DATA MODEL

Specifies the allowable logical structures and operations in a database. A DBMS operates
always according to a specific data model eg relational model.The database is used to store
information useful to an organization.To represent this information,some means of
modeling is used.The components used in modeling are limited to the objects of interest to
the organization and the relationship among these objects.ex-personnels.

DATABASE SCHEMA(intension)
The description of a database for a particular universe of discourse which follows the rules
layed down by the data model supported by the target DBMS.
The schema is the logical description of the entire database. It includes the names and
description of all record types including all the associated data items and aggregates and
set types including the singular sets.
Ex-
Type BOOK=record
Author:string;
Title :string;
End

DATABASE INSTANCE(extension)
The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called as instance.

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Maintaining a Database System - the Task of the DBA
The centralized control of the database is exerted by a person or group of persons under
the supervision of a highlevel administrator.this person or group is referred as the
database administrator.They are the users who are most familiar with the database
and are responsible for creating,modifying and maintaining its three levels.
Some of its functions are-
1)Maintaining information structure of the database (metadata in the Data
Dictionary)
2)Define user require ments of data usage means DBAspecifies the external
view of the various users and applications and is responsible for the
definition and implementation of the internal level,including the storage
structure and access methods to be used for the optimum performance of
the DBMS.
3)Monitor use of database
4)Determine and optimise storage structure and access strategies.The DBA is
the custodian of the data and controls the database structure.
5)Define authorisation checks means to ensure the integrity of the database,it
must be considered that proper authentication must be granted.The DBA is
responsible for granting permission to the users of the database and stores
the profile of each user in the database.This profile describes the permission
activities of a user on that portion of the database accessible to the user via \
one or more user views.
6)DBA defines the strategies for backup and recovery methods to recover the
database from failures due to human, natural or hardware causes with
minimal loss of data.
7)Define testing procedures and change over policy.

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The ANSI/SPARC 3-levels Architecture

VIEW 1 VIEW 2

01 BOOK 01 BOOK
EXTERNAL LEVEL VIEW 1 VIEW 2 02 TITLE PIC X(30) 02 TITLE PIC X(30)
(Individual view)
02 AUTHOR_NAME 02 PUBLISH_NAME
PIC X(20) PIC X(20)
02 YEAR PIC 9(4)

BOOK
TITLE CHARACTER(30
Structural
AUTHOR CHARACTER (20)
Properties
PUBLISHER CHARACTER(20)
& Constraints
YEAR NUMERIC (4)
BOOKSHOP
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

STORED_BOOK LENGTH=78
Logical PREFIX TYPE=BYTE(6)
INTERNAL LEVEL
Representation TITLE TYPE=BYTE(30), INDEX=TITLE X
(Storage view)
of Stored Records AUTHOR TYPE=BYTE(20)
etc •••••••••••••••••••••••••••

The generalized architecture of a database system is called as the ANSI/SPARC model. A

large number of commercial systems and research database models fit this framework. The
architecture remains divided into 3 levels:external level, conceptual level, and the internal
level.
The view of each of these levels is describe by a scheme.A scheme is an outline or a plan
that describes the records and relationships among the views.this term is used
interchangeably by the word schema.

EXTERNAL VIEW
The external or user view is at the highest level of the database abstraction where only
those portions of the database of concern to a user or application program are
included.Any number of user views may exist for a given global or conceptual v iew.
Each external view is described by means of a scheme called an external schema. it also
contains the methods of deriving the objects in the external from the objects in ,the
conceptual view.

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CONCEPTUAL OR GLOBAL VIEW
At this level of database abstraction all the database entities and the relationships among
them are included. one conceptual view represents the whole database. this conceptual
view is defined by the conceptual schema. it describes all the records and relationships
included in the conceptual view and therefore in the database, there is only one conceptual
schema per database.This schema also contains the method of deriving the objects in the
conceptual view from te objects in the internal view.

INTERNAL VIEW
We find this view at the lowest level of abstraction, closest to the physical storage method
used. it indicates how the data will be stored and describes the data structures and access
methods to be used by the database. The internal view is expressed by the internal schema,
which contains the definition of the stored record, the method of representing the data files,
and the access aids used.

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LANGUAGES IN A DATABASE ENVIRONMENT
Database management systems provide a facility known as data definition
language(DDL),which can be used to define the conceptual scheme and also give some
details about how to implement this scheme in the physical devices used to store the
data.This definition includes all the entity sets and their associated attributes as well as the
relationships among the entity sets.The definition also includes any constraints that have to
be maintained,including the constraints on the values assigned to different attributes in the
same or different records.These definitions,which can be described as metadata about the
data in the database,are expressed in the DDL of the DBMS and maintained in a compiled
form.The compiled form of the definitions is known as a data dictionary,directory,or
system catalog.The data dictionary contains information on the data stored in the database
and is consulted by the DBMS before any data manipulation operation.
The database management system maintains the information on the file structure,the
method used to efficiently access the relevant data.It also provide a method whereby the
application programs indicate their data requirements.the application program could use a
subset of the conceptual data definition language or a separate language.The database
system also contains mapping functions that allow it to interpret these stored data for the
application program.The internal schema is specified in a somewhat similar data definition
language called data storage definition language.The definition of the internal view is
compiled and maintained by the DBMS.The copiled internal schema specifies the
implementation details of the internal database,including access methods employed.

Ex- 1)creation of data structure supported by data model

e.g. CREATE TABLE for the relational model
2)modification of data structure
e.g. ALTER TABLE
3)deletion of data structure
e.g. DROP TABLE
4)creation of indexes on particular data items for data acces
e.g. CREATE INDEX

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DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE
The language used to manipulate data in the database is called data manipulation
language(DML).Data manipulation retrieval of data from the database,insertion of new
data into the database,and deletion or modification of existing data.The first of these data
manipulation operations is called a query.A query is a statement in the DML,that requests
the retrieval of data from the database.The subset of the DML used to pose a query is
known as query language.The DML provides the commands to select and retrieve data
from the database commands are also provided to insert,update,and delete records.They
could be used in an interactive mode or embedded in conventional programming languages
functions such as assembler,COBOL etc.The data manipulation functions provided by the
DBMS can be invoked in application programs directly by procedure calls or by
preprocessor statements.The later would be replaced by appropriate procedure calls by
either a preprocessor or the compiler.The DML can be procedural,means the user indicates
not only what to retrieve but how to go about retrieving it.If the DML is non procedural,the
user has to indicate only what is to be retrieved.

Ex-
1)retrieval of data
e.g. SELECT operator for the relational model
2)modification of data
e.g. UPDATE operator
3)deletion of data
e.g. DELETE operator
4)creation of new data
e.g. INSERT operator

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The System Catalog (Data Dictionary)
♦ Information pertaining to the structure and usage of data contained in the
database,the metadata,is maintained in a data dictionary.The term system
catalog also describes this metadata.
♦ For the relational data model the catalog is defined and interrogated using the
same languages that can be used at the application level (i.e. DDL and DML) -
but includes extra commands
♦ In an integrated system(in a system where the data dictionary is part of the
DBMS) the data dictionary stores information concerning the
external,conceptual,and internal levels of the database.it contains the source of
each data field value,the frequency of its use,and an audit trail concerning
updates,including the who and when of each update.
♦ The catalog describes:
->the basic make up of the data items
->base data
->views
->authorisation data
->some integrity constraints

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CLASSIFICATION OF DBMS
The database is used to store information useful to an organization.To represent this
information,some means of modeling is used.three of these models are-

RELATIONAL DATA MODEL

Soflwares systems using this approach are available for all sizes of computer systems.This
model has the advantage of being simple in principle,users can express their queries in a
powerful query language.In this model the relation is the only construct required to
represent the associations among the attributes of an entity as well as the relationships
among different entities.one of the main reasons for introducing this model was to increase
the productivity of the application programmer by eliminating the need to change
application programs when a change is made to the database.users need not know the
exact physical structures to use the database and are protected from any changes made to
these structures.they are,however,still required to know how the data has been partitioned
into the various relations.The relation is the only data structure used in the relation data
model to represent both entities and the relationship between them. A relation may be
visualized as a named table. Rows the relation are referred to as tuples of the relation and
the columns are its attribute.each attribute of a relation has a distinct name.the value for an
attribute or a column are draw from a set of values known as a domain.the domain of an
attribute contains the set of values that the attribute may assume.In the relations
model,note that no two rows of a relations are identical and the ordering of the row is not
significant.

HIERARCHICAL MODEL
A tree may be d efined as a set of nodes such as there is one specially designate node
called the root and the remaining nodes are partitioned into disjoint sets,each of which in
turn is a tree,that subtees of the root.if the relative orer of the subtrees is significant,the tree
is an ordered tree.
Like an organization chart or a family tree a hierarchy is an ordered tree and is easy to
understood.at the root of the tree is single parent;the parent can have none,one,or more
children.in a hierarchical database,the data is organized in a hierearchical or ordered tree
structure and the database is a collection of such disjoint trees( sometimes referred to as a
forest or spanning trees).the nodes of the tree present record type.each tree effectively
represents a root record type and all of its dependent record types.if we define the root
record ttype to be at level 0,then the level of its dependent record ttypes can be define as

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bei ng at level 1.the dependent of the record types at level 1 are said to be at level 2 and so
on.
An occurrence of a hierarchical tree type consist of 1 occurrence of the root record type
along with 0 or more occurrence of its dependent subtree types.each dependent subtree
is,in turn,hierarchical and consist of a record type as its root node.in a hierarchical model
no dependent record can occur without its present record occurrence.further more,no
dependent record occurrence may be connected to more than 1 present record occurrence.
A hierarchical model can present in 1 to many relationship between 2 entities where two
are respectively parent and child.however 2 represent a many to many relationship requires
duplication of one of the record type corresponding to one of the entities involved in this
relationship.note that such duplication could lead to inconsistencies when only one copy of
a duplicated record is updated.