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Abstract. The article presents the genesis of labour market segmentation from the ancient times to the
present theoretical analysis and research results. Conducted a theoretical analysis shows that the
theoretical framework of the rudiments of employment lies in the ancient annals and letters written by the
priests. Work, labour, and supply - demand have always been discussed. The paper analyzes the labour
market theory of its development stages, the labour market segmentation theories of the modern approach
and the synthesis of the labour market segmentation evolutionary processes. Great contribution to the
labour market theories development was made by the classic schools of the eighteenth century: Adam
Smith (1723–1790), David Ricardo (1772–1823), Jean-Baptiste Say (1762–1832); in the nineteenth
century labour relations appeared as the phenomenon of the division of labour, led to an extremely wide
range of occupations and industries that influenced on the appearance of the embryonic segmentation
theories. Labour market theoretical framework was influenced by the classical school of fundamental
sciences, which allowed to analyze the evolutionary labour market segmentation approaches today.
Keywords: labour market, segmentation, genesis, evolutionary processes.
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S. Jakstiene
The research aim – to identify and structure requirement it restricts the entry into an occupation
the individual periods of labour market even if they work side by side in an organization.
segmentation stages of development, which Geographical labour markets are also defined
showed the labour market segmentation in the considering that neither employers nor workers
development process. can move to another location without acquiring
Goals of the research are: considerable amount of costs. As a result wages
1. Analyzing the very essence of labour market can remain higher in big cities as opposed to
segmentation theory. smaller cities. For example there are a vast number
2. To show stages of labour market segmentation of unemployed people in certain parts of the world
development. as opposed to others primarily because of the
3. Analyzing the labour segmentation approaches. demographics, is it a town, city or near to home
The research method. Non-fiction theoretical work place\The workers differ in their tastes and
foundations have been researched using both preferences for leisure time rather than work and
systemic and comparative analyses, aiming at for financial reasons rather than rewards. Their
revealing labour market genesis theoretical investment is their education, training, work skills,
aspects. and experience. But it still makes sense to analyze
labour supply and demand in the aggregate. The
primary sector and secondary sector, both these
2. The very essence of labour market
sectors possess different wages and each
segmentation theory
employment characteristics are different. The
Modern labour market segmentation theory arose concepts of primary and secondary labour markets
in the early 1960’s. It opened the eyes of many have now passed into conventional thought, with
economists viewing the labour market as just a the primary labour market commonly understood
market with people with individual characteristics to mean people with secure jobs and good
of education and motivation as well as technology conditions of work in public-sector employment,
playing a major factor in terms of producing the large corporations and highly unionized
output. This view later on helped us look at the industries; while the secondary labour market is
demand-side of the market, the nature and strategy understood to cover small employers, non-
of the employers. The idea of non-competing unionized sectors of the economy, competitive
groups has been developed in theories that are industries such as retailing, where jobs are less
identified under the general label of labour market secure and conditions of work and pay generally
segmentation theory. The two key formulations are poorest (The Structuring of Labour Markets 2009).
split into labour market theory and internal labour The theory of labour market segmentation
market theory, both developed in the United contrasts to the views of neo-classical economic
States. The labour market segmentation theory theory, which posits the existence of a unified
revolves around the identification of a split market for labour, consisting of buyers and sellers
between two analytically divisions in the economy in open competition with each other. The labour
and the labour market. market is seen as functioning in the same way as
This model of the labour market segmentation other markets. In this model, the only difference
has been developed over the years to between different workers' wages and conditions
accommodate the fact that different job arise from individual differences in their human
professionals work in completely different job capital (skills, experience, or formal education) or
markets. For example, Lawyers and fashion tastes. On the latter, as part of the theory of
designers work in different markets. Some of the compensating wage differentials those who prefer
major dividing-lines that have been identified are risky or dirty jobs receive higher wages or salaries
occupational, geographical, and industrial. than those who take safe or clean ones. Put another
Occupational labour markets arise from the way, differences in compensation for labour arise
division of labour, increasing differentiation and only on the supply side.
specialization. These workers are unable to switch In the theory of labour market segmentation,
between occupations because they require there exists important differences on the demand
different skills and extensive investment in side which imply differences in compensation and
training and qualifications. For example, nurses the like that are not explained by individual
and doctors form separate occupational labour workers' characteristics. Since labour markets are
markets even though they work side by side in the far from perfect, non-market institutions such as
same organizations. For examples specifying the craft unions and professional associations play a
minimum qualifications and experience role, as do the different strategies employed by
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GENESIS OF LABOUR MARKET SEGMENTATION
employers, in producing different results for Among the first ones to define labour market
workers with similar characteristics. Typically, segmentation were Cairnes (1874) and Marshall
labour market segmentation splits the aggregate (1880). They raised the concept of non-competing
labour market between the primary sector and the groups in labour market when the labour market is
secondary sector. Segmentation theory shows that being segmented from different sub-groups, where
labour market is divided into certain segments, every employee works in completely different
which are being formed by economic, political and markets. They characterized non-competing
social forces; it also points out the segmentation groups as groups of individuals, belonging to
causes and differences between characteristics of different professional categories (craftsmen, little
individual labour market participants. The models retail firms, highly-qualified producers and
of labour segmentation puts employees into labour specialists). This is the main factor, reflecting
groups or labour market segments. Once the itself in primary labour market segmentation idea.
labour segments are defined, their relative Further developing the concept of non-competing
socioeconomic standing emerges as an important groups in labour market Sidgwick (1901), Mill
issue. It can be stated here that segmentation is (1909), Senior (1965) researched the correlation
being made for better analysis of market between intellectual knowledge and work; non-
opportunities. Segmentation methods allow also economical reasons for price setting in average
revealing labour supply and demand opportunities profit norm, such as regional differences as well as
as well as evaluating labour market development the role of habits and traditions. Marshall (1980)
perspectives. Such results are widely applied in while drawing attention towards technological
forecasting labour market demand and supply. changes and mass production growth stressed the
Separate labour market segments analyses offer an reduction of obstacles of employees skills, in case
opportunity not only to evaluate the labour market they are able to adapt quickly to changes.
condition but also to more comprehensively base Accordingly, labour market was divided into
its development perspectives according to different different markets (segments), where working
labour market segments characteristics and groups do not compete among themselves and
criteria. Segmentation lets create general labour there is no connection among them. So the concept
market activity and development model. of non-competing groups in labour market directly
influenced labour market segmentation theories,
which were more developed in the second half of
3. Stages of labour market
the 20th c. Neoclassical labour market model
segmentation development
offers that wages have to be equal. This idea was
A huge input into labour market theories was backed up by the assumption of perfect
made by representatives of classical economic competition, use maximizing and homogeneity of
school in the 18th Smith, Ricardo, Jean – Baptiste employees. However there are clear differences in
Say, Malthus, Jevons formed the main theses wages, as pointed out in the main model. There are
about free competition as the basic condition to three basic neoclassical arguments explaining
optimally use material, financial and human differences seen between employees wages:
resources; they also developed working worth difference equalizing theory, human capital theory,
theory stating that the worth of a good depends on and wage effectiveness theory. Neoclassical
the number of employees and their efforts needed economists were the first ones to try and explain
to produce it; they applied the theory into present- wage differences in labour market (Marsall 1993;
day economics, finally they formed market Samuelson 1964; Hyclak, Johnes, Thorton 2005).
cooperation law between supply, demand and G. S. Becker and J. Mincer explained that “other
price. Smith in “Wealth of the Nations“ things are equivalent, only personal income vary
emphasized advantages of division of labour and depending on the quantity of investment of human
specialization, defined market functioning and resources: i.e. education and practice“ (Marshall
highlighted difference in wages depending on 1998). Neoclassics emphasized that labour market
different jobs, which served as a background for functions just as other markets where customers
emergence of a variety of professions and fields of and sellers meet and where there is an open
economies, which had already existed as the very competition between them. However, Marshall
rudiments of market segmentation development. It (1998) explained that labour itself is not a totally
could be stated that the basic idea of this economic homogenous good and employees differ by their
school was the idea of wages as the main labour interests, suitability for the concrete job, some of
market mechanizm control idea (Smith 1776). them work for pleasure, others only for money;
they also differ by their human resources:
629
S. Jakstiene
education, investment into training and experience. However Hudson (2007), since then dual
Some authors emphasized that neoclassical labour market theory has continued to inform our
economic labour market theory distorts the understanding of the American labour market. Its
person‘s professional situation process in labour utility has been underscored by a number of
market, if to include into the process only developments: First, much of the recent research
individual characteristics. Migration of segments on nonstandard and contingent work arrangements
is limited, so possibilities of getting into different (Appelbaum 1992; Barker, Christensen 1998;
segments are also limited (William, Dickens 1987; Belous 1989; Blank 1998; Carré 1992, Callaghan,
Miller 1979). Hartmann 1991; Gonos 1998; Morse 1998;
The 20th century neoclassical critics Veblen Polivka 1996; Tilly 1996) has relied on concepts
and Commons write in their works, that and ideas from dual labour market theory
classification system of labour characteristics (Freeman 1999; Harrison 1997; Kalleberg et al.
includes employees psychological and sociological 2000; Noyelle 1987; Reid, Rubin 2003).
data. Followers of Cain differently from Nonstandard jobs are more likely than traditional
representatives of neoclassical economic trend, see work arrangements to pay low wages and less
discrimination results in labour market, other likely to provide health insurance and pensions
systemic factors or even random factors, which (Hudson 1999; Hudson 2001; Spalter-Roth et al.
push employees into another sector (“bad works“), 1997). Second, the tremendous influx of foreign
into the anti-work direction, in this way workers into the United States since the 1980s has
strengthening useless, unfavourable position of caused the labour market to become increasingly
employees with low-wages. Cain‘s followers raise stratified on the basis of national citizenship
in neoclassical approach the main problem (Ehrenreich 2002; Hochschild 2003; Hondagneu-
connected with low education of employees, lack Sotelo 2001; Massey 1995; Phillips, Massey
of training; these factors make an impact on 1999). Finally, the decline in union membership,
unemployment and instability in labour market. the historical guarantor of good wages and benefits
Neoclassisists should concentrate on structuring for blue-collar workers (Freeman 1999; Freeman,
and a possibility that these factors do influence Medoff 1984) has contributed to the wage and
and are influenced at the same time by labour benefit bifurcation in the service sector (Harrison,
market. The followers of institutional approach, Bluestone 1988). New labour market segmentation
aiming to explain the difference of wages analyzed thesis argues that, as the practice of allocating
internal labour markets and influence of workers to inferior jobs on the basis of race and
employees professional skills (Dunlop 1957). sex has declined, employers have turned to
Dual labour market theory asserts that the nonstandard work arrangements and immigrants to
American labour market is sharply divided supply labour for low-wage jobs (Hudson 2007).
between good jobs and bad jobs. Because a The segmentation of labour market enables:
substantial portion of American workers are − to analyse labour market through the aspect
trapped in bad jobs, without any realistic chance of of the extent as well as the content;
getting or having a better job in the future, they are − to survey the possibilities of the different
consigned to a lifetime of poverty. These claims groups of people in the labour market;
are old and controversial. Yet, in spite of the − to train the qualified specialists according to
counter-claims by critics, dual labour market the demand in the labour market;
theory continues to influence research on labour − to organize training and re-skilling courses;
markets and inequality. Dual labour market theory − to distribute political means through the
first emerged in the late 1960s from Doeringer and different territorial units of the labour market;
Piore’s work on firm internal labour markets. It − others (Martinkus, Stoškus et al. 2009).
received support from critics of human capital and While analysing causes of different labour
marginal productivity theory who argued that the groups opportunities in labour market,
War on Poverty manpower programs had failed to peculiarities of labour market and other problems
produce a substantial reduction in poverty and it is advisable to analyze and apply various
underemployment, especially among minorities. contemporary theories - Insider-Outsider Wage
The critics argued these programs because they Determination, Search Theory, Labour Market
failed to address structural deficiencies in the Discrimination, Dual Labour Market Theory and
creation and allocation of jobs (Doeringer, Piore others (Lindbeck, Snower 1989; Stigler 1984;
1971; Bluestone 1968; Harrison 1972; Gordon Becker 1954), which enable to design the situation
1972; Reich et al. 1973). in the labour market.
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GENESIS OF LABOUR MARKET SEGMENTATION
631
S. Jakstiene
632
GENESIS OF LABOUR MARKET SEGMENTATION
professions. All this leads to the conclusions of the allows to analyze the evolutionary labour market
economy of the labour market situation and future segmentation approaches today.
development opportunities (Dubra, Kasalis, et al.
2008).
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