios, the industry has
produced feature films that have received recog-
Many things have changed in Spain over the last nition at some of the world’s most important film
thirty years. The recovery of rights and liberties festivals and competitions.
has brought a sweeping modernisation of the The burgeoning interest of the Spanish pu-
country in every area, and culture is no excep- blic in opera is nothing short of phenomenal. In
tion. Spain’s culture has flourishing spectacu- recent decades, opera houses have multiplied,
larly in the last three decades on the wave of with the result that excellent musical produc-
modernisation and democratisation, and is now tions can now be enjoyed in many different lo-
much more readily accessible to the entire po- cations across the country. Today there is an ope-
pulation. ratic map dotted with a wide range of projects,
The public and private sectors have contri- from small venues to iconic historical opera
buted enormously to this cultural boom. Thanks houses such as the Teatro Real or the Liceo in
to the drive of the national government, auto- Barcelona. This development of infrastructures
nomous regions and town councils, hundreds and the quest for excellence in professional ma-
of monuments have been restored and theatres, nagement has coincided with the emergence of
auditoriums and museums have been opened; a young, highly talented group of professional
music festivals have multiplied and film pro- singers who have proven to be worthy heirs of
duction has received strong support. Culture, the generation that dominated the world’s stages
or rather the cultural sector, has also become throughout the mid-20th century.
an important source of employment. In terms of art, Spain has successfully ma-
naged to protect its extensive and rich histori-
500 million Spanish speakers cal heritage. At the same time, it has been able
to build new modern art museums, support
In these years, Spain has become a major pla- new creators and improve the facilities of its
yer in the global publishing industry, largely museums, some of which now enjoy an iconic
thanks to the widespread use of the Spanish international status – the Prado Museum being
language. a case in point.
Today, the language of Cervantes is spoken
by nearly 500 million people around the world,
and it is estimated that the number will reach The space of Spanish literature
600 million by 2050. In part, this is thanks to the
activities that the Cervantes Institute has been Spanish literature is a sum of contributions, a
pursuing since 1991 and those of other public combination of efforts which helps to satisfy
institutions, such as the efforts of the Ministry of one indelible human need: the need to learn.
Culture to promote Spanish literature and letters In order to properly meet this need, Spain
abroad. Moreover, Spanish is the most spoken boasts an outstanding cast of creators whose
language in the world after Chinese and English works are printed by publishers and distributed
(according to a 2008 survey conducted by Fun- to 33,000 different points of sale. According to
Culture 237
Statistics Institute). In this period, the number of

libraries has multiplied by 2.3, reaching 6,523
centres; library buildings have been updated
and expanded; the amount of available infor-
mation has multiplied by 7.5, with over 204
million books and other documents; and li-
brary staff has grown from 6,278 to nearly
23,500.
This growth in library resources and infra-
structures has been reflected in the statistics of
library use by citizens. According to available
surveys, in the late 1970s only 7.5% of the po-
pulation visited libraries; in 2008, nearly 30%
claimed to have used a library in the past year.
Library check-outs have multiplied by 10, and
today 68 million documents are borrowed each
year.
Spanish libraries have been quick to take
advantage of information technologies to im-
prove their administrative processes and as a
resource and tool for facilitating access to infor-
mation. At present, 70% of all libraries have
2008 domestic market data, 393,012 titles in computerised cataloguing systems and 60%
print are circulating within this network, and can be consulted online. There are over 36,000
each year the network is enriched by the addition computer search stations for public use in
of nearly 73,000 new titles. At an average of Spanish libraries, most of which offer free inter-
5,035 copies per title, this means that over 367 net access. In fact, libraries are the primary
million books are produced each year (nearly point of web access for 10% of all Spanish in-
one million per day). This production and distri- ternet users.
bution network boasts a turnover of more than The updating of Spanish libraries has also
554 million euros in the international market and involved the spread of inter-library coopera-
over 3.1 billion euros in the domestic market. tion. In the past, most libraries were almost
Books are published in all of Spain’s coofficial completely isolated from others, but today
languages (Spanish, Galician, Basque and Cata- nearly all of them are on a network or coopera-
lan). In terms of book production, 82.3% of tive system of some kind. Cooperation systems
books are printed in Spanish and the rest in the and bodies have been developed that link pub-
other coofficial languages, mainly Catalan. The lic, university, school and specialised libraries,
book industry directly and indirectly employs as well as their national and regional counter-
nearly 100,000 professionals, although publish- parts, which make it possible to share informa-
ing production is very concentrated, with Madrid tion, promote shared projects, and improve the
and Catalonia accounting for 70% of national library system as a whole, always with the end
production. goal of better serving the citizens. One notable
achievement in this area was the approval of
Libraries Law 10/2007 of 22 June on reading, books and
libraries; this law defined the regulations go-
Spanish libraries – the citizens’ gateways to cul- verning the Spanish library system and created
ture, information and knowledge – have expe- a Library Cooperation Council to channel and
rienced unprecedented growth over the past 30 encourage cooperation among library authori-
years (1976-2006, according to the National ties and professionals.
238
A film industry brimming with vitality film industry, 3% of which must go to the Spanish
Spanish cinema is dominated by very specific film industry.
styles of filmmaking which give the industry its The number of co-productions has in-
own personality, stemming mainly from the vita- creased, particularly with other European and
lity evident in its different sectors, in the projects Latin American countries. In four years, exported
developed by professional filmmakers and in the productions have risen more than 50%; docu-
richness of their films. This has resulted in a mentary feature films are already an accepted
broad variety of films where genres, styles and film genre; the number of women behind the
trends diversify and intertwine, just like the dif- camera is increasing ... It is safe to say that the
ferent generations of artists and experts who cre- Spanish cinema is now more alive than ever.
ate the ima-ges that appear on screen. The Spa-
nish film industry is the third largest in Europe Music
after France and Germany in terms of production
volume (173 feature films and 210 shorts in Over the past quarter of a century, we have wit-
2008) and of other factors that define the cine- nessed a veritable musical revolution in our coun-
matographic panorama (with a market share of try which, in terms of excellence, has put Spain on
13.3% last year). These figures may not be as im- a par with other European countries whose music
pressive as we would all like, but they are posi- industries, in theory, have had more time to grow
tive bearing in mind the status of Spanish film in and develop. The first major leap came with the
the EU, boosted by the international prestige be- construction of a significant number of audito-
queathed by directors such as Pedro Almodóvar, riums and public theatres across the country, with-
Alejandro Amenábar, Carlos Saura, Álex de la in the framework of the 1983 National Auditori-
Iglesia or Bigas Luna, and renowned and popular ums Plan. This was accompanied by the creation
actors and actresses like Javier Bardem, Antonio of a solid symphonic network, resulting in the
Banderas, Penélope Cruz, Carmen Maura or Vic- present-day existence of nearly 30 standing or-
toria Abril. chestras in Spain. This modernisation fuelled the
The Cinematography Protection Fund will creation of great series and festivals, and several
significantly increase both the grants to help co-
ver production costs of Spanish films (assigned 56
million euros in 2008) and the funding for
projects of particular cultural merit or involving
new filmmakers (given 10 million euros in 2008)
in the coming year: 89.4 million euros are ear-
marked for these purposes in 2010, 1.6% more
than in 2009. To cover other key areas of culture,
including the distribution of Spanish and Euro-
pean films, reduced interest rates on loans nego-
tiated by producers with banks, or the conserva-
tion of film negatives. These consist of a broad
series of measures implemented by the Ministry
of Culture through the Institute of Cinematogra-
phy and Audiovisual Arts (ICAA), and comple-
mented by others such as the creation of the Re-
ciprocal Audiovisual Guarantee Fund of the SGR
(Reciprocal Guarantee Society) or the regulation
introduced by the government and inspired by
the “Television without Frontiers” (TWF) Direc-
Palau de la Música Catalana (Catalan Palace of Music).
tive, whereby all television operators are required Barcelona. Winner of the Prince of Asturias Prize for the Arts,
to allocate 5% of their revenues to the European 2008.
Culture 239
generations of highly talented composers and per-

formers have been trained in this milieu and wit-
nessed the gradual acceptance of music, in all its
varied forms of expression, as a part of the every-
day lives of Spanish citizens.
Theatre
The great development of public theatres has fos-
tered the production of shows and performances
that define Spain throughout Europe. Spain’s two
great twentieth-century dramatists – Valle-Inclán
and García Lorca – have also benefited from the
1980s renaissance and their works have finally
been given the recognition they so richly deserve.
Classical theatre from the Spanish Golden Age
has enjoyed an equally important renaissance.
The classics have been returned to their rightful The María Guerrero theatre in Madrid, home of the Centro
Dramático Nacional (CDN).
place in the collective heritage of the Spanish na-
tion, thanks to the work of two theatre compa-
nies: the Almagro Festival of Classical Theatre and
the National Classical Theatre Company werful generation of artists whose shows bring
Once again, we must inevitably refer to a audiences to their feet around the world.
new, plural and diverse Spain, where the Span-
ish Network of Publicly-Owned Theatres, Audi- Visual arts: widespread
toriums and Circuits has been created in the dynamism
various autonomous regions and dramatic pro-
ductions have emerged that define the develop- This positive climate for the creation and pro-
ment of the use of Spain’s different official lan- motion of visual arts currently warrants Spain’s
guages. This has been fuelled by the growing consideration as not just a creative giant but
presence of new playwrights who have promot- also a market force. This is a new element of
ed the use of these languages on the stage and our socio-cultural reality, accounting for the
brought them increasing international visibility. strong emphasis in cultural policy on the need
This, combined with the support of the private to educate audiences and strengthen the rela-
sector, has resulted in the appearance of several tionship between art and society. This dynam-
hundred new theatre productions every year in ic process has driven the growth and consoli-
our country and a growing number of Spanish dation of art collecting, which has branched
playwrights whose works are staged beyond into new artistic fields and areas of develop-
our borders. ment.
The creation of numerous contemporary art
Dance spaces by public authorities during the last two
decades has given way to a period of greater ma-
In the last thirty years, an illustrious group of turity, in which permanent collections and tem-
new choreographers have burst on the scene porary exhibitions and activities aimed at diffe-
and taken contemporary Spanish dance to new rent audiences form part of an ongoing project
and unprecedented heights. Our classical dan- and a coherent, high-quality programme.
cers have also graced the world’s stages with Spain currently has more than 200 contem-
their genius, talent and quality. Spanish dance, porary art exhibition halls or facilities distributed
the legacy of flamenco, has also nurtured a po- throughout its various autonomous regions.
240
devices that will provide shared access to docu-

mentary resources and materials hitherto available
only at each individual institution.
State museums
State museums are currently being modernised
and adapted to cater to new social demands. In
this sense, our museums are working towards
two converging objectives: the renewal of their
conceptual apparatus through the implementa-
tion of museum development plans as an es-
sential work instrument; and the modernisation
of their infrastructures, so that they can effi-
ciently and effectively perform their traditional
functions and provide the new services they are
committed to offering.
The National Prado Museum

Museum of Contemporary Art of Castile and Leon One example of this policy is the construction of
(MUSAC), Leon. a new wing at the Prado Museum, the most sig-
nificant expansion in the nearly two hundred
years of its history. The new building, designed
MNCARS, a benchmark by Rafael Moneo, has doubled the museum’s
of contemporary art
The Museo Reina Sofía has become one of the
great benchmarks of contemporary art, both in
Spain and internationally. This is largely thanks
to the exhaustive reorganisation of its collec-
tion to reflect a historical discourse and a de-
centralised, plural and critical approach to the
hegemonic positions of 20th-century art. More-
over, the museum boasts an ample programme
of temporary exhibitions, ranging from mono-
graphic and historical productions to thematic
and theoretical shows.
The museum has also created a Department
of Public Activities which organises seminars and
conferences, such as knowledge and debate fo-
rums, and offers specialised training that is rein-
forced by the organisation of graduate pro-
grammes. In the field of education, the museum
has stepped up its pedagogical activities based on
a radically new concept of education as a two-
way exchange of knowledge and experiences. Fi-
nally, the MNCARS is heading up a project called
Universal Archive that involves partners in Spain,
Europe and Latin America and aims to introduce Detail of the Prado Museum’s new wing.
Culture 241
surface area and makes it possible to offer the peoples such as the Celts and Iberians, colonial
different public services and events related to civilizations such as the Greeks, Phoenicians and
the exhibition and conservation of the museum’s Carthaginians, occupying peoples like the Ro-
collections in a more orderly and spacious man- mans, Visigoths and Muslims, and peoples from
ner. This project is part of an ongoing expansion the medieval kingdoms in peninsular Spain have
programme that includes making different all left an enormous number of archaeological
neighbouring buildings part of the Prado’s facili- remains, including concentrations of sites with
ties, such as the Casón del Buen Retiro, the mu- cave paintings unique in the world, castles, ca-
seum’s new Study Centre and the Salón de Rei- thedrals, cities and medieval settlements, etc.
nos, with the aim of fulfilling the primary The Spanish government is collaborating
objectives of this national museum: to open the with the autonomous regions to devise a series
museum to society, develop the museum’s dif- of policies aimed at conserving our architec-
ferent buildings into a museum campus, extend tural and artistic heritage. The National Cathe-
the museum’s activities throughout Spain and in- drals Plan has established a Master Plan for
crease economic resources through an efficient each cathedral, and most cathedrals have al-
and stable funding model. ready been restored, particularly those in dire
need of repairs. The National Castles, Abbeys,
Heritage: protecting the past Monasteries and Convents Plan, the National
for future generations Industrial Heritage Plan or the World Heritage
Cities Programme are other initiatives designed
Spain has a rich historical and cultural heritage. to ensure the application of an efficient conser-
The Iberian Peninsula has been home to a host of vation policy, with the appropriate planning
different cultures: the peoples of the Upper Pa- and methodology, to protect our historical heri-
laeolithic and Neolithic periods, autochthonous tage as effectively as possible.
CHAPTER XIV
SPORTS
SPORTSSPORTSSPORT
SSPORTSSPORTSSPORTS
SPORTSSPORTSSPORT The first initiative was the ADO (Asocia-
ción de Deportes Olímpicos – Association of
SSPORTSSPORTSSPORTS Olympic Sports) Plan, which attracted private
sponsorship to complement public funding.
SPORTSSPORTSSPORT This plan established a scale of grants and in-
centives to promote great achievements in
sport. The contribution of private funding
SSPORTSSPORTSSPORTS through large companies was crucial and
helped the Spanish team to achieve a record
SPORTS IN SPAIN number of medals (22 in all) at the sports facili-
ties in Barcelona.
The Sports Law of 1990 established the legal Between 1996 and 1999, new sponsors
framework governing sports activities at the joined the ADO Plan and a fund was created to
national level, with the State taking responsi- provide financial aid for private clubs, as a kind
bility for competitive sports activities at the of reward for contributing athletes to high-level
international and national levels. At the re- national sports teams.
gional level, the autonomous regions and The ADO Plan has undergone massive
town councils play a vital role in the organi- changes. Another important legal development
sation of basic sports within their territories was the introduction of Law 4/2004 of 29 De-
and within the scope of their statutory limits cember, on the modification of tax rates and
in relation to the development and promo- benefits corresponding to events of exceptional
tion of sports. public interest, since it included, for the first
The quality of sports facilities in Spain at time, the programme of preparations of Spanish
the time was far from optimum and Spain’s per- sports professionals for the 2008 Olympic
formance in international sporting events could Games in Beijing as an event of exceptional
be classified as irregular at best, combining public interest.
sporadic successes with mediocre performan- On 14 March 2005, agreements were
ces in major competitions. signed with the private companies who spon-
However, when Barcelona won the bid to sored the ADO for the 2005-2008 Olympic cy-
stage the 1992 Olympic Games, this was the cle by providing 63.1 million euros. In absolute
stimulus public authorities and society in gene- terms, this represented an increase of 22 mil-
ral needed to take a qualitative step forward lion euros in comparison with the sum provid-
and consider sports events as the ideal scenario ed for the Olympic Games in Athens. In 2007,
for publicising the culture and education of all sports were incorporated into the pro-
Spain as a modern nation. It provided an incen- gramme when the ADO added the six sports
tive for integrating sports into basic education omitted in 2006.
at primary schools, secondary schools and uni- On 27 June 2005 an agreement was sig-
versity, and for encouraging our country’s top ned, for the first time ever, to create and fund
sports professionals to achieve success on a the Special Olympics Sports Plan, ADOP (Ayu-
regular basis in individual and team sports, da al Deporte Objetivo Paralímpico), which
where values such as solidarity, team spirit and was endowed with an initial budget of 7.3 mi-
harmony prevail. llion euros that was later increased to 12 mi-
The short-term goal of public authorities llion euros. The proposal to create this plan was
and civil society was to achieve the best results approved by the government in the belief that
possible at the 1992 Olympics and, in the long sports should be a place of meeting open to
term, lay the foundations for the development everyone, with no barriers or exclusions. Du-
of sports culture and design certain basic ring the period 2004-2008, the National Sports
guidelines to ensure that all factors converged Agency awarded grants worth a total 2.7 mi-
to achieve the same objective. llion euros to the Spanish Special Olympics
Sports 245
Committee. The 2009-2012 ADOP has 14 successful that the organisers plan to gradually
sponsors who have committed to provide increase the number of original participants,
17.03 million euros, more than double the with a view to including all athletes of this ca-
amount received for the first plan introduced in tegory in the programme within two or three
2005. years. PROAD facilitates the combination of
Sports Law 10/1990, of 15 October, esta- high-level athletic competition with the training
blishes that top-level sports are considered an activity of sportspeople.
activity of national interest for three reasons: In order to encourage participation in basic
they play an essential role in sports develop- sports activities, sports authorities promoted
ment; they stimulate participation in basic the Plan for the Construction of School Facili-
sports activities by virtue of the technical and ties throughout Spain, under the aegis of the
scientific demands of preparing for competi- Ministry of Education and Science. Under this
tion; and high-level professionals represent plan, thousands of sports facilities were built in
Spain as a nation at official international com- primary and secondary schools in many small
petitions and events. Spanish towns. The programmes for developing
The Spanish government has signed col- and promoting popular sports in Spain were
laboration agreements with the autonomous mainly carried out by the sports departments of
regions to provide the necessary resources for local governments, the seventeen autonomous
technical preparation programmes and the regions and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and
scientific and medical support of top-levels Melilla.
sports men and women, as well as their inclu- Public funding for sports is channelled
sion in the educational system and their full through the National Sports Agency, which is
social and professional integration. the central body directly responsible for sports-
The High-Level Athlete Care Programme related activities carried out by the national
(PROAD), launched in 2009, has proved so government, the Directorates-General of Sports
The President of Spain with the players of the Spanish national basketball team the day after they won the gold medal at
the European Basketball Championships, 21 September 2009.
246
of the autonomous regional governments and is evidenced by the numerous world titles cur-
the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, rently held by Spain in handball, 5-a-side football
and the provincial and town councils in their and roller hockey, as well as the European titles
respective fields of competency. won in football and basketball in 2008 and 2009.
One important factor for sporting success is Spain has become a country of reference in
the increase of private contributions to comple- the international sports arena. In Beijing, it was
ment public funds for promoting sports and fu- among the countries with the greatest presence
ture performance. In 2007 the National Sports in team sports. For the first time since 1992, it
Agency had the highest budget in its history, re- had representatives in 25 of the 27 Olympic
ceiving 202 million euros from public and pri- federations. The only ones in which it did not
vate sources. The public budget that year was participate were the football and baseball fe-
184 million euros, which represented a 6.74% derations, although the teams of these sports
increase from the 154 million euros received in did win the European title and the third conti-
2006. The total budget allocation hit a new high nental position, respectively. The fact that Spain
in 2008 at 217.2 million euros, of which 192.42 has produced figures of the stature of Gasol,
million came from the public treasury and 25.20 Nadal, Alonso and Contador, and that several
million from private sources, representing a rise of our football players rank as world-class in
of 38.83% from the previous year. the surveys, provide the country with an excel-
The National Sports Agency (CSD) has a lent international image.
budget of 181.1 million euros for 2010. This In the international arena, Spanish sports
year’s budget is characterised by austerity, but it have enjoyed two years packed with resoun-
also prioritises the consolidation of initiatives al- ding successes. The first part of the 2007-2008
ready underway. The objectives that have been biennial concluded with 22 medals at world
established can be achieved and will allow for a trials, obtained in 12 different sports disci-
slightly larger endowment to the ADO and plines. The second part of this same period, the
ADOP Plans. The ADO Plan maintains the same magical year 2008, brought major victories in
criteria as the previous pre-Olympic period in football (European Championships), cycling
terms of both the number of grants (427 in 2009) (Tour, Giro and Vuelta) and tennis (number-one
and the application of special plans. This open, world ranking, Roland Garros, Wimbledon
egalitarian, multi-sports plan has 15 sponsors and Davis Cup matches), which were subse-
who have committed to provide 51.3 million eu- quently endorsed by the second-best Olympic
ros. The ADOP Plan has 14 sponsors who will results in our history (18 medals, 5 of them
provide 17.03 million euros. gold) at the games in Beijing.
Between 2004 and 2007 Spanish athletes In terms of achievements, 2008 was the best
won a total of 1,919 medals at World Cham- year for Spanish sports, and 2009 was a conti-
pionships (729) and European Championships nuation of that success. It has been a glorious
(1,181). At the Olympic Games in Athens we two-year period and the best in history in terms
won 19 medals (3 gold, 11 silver and 5 bronze). of sporting results. Spain won the European Bas-
It would be true to say that our best-ever results ketball Championship and its fourth Davis Cup
(with the exception of Barcelona) were ob- in tennis. In motorcycle racing, it won a World
tained at the Olympic Games in Beijing in Championship and two lesser championships,
2008, where Spanish sportsmen and women and Spanish cyclists won their fourth consecu-
won 18 medals (5 gold, 10 silver and 3 bronze). tive Tour. The Australian Open in tennis also
In Athens, Spain ranked twentieth in terms of went to Spain. For the first time ever, a Spaniard
total medals, while in Beijing we ranked four- won an NBA championship ring, and another
teenth out of more than 200 countries. won the European Cross-Country Champion-
Spain can therefore look to the future with a ship. At the FINA World Cup, Spain garnered
certain optimism and satisfaction at the great several medals in the category of synchronised
progress made in association sports. This progress swimming as well as two medals in swimming
Sports 247
Ski resort in Sierra Nevada (Granada).
competitions and a third won by the men’s water In 2009, sportswomen gave an outstanding
polo team. Awards were also won at the Euro- performance. Spain boasts world champions in
pean Short Course Swimming Championship, athletics and sailing, European champions in
and Spanish athletes brought home medals from roller hockey and world champions in synchro-
the World Outdoor Track & Field Champion- nised swimming. Our female athletes also re-
ships and the European Athletics Indoor Cham- ceived medals at the European Short Course
pionships. Swimming Championship in Istanbul. In dou-
Spanish sports have made an important leap bles tennis, they won a Masters Cup and took
during this period. We have achieved 24 medals the podium at Roland Garros. Edurne Pasabán
in the world championships of Olympic sporting reached the summit of her twelfth “eight-thou-
events. Of the six gold medals obtained, 4 were sander”. Our girls won world or European me-
won by women. Over the past four years, our dals in judo, taekwondo, sailing and kayaking,
country has gone from being fifteenth in the and Spain’s professional women’s handball team
Olympic ranking to ninth in the world. Women’s made history at the World Championship.
sports have experienced a notable evolution and Prior to the Organic Law of 22 March 2007
are currently ranked ninth in the world, above on the effective equality of women and men, we
Spanish men’s sports in tenth place. designed the National Sports Agency Action
Spain’s sportswomen have also made out- Plan to ensure full equality for women in the
standing progress, whose professionalism and field of sports. Although the women’s participa-
determination have taken them to a very high tion rate in major competitions is notably high,
level of competition worldwide in team sports more women are needed in management posi-
(basketball, handball, field hockey) and indivi- tions. One of the measures to be adopted in this
dual sports such as dressage, synchronised respect consists of providing more funding to
swimming, taekwondo, Olympic shooting, ath- federations that increase their female member-
letics, sailing, judo, artistic gymnastics, cycling ship and recruit women for their management
and weightlifting. positions.
248
The Ministry of Equality and the National tures having previously undergone major mod-
Sports Agency have intensified their efforts to ernisation and transformation. The games them-
eliminate differences between male and female selves were a great success for Spain, which
participation in the various sports arenas. Over bagged 152 medals. Meanwhile, in 2007 the
sixty per cent of the federations have specific Track Cycling World Championships were held
Women and Sports programmes. The goal is to in Majorca, the America‘s Cup in Valencia and
achieve the true equality of men and women in the European Basketball Championships in Ma-
the sports field – a challenge that must be over- drid. In 2008 the Volvo Ocean Race set sail from
come with the efforts and ambition of the public Alicante; the IAAF World Indoor Championships
authorities. were held in Valencia, the European Roller
In these years, Spain has also hosted major Hockey Championships in Oviedo and the Eu-
sporting events in an attempt to encourage its ropean Water Polo Championships in Malaga.
citizens to take up sports and improve sporting In 2010, Spain will host the European Out-
infrastructures. Spain has a magnificent interna- door Athletics Championships and has a good
tional reputation as an efficient, serious and ri- chance of repeating as host of the America’s Cup
gorous organiser of sports events, having hosted in sailing. In 2014 it will welcome the World
many top international sports events since Bar- Basketball Championship, and in 2017 it may
celona ‘92. organise the Mediterranean Games. There is also
Seville’s candidacy for the 2008 Olympics a possibility of hosting the FIFA World Cup in
allowed the city to host important events such as 2018 or 2022.
the World Badminton Championships (1998), The capacity to organise premier-league
World Athletics Championships (1999), the competitions is an increasingly decisive factor
World Kayaking Championships and the World when defining a country’s sporting category. The
Rowing Championships (2002), and the World proliferation of major international sporting
Equestrian Games which were held in Jerez de events has boosted Spain’s importance as an or-
la Frontera that same year. Barcelona hosted the ganiser of such gatherings in many parts of the
World Swimming Championships in 2003. country and for numerous sports. We can be
Madrid’s candidacy for the 2012 Olympics proud, therefore, of having enhanced our repu-
took the baton from Seville and organised a se- tation in the organisation of competitions, and
ries of competitions as part of the plan to pro- this is clearly a valuable incentive to continuing
mote the city’s candidacy, including the IAAF to attract the most important sporting events to
World Athletics Championships (2002), the our country.
World Karate Championships (2002) and the Spain is also a pioneer in doping control
ISAF (International Sailing Federation) Olympic and the fight against the use of prohibited me-
Class World Championships (Cadiz, 2003), the thods and substances in sports. Since 1963, it
Finals of the World Volleyball League (2003), the has participated in all international forums on
World Cycling, Taekwondo and Archery Cham- this subject, actively searching for new methods
pionships (2005), and World Badminton Cham- to eradicate doping in sports. Madrid has one of
pionships and the Women’s Field Hockey World the world’s most prestigious doping control la-
Cup in 2006. Other noteworthy events include boratories, which was one of the first in Europe
the European Taekwondo Team Championships to be accredited by the International Olympic
(2002), the European Swimming Champion- Committee. As part of its “zero tolerance” policy
ships (2004) and European Indoor Athletics towards doping, in 2006 the Spanish Govern-
Championships (2005). ment presented a Draft Bill to Parliament on the
The Mediterranean Games held in Almeria protection of health and the fight against doping
in 2005 were the best in the history of the event. in sports, which redefines these illegal practices
The city of Almeria hosted the Conference of and the penalties applicable to all sportsmen
Sports Ministers from the countries taking part in and women. The result of the legislative initia-
the games, its sporting and general infrastruc- tives adopted in the 2004-2008 legislature was
Sports 249
the Violence, Racism, Xenophobia and Intole- ticipates actively in the work of the WADA-AMA
rance in Sports Law, passed in 2007. and in November 2007 it hosted the World Con-
Spain has an Anti-Doping Law and four de- ference against Doping in Sports. Spain is a
crees expanding upon it, a National Anti-Do- leader in the fight against doping and has made
ping Agency, the Health and Anti-Doping Com- great progress in recent years. A testament to this
mission and an increase in available funding to success is the fact that Jaime Lissavetzky, chair-
prevent, control and sanction the use of prohi- man of the National Sports Agency, is the Euro-
bited substances. The autonomous regions are pean representative to the Executive Committee
signing agreements with the National Anti-Do- of the AMA and also chairman of the UNESCO
ping Agency to ensure a better use of govern- International Convention against Doping in
ment resources in the fight against doping. Our Sport.
laboratories are able to detect the new doping After twenty years, the legislation governing
substances that regularly emerge, and we com- professional sport has become outdated. There-
ply fully with international anti-doping laws. In fore, Spain requires a new Professional Sport
Spain, those who traffic in and distribute these Law that reflects the reality of today by achieving
substances are prosecuted, and as many as a political and social consensus. In 2009, work
twenty law enforcement operations have dis- on this project was begun at the conference of
banded numerous clandestine centres which the Sub-Committee of Professional Sport, which
posed a threat to public health. will present its report in 2010.
Internationally, the Spanish National Sports During 2009, responsibility for the National
Agency plays an active role in the meetings, de- Sports Agency passed from the Ministry of Edu-
cisions and agreements of the European Union cation to the Office of the President of Spain.
(EU), European Council, United Nations, With this measure, the administration showed its
UNESCO and World Anti-Doping Agency (WA- determination to make sport a top priority. In
DA-AMA). The informal meetings of EU Minis- 2010, during the Spanish presidency of the Eu-
ters of Sports and Spanish Regional Director- ropean Union, the European Sports Conference,
Generals of Sports, which are held every six the European Sport Forum and a meeting of
months, reveal the need for the future European sports ministers will take place. The term “sport”
policy to consolidate existing logistical, finan- will be mentioned in the EU Treaty for the first
cial and institutional achievements. Spain par- time, and an article addressing its specific nature
Façade of the La Caja

Mágica tennis centre, a
Madrid sports complex
designed by Dominique
Perrault.
250
will be included. During Spain’s presidency, we cade of the century are there for all to see, while
will propose a concept of sport that embraces the sustained boost for sports, leading to one
the values which characterise us as Europeans: success after another, has earned a place for us
the fight against racism, doping, violence and among the top-ranking countries.
cheating in athletic competitions. Sports will We are confident our sporting potential will
play an important and visible role in the Spanish continue to grow, and that this will be compati-
presidency of the European Union. ble with a healthy climate in which there is no
In conclusion, sports are currently regarded place for fraud or anything else that implies a
in Spain as a prime factor of social cohesion and lack of sportsmanship, a term associated quite
a form of educational and cultural training, and rightly with the noblest human quality.
our country enjoys deserved international re- The web page of the National Sports Agency
cognition. (CSD) www.csd.gob.es contains information on
The role of the sports system in society has the most representative sports bodies, institu-
been turned on its head as sports have come to tions and structures in Spain. Moreover, the CSD
play the same fundamental role as art or culture. web page can also be accessed from the website
Our model is self-sufficient because society of the Office of the President (www.la-moncloa.
places increasing importance on sports. The ad- es) by entering the National Sports Agency sec-
vances obtained by Spain during this first de- tion.
CHAPTER XV
THE MEDIA
THEMEDIATHEMEDIATHE
MEDIATHEMEDIATHEMEDIA
THEMEDIATHEMEDIATHEME The relaunch of DTT in our country coin-
cides with the 50th anniversary of the birth of
DIATHEMEDIATHEMEDIAT television in Spain with RTVE, the national
public television company that has recently un-
HEMEDIATHEMEDIATHEME dertaken a complete overhaul.
The restructuring of RTVE ensures the pro-
vision of a quality public radio and television
DIATHEMEDIATHEMEDIATHE service that is modern, competitive, indepen-
dent of the government administration in po-
PANORAMA OF wer, financially efficient, responsible and trans-
THE MEDIA IN SPAIN parent in its dealings and at the service of all
Spanish citizens. These provisions are set forth
The media in Spain today are characterised by in Law 17/2006 of 5 June on State-Owned Pu-
fierce competition among the players in each of blic Radio and Television. And to reinforce this
the various markets that make up the map of the independence and public service quality, Law
country’s media industry. 8/2009 of 28 August on the funding of the
Spanish radio and television corporation abo-
Television lished advertising on the public channels.
Meanwhile, the number of players on the
Beginning with the strongest market in terms of Spanish television stage has grown. In addition
economic clout and penetration in society, the to the host of regional and local DTT channels
figures for television have grown steadily in re- created following several tenders called to as-
cent years. According to the annual report pu- sign digital frequencies to public and private
blished by the Telecommunications Market channels, the number of national channels has
Commission (Spanish acronym: CMT), in 2008 also increased from four national television
the audiovisual sector generated a total income operators broadcasting decoded channels (TVE
of approximately 5.5 billion (5,526,800,000) 1, La 2, Antena 3 and Telecinco) to six chan-
euros. If the operating and capital subsidies re- nels. The new channels are Cuatro, which be-
ceived by the national and regional public gan broadcasting in November 2005, and La
broadcasters are included in the overall turno- Sexta, which received its licence in 2006.
ver, the total income figure rises to just over 6.8 In relation to the screen shares obtained by
billion (6,804,300,000) euros. the different operators, 2008 witnessed a con-
Spain has begun to rewrite the legal frame- tinuation of the fragmentation of television au-
work governing the audiovisual sector in a diences stemming from the presence of more
move towards a liberalised market, bringing the agents in the market as well as an increase in
provision of public radio and television servic- the available array of audiovisual supports and
es into line with the EU framework while also media platforms. According to the General Me-
setting in motion the final move to digital ter- dia Study (Spanish acronym: EGM) of Decem-
restrial television (hereafter referred to as DTT). ber 2009, TVE has an audience share of 18.8%,
Indeed, the law on urgent measures to pro- Antena 3 and Telecinco both have 17.5 %, La
mote digital terrestrial television, liberalise cable Sexta has 8%, Cuatro 7.5%, the theme chan-
television and encourage pluralism is already a nels 5.4%, and TVE 2 has 2.8%.
reality, and the digital switchover will take place Law 7/2009 of 3 July on urgent measures
this year. The aim is facilitate the effective transi- related to telecommunications issues allows
tion from analogue to digital terrestrial techno- one television operator to partly own another
logy, offer citizens the opportunity to access network (the only restriction being that it may
more and better-quality programmes and ser- not have more than 27% of the screen share).
vices, and ensure an adequate variety of choice This effectively removes the 5% ceiling on si-
in Spain. multaneous ownership (of more than one net-
The Media 253
TELEVISION CHANNEL RANKING
Share % (Monday-Sunday). Minutes viewed per person and day: 229
TV1 18.8
Antena 3 17.5
Tele 5 17.5
La sexta 8.0
Cuatro 7.5
Other theme channels 5.4
Pay TV theme channels 4.7
Canal Sur 4.1
TV3 3.1
La 2 2.8
Canal 9 1.9
Telemadrid 1.3
ETB2 1.0
TVG 1.0
CMT 0.8
Local 0.7
TVCan 0.6
Other TV channels 0.5
Private regional channels 0.5
Aragon TV 0.4
Canal 2 Andalucía 0.3
K3/C33 0.3
International regional channels 0.2
ETB1 0.2
7Región Murcia 0.2
TPA 0.1
IB3 0.1
C. Extremadura 0.1
Punt 2 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Source: General Media Study.
work) by a single shareholder. Under the pro- work, Spain expects to move forward with the
tection of this law, various moves towards General Audiovisual Law and the State Audio-
mergers between different networks are now visual Media Board, an independent regulatory
underway, specifically between Telecinco and body.
Cuatro, and between Antena 3 and La Sexta. Finally, it is important to emphasise the ef-
The trend of high television consumption is forts made by the public authorities and televi-
becoming consolidated in Spain, despite a sion channels to promote a Code for Self-regula-
gradual increase in the penetration of other tion of Television Content and Child Protection
platforms such as the internet. as a means of introducing effective mechanisms
Spain will soon begin drafting the legal to control the content of television programmes
framework that will regulate the audiovisual that could be harmful to children in certain time
sector in the future, with a view to organising slots.
the legislation governing this industry and en-
suring a stable regulatory framework. Radio Radio
and television services will be liberalised and a
greater variety of news will be guaranteed, as The Spanish radio industry is divided among
will transparency in the ownership of the me- three large, private groups: the Prisa group (SER
dia and linguistic diversity. Within this frame- radio), Radio Popular (COPE) and Uniprex
254
RADIO STATION RANKING
Share %. General-interest radio (Monday-Sunday)
Ser 38.1
Cero 16.4
Cope 14.2
RNE 8.7
Punto Radio 3.7
Rac 1 3.7
Catalunya Radio 2.9
Canal Sur Radio 2.7
Radio Euskadi 1.6
Radio Galega 0.8
Euskadi Irratia 0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
(Onda Cero). The Prisa group owns SER, 40 with 1,974,000 listeners, ahead of COPE with
Principales, Sinfo Radio, Cadena Dial, M80, 1,737,000.
Radiolé and Máxima FM, while Radio Popular Thematic radio is dominated by music sta-
manages COPE and Cadena 100. Finally, Uni- tions, and Cadena 40 is the leading broadcaster
prex has Onda Cero, Onda Cero Música and in this category with a 21.3% market share.
Europa FM.
Another operator in the market is Radio Press
Nacional de España (RNE), a public radio sta-
tion with national coverage that also runs se- The third EGM report for 2009 confirms that
veral local and regional public radio stations. the sports paper Marca continues to lead the
RNE does not air advertisements, since its ope- Spanish newspaper market with 2,800,000
rating costs are covered by the corporation Ra- readers. El País with 2,081,000 readers ranks
dio Televisión Española. second in the total audience ratings and occu-
In 2008, SER led the market generating a pies the top position among general-interest
revenue of more than 186 million euros, fol- dailies, followed by El Mundo with 1,309,000
lowed by Onda Cero with 91.9 million euros readers. Next come La Vanguardia with
and COPE with 88.8 million euros. An observa- 731,000 readers, ABC with 728,000, La Voz de
tion of these figures over a longer period of Galicia with 597,000 and El Correo with
time shows that the market trend is one of con-
tinuous growth. However, the media industry,
and radio in particular, suffered from the effects CLASSIFICATION OF DAILIES
of the economic recession in 2009.
Copies Circulation
With regard to radio audiences, general-
El País 563,495 431,033
interest radio accounts for 49.9% of the share. El Mundo 427,306 323,587
Meanwhile, thematic radio accounts for 46.3% ABC 343,525 251,642
of the audience, of which 92.1% corresponds La Vanguardia 238,004 201,859
to thematic music programmes and 7.4% to El Periódico 195,118 152,025
news programmes. La Razón 389,900 146,586
The general-interest radio station with the As 337,669 230,306
largest national audience remains SER, with 4.6 Marca 428,456 296,353
million listeners. According to the EGM figures Source: Circulation Audit Office (OJD),
Nov. 2008-Dec.2009
for 2009, Onda Cero occupies the second spot
The Media 255
503,000. In relation to the sports press, Marca • Zeta, publisher of El Periódico de Ca-
has held on to its leading position ahead of As talunya.
with 1,306,000 readers, Sport with 690,000 • Prensa Ibérica, which publishes several
and Mundo Deportivo with 646,000. provincial newspapers.
A characteristic of this market is the in- • Grupo Godó, publisher of La Vanguardia
creasing concentration of the Spanish press in- and Mundo Deportivo.
dustry over the course of the first decade of the In 2008, the majority of these newspapers
21st century. The principal groups are: were affected by the recession but nevertheless
• Unidad Editorial, which publishes papers managed to increase their circulation figures.
such as Marca, El Mundo and Expansión. Furthermore, the online editions of Spanish
• Prisa, publisher of El País, now the dailies monitored by the interactive OJD (Cir-
world’s most widely read general-interest daily culation Audit Office) have continued to regis-
in the Spanish language. ter two-digit year-on-year increases.
• Vocento, publisher of ABC, El Correo and Free newspapers have also become a pow-
other papers, which accounted for nearly one erful presence in the market. The number of
fifth of national circulation in 2008. copies “released for distribution” – the only sta-
PRESS RANKING
Dailies. Readers/day (‘000)
Marca 2,800
El País 2,081
El Mundo 1,309
As 1,306
El Periódico 749
La Vanguardia 731
Abc 728
Sport 690
El Mundo Deportivo 646
La Voz Galicia 597
El Correo 503
La Razón 355
La Nueva España 351
El Diario Vasco 298
Heraldo Aragón 279
Levante 274
Faro de Vigo 273
La Verdad 265
El Norte Castilla 240
Público 238
Información Alicante 235
El Día 221
Última Hora 217
Diario de Navarra 205
20 Minutos* 2,376
Qué* 1,698
ADN* 1,381
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
*Free newspapers. Published Monday-Friday.

256
tistic monitored for this type of publication – copies distributed between July 2008 and June
leaves no doubt as to the quantitative impor- 2009, followed by Qué with 741,367 copies
tance of the phenomenon. The free press sector and ADN with 689,743.
is led by 20 Minutos with an average of 789,094
PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS
Agency EFE: 47, 48, 49, 89, 91, 92, 93, 95, 99, 102, 104, 107, 115, 117, 239, 245, 249
Felipe Alcoceba/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 57, 214, 237
Barcelona, Tourist Board: 161
Santiago Barrio/Cover: 232
Bettmann/Corbis: 41
Cristina Candel/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 29
Nano Cañas/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 18 left
The Royal Household of HM the King: 109
Manuel H. De León/EFE: 45, 87
J. M. Espinosa /EFE: 46
Antonio Garrido/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 52 left, 136
José Luis González Grande/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 20, 219
Imagen M.A.S. / The Spanish Tourism Institute: 240 left
The Spanish Tourism Institute: 18 right, 32, 209
Krammer/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 53
Candy Lopesino: 247
Ramón Massats/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 33
Ministry of Science and Innovation: 202, 203
Ministry of Defence: 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125
Ministry of Education: 171
Ministry of the Natural, Rural and Marine Environment: 217
Ministry of Housing: 233
Menchu de Paco: 65, 127
Museo Nacional del Prado: 37, 55 right, 56
Guillermo Navarro/Cover: 240 right
Francisco Ontañón/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 31, 55 left, 215, 238, 251
Juan José Pascual Lobo/ The Spanish Tourism Institute: 34, 52 right, 54

Spain Today

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Spain Today

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SPAINTODAYSPAINTODAYSPAINTODA

The Secretary of State for Communication wishes to thank all of the

This publication was prepared by the General-Directorate of International Information

Publisher: Ministry of the Presidency

Chapter I. The Country and its Population ........................................................... 13

The Political-Economic Model Based on Macroeconomic Stability and

Chapter XI. Equality Policy ....................................................................................... 227

Ghttertind Llanura de Ob ise

Is. Shetland Lago

Is. Hébridas de Ribinsk

del Báltico Yamantau TI

Pta. de San Mateo PA LG del Caspio

Central ar n 5633 Pobedy

Itálica Balcánica del Tarim

3479 3340 PAMIR K2 (Godwin Au

Mtes. Elburz Nanga Parbat

MED Chipre Damavand KU

Islas Madeira TES Gran Erg Tri

4165 lita Desierto

Islas Canarias del Sinaí Lu Kuh-e-Taaftan Dhau

Cirenaica t 4042 8172

MACIZO TIBESTI Meseta

C. Blanco Desierto del Deccán

de Air Bodélé Kordofan

Cuenca de Darfur Adén Socotora

n maua Pen. de ARÁBIGO

C. Palmas Bioko Rodolfo

C. López Cuenca 5194

Noronha O Lago Victoria Is. Seychelles

C Is. Almirantes Is. Chagos

C uenc a Is. Aldabra

l Brasil Montes Ruvu

Cu en ca Malawi Is. Comores Medio-Índica

Santa Elena Lago

e y Martín Vaz Reunión Is. Mascareñas

Pta. Ilhea Desierto

CH kii C. Che a Liaj Long Cord

SV ER Tierra de TIER CO JOSÉ

R D NES its ueñ ov C. Lisb

nte Mc. Kinley Te r r

Jan Mayen Kolgüiev

chatka Kusk de Lago ck istián

L. Baker Pen. de Kanin de Koni

Bª. de Is. Faeroes s

Lago Hurón VO AI IA HOKKAIDO

Sna 4202 Mont Blanc

Macizo Crimea de Aral

P A ánti Gº. de Maine

Desierto Ark Islas Azores Jónico pet

Pta. Concepción 10374

Florida Cirenaica t rto 8172 Everest YAN

Laysan Pacífico LOS SARGAZOS sie ar

Gardner AI a Is. Kazan Trópico de Cáncer

C. Sable Florid ISLAS

Estº. Omán TAIWAN

Kauai C. San Lucas ada (FORMOSA)

Maui Bª. de AN Fosa de

C. Corrientes Campeche C. Blanco del Deccán

AS 3415 le Gº HAINAN C. Engaño

nu SRI LANKA Fili pinas

Cuenca del Pta. San Pedro de Sorol

L. Volta C. Comorin (CEILÁN) Is. Nicobar M A L AY S I A Is. Truck Is. Senjavin I