Physics F5 Repaired)

Pusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya
1.1 Understanding Wave
Waves
• Transfer energy through medium without transferring

matter
Transverse Waves
• Particles of the medium oscillates in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of propagation
• E.g. : water wave, electromagnetic wave (EMW), light

wave
Longitudinal Waves
• Particles of the medium oscillates in a direction parallel

to the direction of propagation
• E.g. : sound wave

1
Ripple Tank
• Water waves are produced by a vibrating bar
• The tank is leveled, to ensure wave propagate at a

uniform speed
• The water acts as a lens to produce a pattern of bright

and dark fringes under the tank
Phase
• the current position in the cycle of something that

changes cyclically
Wavelength, λ
2
• The distance between two successive particles which
are at the same phase
Wavefronts
• Line or a surface that connects points that are moving

at the same phase and has the same distance from the
source of the waves
• Always perpendicular to the direction of wave

propagation
Oscillating Systems
3
• Equilibrium position → zero resultant force
• Complete oscillation
• Amplitude - the maximum displacement of an object

from its equilibrium position
• Period, T - time required for one complete oscillation

or vibration
• Frequency, f - the number of complete oscillations
that take place in one second,
Displacement-Time Graph
4
• From the graph, we can determine the:
o Amplitude
o Period
o Frequency
Displacement-Distance Graph
• From the graph, we can determine the:
o Amplitude
o Wavelengths
o Locations of crests and troughs or compressions

and rarefactions
5
Wave Speed
Damping
• decrease in the amplitude of an oscillating system
• energy is losing to the surrounding as heat energy
• frequency of the system remains unchanged
Internal Damping External Damping

Oscillating system loses Oscillating system loses
energy due to the extension energy to overcome frictional
and compression of the force or air resistance that act
molecules in the system on it
6
Natural Frequency
• the frequency of the system when there is no

external force acting on it
Forced Oscillation
• Oscillation with the help of external force
Resonance
• In a forced oscillation, if the frequency of the

external force is equal to the natural frequency of
the system, the system will oscillates with maximum
amplitude
• When pendulum X oscillates, the other pendulums are

forced to oscillate, pendulum D will oscillates with the
largest amplitude
7
• Pendulum X and D have equal length and consequently
equal natural frequency
• Resonance happens to pendulum D, and it oscillates

with maximum amplitude
8
1.2 Reflection of Waves
Reflection of Waves
• Direction changes
• λ is the same
• f is the same
• v is the same
• Angle of incident is the same as the angle of reflection
9
1.3 Refraction of Waves
Refraction of Waves
• Direction changes
• λ in denser medium is shorter
• f is the same
• v in denser medium is smaller
• Angle of incident is the greater as the angle of

reflection
i. Deeper to shallower region
ii. Shallow to deeper region
10
iii. Other patterns
iv. Natural phenomenon
11
• At the bay, the energy of the wave spread to a wider
area, and cause the amplitude to reduce
• At the cape, the energy of the wave is converged to
a smaller area, therefore the amplitude of the wave
increases
12
1.4 Diffraction of Waves
Diffraction of Waves
• Diffraction is the spreading of a wave when it travels
through an opening Or an obstacle
• Direction
changes
• λ is the same
• f is the same
• v is the same
• Amplitude decreases after diffraction
13
Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Diffraction
i. Wavelength
Shorter wavelength Longer
wavelength
Diffracted less Diffracted more
ii. Size of Opening
Small opening Large opening
Diffracted more Diffracted less
14
1.5 Interference
Principle of Superposition
• States that where two or more waves meet, the total
displacement at any point is the vector sum of the
displacements that each individual wave would cause
at that point
Interference
• The phenomenon when two or more waves overlap in
the same region of space at the same time
• Constructive interference (anti-node)
15
• Destructive interference (node)
• Formula:
16
Coherent Waves
• Two wave sources which are coherent have the same
frequency (therefore same wavelength) and in phase
or constant phase difference
17
1.6 Sound Wave
Sound Wave
• Sound wave is a mechanical wave that requires a
medium for its propagation, therefore sound wave
cannot propagate in vacuum
• Sound waves propagate fastest in solid and slowest
in gas
• Amplitude depends on loudness
• Frequency depends on the pitch
18
Electromagnetic Waves
• Can travel in free space,
without medium
• Electromagnetic waves are electrically neutral

• Electromagnetic wave show characteristic of
polarization
Polarization of Transverse Waves
• A transverse wave can be polarized
• Plane polarized light will be produced when light travels
through a polarizing material like polaroid
• Polaroid is a type of material that only allows light
waves of one plane to pass through. This means that
only a portion of the source light gets to pass through
the polaroid
19
Violet Red
20
2.1 Electric Fields and Charge Flow
Electric Current
• Rate of flow of electric charges
Electric Charges
• (+) charge and (-) charge
• Same charges repel each other
• Different charges attract each other
• Unit : Coulomb (C)
• ,
Relationship between Electric Charges and Electric

Current
21
• Van de Graaf generator is used to produce and store

charges
• When the generator is switched on, the needle of the

ammeter is deflected, showing there is current flow
• This is because:
 When generator is switched on, the motor of

the generator will drive the rubber belt causing it
to rub against the roller and hence becomes
charged
 The charge is carried to the metal dome and

is collected there
 The collected charges at the dome will cause a

shock if touched by hand, showing that electric
charges are present
Electric Field
• The region where electric charges experiences electric

forces
22
• The lines coming out of the (+) charge is called

electric lines of force or electric field lines
• Characteristics of electric lines of force:
 Moves from (+) charge to (-) charge
 Indicates magnitude and direction of electric field
 Never cross each other
 Most dense around objects with great amount of

charges
Application of Electric Field
Application Explanation
• When the ping
pong ball touches
the (-) plate, it will
be negatively
charged and move
away from the (-)
plate
• When the ping
Ping pong ball coated with pong ball touches
23
conducting material
2.1 Electric Fields and Charge Flow the (+) plate, it will
be positively
charged and move
away from the (+)
plate
• This cycle is
repeated until
voltage supply is
turned off
• When the EHT
power supply is
switched on, the
candle flame
divided into two
portions in opposite
directions
• This is because the
Candle flame
flame ionises the
air molecules to (+)
and (-) ions
24
2.2 Relationship between Electric Current and Potential
Difference
Potential Difference
• the work done when 1 C of charge moves between two

points in an electric field
Ohm’s Law
• The electric current flowing through a conductor is

directly proportional to the potential difference across it
if the temperature and other physical conditions are
constant
• The constant of is defined as the resistance
• Hence,
Ohmic Conductor
• Conductors that obey Ohm’s Law
Resistance
• A measure of how much a conductor resists the flow of

electricity
• Unit : ohm (Ω)
25
Difference
Factors Affecting Resistance
Factors Experimental Proof

Length of wire,
Cross-sectional area f wire,
Type of material of wire
26
Temperature,
Difference
Metal
• Resistance increases with

temperature
Semiconductor
• Resistance decreases with

temperature
Superconductor
• a material whose
resistance becomes zero
when its temperature drops
to a certain value called
the critical temperature
27
Difference
• Advantages:
 Able to sustain large currents
 Smaller power loss during transmission
 Less heat energy is wasted
 Small-sized motors and generators can be used
28
2.3 Series and Parallel Circuits
Comparison between Series and Parallel Circuits
Series Parallel
Same current at all points, Different current at all points

because the current has only
one path to flow
The current from battery

splits into branches and joins
back together at the end of
the branches
Hence,
Different voltage at different Same voltage at the same
points junctions
All resistance share the

All resistance receive full
voltage
voltage
If one bulb is removed, the If one bulb is removed, the
other bulbs go out other bulbs keep working
Effective resistance, R Effective resistance, R
29
2.3 Series and Parallel Circuits
30
2.4 Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance
Electromotive Force
• The work done by a source in driving one coulomb of

charge around a complete circuit
• Indicated on the labels on batteries
• Unit : volts (V)
• The e.m.f. = the reading of the voltmeter which is

connected directly across the terminals of the cells
Comparison between Electromotive Force and Voltage
Electromotive Force Voltage
Indicates the electrical energy Indicates the electrical energy

given to 1 C of charge flowing that is transformed to other
through the cell or source forms of energy when 1 C of
charge passes through a
component in a closed circuit.
Used in reference to source of Used in reference to electrical
electrical energy component in a circuit
Represented by the voltmeter Represented by the voltmeter
reading in an open circuit (when reading in a closed circuit (when
switch is opened) switch is closed)
31
2.4 Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance
Measured in JC-1 or volts, V Measured in JC-1 or volts, V
Internal Resistance
• The internal resistance, r of a source or battery is the

resistance against the moving charge due to the
electrolyte in the source or cell
• Work is needed to drive a charge against the internal

resistance
• This causes a drop in potential difference across the cell

as the charge flows through it and loss of heat energy
in the cell
• Hence,
32
2.5 Electrical Energy and Power
Electrical Energy
• the ability of the electric current to do work
• or
• kWh is defined as the amount of energy consumed in 1

hour by an electrical appliance at the rate of 1 kW
Electrical Power
• Rate of electrical energy dissipated or transferred
• Unit : watt (W)
33
3.1 The Magnetic Effect of Current-Carrying Conductor
Electromagnets
• Device which magnetism is produced by electric current
Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Straight Wire
• Right hand grip rule, the thumb

refers to the direction of current
while the fingers refer to the
direction of magnetic field
34
Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Coil
35
Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Solenoid
Strength of Magnetic Field of a Solenoid Increases

when :
• Magnitude of current increases
• Number of turns increases
36
• Turns of wire are pushed closer so that the solenoid
becomes shorter
• Use soft iron core
Soft Iron Core
• Magnetise and demagnetise quickly
37
3.2 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic
Field
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Resultant Magnetic Field (Catapult Effect)
38
Field
Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Catapult Force
• Strength of magnetic field
• Magnitude of current
• Length of conductor
• Angle
Force between 2 Current-Carrying Conductors
• Parallel Current flow will attract
• Opposite direction of current flow will repel
39
Field
DC Motor
Component Function
Commutator reverse the direction of
current in the coil every half
rotation so that the coil
continues to turn in same
direction
Carbon brush to be in contact with the
commutator so the current
from the battery always
enters the coil
Spring push the brush so it will
always be in contact with the
commutator
Speed of motor increase when:
• Strength of magnetic field increases
• Number of turns of wire increases

40
• Area of the coil increases
Field
• The coil is wound over an iron core
• The magnitude of the current increases
41
3.3 Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic Induction
• Production of current by a changing magnetic field
• Produced when :
 A conductor cuts across a magnetic field
 A change of magnetic flux linkage with a coil
Faraday’s Law
42
• The size of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to
the rate at which the conductor cuts through the
magnetic field lines
Size of induced current can be increased by :
• Moving the magnet or the solenoid at a higher speed
• Increasing the number of turns of the wires on the

solenoid
• increasing the strength of the magnetic field through

the use of a stronger magnet
Lenz’s Law
• The direction of the induced current in a solenoid is

such that its magnetic effect always oppose the change
producing it
43
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule (Dynamo Rule)
DC Generator
44
Induced current always positive, this shows that DC is induced
AC Generator
45
Induced current varies from positive to negative value, hence

AC is induced
Comparison between DC and AC
DC AC
One direction Direction changes every cycle
Constant magnitude Magnitude always change
Cannot flow through capacitor Can flow through capacitor
Cannot flow through Can flow through transformer
transformer
46
3.4 Transformers
Transformers
• device which increases or decreases an alternating

voltage based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction
• The purpose of the common iron core is to provide a

magnetic field linkage in the secondary coil
Operating Principle of a Transformer
i. Connect AC to the primary coil only
ii. The AC produces a flux with changing magnitude and

direction which link the primary coil with the secondary
coil
iii. Changing of magnetic flux induces current with changing

magnitude and direction too, hence AC is produced at
the secondary coil
47
3.4 Transformers
Types of Transformers
• Step-up transformer,
• Step-down transformer,
Ideal Transformers
• Efficiency 100%
• Ways to improve efficiency:
Improvements Explanation
Use thick wires To lower the
resistance, hence
reducing heat loss
Use a laminated core Prevent eddy currents
(currents that are
induced in the soft iron
core) to flow, hence
reducing heat loss
Use soft iron core Requires little energy

to magnetise
Winding the secondary coil on top of Reduces magnetic flux
the primary coil leakage
48
3.4 Transformers
49
3.5 Generation and Transmission of Electricity
Renewable Energy Sources
• Energy source that is continually replaced
• Eg : hydroelectric, solar energy, biomass energy, wind

energy etc.
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
• Energy source that cannot be replaced
• Eg : oil fuel, diesel fuel, natural gas, coal, nuclear

energy
Ways of Generating Electricity
• Electricity is produced using generators
• A generator has a huge magnet that is turned by a

turbine
50
• As the magnet turns inside a coil of wire, electricity is
produced by electromagnetic induction
• Many sources of energy are used to turn these turbines
Transmission of Electricity
• Electrical energy is transmitted to the consumers using

long transmission cables
• Power loss by the heating effect due to the resistance

of the cables can be reduced by lowering the current,
but this will be too expensive (use thick cables and
good conductors such as gold). So, to reduce power
loss, voltage is increased
51
• ,
• Current can be reduced, hence reducing power loss
National Grid Network
• Network of cables connecting electrical power stations

to consumers
52
4.1 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
Thermionic Emission
• Process involving the emission of electrons from a hot

metal surface
• Process:
i. A metal has many free electrons
ii. But, the electrons are bound to the surface

of the metal
iii. When heated at a high temperature,

electrons are emitted
iv. This is because of some of the electrons

have gained enough kinetic energy to
break free from the metal surface
Factors that Increases the Rate of Thermionic Emission
• Large surface of area

53
• High temperature of metal
• Type of metal with high rate of thermionic emission
• Nature of metal surfaces (coated with metal oxide)
Cathode Ray
• Produce a continuous flow of fast moving electrons

known as cathode rays
• The heated cathode will emit electrons that are

accelerated towards the anode which then will be
focused by the anode into a fine beam
• Properties :
 Negatively charged
 Travel in straight lines in vacuum and cast

shadows
 Possess momentum and kinetic energy

due to moving electrons
54
 Travel at a very high speed
 Can cause fluorescence (kinetic energy is

converted into light energy)
 Can be deflected by electric and magnetic

fields, direction of deflection is determined
by Fleming’s left hand rule
 Strike heavy metal target to produce X-

rays, rest of the energy is released as heat
Maltese Cross Tube
Step Observation
Connect only the A dark shadow of the Maltese Cross is
6 V power supply formed on the screen.
to the filament
Connect the 6 V A darker shadow of the Maltese Cross is
and EHT to the seen on the screen. The shadow is
55
electrodes surrounded by green light.
Bring a pole of a Two shadows are seen on the screen. The
bar magnet near light shadow remains at the centre of
to the neck of screen while the dark one is shifted.
the tube.
Reverse the pole The light shadow remains at the centre of
of the bar screen while the dark one is shifted to the
magnet opposite direction.
Deflection Tube
Step Observation
No voltage is connected to No deflection
the deflecting plates
Top plate is connected to EHT Deflected upward
(+) while the lower is
connected to EHT (-)
Top plate is connected to EHT Deflected downward
56
(-) while the lower is
connected to EHT (+)
Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
Main part Components Function

Electron Filament Heat up the cathode
gun Cathode Heated cathode emits electrons
through the process of thermionic
emissions
Control grid Control the number of electrons in
the electron beams hence
controlling the brightness of the
spot on the screen
57
Focusing To focus the electrons into a
anode beam and to attract electrons
from the area of the control grid.
Accelerating To accelerate the electron beam
anode towards the screen
Deflection Y-plate Move the electron vertically
system X-plate Move the electron horizontally
Fluorescent Inside surface Fluoresces when electron beam
screen coated with strikes it
zinc sulphide
Glass coated Channels the electrons striking
with graphite the screen to Earth
and
connected to
Earth
Control Knob Function

Power switch Controls the power supply
Focus Controls the sharpness of the
bright spot
Brightness Controls the brightness of the
spot on the screen
X-shift Displaces the spot horizontally
Y-shift Displaces the spot vertically
58
Y-gain (volts/div) Controls the magnitude of
vertical position of the bright spot
by adjusting the amplitude
Time-base control Controls the magnitude of
(time/div) horizontal deflection of the bright
spot by adjusting the frequency
X-input Connects to the X-plate
Y-input Connects to the Y-plate
AC/DC switch • DC displays wave form of
potential difference of DC and
AC
• AC displays wave form of
potential difference of AC only,
DC component is blocked by a
capacitor in the C.R.O. circuit
Earth connection Connects the input terminal to
Earth
59
4.2 Semiconductor Diodes
Conductors
• Materials which allow current to flow through them

easily
• Have free electrons which can drift between their atoms
Insulators
• Materials which do not conduct electric current
Semiconductors
• Materials whose conductivity and resistance between

those of good conductors and those of good insulators
Silicon
• Semiconductor
60
• Each electron in the outermost shell can form a
covalent bond with one electron in the outermost shell
of another atom
• Hence, forms 4 covalent bonds
Doping
• Process of adding a small amount of impurities

(dopants) into a pure semiconductor to improve its
conductivity
Type of Doping Products Characteristics

p-type semiconductor • Dopants : Boron,
Indium, Gallium,
Aluminium
• Acceptor atom
• Majority charge carrier
of holes
n-type semiconductor • Dopants : Antimony,

Phosphorus, Arsenic
• Donor atom
• Majority charge carrier
of electrons
Semiconductor Diodes
61
• p-n junction is formed when p-type and n-type

semiconductors are joined together
• At the p-n junction, a region called the depletion layer is

formed
• Forward-biased :
Reverse-biased :
62
Diodes as Rectifier
• Half-wave rectifier :
L = Load
• Full-wave rectifier
63
Smoothing
• When the current pass

through the resistor and
capacitor, the capacitor is
charged and stores
energy
• When there is no current
pass through the resistor
and capacitor, the capacitor
discharge and the energy
from it is used to produce
voltage across the resistor
64
4.3 Transistors
Transistors
• Consist of 3 terminals : Base, Collector and Emitter
• Functions as automatic switch and amplifier
• , B = Beta (label on transistor)
65
4.4 Logic Gates
Logic Gates
• Electronic switches with one or more input terminal but

only one output terminal
Log Symbol Boolean Truth Table

ic Algebra Input Output
Gat A B X
e
AND 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOT 0 1
1 0
NAND 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
66
5.1 Nucleus of an Atom
Composition of the Nucleus
• Matters consist of atoms
• Atoms have large dense core called the nucleus
• The electrons move in orbit around the nucleus
• The subatomic particles in the nucleus is called the

nucleon which are the protons and neutrons
• Protons carry (+) charge, neutrons have no charge and

electrons carry (-) charge
Nuclide Notation
67
5.1 Nucleus of an Atom
Isotopes
• Isotopes of an element which have the same proton

number but different nucleon numbers
68
5.2 Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity
• Spontaneous (the process is not triggered by any

external factors such as temperature of pressure) and
random (there is no way to tell which nucleus will
decay, and cannot predict when it is going to decay)
disintegration of an unstable nucleus
accompanied by the emission of an energetic
particle or photon (radioactive emission) to become
more stable
Detectors of Radiation
Detector Type of radiation that can

be detected
Geiger-Muller tube α, β, γ
Cloud chamber α, β, γ
Spark counter α
Photographic badge α, β, γ
Gold leaf electroscope α, β
Scintillation α, β, γ
69
Types of Radiation
Characterist Alpha Beta Gamma

ic
Nature Helium Electrons, Electromagneti
nuclei, or c radiation
2 p and 2 n
Mass 4 1/2000 0
Charge +2e -e Neutral
Speed Slow, 10% of Fast 99% of Speed of light,
speed of light speed of light
Ionizing High Medium Low
ability
Tracks in
cloud
chamber
Penetrating
power
Stopped by A few cm of A few mm of A few cm of

air or a piece aluminium foil lead
of paper
Deflected by Yes Yes No

electric and
magnetic
fields
70
Effect of
electric field
Effect of
magnetic
field
Photographic Badge
• Is worn by worker in nuclear power stations and in

radiation laboratories
• The badge contains a photographic film in a light-proof

packet
• The parts of the film which had received radiation will

be darkened
• The degree of darkening indicates the amount of

radiation the person had been exposed to
71
Cloud chamber
• It shows the path travelled by the ionizing radiation in

air
• The radioactive produces ions in the air that is

saturated with alcohol vapour
• The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to make the

tracks of the radiation visible. Alpha particles are best
for this because it ionization power is high
Geiger-Muller Tube (GM tube)
• The radioactive emission enters the tube through the

mica window and ionizes the argon gas
• The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards

the anode and cathode respectively
• When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of

current is produces
• The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or

ratemeter
72
• The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain

period of time
• Initially the GM tube is switched on without the

presence of any radioactive substance. The reading
displayed by the ratemeter is known as the background
count rates
• When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive

emission, the background count rate is subtracted from
the count rate obtained
Half-Life
• The time taken for the number of radioactive substance

to be reduced to half of its original price
Activity (Decay Rate)
• The number of decays per second of the unstable nuclei
• Each decay = one photon
• Unit : becquerel (Bq) = 1 decay per second
73
• As the number of radioactive substance decreases, the

activity will also decrease
74
5.3 Uses of Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes
• Unstable isotopes which decay and give out radioactive

emissions
Application of Radioisotopes
Applicati Function Explanation

on
Nuclear Tracers • A radioisotope is taken in by a

medicine patient through the digestive
system, by inhalation or
through the blood vessels by
injection
• The radiation emitted enables
organs such as thyroid, bones,
heart and liver to be easily
imaged by imaging
equipment. Disorders can then
be detected
Chemotherapy Cobalt-60 destroys cancer cells
Thyroid cancer Iodine-131 destroys thyroid

cancer cells
Industry Smoke • Contain a weak radioactive

detectors source such as americium-241
• Alpha radiations are used
• When the there is smoke, it
will absorb the alpha particle,
hence reducing the current
• This will trigger the alarm
• Americium-241 has a long
half-life, 460 years so that the
substance will last longer
75
5.3 Uses of Radioisotopes
Thickness • Beta radiations are used for

control thin sheets
• If the sheet is too thin, the
reading of the detector
increases
• A signal is sent from the
roller control to the rollers so
that the pressure on the
sheets can be reduced
Detecting • A radioactive substance
pipe leaks which emits beta particles is
added to a fluid
• A larger increase in the count
rate will indicate that there is
leak in that area
Archaeology Carbon • Calculate the age of fossils by
dating measuring the remaining
carbon-14
76
5.4 Nuclear Energy
Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u.)
• The unit of mass for atoms and subatomic particles

such as the proton, neutron an electron
• Unit : u
• Carbon-12
• kg
Nuclear Fission
• Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into

two lighter nuclei
• Fission occurs when the nucleus of an atom is

bombarded with a neutron
• The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to

split into two (or more) nuclei that are lighter than the
parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy
during the process
Chain Reaction
• Self-sustaining reaction in which the products of a

reaction can initiate another similar reaction
77
5.4 Nuclear Energy
• In order for a chain reaction to occur, the sample of

uranium must have a certain minimum mass known as
critical mass
• Graphite can act as moderators to slow down the chain

reaction to occur at a smaller critical mass
Nuclear Fusion
• Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to

form a heavier nucleus, releasing a vast amount of
energy during the process
Mass defect
78
5.4 Nuclear Energy
• Sum of the masses before reaction subtract sum of the

masses after reaction
• , m/s
Generation of Electricity
Nuclear reactor It produces tremendous amount of

energy through nuclear fission
Uranium fuel rods The nuclei are split by neutrons in a

controlled chain reaction, releasing a
large amount of energy. The energy
released heats up the cold gas that
passes through the reactor core
Graphite Acts as a moderator to slow down the

moderator fast neutrons produced by the fission.
Slower neutrons are more readily
captured by the uranium nuclei
79
5.4 Nuclear Energy
Coolant Take away the heat from the nuclear
reactor. Substances with high specific
heat capacity such as water and carbon
dioxide are used
Boron or cadmium The boron control rods absorb neutrons.

control rod It can control the rate of fission reaction.
When the rods are lowered into the
reactor core to absorb some of the
neutrons, the rate of the fission reaction
reduced
Concrete shield Prevents leakage of radiation from the

reactor core
Heat exchanger Heat energy from the very hot gas is

used to boil the water into steam
80
5.5 Proper Management of Radioactive Substances
Negative Effects of Radioactive Substances
• When radioactive emissions strike living cells, it can

cause ionization to the molecules of the cells. This may
cause the cells to be killed, resulting in tissue damage
• At low doses of radiation, the damaged tissues can

repair itself rapidly but at high doses of radiation can
cause burn effects known as radiation burns
• The ionization effect of radiation can also cause genetic

damage to the molecules of the cells. This may lead to
the formation of cancerous cells and tumour
development
• If the radioactive substances gets inside the body, the

most harmful effects come from the alpha particles
because they have the highest ionization power
• If the radioactive source is outside the body, the

greatest danger is from gamma sources because
gamma rays have the highest penetrating power. The
alpha particles would not penetrate clothing and is
highly unlikely to reach living cells in the body
81
5.5 Proper Management of Radioactive Substances
Precautions in Handling Radioactive Substances
• Read and follow the advice and instructions marked on

radioactive sources, equipment and work manuals
• Gloves must be worn any time an unsealed source is

being used or whenever contamination is likely to occur
• Laboratory coats, long pants, and closed-toe footwear

should be worn
• When using radioactive liquids, plastic or metal trays

(stainless steel washes easily) should be utilized to
contain potential spills
• Radioactive material, especially liquids, should be kept

in unbreakable containers whenever possible. If glass is
used, a secondary container is necessary
• Radiation badges containing photographic film should

be worn to monitor exposure to radiation
82

Physics F5 Repaired)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics F5 Repaired)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

1.1 Understanding Wave

• Transfer energy through medium without transferring

• Particles of the medium oscillates in a direction

• E.g. : water wave, electromagnetic wave (EMW), light

• Particles of the medium oscillates in a direction parallel

• E.g. : sound wave

• Water waves are produced by a vibrating bar

• The tank is leveled, to ensure wave propagate at a

• The water acts as a lens to produce a pattern of bright

• the current position in the cycle of something that

• Line or a surface that connects points that are moving

• Always perpendicular to the direction of wave

• Amplitude - the maximum displacement of an object

• Period, T - time required for one complete oscillation

• Frequency, f - the number of complete oscillations

that take place in one second,

• From the graph, we can determine the:

• From the graph, we can determine the:

o Locations of crests and troughs or compressions

• decrease in the amplitude of an oscillating system

• energy is losing to the surrounding as heat energy

• frequency of the system remains unchanged

Internal Damping External Damping

• the frequency of the system when there is no

• Oscillation with the help of external force

• In a forced oscillation, if the frequency of the

• When pendulum X oscillates, the other pendulums are

• Resonance happens to pendulum D, and it oscillates

1.2 Reflection of Waves

• Angle of incident is the same as the angle of reflection

1.3 Refraction of Waves

• λ in denser medium is shorter

• v in denser medium is smaller

• Angle of incident is the greater as the angle of

i. Deeper to shallower region

ii. Shallow to deeper region

iii. Other patterns

iv. Natural phenomenon

• At the bay, the energy of the wave spread to a wider

area, and cause the amplitude to reduce

• At the cape, the energy of the wave is converged to

a smaller area, therefore the amplitude of the wave

1.4 Diffraction of Waves

• Diffraction is the spreading of a wave when it travels

through an opening Or an obstacle

• Amplitude decreases after diffraction

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Diffraction

Shorter wavelength Longer

Diffracted less Diffracted more

ii. Size of Opening

Small opening Large opening

Diffracted more Diffracted less

• States that where two or more waves meet, the total

displacement at any point is the vector sum of the

displacements that each individual wave would cause

• The phenomenon when two or more waves overlap in

the same region of space at the same time

• Constructive interference (anti-node)

• Destructive interference (node)

• Electromagnetic waves are electrically neutral

Polarization of Transverse Waves

• A transverse wave can be polarized