Preparation For the Exam in Development of

Eng Language
1. Selection of the Code in Old English ?

The selection of the Code in Old English was very different than
nowadays. There were Four different Kingdoms and each of them
chose their own Dialects( self -selection) And those four different
dialects were: 1) Mercian 2)Northumbrian (Anglican) 3)Kentish
4)West Saxon . Most of the literary works were on West Saxon
Dialect ,since that was the most important dialect in that time.

2. Middle English Verb System ?

The verbs in Middle English period had serious losses, which they
have suffered by the strong conjugation.

Midle English Verb System was characterized by:

a) Creation of the Auxilary System to express Tense ,Modality,

Aspect

b) Creation of Modal Verbs( Can. Must, Shall, May)

c) Greater Use of the Helping Verbs (Have, Be)

d) Icreasing of the passive “Be” combined with auxiliary.

3. Great Vowel Shift ? (Diphthongization)

Great Vowel Shift was a massive change affecting Long Vowels in

English Language from 15th to 8th century . Long vowels shifted
upwards that means ,the vowel which used to be pronounced in a
different place ,Higher up in the Mouth.

Ex. 1400 1500 1600 Present

About abu:t abëut ëbëut ëbaut

Bite bi:t bëit bait bait

Diphthongization of Long Vowel U: , I:

Bite 1400(bi:t) 1500(beit) 1600(bait)

Out 1400 (u:t) 1500(out) 1600 (aut)

4. Grammar differencies between American Eng. VS Brit. Eng ?

Ex… Am eng - Br Eng

Have - Have got

I don,t - I Haven,t

P.tense(burned) - present perfect( burnt)

Articl. In the hospital - In hospital

Adverbs( backwards) - Backward

N.phrase( Hudson river) - River Thames

Adv. ( in ages) - for ages

5. What are the Grounds for Recognizing three Different Periods in the
development of English Language ?

There have been 1500 years of development of the English Language

.

The period from 450-1150 is known as Old English (full of

inflections)

The period from 1150-1500 is known as Middle English ( inflections

disappeard)

The period from 1500 – Modern English (nowadays English Language

throughout the world)

6. Old English borrowings?

Old English was very different than Middle English and that
Modern English.In the beginning Old English was very similiar with
the language that was spoken by Germanic tribes, than later it was
influenced by the Latin language (with Romanization of country
than later with the Christianity), in the 9th century it was conquered
by the Vikings and it was influenced a lot by the Scandinavian
language especially in Grammar, Syntax, and finally it was
conquered by the Normans(1066) and it was influenced by the
 French language(government,parliament,law etc) As we can see
Old English was influenced by a lot of languages and nowadays
Engish language is very Rich in its vocabulary, grammar ,and
syntax.

7. The loss of grammatical gender in English Language?

Starting from 10th century we begin to see the loss of grammatical
gender in english language. After the Norman Conquest some
English words begin to adopt the gender of their French
counterparts. Hence the Old English language maschuline”mona”-
“moon” becomes feminine under the influence of French feminine
“lune”. The factors behind the disappearance was underway prior
to Norman conquest so that was not the root cause. Instead, loss of
grammatical gender is part of general disintegration of old English
inflectional system.

8. The reason why English language became official language?

There are a lot of factors why English has become the international
language .

1)the loss of inflections made English language much more easy

to learn (more economic language) 2)the revolution of
communications has contributed to the spread of the English
language, because of the major broadcasting and motion pictures
industries(cultural and economic factors).

9. When, why the Norman conquest took place?

0The Norman Conquest took place in 1066 with the invasion of the
Kingdom of England by the troops of the William duke of Normandy,
and his victory against Harold in the battle of Hasting. This
happened after the death of Edward the Conffesor (anglo saxon
ruler).

10.The great vowel shift . diphthongization ?

 The great vowel shift was a massive change affecting long vowels in
English language between 15th and 18th centuries. Long vowels
shifted upwards that means the vowel that used to be pronounced
in one place higher up in the mouth.

About 1400( abu:t) 1500(abëut) 1600(ëbëut) modern

eng(ëbaut)

Bite bi:t bëit bait bait

Diphthongization of long vowels i:, u:

About 1400 abu:t 1500 abëut 1600 ëbaut

Out u:t out aut

11. Which Orthographic principle prevailed in Old English?

Old English used Phonetic principle, so each vowel and most of the
consonants were represented only by one symbol, one to one
correspondence, its alphabet did not use diacritics.

12. What is the Literacy?

Term Literacy is used in reference as either to Individual or speech

community.

So we may find the terms “Individual Literacy” and “Group Literacy”

Individual Literacy is concerned with the problem of increasing the

number of the literate individuals.

Group literacy is concerned with the Development of the writing system

(alphabet, use of Capital letters, punctuation) for written language.

13. Middle English Dialects?

There were four principle dialects in Middle English “a)Northern

b)Mercian(East Midland and c)West Midland d)southern

Northern dialect is spoken between Mersey and Humber Rivers.

East and West Midland together cover the area between Humber and
Thames River .

Southern – occupies the south of Thames and west as far as Cornwall.

-es Northern -eth Southern -en Elswhere

Loves Loveth Loven

14. Functions of Standard Language?

Standard language includes 3 Symbolic Functions and 1 Objective

Function.

Symbolic functions are 1)Unifying 2)Separatist 3)Prestige

Unifying ( unifies the speakers of different dialects

Separatist (preserve a language and Ethnical Identity , distinguish a

speech community from others,

Prestige (the loss of prestige influences the loss of Ethnical Loyalty)

15. Language planning Goals?

1) Literacy (all standardized languages)

2) Standardization

3) Language Revival-case of Hebrew

4) Language Modernization –case of Turkish

5)Standard unification language – case of Albanian

16. Inventory of Old English phonological system?

There were seven Short and Long vowels

1)a- man 2)ae-glad 3) i-sit 4e- well 5))o-god 6 )u-full 7) y-syn

10 a:- ham 2) ae:-dead 3)i:-wife 4) e:-fet 5)o:-god 6) u: house 7) y:- myss

And there were 4 short and four long Diphthongs”

1)aea- wall 2)ea- dark 3) ie – old 4)ia- shepherd

1) aea:- leaf 2)ea:-deep 3)ie:-believe 4)ia:-free

17. Noun categories in Old English?

Cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, accusative

Number: Singular, Plural

Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter

18. Scandinavian influence in English language?

Scandinavian influence affected not only the Vocubulary but also

extended to a matter of grammar and syntax”

SK- skin , skirt, sky

K, g--- Kid, Get, Give

600 name places with BY – whitby , derby, rugby

300 name places with Thrope (village eng)

Names with Son” ferguson, Jackson Davidson

Grammar -s: third person singular ,, - ed” past simple tense

19. French Borrowings in middle English?

When England was conquered by the French tribe it underwent many

changes in grammar and morphology. Many French words entered in
law ,parliament, society and other fields of life, grammar also underwent
considerable changes ,many inflections were lost during this period.

Many governmental and administrative words entered in English:

parliament, crown, state, empire, reign , authority etc.

20. Importance of Introduction of Printing in dev ofstandard eng lang?

Printing which was introduced to England by Caxton in 1476 helped to

increase the spread of Knowledge and Literacy level among the British
public,. As much more people had better access to reading materials, as
much more English texts were printed: dictionaries, grammars, novels,
bibles, English language gradually gained popularity and established itself
as a National language.

21. Characterictics of middle English grammar?

Changes in middle English grammar may be described as general

reduction of inflections. Endings of noun, adjective, marking distinction of
number, case, gender were so altered in pronunciation as to lose their
distinctive forms and their usefulness.

22. Effects of Hundred Year Wars?

After the Norman conquest English language is to be found as a language

of lower class, while French became language of Government , courts,
schools, and law. Hundred year wars contributed to disuse of French and
Reuse of English. With Hundred Year Wars (1337-1453) French status
diminished and the spirit of English Nationalism grew . So in 1425 English
language was widely used in England both in spoken and written aspect.

23. What causes a language to change?

Linguistic and Non linguistic factors cause the language to change.

As a Linguistic factor is taken Dialect issue.

As Non Linguistic factors:

1) Demography( the number of people speakering most developed, it,s

easier to teach the dialect of Majority to Minority)

2) Age group distribution

3) Urbanization

4) Occupations

5) sex

24. Latin borrowings in Old English period?

The use of latin language is the evidence of Romanisation of the Island.

There are 3 distinct occasions of which latin borrowings occurred in old

English period.

a)latin influence of zero period (continental borrowings) early contact

between roman and celtic tribes.

b)latin influence through Celtic transmission 450- 600

c)latin influence – introduction of christiniaty (the largest influence)

25. The spread of English language

English language has the widest dispersion than any other language in
the world due to its Political, Economic, Scientific, and Cultural
influences, firstly in England than later in USA. Countries using English
language either as first or second language are located in five
continents. It is the official language of 52 countries.

26. The role of Dr. Johnsons dictionary?

Dr.Johnos completed a dictionary of English language and provided a

truly principled lexicography. Definitions of 40.000 words, ilustrations
of their use by the best authors .His selections are the most wide –
ranging and more sophisticated. He is known for both Establishment of
a Methodology On How a dictionary should be put together and a
paradigm of how the dictionary should be presented.

27. Language planning process. Codification ?

Codification(writing grammar,making up the rules), during codification

we must analyze morphological, syntactical system of language. The
Dialect which contains the majority of words and phonemes must be
taken as codification of morphological, syntactical, and phonological
system.

28. What was the main planning goal in the Modern English Language?

The main language planning goal in Mod English Language was

STANDARDIZATION.

29. British English, American English and Australian English ?

Are different dialects of the same language. When the population

spread in different regions in the world they developed their own
variations of the same language. British English is the official language.

30. The Impact of “King James version” of the Bible upon the
development of Standard English?

All English people were obliged to buy and read this Bible. Through that
Bible, they learned Standard Language .This Holy Book influenced in
the development of Standard Language, it also improved the English
Language, stabilization, evaluation and implementation of Standard
Language.

31. What is Standardization ?

Standardization means to make a language, which is not Standard into

a standard one.

Responsible people for a standard language are : linguistics, writers,

teachers, experts of different fields of science.
32. What is a Standard Language ?

Standard language is defined as a codified form of language , accepted

by and serving as a model to a larger speech community.

33. American VS British English in Vocabulary(lexicon), pronounciation,

orthography, GRAMMAR?

A) Lexicon( vocabulary)- Same word different concepts:

AmEng-Gas— Petrol-BrtEng

Elevator-Lift

Schedule-timetable

Public school-state school

Railroad-railway

B)Pronounciation

AmEng- Car(ka:r)- Car(ka:) BrtEng

Fast(faest)—Fast(fa:st)

Grass(graes)—grass(gra:s)

C) Orthography- Am Eng usually drops letters :

AmEng:program—programme- BrEng

Defense---Defence

Analyze—Analyse

Center ---Centre

D) Grammar differencies:

AmEng uses PAST TENSE (BURNED)- BrtEng uses PRESENT PERFECT

(Have burnt)
 Uses- Have Uses- Have got

Get-got ---------------------------- Get – gotten (past participle)

In the house-------------------------In house

Hudson river--------------------- River Thames

On street----------------------- In street

34. Old English Grammar?

Is charachterized by: a) word order not fixed ,usually Verb comes

before Subject b) more inflections c) more personal
pronouns

d) different present tense forms e) absence of capital letters

f)adjectives, prepositions,articles, usually go before Nouns.

35.Middle English Grammar ?

Charachteristics of Midd Grammar :

a) decay of inflections b)more fixed word order

c) doubble negative not used d) particle TO as marker of Infinitive

e) progressive tenses f)infinitive,past tense, past participle

g) Genitive (of, s)

36.

36. Which orthographic principle has prevailed in Midd English?

There was a complex interaction between Writing and Sound system

which has prevailed in Midd English.

a) Several consonant sounds started to be spelled differently because

of French influence:\

Eg- old eng s/S/ is gradually replaced with SH or Sch -/scip –ship/

Old eng C/tS/ replaced with CH or CCH .

The voiced equivalent /d3/ previously spelled as: cg, gg, becomes
 G, J.

Long and Short vowels developed.

Short Vowels- identified by consonants doubling eg—sitting- siting.

37 Adjectives in Old English?

There were two kinds of Adjectives :

a) Weak—those preceded by an article or modifier :- se godda man- the

good man

b) Strong—those preceded by an article :- an good man

A god man

38. English during Renaissance ?

Vocabulary-( the increase of foreign borrowings),writers began to borrow

from other languages because there were no words in English for new
concepts, techniques and inventions (latin,greek,French, Italian, Spanish).

Affixation---- maturity, civilized

Compounding-----frenchwoman

Conversion-------- laugh gossip

39.Thre important New Progressive Tenses in Mod English?

a) Infinitive progressive : Tobe Doing

b) perfect progressive : Has been doing

c) Modal Perfect Progressive : Should Have been hanging

40. Codification in Modern English?

It begins from 1500 and lasted till now. It was developed constantly and
naturally because there were no attacks made on it.

Dialects: a)Lowland Scots , b)Northern, c) Midland

d)Western e) Eastern f) Southern

40. Borrowings in Mod English ?

1) latin 2) French 3)Classical Greek: cosmos, larynx, pathos 4)Italian
,warfare:solva, squadre.

5) Spanish: cannibal 6) Portugesse: Flamengo.

41. Modern English Phonology?

Transmission from Meng to Mod Eng brought some changes in

phonological system.

Two changes that comprise long vowels

a) Narrowing: MEng : e: fet---- MOD Eng : i: feet

b) Dyphthongization: k,g,win combination with kn,gn, wr,:--Know,

Gnow, Wrong, began to disappear in pronounciation.