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Question 1
(i) Explain the term “Foreign Exchange Rate Risk”.
(ii) Mention any four of the tools available to cover Exchange Rate Risk.
(iii) Alert Ltd. is planning to import a multi-purpose machine from Japan at a cost of 3,400
lakhs yen. The company can avail loans at 18% interest per annum with quarterly rests
with which it can import the machine. However, there is an offer from Tokyo branch of an
India based bank extending credit of 180 days at 2% per annum against opening of an
irrevocable letter of credit.
Other Information:
Present exchange rate Rs. 100 = 340 yen.
180 days’ forward rate Rs. 100 = 345 yen.
Commission charges for letter of credit at 2% per 12 months.
Advise whether the offer from the foreign branch should be accepted?
(4 + 4 + 12 = 20 marks) (November, 1996)
Answer
(i) Foreign Exchange Rate Risk: This risk relates to the uncertainty attached to the
exchange rates between two currencies. For example, the amount borrowed in foreign
currency is to be repaid in the same currency or in some other acceptable currency.
Thus if the foreign currency becomes stronger than (say) Indian rupees, the Indian
borrower has to repay the loan in terms of more rupees than the rupees he obtained by
way of loan. The extra rupees he pays is not due to an increase in interest rate but
because of unfavourable exchange rate. Conversely he will gain if the rupee is stronger.
The fluctuation in the exchange rate causes uncertainty and this uncertainty gives rise to
exchange rate risk.
Management Accounting and Financial Analysis
(ii) The following tools are available to cover exchange rate risk:
(a) Spot contracts.
(b) Rupee forward contract.
(c) Rupee roll over contract.
(d) Cross-currency forward contract.
(e) Cross currency roll over contract.
(f) Cross currency options.
(g) Currency futures.
(h) Currency and interest rate swaps.
(i) Arbitrage.
(iii) Option I (To finance the purchase by availing loan at 18% per annum):
Cost of machine Rs. in lakhs
3,400 lakh yen as Rs. 100 = 340 yen = 1,000.00
Add: Interest at 4.5% I Quarter = 45.00
Add: Interest at 4.5% II Quarter = 47.03
(on Rs. 1045 lakhs)
Total outflow in rupees = 1,092.03
Alternatively, interest may also be calculated on compounded basis, i.e.,
Rs. 1,000 [1.045]2 = Rs. 1,092.03 lakhs.
Option II (To accept the offer from foreign branch):
Cost of letter of credit Rs. in lakhs
at 1% on 3,400 lakhs yen as Rs. 100 = 340 yen = 10.00
Add: Interest I Quarter = 0.45
Add: Interest II Quarter = 0.47
(A) = 10.92
Payment at the end of 180 days:
Cost 3,400.00 lakhs yen
Interest at 2% p.a. [3,400 2/100 180/365] 33.53 lakhs yen
3,433.53 lakhs yen
Conversion at Rs. 100 = 345 yen [3,433.53/345 100} (B) = Rs. 995.23
Total Cost : A + B = 1,006.15 lakhs
Advice: Option No. 2 is cheaper. Hence, the offer can be accepted.
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Question 2
Write short notes on:
(a) Cross Currency Roll Over Contracts.
(b) Financial Swaps. (5 + 5 = 10 marks) (May 1997)
Answer
(a) Cross Currency Roll Over Contacts: Cross Currency Roll Over contracts are contracts
to cover overseas leg of long-term foreign exchange liabilities or assets. The cover is
initially obtained for six months and later extended for further period of six months and so
on.
Roll over charge or benefit depends on forward premium or discount, which in turn, is a
function of interest rate differentials between US dollar and the other currency. There is
no risk of currency appreciation or depreciation in the overseas leg:
Roll over for a maturity period exceeding six months is not possible because in the inter-
bank market, quotations beyond six months are not available.
Under the Roll Over Contract the basic rate of exchange is fixed but loss or gain arises at
the time of each Roll over depending upon the market conditions.
(b) Financial Swaps: Financial swaps are a funding technique which permit a borrower to
access one market and then exchange the liability for another type of liability. Investors
can exchange one type of asset for another with a preferred income stream. Swaps by
themselves are not a funding instrument, they are a device to obtain the desired form of
financing indirectly which otherwise might be inaccessible or too expensive.
All swaps involve exchange of a series of periodic payments between two parties, usually
through an intermediary which is a large international financial institution. The two
payment streams are estimated to have identical present values at the outset when
discounted at the respective cost of funds in the relevant primary financial markets.
The two major types of financial swaps are interest rate swaps and currency swaps. The
two are combined to give a cross-currency interest rate swap. A number of variations are
possible within each major type. In the following para the concept of interest rate and
currency swaps has been described.
Interest rate swaps: With an interest rate swap, interest-payment obligations are
exchanged between two parties, but they are denominated in the same currency. The
swap can be longer term in nature than either the forward or the future contacts. Term
may extend upto 15 years or more, whereas the range for forward or futures contracts is
upto five years. The market for swaps is unregulated and began in the early 1980’s. The
most common interest rate swap is the floating-fixed rate exchange. For example, a
corporate that has borrowed on a fixed rate term basis may swap with a counter party to
make floating rate interest payments.
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Management Accounting and Financial Analysis
Currency swaps: Yet another device for shifting risk is the currency swap. In a
currency swap, two parties exchange debt obligations denominated in different
currencies. Each party agrees to pay the other’s interest obligation. At maturity,
principal amounts are exchanged, usually at a rate of exchange agreed upon in advance.
The currency swap market traces its roots to the 1960’s, when parallel loans were
arranged between two borrowers of different nationalities.
In currency swaps both the principal and interest in one currency are swapped for
principal and interest in another currency. On maturity the principal amounts are
swapped back.
Usually in practice swap is intermediated by a bank which takes away a part of the
savings, leaving the balance to be shared by the parties. Swap gains or losses arises
because of spread compression which varies in different financial markets.
Question 3
Write short on Forward as hedge instrument. (5 marks) (November, 1997)
Answer
Forward as hedge instrument: International transactions both trade and financial give rise to
currency exposures. A currency exposure if left unmanaged leaves a corporate open to profits
or losses arising on account of fluctuations in currency ratio. One way in which corporate can
protect itself from effects of fluctuations in currency rates is through buying or selling in
forward markets.
A forward transaction is a transaction requiring delivery at future date of a specified amount of
one currency for a specific amount of another currency. The exchange rate is determined at
the time of entering into the contract but the payment and delivery takes place on maturity.
Corporates use forwards to hedge themselves against fluctuations in currency price that would
have a significant impact on their financial position. Banks use forward to offset the forward
contracts entered into with non-bank customers.
Question 4
A company operating in a country having the dollar as its unit of currency has today invoiced
sales to an Indian company, the payment being due three months from the date of invoice.
The invoice amount is $ 13,750 and at todays spot rate of $ 0.0275 per Re. 1, is equivalent to
Rs. 5,00,000.
It is anticipated that the exchange rate will decline by 5% over the three months period and in
order to protect the dollar proceeds, the importer proposes to take appropriate action through
foreign exchange market.
The three month forward rate is quoted as $ 0.0273 per Re. 1.
You are required to calculate the expected loss and to show, how it can be hedged by forward
contract. (6 marks) (May 1998)
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Answer
Calculation of the expected loss due to foreign exchange rate fluctuation
Present cost
$ 13,750 @ today spot rate of $ 0.0275 per Re. 1 = Rs. 5,00,000
Cost after 3 months
$ 13,750 @ expected spot rate of $ 0.026125 per Re. 1 = Rs. 5,26,316
(Refer to working note) __________
Expected loss Rs. 26,316
Forward cover is available today at 1 Re. = $ 0.0273 for 3 months
If we take forward cover now for payment after 3 months net amount to be paid is ($ 13,750/$
0.0273) = Rs. 5,03,663
Hence, by forward contract the company can cover Rs. 22,653 (Rs. 26,316 – Rs. 3,663) i.e.
about 86% of the expected loss.
Working Note:
Expected spot rate after 3 months
It is anticipated by the company that the exchange rate will decline by 5% over the three
months period. The expected rate will be
Present rate – 5% of the present rate
= $ 0.0275 – 5% of $ 0.0275
= $ 0.026125
Alternatively, the expected rate may also be calculated as follows:
95
$ 0.0275 $ 0.026125
100
Alternative Solution:
Calculation of expected loss due to foreign exchange rate fluctuations
Present cost
$ 13,750 @ Rs. 36.36 = Rs. 4,99,950.00
(Refer to working note)
Cost after 3 months
$ 13,750 @ expected spot rate of Rs. 38.18 = Rs. 5,24,975.00
(Refer to working note 2) ____________
Expected loss Rs. 25,025.00
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Forward cover is available today at 1 Rs. 36.36 for 1 US $ (Refer to working note 3)
If we take forward cover now for payment after 3 months net amount to be paid is Rs.
5,03,663 ($13,750 @ Rs. 36.63 per $).
Hence, by forward contract the company can cover Rs. 21,362 (Rs. 25,025 – Rs. 3,663) i.e.
about 85.3% of the expected loss.
Working Note:
1. Today spot rate
$ 0.0275 per Re. 1
1
or 1 $ = or Rs. 36.36
0.0275
2. Expected spot rate after 3 months
It is anticipated by the Company that the exchange rate will decline by 5% over the three
months period. The expected rate will be
Present rate + 5% of Rs. 36.36
= Rs. 38.18
3. Today forward rate
1
$ 0.0273 per Re. 1 or 1$ Rs. 36.63
0.0273
Question 5
X Ltd. an Indian company has an export exposure of 10 million (100 lakhs) yen, value
September end. Yen is not directly quoted against Rupee. The current spot rates are
USD/INR = 41.79 and USD/JPY = 129.75.
It is estimated that Yen will depreciate to 144 level and Rupee to depreciate against dollar to
43.
Forward rate for September 1998 USD/Yen = 137.35 and USD/INR = 42.89.
You are required to:
(i) to calculate the expected loss if hedging is not done. How the position will change with
company taking forward cover?
(ii) If the spot rate on 30th September, 1998 was eventually USD/Yen = 137.85 and
USD/INR = 42.78, is the decision to take forward cover justified?
(8 marks) (November, 1998)
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Answer
(i) Calculation of the expected loss if hedging is not done.
Rs.
Exposure of (100 lakhs) yen at current spot rate of Rs. 32.21 per 100 yen 32,21,000
(Refer to Working Note 1)
Exposure of (100 lakhs) yen at estimated rate of Rs. 29.86 per 100 yen 29,86,000
(Refer to Working Note 2) _________
Expected loss without forward cover 2,35,000
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the exchange rate. The problem with the money market alternative is that all markets are
not open and all currencies are not fully convertible.
Question 7
Outland Steel has a small but profitable export business. Contracts involve substantial delays
in payment, but since the company has had a policy of always invoicing in dollars, it is fully
protected against changes in exchange rates. More recently the sales force has become
unhappy with this, since the company is losing valuable orders to Japanese and German firms
that are quoting in customers’ own currency. How will you, as Finance Manager, deal with the
situation? (8 marks) (May 2000)
Answer
As a Finance Manager to deal with the situation two problems emerge – (i) the problem of
negotiating individual contracts and (ii) managing the company’s foreign exchange exposure.
The sales force can be allowed to quote in customer’s own currency and hedge for currency
risk by obtaining the forward contracts etc.
The finance manager can decide whether the company ought to insure. There are two ways of
protecting against exchange loss. First, by selling the foreign currency forward. Secondly, to
borrow foreign currency against its receivables, sell the foreign currency spot and invest the
proceeds in the foreign currency say dollars. Interest rate parity theory tells us that in free
market the difference between selling forward and selling spot should be exactly equal to
difference between the interest on the money one has to pay overseas and the interest one
earns from dollars.
Question 8
Write short note on Debt route for foreign exchange funds. (5 marks) (May 2000)
Answer
Debt route for foreign exchange funds: The following are some of the instruments used for
borrowing of funds from the international market:
(i) Syndicated bank loans: The borrower should obtain a good credit rating from the rating
agencies. Large loans can be obtained in a reasonably short period with few formalities.
Duration of the loan is generally 5 to 10 years. Interest rate is based on LIBOR plus
spread depending upon the rating. Some covenants are laid down by the lending
institutions like maintenance of key financial ratios.
(ii) Euro bonds: These are basically debt instruments denominated in a currency issued
outside the country of the currency. For example, Yen bond floated in France. Primary
attraction of these bonds is the shelter from tax and regulations which provide Scope for
arbitraging yields. These are usually bearer bonds and can take the form of (i) traditional
fixed rate bonds (ii) floating rate notes (FRN’s) (iii) Convertible bonds.
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Management Accounting and Financial Analysis
(iii) Foreign bonds: Foreign bonds, are foreign currency bonds and sold at the country of that
currency and are subject to the restrictions as placed by that country on the foreigners’
funds.
(iv) Euro Commercial Papers: These are short term money market securities usually issued
at a discount, for maturity in less than one year.
(v) External Commercial Borrowings (ECB’s): These include commercial bank loans, buyer’s
credit and supplier’s credit, securitised instruments such as floating rate notes and fixed
rate bonds, credit from official export credit agencies and commercial borrowings from
multi-lateral financial institutions like IFCI, ADB etc. External Commercial borrowings
have been a popular source of financing for most of capital goods imports. They are
gaining importance due to liberalization of restrictions. ECB’s are subject to overall
ceilings with sub-ceilings fixed by the government from time to time.
(vi) All other loans are approved by the government.
Question 9
The following table shows interest rates for the United States dollar and French francs. The
spot exchange rate is 7.05 francs per dollars. Complete the missing entries:
3 Months 6 Months 1 Year
Dollar interest rate
(annually compounded) 11½% 12¼% ?
Franc interest rate
(annually compounded) 19½ ? 20%
Forward franc per dollar ? ? 7.5200
Forward discount per franc
per cent per year ? 6.3%
(8 marks) (November, 2000)
Answer
Computation of missing entries in the table
For computing the missing entries in the table we will use interest rates parity theorem (IRP).
This theorem states that the exchange rate of two countries will be affected by their interest
rate differential. In other words, the currency of one country with a lower interest rate should
be at a forward premium in terms of currency of country with higher interest rates and vice
versa. This implies that the exchange rate (forward and spot) differential will be equal to the
interest rate differential between the two countries i.e.
Interest rate differential = Exchange rate differential
1 rf S f / d
or
1 rd Ff / d
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Where rf is the rate of interest of country F (say the foreign country), r d is rate of interest of
country D (say domestic country), S f/d is the spot rate between the two countries F and D and
Ff/d is the forward rate between the two countries F and D.
3 months
1
Dollar interest rate = 11 %
2
(annually compounded)
1
Franc interest rate = 19 %
2
(annually compounded)
Now, Differential in interest rate = Differential between forward and spot rate
1 .115
i.e. = Differential between forward and spot rate
1 .195
Or Differential between forward and spot rate = 93.3%
Therefore, Forward discount on franc per cent per year = 100% 93.3%
= 6.7%
Forward discount on franc per cent for 3 months = 6.7/4 or 1.675%
Forward franc = Today’s spot rate (Difference between forward and Spot rate)
= 0.141844 dollar (100% 1.675%)
Forward franc = 0.1394681 dollar
Forward franc per dollar = 1/.1394681
= 7.17
6 months
1
Dollar interest rate = 12 %
4
(annually compounded)
Forward discount on franc % per year = 6.3% or – 3.15% for 6 months
Hence 6 months Forward rate = 0.141844 dollar (Spot rate) (100% 3.15)
= 0.13737 dollars
Forward francs per dollar = 1/0.13737
or Forward francs per dollar = 7.28 francs
Again, Differential in interest rate = Differential between forward
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1.70.
You are required to calculate and explain:
(i) If Shoe Company were to hedge its foreign-exchange risk, what would it do? What
transactions are necessary?
(ii) Is the deutsche mark at a forward premium or at a forward discount?
(iii) What is the implied differential in interest rates between the two countries?
(Use interest-rate parity assumption). (10 marks) (May 2001)
Answer
(i) If Shoe Company were to hedge its foreign exchange risk, it would enter into forward
contract of selling deutsche marks 90 days forward. It would sell 50,000 deutsche marks
90 days forward. Upon delivery of 50,000 DM 90 days hence, it would receive US $
29,412 i.e. 50,000 DM/1.70. If it were to receive US $ payment today it would receive US
$ 29,240 i.e. 50,000 DM/1.71. Hence, Shoe Company will be better off by $ 172 if it
hedges its foreign exchange risk.
(ii) The deutsche mark is at a forward premium. This is because the 90 days forward rate of
deutsche marks per dollar is less than the current spot rate of deutsche marks per dollar.
This implies that deutsche mark is expected to be strengthen i.e. Fewer deutsche mark
will be required to buy dollars.
(iii) The interest rate parity assumption is that high interest rates on a currency is offset by
forward discount and low interest rate on a currency is offset by forward premiums.
Further, the spot and forward exchange rates moves in tandem, with the link between them
based on interest differential. The movement between two currencies to take advantage of
interest rates differential is a major determinant of the spread between forward and spot rates.
The forward discount or premium is approximately equal to interest differential between the
currencies i.e.
FDM/US $ - S DM/US $ 365
rDM - rUS $
S DM/US $ 90
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Management Accounting and Financial Analysis
exchange rate in the future. Can the Airlines Company hedge its Foreign Exchange risk?
Explain by examples. (November, 2001)
Answer
Airlines company can hedge its foreign exchange risk by the following:
(i) Hedging through forward contract: The company can take full forward cover against
foreign exchange exposure and entirely hedge its risk. It can contract with a bank to buy
French frank forward at an agreed exchange rate e.g. suppose the 6 months forward rate
is INR 6.77/FF. The liability is fixed and the airlines can concentrate on operation. Cost
of forward contract
6.60 - 6.77 360
6.60 days
(ii) Foreign currency option: Foreign currency option is the right (not an obligation) to buy
or sell a currency at an agreed exchange rate (exercise price) on or before an agreed
maturity period. The right to buy is called a call option and right to sell is put option.
Suppose, the airlines wants to purchase a 6 months put option. The put option exercise
rate (say) is INR 6.70. The Airlines will be required to pay a premium for purchasing the
option say 5% of the value of put option INR 6700 0.05 = INR 335
Maximum final cost = 6700 + 335 = INR 7035
Suppose at the end of 6 months the exchange rate stay at INR 6.8/FF
Airlines will exercise its put option hence it will sell (pay) INR 6.7
(The exercise price) to obtain one French Franc. In this market it will be required to pay
INR 6.80.
Suppose exchange rate at the end of 6 months is INR 6.35, Airlines should not exercise
its option. In the open market it need to pay only INR 6.35 (instead of INR 6.70) to buy
one FF. However, it has already paid the option premium.
(iii) Money market operations: Airlines can borrow FF 1000 million now, convert them into
rupee at the current exchange rate and involve (invest) in money market in India for 6
months. If interest rate parity holds, the difference in the forward rate and the spot rate is
the reflection of the difference in the interest rates in two countries. Thus Airlines will be
able to hedge against the changes in the exchange rate. The problem with money
market is that all markets are not open and all countries are not fully convertible.
Question 12
(a) Distinguish between:
(i) Forwards and Futures.
(ii) Caps and Collars.
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(b) A customer with whom the Bank had entered into 3 months’ forward purchase contract
for Swiss Francs 10,000 at the rate of Rs. 27.25 comes to the bank after 2 months and
requests cancellation of the contract. On this date, the rates, prevailing, are:
Spot CHF 1 = Rs. 27.30 27.35
One month forward Rs. 27.45 27.52
What is the loss/gain to the customer on cancellation? (4 + 6 = 10 marks) (May 2002)
Answer
(a) (i) Forwards and Futures: Forward contracts are private bilateral contracts and have
well established commercial usage, whereas future contracts are standardized
tradable contracts fixed in terms of size, contract and other features and traded on
an exchange.
In forward contracts, price is not publicly disclosed whereas in future contracts price
is transparent.
Forward contract is exposed to the problem of liquidity whereas in futures there is
no liquidity problem.
Forward contracts are usually settled on one specified delivery date. In the case of
futures there is a range of delivery dates.
Forwards are settled at the end of contract whereas futures are settled daily.
In forwards delivery or final cash settlement usually takes place, whereas in futures
contract is usually closed out prior to maturity.
(ii) Caps and Collars: These are derivatives which a finance manager can use to
manage his cash-flows effectively and also to reduce the risk involved in case of a
major devaluation of currency.
Caps-if a company decides on a particular rate of a currency vis-à-vis the rupee
over which it is not ready to take a risk, it can buy a cap at that rate. The cost of
caps is very prohibitive and can be offset by selling a ‘floor’ which is just the
opposite of cap. Collar – a combination of caps and floors is called collar.
(b) The contract would be cancelled at the one month forward sale rate of Rs. 27.52.
Rs.
Francs bought from customer under original forward contract at: 27.25
It is sold to him on cancellation at: 27.52
Net amount payable by customer per Franc 0.27
At Rs. 0.27 per Franc, exchange difference for CHF 10,000 is Rs. 2,700.
Loss to the Customer:
Exchange difference (Loss) Rs. 2,700
Note: The exchange commission and other service charges are ignored.
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Management Accounting and Financial Analysis
Question 13
(a) Distinguish between Forward Contracts and Futures Contracts?
(b) On 1st April, 3 months interest rate in the US and Germany are 6.5 per cent and 4.5 per
cent per annum respectively. The $/DM spot rate is 0.6560. What would be the forward
rate for DM for delivery on 30th June ?
(c) In International Monetary Market an international forward bid for December, 15 on pound
sterling is $ 1.2816 at the same time that the price of IMM sterling future for delivery on
December, 15 is $ 1.2806. The contract size of pound sterling is £ 62,500. How could
the dealer use arbitrage in profit from this situation and how much profit is earned?
(6+4+4 = 14 marks) (November, 2002)
Answer
(a) Distinction between forward and futures contracts
1. Trading: Forward contracts are traded on personal basis or on telephone or
otherwise.
Futures contracts are traded in a competitive arena.
2. Size of contract: Forward contracts are individually tailored and have no
standardised size.
Futures contracts are standardised in terms of quantity or amount as the case may
be.
3. Organised exchanges: Forward contracts are traded in an over the counter market.
Futures contracts are traded on organised exchanges with a designated physical
location.
4. Settlement: Forward contracts settlement takes place on the date agreed upon
between the parties.
Futures contracts settlements are made daily via exchange’s clearing house.
5. Delivery date: Forward contracts may be delivered on the dates agreed upon and in
terms of actual delivery.
Futures contracts delivery dates are fixed on cyclical basis and hardly takes place.
However, it does not mean that there is no actual delivery.
6. Transaction costs: Cost of forward contracts is based on bid – ask spread.
Futures contracts entail brokerage fees for buy and sell orders.
7. Marking to market: Forward contracts are not subject to marking to market. Futures
contracts are subject to marking to market in which the loss profit is debited or
credited in the margin account on daily basis due to change in price.
8. Margins: Margins are not required in forward contract.
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sell an asset at an agreed price on or before a specified period of time. The option to buy an
asset is known as a call option and the option to sell an asset is called put option. The price
at which option can be exercised is called as exercise price or strike price. Based on
exercising the option it can be classified into two categories:
(i) European Option: When an option is allowed to be exercised only on the maturity date.
(ii) American Option: When an option is exercised any time before its maturity date.
When an option holder exercises his right to buy or sell it may have three possibilities.
(a) An option is said to be in the money when it is advantageous to exercise it.
(b) When exercise is not advantageous it is called out of the money.
(c) When option holder does not gain or lose it is called at the money.
The holder of an option has to pay a price for obtaining call/put option. This price is
known as option premium. This price has to be paid whether the option is exercised or
not.
Question 15
What is a “derivative”? Briefly explain the recommendations of the L.C. Gupta Committee on
derivatives. (6 marks)(May 2003)
Answer
The derivatives are most modern financial instruments in hedging risk. The individuals and
firms who wish to avoid or reduce risk can deal with the others who are willing to accept the
risk for a price. A common place where such transactions take place is called the ‘derivative
market’.
Derivatives are those assets whose value is determined from the value of some underlying
assets. The underlying asset may be equity, commodity or currency.
Based on the report of Dr. L.C. Gupta Committee the following recommendations are accepted
by SEBI on Derivatives:
Phased introduction of derivative products, with the stock index futures as starting point
for equity derivative in India.
Expanded definition of securities under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act (SCRA)
by declaring derivative contracts based on index of prices of securities and other
derivatives contracts as securities.
Permission to existing stock exchange to trade derivatives provided they meet the
eligibility conditions including adequate infrastructural facilities, on-line trading and
surveillance system and minimum of 50 members opting for derivative trading etc.
Initial margin requirements related to the risk of loss on the position and capital adequacy
norms shall be prescribed.
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Annual inspection of all the members operating in the derivative segment by the Stock
Exchange.
Dissemination of information by the exchange about the trades, quantities and quotes in
real time over at least two information vending networks.
The clearing corporation/house to settle derivatives trades. This should meet certain
specified eligibility conditions and the clearing corporation/house must interpose itself
between both legs of every trade, becoming the legal counter party to both or
alternatively provide an unconditional guarantee for settlement of all trades.
Two tier membership: The trading member and clearing member, and the entry norms for
the clearing member would be more stringent.
The clearing member should have a minimum networth of Rs. 3 crores and shall make a
deposit of Rs. 50 lakhs with the exchange/clearing corporation in the form of liquid
assets.
Prescription of a model Risk Disclosure Document, and monitoring broker-dealer/client
relationship by the Stock Exchange and the requirement that the sales personnel working
in the broker-dealer office, should pass a certification programme.
Corporate clients/financial institutions/mutual funds should be allowed to trade
derivatives only if and to the extent authorised by their Board of Directors/Trustees.
Mutual Funds would be required to make necessary disclosures in their offer documents if
they opt to trade derivatives. For the existing schemes, they would require the approval of
their unit holders. The minimum contract value would be Rs. 1 lakh, which would also apply in
the case of individuals.
Question 16
In March, 2003, the Multinational Industries makes the following assessment of dollar rates
per British pound to prevail as on 1.9.2003:
$/Pound Probability
1.60 0.15
1.70 0.20
1.80 0.25
1.90 0.20
2.00 0.20
(i) What is the expected spot rate for 1.9.2003?
(ii) If, as of March, 2003, the 6-month forward rate is $ 1.80, should the firm sell forward its
pound receivables due in September, 2003? (6 marks) (May 2003)
Answer
(i) Calculation of expected spot rate for September, 2003:
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Management Accounting and Financial Analysis
Answer
Marking to market: It implies the process of recording the investments in traded securities
(shares, debt-instruments, etc.) at a value, which reflects the market value of securities on the
reporting date. In the context of derivatives trading, the futures contracts are marked to
market on periodic (or daily) basis. Marking to market essentially means that at the end of a
trading session, all outstanding contracts are repriced at the settlement price of that session.
Unlike the forward contracts, the future contracts are repriced every day. Any loss or profit
resulting from repricing would be debited or credited to the margin account of the broker. It,
therefore, provides an opportunity to calculate the extent of liability on the basis of repricing.
Thus, the futures contracts provide better risk management measure as compared to forward
contracts.
Suppose on 1st day we take a long position, say at a price of Rs. 100 to be matured on 7 th day.
Now on 2nd day if the price goes up to Rs. 105, the contract will be repriced at Rs. 105 at the
end of the trading session and profit of Rs. 5 will be credited to the account of the buyer. This
profit of Rs. 5 may be drawn and thus cash flow also increases. This marking to market will
result in three things – one, you will get a cash profit of Rs. 5; second, the existing contract at
a price of Rs. 100 would stand cancelled; and third you will receive a new futures contract at
Rs. 105. In essence, the marking to market feature implies that the value of the futures
contract is set to zero at the end of each trading day.
Question 18
(a) ABC Co. have taken a 6 month loan from their foreign collaborators for US Dollars 2
millions. Interest payable on maturity is at LIBOR plus 1.0%. Current 6-month LIBOR is
2%.
Enquiries regarding exchange rates with their bank elicit the following information:
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stronger currency than the Indian Rupee based on past trends and it would be
advisable to cover the exposure.
(b) Spot rate of Re. 1 against yen = 108 lakhs yen/Rs. 30 lakhs = 3.6 yen
3 months forward rate of Re. 1 against yen = 3.3 yen
Anticipated decline in Exchange rate = 10%.
Expected spot rate after 3 months
= 3.6 yen – 10% of 3.6
= 3.6 – 0.36 = 3.24 yen per rupee
Suggestion: If the exchange rate risk is not covered with forward contract, the expected
exchange loss is Rs. 3.33 lakhs. This could be reduced to Rs. 2.73 lakhs if it is covered with
Forward contract. Hence, taking forward contract is suggested.
Question 19
The following data relates to ABC Ltd.’s share prices:
Current price per share Rs. 180
Price per share in the futures market-6 months Rs. 195
It is possible to borrow money in the market for securities transactions at the rate of 12% per
annum.
Required:
(i) Calculate the theoretical minimum price of a 6 month-forward contract.
(ii) Explain if any arbitraging opportunities exist. (6 marks)(May 2004)
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Answer
(i) ABC Ltd.
Calculation of theoretical minimum price of a 6 months forward contract
Theoretical Minimum price = 180 + (180 .12 6/12) = Rs. 190.80
(ii) Arbitrage opportunity exists.
The arbitrageur can borrow money @ 12% for 6 months and buy the share at Rs. 180.
At the same time he can sell the shares in the futures market at Rs. 195. On the expiry
date, 6 months later, he could deliver the share and collect Rs. 195, pay off Rs. 190.80
and record a profit of Rs. 4.20.
Question 20
The United States Dollar is selling in India at Rs. 45.50. If the interest rate for a 6-months
borrowing in India is 8% per annum and the corresponding rate in USA is 2%.
(i) do you expect United States Dollar to be at a premium or at discount in the Indian
forward market;
(ii) what is the expected 6-months forward rate for United States Dollar in India; and
(iii) what is the rate of forward premium or discount? (9 marks)(May 2004)
Answer
(i) Under the given circumstances, the USD is expected to quote at a premium in India as
the interest rate is higher in India.
(ii) Calculation of the forward rate:
1 R h F1
1 R f Eo
Where: Rh is home currency interest rate, R f is foreign currency interest rate, F 1 is end of
the period forward rate, and E o is the spot rate.
1 0.08/2 F
Therefore 1
1 0.02 / 2 45.50
1 0.04 F
1
1 0.01 45.50
or
1.04 45.50 F
1
1.01
47.32
or F1
1.01
or F1 = 46.85
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Answer
Exchange Position/Currency Position:
Particulars Purchase Sw. Fcs. Sale Sw. Fcs.
Opening Balance Overbought 50,000
Bill on Zurich 80,000
Forward Sales – TT 60,000
Cancellation of Forward Contract 30,000
TT Sales 75,000
Draft on Zurich cancelled 30,000 ________
1,60,000 1,65,000
Closing Balance Oversold 5,000 _______
1,65,000 1,65,000
Cash Position (Nostro A/c)
Credit Debit
Opening balance credit 1,00,000
TT sales ________ 75,000
1,00,000 75,000
Closing balance (credit) _______ 25,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
The Bank has to buy spot TT Sw. Fcs. 5,000 to increase the balance in Nostro account to Sw.
Fcs. 30,000.
This would bring down the oversold position on Sw. Fcs. As Nil.
Since the bank requires an overbought position of Sw. Fcs. 10,000, it has to buy forward Sw.
Fcs. 10,000.
Question 27
You sold Hong Kong Dollar 1,00,00,000 value spot to your customer at Rs. 5.70 & covered
yourself in London market on the same day, when the exchange rates were
US$ 1 = H.K.$ 7.5880 7.5920
Local inter bank market rates for US$ were
Spot US$ 1 = Rs. 42.70 42.85
Calculate cover rate & ascertain the profit or loss in the transaction ignore brokerage.
(4 Marks) (November, 2005)
Answer
The bank (Dealer) covers itself by buying from the market at market selling rate.
Rupee – Dollar selling rate = Rs. 42.85
Dollar – Hong Kong Dollar = HK $ 7.5880
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Can$
Principal 1000.00
Add: Interest @9% for 3 months 22.50
Total 1022.50
Net arbitrage gain = 1025.1 – 1022.5 = Can$ 2.6
Question 29
XYZ Ltd. is an export oriented business house based in Mumbai. The Company invoices in
customers’ currency. Its receipt of US $ 1,00,000 is due on September 1, 2005.
Market information as at June 1, 2005.
Exchange Rates Currency Futures
US $/Rs. US $/Rs. Contract size Rs.4,72,000
Spot 0.02140 June 0.02126
1 Month Forward 0.02136 September 0.02118
3 Months Forward 0.02127
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47,23,639
Less: Interest Cost – 1,50,000 x 0.08 x 3/12 ____Rs.3,000
Net Receipts Rs.47,20,639
Receipts under different methods of hedging
Forward contract Rs.47,01,457
Futures Rs.47,20,639
No hedge
US$ 1,00,000/0.02133 Rs.46,88,233
The most advantageous option would have been to hedge with futures.
Question 30
Spot rat 1 US $ = Rs.48.0123
180 days Forward rate for 1 US $ = Rs.48.8190
Annualised interest rate for 6 months – Rupee = 12%
Annualised interest rate for 6 months – US $ = 8%
Is there any arbitrage possibility? If yes how an arbitrageur can take advantage of the
situation, if he is willing to borrow Rs.40,00,000 or US $83,312. (5 Marks) (November, 2006)
Answer
Spot Rate = Rs.4000000/- /83312 = 48.0123
Forward Premium on US$ = [(48.8190 – 48.0123)/48.0123] x 12/6 x 100
= 3.36%
Interest rate differential = 12% - 8%
= 4% (Negative Interest rate differential)
Since the negative Interest rate differential is greater than forward premium there is a
possibility of arbitrage inflow into India.
The advantage of this situation can be taken in the following manner:
1. Borrow US$ 83312 for 6 months
Amount to be repaid after 6 months
= US $ 83312 (1+0.08 x 6/12) = US$86644.48
2. Convert US$ 83312 into Rupee and get the principal i.e. Rs.40,00,000
Interest on Investments for 6 months – Rs.4000000/- x 0.06
= Rs.240000/-
Total amount at the end of 6 months = Rs.(4000000 + 240000/-)
= Rs.4240000/-
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(ii) The exposure of Japanese yen position is being offset by a better forward rate
Question 32
AMK Ltd. an Indian based company has subsidiaries in U.S. and U.K.
Forecasts of surplus funds for the next 30 days from two subsidiaries are as below:
U.S. $12.5 million
U.K. £ 6 million
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6,000
U.K. = 4,02,685
0.0149
4,84,080
Immediate cash pooling is preferable as it maximizes interest earnings
Note: If the company decides to invest pooled amount of Rs.4,84,080/- @ 6.2% p.a. for 30
days an interest of Rs.2,501/- will accrue.
Question 33
Following information relates to AKC Ltd. which manufactures some parts of an electronics
device which are exported to USA, Japan and Europe on 90 days credit terms.
Cost and Sales information:
Japan USA Europe
Variable cost per unit Rs.225 Rs.395 Rs.510
Export sale price per unit Yen 650 US$10.23 Euro 11.99
Receipts from sale due in 90 Yen US$1,02,300 Euro 95,920
days 78,00,000
Foreign exchange rate
information:
Yen/Rs. US$/Rs. Euro/Rs.
Spot market 2.417-2.437 0.0214-0.0217 0.0177-0.0180
3 months forward 2.397-2.427 0.0213-0.0216 0.0176-0.0178
3 months spot 2.423-2.459 0.02144-0.02156 0.0177-0.0179
Advice AKC Ltd. by calculating average contribution to sales ratio whether it should hedge it’s
foreign currency risk or not. (8 Marks)( Nov 2007)
Answer
If foreign exchange risk is hedged.
Total
(Rs.)
Sum due Yen 78,00,000 US$1,02,300 Euro 95,920
Unit input price Yen 650 US$10.23 Euro11.99
Unit sold 12000 10000 8000
Variable cost per unit Rs.225/- 395 510
Variable cost Rs.27,00,000 Rs.39,50,000 Rs.40,80,000 Rs.1,07,30,000
Three months 2.427 0.0216 0.0178
forward rate for
selling
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The arbitrageur has USD1,00,00,000. Assuming that there are no transaction costs, explain
whether there is any arbitrage gain possible from the quoted spot exchange rates.
(6 marks, Nov. 2008)
Answer
The arbitrageur can proceed as stated below to realize arbitrage gains.
(i) Buy I. Rs. from USD 10,000,000
At Mumbai 48.3 × 10,000,000
Rs.483,000,000
483,000,000
(ii) Convert I. Rs. to GBP at London
77.52
GBP = 6,230,650.155
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