Lecture 10 Fracture

Impact Testing
• Charpy and Izod tests measure impact energy or notch toughness

Outline
• Charpy V- notch (CVN) most common
Before fracture mechanics - impact testing was used to measure impact

• Impact Testing behaviour and likelihood of brittle fracture. Developed in response to
• Charpy Test onset of brittle failure in ductile materials e.g. steel ships, bridges etc.
• Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature - Still used in quality control and Standards (ship plate etc).
• Metallurgical Factors Affecting TT Three main factors were producing these fractures in service:
• Fatigue • Triaxial stress state (at notches, cracks etc)
• Fatigue Testing • Low temperatures
• Types of Fatigue • High strain or loading rates
Impact testing is used for:

9 checking quality
Not that useful for design calculations
9 tendency for brittle failure
9 temperature dependence.
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 10/1 Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 10/2
Charpy Test Ductile to Brittle Transition in Steel
• use standard sized bar specimens with • Primary function of Charpy test
a central notch • at high temperature, CVN for steel
• weighted pendulum released from a is relatively high but drops with Impact
height, h decrease in temperature Energy Transition Ductile fracture
• impacts the specimen behind the notch • at low temperature steel can be
(stress concentration) brittle
• fracture of specimen occurs and • the sudden drop in impact energy is
energy is absorbed the ductile-to-brittle transition
• the pendulum travels to point, h´, (DBT) Brittle fracture
where h´< h • steels should always be used above
• obtain the amount of absorbed energy their DBT Temperature
from scale
• ceramics and polymers also
– ………..….. and ……………. test experience DBT
method
• Aluminum and copper alloys show Al and Cu have FCC structure
………………
Ductile to Brittle Transition Behavior Ductile to Brittle Transition Behavior
Notch
• actual DBT is ………. to define, 9 Like tensile specimen, the fractured
surface of an impact specimen also
instead minimum requirement Fibrous zone
a
contains fibrous, radial (crystallization
of CVN = 20J (15ft.lb) is used
zone) and shear lip zones. Radial zone
a
• DBT changes with carbon 9 Fibrous zones occur during the process
content in steel of crack propagation in ……… materials. Shear lip zone
• Steels: 0.01-0.67%carbon 9 The proportions of fibrous zone, radial
A sketch of the appearance of fractured
zone and shear lip zone vary with temp.
surface of impact specimen after Charpy test
resulting in different test results.
Can use fracture surface
appearance to estimate the DBT
¾ When temp. drops to a certain value, the area of the fibrous zone ………..
and the area of crystallization zone …………. sharply. Î The fracture
Brittle, shiny, Fibrous, grey, behavior of the material transforms from ductile to brittle.
faceted, bright, dull, possibly
ridged. Sides ¾ Usually is determined (as the temp. at which the failure surface is 50% shiny)
flat overall, no
or little may be pulled as the area of crystallization zone accounts for 50% of whole fractured surface,
deformation in. Hinged. and it is denoted by FATT50 (Fracture Appearance Transition Temp.)
Selecting Transition Temperature Charpy Test

9 T1: Conservative, above T1
fracture is 100% fibrous. Fracture An instrumented Charpy test
Transition Plastic (FTP) very allows determination of energy
demanding. required to initiate crack and also
energy to propagate crack rather
9 T2: 50% cleavage - 50% ductile
than just total energy for fracture.
Fracture Appearance Trans. Temp.
(FATT).
9 T3: Average of upper and lower Figure 14-4 (Dieter) Load-time history for an
instrumented Charpy test.
shelf values. (often approx = T2)
Austenitic stainless steels,
9 T4: Arbitrary value of energy copper, most HCP metals
absorbed, (CVN) e.g. 20 J (15 ft.lb) Figure 14-6. Various criteria of transition-
temperature obtained from Charpy tests e.g. low - medium carbon steels
for low strength ship steel. Ductility
Transition Temp.
The lower this temperature, the High strength steels,
9 T5: 100% cleavage fracture. Nil greater the fracture toughness aluminum, titanium
Ductility Temperature (NDT)
Metallurgical Factors Affecting TT Metallurgical Factors Affecting TT
¾ For steels: As %C↑ ⇒ σy↑, σTS↑,

H ↑, % El ↓, CVN ↓ and TT ↑
- This can be countered by adding ¾ Rolled and forged
Manganese - Mn : C should be 3:1 products may have varying
¾ Phosphorous increases TT , impact behaviour due to
Oxygen in steel increases TT : grain orientation.
- semi-killed (add Si) and
¾ Note that the difference is
- fully-killed (add Si +Al) to not as large at lower
remove oxygen
temperatures.
Remember also: as grain size ↓ toughness ……….. and TT↓.

Niobium and vanadium added to keep grain size small. Figure 14-8 (Deiter) Effect of specimen orientation
on Charpy transition-temperature curves.
Fatigue Cyclic Stresses

Occurs under dynamic or fluctuating • Applied stress:
stresses – axial (compression-tension)
examples: bridges, automobiles, aircraft
– flexural (bending)
and machine components
failure can occur at …………… value than – torsional (twisting)
under static loading
• reversed stress cycle is where the
accumulated damage (cracking) occurs
over a long period of time → catastrophic sinusoidal stress is of equal amplitude
failure Î about a mean of zero
…….. of metal failures occur in fatigue! – σmax is tensile and σmin is
Also occurs in ceramics, polymers and Fatigue consists of two stages: compressive
composites
- Crack Initiation • repeated stress occurs when σmax and
appears as brittle-like failure even in σmin are asymmetrical about σ = 0
ductile materials - Crack Propagation
Usually breaks without warning; no, or • random stress often occurs in
very little, observable plastic deformation engineering and is less easy to quantify
(some micro-deformation).
Cyclic Stresses Fatigue Testing and S-N Curves
• Mean stress, σm is defined as:
σ max+σ min
σ =m
2
• range of stresses (σr) is the
difference between σmax and σmin:
σr = σ max −σ min
• Laboratory simulation using rotating beam test.

• stress amplitude, σa :
• creates a reverse cycle bending with rotation (compression/tension)
σ σ −σ
σa
max min
=
r
= • apply a stress of σmax ~ 2/3 σTS
2 2 • measure number of cycles (N) to failure
• ratio of max. and min. stress amplitudes is the stress ratio, R • repeat using progressively lower σmax (S)
σ min
R=σ • plot S vs. log N → S-N curve
max
Fatigue Testing and S-N Curves Statistical Nature of Fatigue

• the data on S-N curves are
Two types of S-N curve scattered due to …………
variability and test
1. fatigue (…………..) limit for ferrous parameters
and titanium alloys – difficult to control
• FL = 0.35 - 0.6 σTS (typically)
• fatigue strengths are usually
average values
2. no fatigue limit with non-ferrous • probability of failure (P)
alloys (Al, Mg and Cu) defined, e.g. at 215MPa 1%
of samples fail at 106 cycles
• define a fatigue strength at a
specified number of cycles (107)
Since, this type of curve shows probabilities of fatigue
• fatigue life (Nf) is the number of
failure at certain stress level, it is more accurate than
cycles at a specified stress level
“average” value as is normally shown.
(S1)
Types of Fatigue Low-Cycle Fatigue
low cycle fatigue
• high loads → short Nf (104-105 cycles)
• high stress environment with high
• This type of cycling is more likely in nuclear pressure-vessels, steam
design stress and small safety factor,
turbines, and similar components where repeated stresses are created
DS ≈ σys
by thermal fluctuations.
• scheduled inspection and maintenance
of parts (aircraft) • e.g If material is constrained and then heated, thermal stresses are
• most common cause of fatigue …… generated; If it is not constrained we have cyclic thermal strains (i.e.
…….. heating and cooling of vessels).
cracking and failure
high cycle fatigue - Fatigue results from cyclic stress: this is induced by the restraint of the
– low loads → long Nf (>105) dimensional expansion and/or contraction occurring due to varying the
temperature.
– typically involves low design
stresses, DS << σys
– less common cause of failure,
results from poor design or
environmental effects
Low-Cycle Fatigue
Δε p
= ε ′f (2 N )
C
Coffin-Mason relationship:
2
where Δεp/2 = plastic strain amplitude
εf’= fatigue ductility coefficient ≈ true strain at fracture, εf
C = fatigue ductility exponent
(-0.5 to -0.7 for most metals; lower C value = longer life)
Next time:
N = no. of cycles
2N = no. of strain reversals to failure
Continue Fatigue
(1 cycle is 2 reversals)

Lecture 10 Fracture

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Impact Testing

• Charpy and Izod tests measure impact energy or notch toughness

Before fracture mechanics - impact testing was used to measure impact

Impact testing is used for:

Charpy Test Ductile to Brittle Transition in Steel

Selecting Transition Temperature Charpy Test

¾ For steels: As %C↑ ⇒ σy↑, σTS↑,

Remember also: as grain size ↓ toughness ……….. and TT↓.

Fatigue Cyclic Stresses

• Laboratory simulation using rotating beam test.

Fatigue Testing and S-N Curves Statistical Nature of Fatigue

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