QUANTUM MECHANICS AND PARTICLE PHYSICS

1. QUANTUM THEORY
The principle of complementarity states that either wave theory or particle theory
can be used to explain a particular light phenomenon, but not both. According to quantum
theory, light is transmitted as discrete particles, or quanta, rather than as waves. Each
quantum, known as a photon, has an energy corresponding to its frequency, f, and
Planck’s constant, h, as given by:
E = hf
When light strikes the surface of certain metallic materials, photoelectrons are emitted in a
process known as the photoelectric effect. The minimum work required to free the
electron, also known as the work function. No photoelectroms are ejected if the
frequency of the incident light falls below a certain cutoff or threshold frequency.
The scattering of photons to longer wavelengths by a crystalline substance is known
as the Compton effect. The scattering angle determines the magnitude of the increase in
the scattered photons’ wavelength.
A continuous spectrum of visible light is known as white light. An excited gas such
as hydrogen or neon produces an emission spectrum that includes only certain
characteristic wavelengths of light. Conversely, the gas absorbs only light of those
wavelengths. The visible spectral lines emitted by hydrogen are known as the Balmer
series.
Scattering experiments performed by Rutherford showed that most of an atom’s
mass is concentrated in a minute nucleus with an associated positive charge. The nucleus
of the lightest element, hydrogen, is called a proton.
According to the Bohr model of the atom, the hydrogen electron moves in a
circular orbit about the hydrogen proton in the nucleus. The angular momentum, L, of an
electron of mass m in an orbit of radius r is quantized and has only the discrete values
given by:
nh
L = mvr = n = 1,2,3...
2π
The integral constant n is known as the principal quantum number. Only certain electron
energy levels En can occur, and the principle quantum number n determines which levels
can occur. For hydrogen the electron energy levels are given by:
−13.6
En = eV n = 1,2,3...
n2
where the unit of energy is the electron-volt (eV). According to the Bohr model, an electron
emits or absorbs radiant energy only in the process of changing from one orbit to another,
and that the magnitude of the electron’s change in energy is equivalent to the energy
difference between the orbits. The lowest energy level is called the ground state. Higher
energy levels are called excited states. The energy an electron must have to break free
from an atom is called its ionization energy.
KEY CONCEPT – QUANTUM MECHANICS & PARTICLE PHYSICS
If an electron absorbs a photon and is excited to an energy that is several levels
higher, it can return to its ground state by stepping down through the intervening levels,
and emitting a photon at each step in a process known as fluorescence. In some
materials when electrons are excited to higher states, they remain in excited states for a
measurable length of time before they transition back to the ground state in a process
known as phosphorescence.
According to de Broglie's theory of matter waves, a material particle such as an
electron can behave as a wave. The wavelength λ of such a matter wave, known as the de
Broglie wavelength, is related to the particle’s momentum p as indicated by:
h h
λ= =
p mv
where h is Planck's constant. The radius of the Bohr orbit is thus related to an integral
number of de Broglie wavelengths, as indicated in the equation:
nλ
r= n = 1,2,3,...
2π
Electrons can be diffracted in a manner similar to light, and, just as light waves can, they
can be focused into an image. A scanning electron microscope is based on this
principle.

2. RADIOACTIVITY
An atom’s nucleus is composed of two types of particles, or nucleons, known as
protons and neutrons. The number of protons an element has in its nucleus is known as
its atomic number, Z. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
determines an element's atomic mass number, A. An element can have different mass
numbers, known as isotopes, of that element. Isotopes are sometimes referred to as
nuclides. A particular isotope of an element X, with atomic number Z and atomic mass A,
is written in nuclear notation as:
A
Z X
The three isotopes of hydrogen have their own names:
1
1 H hydrogen
2
1 H deuterium
3
1 H tritium
Some isotopes have unstable nuclei that undergo spontaneous decay. These are called
radioisotopes or radionuclides. Marie Curie coined the term radioactivity to describe
the various decay phenomena. Three types of radiation are associated with radioactive
decay: alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha radiation consists of relatively massive,
positively charged particles similar to helium nuclei, with two protons and two neutrons:
+ 2+

α α Particle
radioactive - (2 protons + 2 neutrons)
source charged plates
KEY CONCEPT – QUANTUM MECHANICS & PARTICLE PHYSICS
Beta radiation consists of both negatively and positively charged particles. Negatively
charged beta particles are indistinguishable from electrons.
+ β-
-
β- Particle
- (electron)
radioactive
source charged plates
Postively charged beta particles, which are the same size, are also known as positrons.
+
+
β+ Particle
(positron)
radioactive -
source charged plates β+

Gamma radiation consists of photons similar to x-rays, but with higher energies.

+
γ
γ Particle
- (photon)
radioactive
source charged plates

Radionuclides are unstable for several reasons, including their following characteristics:
• too many total nucleons
• too many protons
• too many neutrons
• too much energy
A radioisotope with too many nucleons can get rid of four nucleons by emitting an alpha
particle.
A
Z X → A−4
Z−2 X′ + 42 He
parent daughter alpha

A radioisotope with too many neutrons can reduce that number by one by emitting a
negative beta particle from its nucleus.
A
Z X → A
Z +1 X′ + β - + ν
parent daughter beta(-) antineutrino

A radioisotope with too many protons can reduce that number by one by emitting a
positron from its nucleus.
A
Z X → A
Z−1 X′ + β + + ν
parent daughter positron neutrino

Another particle, either a neutrino or an antineutrino, is usually emitted during beta

decay. It is a chargeless particle with no measurable mass, and is similar to a photon. A
KEY CONCEPT – QUANTUM MECHANICS & PARTICLE PHYSICS
nucleus that becomes excited by an energetic collision or radioactive decay can shed its
excess energy by emitting one or more gamma rays.
A
Z X * → AZ X + γ
excited de-excited gamma ray

The decay activity of a radionuclide is expressed as the number of disintegrations

∆N per time interval ∆t and is related to the decay constant λ by:
number of disintegrations ∆N
activity = = = − λN
time interval ∆t
The fraction of a radionuclide remaining after a certain time period is an exponential
function of the decay constant and the time as given by:
N − λt
=e
N0
The half-life T1/2 of a radionuclide is defined as the time it takes for half of a particular
amount of the radionuclide to decay, and is related to the decay constant as given by:
ln2
T1/2 = = 0.693
1.0 λ λ
N/N0
0.5

T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2

t
Each radionuclide has a characteristic half-life that may range from a fraction of a
second to billions of years.

3. FISSION & FUSION

Mass is a form of energy that can be interconverted with other forms of energy. The
total energy of an object of mass m is given by:
E = mc2
where c is the speed of light. Therefore, the change in energy of a system is related to the
change in the mass of the system as given by:
∆E = (∆m)c2
Because mass is a form of energy, it is sometimes convenient to use units of energy, e.g.,
million electron volts (MeV), when dealing with masses in nuclear processes.
When nucleons come together to form a nucleus, the mass of the nucleus is slightly
less than the total mass of the individual nucleons. This mass defect results when some
of the mass is converted to energy. It takes an equal amount of energy, called the binding
energy, to break up the nucleus. Therefore, the stability of a nucleus increases as the
average binding energy per nucleon increases.
KEY CONCEPT – QUANTUM MECHANICS & PARTICLE PHYSICS
The nucleons in a nucleus are held together by the strong nuclear force. The
relative strength of the strong nuclear force is much greater than those of electrostatic and
gravitational forces, but it is a short-range force that only acts when the nucleons are very
close together.
Sometimes after a nucleus absorbs an extra neutron, it splits into two fragments of
roughly equal size. This process is known as nuclear fission. One or two free neutrons
are also released in the process. The fission of a uranium isotope can be illustrated as:
235 140 94
n + 92 U → 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 3n
According to the liquid drop model, the excess energy caused by the absorption of the
extra neutron distorts the nucleus, much as gravity distorts a drop of liquid. Elongated
distortions weaken the strong nuclear forces, and the nucleus divides in response to the
now-stronger electrostatic forces.
The combined masses of the resulting fragments and free neutrons are less than
the mass of the original nucleus. This mass defect results in the release of a large amount
of energy per fission. If the free neutrons are able to induce fission in nearby nuclei, a
chain reaction can form. A certain critical mass of the fissionable material is necessary
to sustain a chain reaction.
The process of building a larger nucleus from smaller nuclei is known as nuclear
fusion. Energy is released in the fusion process because smaller nuclei have lower
binding energies than those with larger masses of up to about atomic mass 60. The fusion
of hydrogen to helium follows several steps:
1 1 2 +
1 H + 1H → 1 H + e
1 2 3
1 H + 1 H → 2He
3 3 4 1 1
2 He + 2He → 2 He + 1H + 1H
Hydrogen fusion produces the massive energy of the Sun and may one day be used to
produce electricity here on Earth.