c


  

The working stress method is based on the behavior of structure at working loads. The working stress
method is regressed to as deterministic because it is presumed that loads, permissible stress and factors
are known accurately.

The working stress method is assumes to have adequate safety against collapse at working load. But this
method gives no indication of the actual margin of safety against collapse, as the ultimate load carrying
capacity cannot be predicted accurately.

c
    

In the limit state method, the structure is designed to:

(i)p ?ith stand safety all the loads liable to act on it throughout its life span. Therefore collapse
of a structure will not take place.
(ii)p Satisfy the serviceability requirement (such as limitations deflection & cracking)

L.S.M. It is based on safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads. The acceptance limit of
safety and serviceability requirement before failure of a structure takes place is known as a limit state.

The limit state method is referred to as non deterministic.

?hat are the different types of structures?

There are two types of structures which are under as follows.

(1)p Determinate structures

(2)p Indeterminate structures.

1. Determinate structure. The structures which can be analyzed by using the three equilibrium are called
determinate structure.

Example- simple beam

?1 ?2 ?

R1 R2

Over Hanging Beam

?1 ?2 ?

R1 R2
ÿantilever Beam
?1 ?2

2. Indeterminate Structures. The structure which cannot be analyzed by applying three equation of
equations of equilibrium are called indeterminate structures.

Example

ÿontinuous Beam

?1 ?2 ?

R1 R R4 R5 R2

Fixed Beam

?1 ?2

R1 R2


 

ÿodes are set up technical specifications which serve as guidelines for the design of structures. Many
countries have drafted their National codes

Objectives of code- The main Objectives of codes are as under:-

(1)p To provide a uniform set of design guidelines to be followed by various structural designers in
the country.
 (2)p To provide adequate structural safety.
( )p To provide the designers relatively simple design procedure.
(4)p To provide legal validity and to protect structural engineers from any liability due to failure of
structural caused by inadequate design.

  


c

  

?orking stress method was developed during beginning of 20th century. This method is also known as
elastic method of design or modular ratio method. The working stress method is very simple in concept
as well as in application.

The working stress method is based on the behavior of structure at working loads (service 108). The
stress distribution in concrete and steel at work load is assumed to be linear. It is assumed that the
stresses in concrete and steel do not exceed their permissible values of working loads. The permissible
stresses in concrete and steel are obtained by dividing characteristic strength (yield strength) of the
material by the factor of safety. The factor of safety of concrete in compression in bending is .0. The
factor of safety for steel in tension is 1.8. Factor of safety allows for uncertainties in the estimate of
working loads and vane in properties of materials.

The working stress method is referred to as Deterministic because in this presumed loads, permissible
stress and factor of safety are known accurately.

In general, the working stress method results in comparatively larger sections of structural members
with higher quantities of steel reinforcement, resulting in conserve design.

Assumptions in working stress method. The working stress method is based on following assumptions:

(i)p ÿoncrete is assumed to be homogeneous.

(ii)p At any cross section, sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bend. This
means that the strain at any point is directly proportional to the distance from neutral axis.
In other words it means that the strain varies linearly from the axis.
(iii)p Tension is entirely taken by steel and none by concrete.
(iv)p The modulus of elasticity of steel and modulus of elasticity of concrete are constant.
(v)p The steel area is assumed to be concentrated at centroid of steel area.
(vi)p There is a perfect bond between steel and concrete and no slip takes place between steel
and concrete.
(vii)p ÿoncrete area on tension side is assumed to be ineffective.
(viii)p The modular ratio (m) has the value 280/
cbc (where
cbc = Permissible compressive stress
in bending in N/mm2 ).
D