Antennas

Dr. Navneet Gupta

Lecture-30-35

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 1

 Introduction
Two-way wireless transmission
Key component: Antenna

Antenna:
as an interface
as a mode transformer
as an impedance transformer

Cellular phone handset Base station Tower

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 2
 Basic Concepts
IEEE Definition of an antenna
Antenna is that part of a transmitting or
receiving system which is designed to
radiate or to receive EM waves.
• The accelerating charge radiate energy i.e
they throw energy in their surrounding medium

RADIATION
Radiation is a phenomenon related to time-varying currents.
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 3
 Basic Concepts

• Case I: d << λ
No net radiation.

[Note: In electromagnetics: (physical closeness) measured in terms of λ. If d <<

λ radiation is negligible]

• Case II: d ≈ λ
Radiation
d≈λ
TEM Line

antenna

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 4

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 5
 Directional Characteristics
• Ability to transmit power in a preferred direction

• The angular distribution of the transmitted power

around the antenna (in the case of transmitting
antenna), or received power (in the case of receiving
antenna) is known as the radiation pattern

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 6

 Directional Characteristics

Point-to-point communication between two towers

Transmitter Receiver
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 7
 Parabolic Dish Antenna

Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope

(GMRT), Pune India

The ability of an antenna to concentrate

power in a narrow beam depends on the size
of the antenna in terms of wavelength.
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta
8
 Directional Characteristics

FIELD PATTERN POWER PATTERN

E  ,  
E  ,  n 
The half-power level occurs
Normalized Pattern E  ,  max at those angles θ and φ for
which E θ (θ, φ)n = 1/√2 =
P ,  
Pn  ,   
0.707
P ,  max Or
Radiation intensity (W Sr-1)
Pn (θ, φ) = 1/2 = 0.5
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 9
 Directional Characteristics

Also known as FNBW

Antenna pattern in rectangular coordinates and decibel (logarithmic) scale.

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 10

Directional Characteristics

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 11

 Directional Characteristics

RADIATION PATTERN

Beam area (ΩA) Antenna Effective Aperture (Ae)

Gain/
Directivity (D)
or Directive
Gain (G)

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 12

Beam Area

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 13

• Directivity: The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of
the maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation
intensity.

φ0HP θ0HP

4
D
A
 A  4
For an isotropic antenna
D 1
4 41000
D 
 HP HP  o HP o HP EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 14
OTHER ANTENNA PARAMETERS

• Power Gain
• Radiation Efficiency/Antenna Efficiency

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 15

Effective Aperture (or Effective area)

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 16

Example:

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 17

 Antenna Equivalent Circuits

Power delivered to the antenna terminals

Power lost in the generator’s internal

resistance RG.

Total power produced by the generator:

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 18

Maximum Power Transfer condition:

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 19

 20
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta
 The Potential Functions
• We may determine the forms of the waves radiated from
an antenna if we know the current distribution over the
surface of the antenna.
• We will use vector potential approach

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 21

How to determine the radiation pattern?
Antenna Analysis:
(a) Determination of current
distribution on the
antenna structure.
(b) Determine A from J
(c) Field due to this current
distribution in the space
surrounding the antenna
– Find H from A
– Find E from H
(f) Calculate the power
density P
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 22
 Hertzian Dipole
Retarded Potential  1 
H   A
  e  jr jwt 
A I 0 dl e aˆ r raˆθ r sin θaˆφ
4 r 1 1
H   0
 r sin 
2 r θ
Ar rAθ r sin θAφ
0

Figure A Hertzian dipole carrying current I  Io cos wt.

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 23

 Hertzian Dipole
Hr  0
H  0
I 0 dl sin  j (wt  r )  j 1  1/r3 : electrostatic field
H  e   2
4  r r  1/r2: induction field
I 0 dl cos  j (wt  r )  1 j  1/r: radiation field
Er  e 
 r 2 r 3 
2  
where,

 βr << 1: near field zone condition
w
βr >> 1: far field zone condition
I 0 dl sin  j (wt  r )  j 1 j 
E   r  
r 2 r 3 
e
4 

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 24

 Hertzian Dipole
 
1  * 1
  Re E  H .ds   H aˆ r
2
Prad
2 2
2
 dl  2
Prad  40   I 0 2

 
2 Prad
Rrad  2
Radiation resistance
I0
2
 dl 
Rrad  80   2

 

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 25

 Field Pattern of Hertzian dipole

E-Plane

H-Plane

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 26

Field Pattern of Hertzian dipole

3-D field pattern of far field (Eθ and Hφ) from Hertzian dipole

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 27

Power Pattern of Hertzian dipole

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 28

Important Antenna parameters of Hertzian dipole ?

• Directive gain
• Directivity
• HPBW
• Effective area (or aperture)

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 29

Omnidirectional Antennas

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 30

Parabolic Reflector Antenna

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 31

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 32
Basic idea: replace mechanical pointing & beam
forming by electronic means

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 33

 Antenna Arrays
• An antenna array is a group of similar antennas arranged in various
configurations (straight line, circles, triangle and so on) with proper
amplitude and phase relations to give certain desired radiation
characteristics.

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 34

The Very Large Array, Socorro, New Mexico, USA.

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 35

 Another view of VLA
The VLA is the world's
largest radio telescope
array, consisting of 27
radio antennas each 25
meters in diameter and
weighing some two
hundred and thirty-five
tonnes. They are set out
in a Y shaped railway
network allowing the
antennas to be moved.
Two of the arms are 21
km in length, the third is
Photo by: David Nunuk 19 km.
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 36
Lecture-34

Two isotropic Point Sources

• Consist of two identical radiating elements (antennas)
spaced a distance apart.
– Case-1 Equal Amplitude and Phase:
– E = E1e-jψ/2 + E2e-jψ/2
– E = 2E0cos(ψ/2)
E1=E2=E0 (say)

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 37

Field Pattern between E versus θ for d = λ/2

The pattern is bidirectional, figure of eight. BROADSIDE ARRAY

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 38

Case-2 Equal Amplitude and Opposite Phase:
– E = -E1e-jψ/2 + E2ejψ/2
– E = 2jE0sin(ψ/2)

END-FIRE ARRAY

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 39

Linear Array of N Isotropic Point Sources
• Linear array is equivalent to N individual elements that are
equally spaced along a straight line and are uniform so that
each element is fed with current of the same magnitude but of
progressive phase shift.

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 40

Consider a 1-D array of identical antennas, equally spaced
==> uniform progressive phase shift from one end to another.

If reference is shifted to the

  d cos    centre of array, φ is
eliminated
Phase difference between adjacent sources
 sin N 
 2 
Et  E0  
 sin 
 2 
Et ,max  E0 N sin N
En  2 Normalized array
E 
t , max n N N sin
2
pattern

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 41

Array factors for uniform linear arrays

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 42

 Broadside Array
• In this array the phase angle is such that it makes
maximum radiation perpendicular to the line of array.
• In BSA, sources are in phase i.e δ = 0 and ψ = 0 for
max. must be satisfied.
• Major lobe maxima occurs at 900 or 2700.
• Directions of minor lobe maxima:

 2n  1 
 max,min or  cos 1

 2 Nd 
• Directions of pattern minima (of
 n  
minor lobes):
 min,min or 1
 cos  
 Nd 
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 43
 End-Fire Array
• In this array the phase angle is such that it makes maximum
radiation along the line of array. The HPBW of the
• In EFA, ψ = 0 and δ = -βd. broadside array is less
than that of the end-fire
• Principal Maxima occurs at 00 or 1800.
array but the directivity
• Directions of pattern maxima (of minor lobes): of the end-fire array is

 2n  1 
larger than the
 max,min or 1
 cos   1 broadside array.
 Nd 
• Directions of pattern minima (of minor lobes):
 n  
 min,min or  2 sin 1
 
 2 Nd 

Directivity of the EFA is about 4 times higher than of the BSA of the same length.
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 44
Lecture-35
Design criterion
Grating lobes are
identical to the main
beam but in
undesired direction
 leads to the
reduction in power
efficiency

• Visible range = 2βd (reduce it) BUT

• What is the maximum permissible inter-element
spacing for which there is no grating lobe?

Depends upon the choice of the direction of the main beam

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 45

θ

βd < 2π
d<λ

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 46

For an end fire array, on the other hand, main beam is along θmax = 0,
the visible range of ψ is: -2βd ≤ ψ ≤0
visible

Radiation pattern and visible range of an end-fire array

2βd < 2π
d < λ/2

http://www.analyzemath.com/antenna_tutorials/antenna_arrays.html

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 47

 Tapering of Arrays
• The technique used to reduce the unwanted side lobes
from the radiation pattern of antenna is known as
tapering.
• Side lobes can be eliminated if
Current amplitudes follows coefficient of binomial series

• Make the excitation amplitudes in the elements in

the center portion of an array higher than those in
the end elements.

Pascal’s Triangle

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 48

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 49
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 50
EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 51
BUT:
Elimination of side lobes take place at the expense of
directivity. HPBW of binomial array is more than that of
uniform array for the same length of the array.

Example: N =5 d = λ/2

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 52

 EFA with Increased Directivity
• Ordinary end-fire array produces a maximum field in the end-fire
direction, it does not give the maximum directivity.
• To improve the directivity, Hansen and Woodyard proposed that the
required phase shift between closely spaced elements of a very long
array should be

  
   d   For maximum in θ = 0o
 N
Hansen-Woodyard condition
  
    d   for increased directivity
 N For maximum in θ = 180o

N
   sin 2 Array Pattern
En  sin  
 2 N  sin (increased directivity)
2

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 53

 Field Pattern of 10-
source increased
directivity array with
λ/4 spacing

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 54

 Beam Steering
• By adjusting the phasing of an array, it is
possible to maximize it in other directions.
• It is also possible to steer a null to a specific
direction. This is useful for reducing or
eliminating interference to a receiving antenna.
• Example: Four isotropic source array with beam
steering

EEEC433 Dr. Navneet Gupta 55