CM Through NDE

ABSTRACT

Condition monitoring of components and plants are of great importance for safe
and reliable operation and for increasing productivity of plants. The challenges towards
the condition monitoring can be successfully met by employing non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) techniques. Vibration monitoring techniques are applied for periodic /
continuous assessment of machinery parts and plants. Acoustic emission technique is
used for leak detection and for structural integrity monitoring applications. Infrared
thermographs are employed for condition monitoring applications in steel, electrical and
petrochemical industries. Lubricant analysis by ferrography, and filed signature
mapping are also used for condition monitoring applications. Here, applications of these
NDE techniques could help to properly diagnose faults in plants components, enables
taking timely decision about repair / replacement of components / plants, thus ensuring
increased safety, reliability and productivity.

INTRODUCTION

The successful operation of structures / components during their entire life

requires the implementation of a dedicated programme for condition assessment through
in-service inspection (ISI) of all critical components of the plants / structures. The
condition assessment through ISI and life prediction approaches enable uninterrupted
operation, avoidance of unplanned shutdowns and taking decision on repair, up-
gradation, modernization and replacement of necessary components for extension of the
overall life of plants beyond their design lives. This is achieved through meticulous
planning and incorporation of non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques which aims
at detection and characterization of defects, stresses, corrosion micro structural
degradations and dimensional changes that occur in components during service life, due
to exposure to high temperature, pressure, static and dynamic loads, hostile environment
etc.

1. SIGNATURE ANALYSIS

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Condition monitoring implies determination of the condition of a machine or

device and it’s change with time in order to determine it’s condition at any given time.
The condition of the machines may be determined by physical parameters like vibration,
noise, temperature, oil contamination, wear debris etc... A change in any of these
parameters, called signatures, would dictate a change in the condition poor health of
the machine. If properly analyzed this thus becomes a valuable tool to determine when
the machine needs maintenance and in the prevention of machinery failure which can be
catastrophic and result in unscheduled break downs.

2. CONDITION BASED MAINTENANCE

Apart from condition monitoring of plants during their operations, the task of
conditions based maintenance is also important for increasing plant economy. The
different methods of maintenance being practices in various industries are break down
maintenance, regular preventive maintenance and condition based maintenance or

predictive maintenance. The break down maintenance is very expensive in terms of

maintenance cost, safety hazards, unplanned production loss and non-availability of
spares. The improved method of maintenance that can reduce down time is known as
preventive maintenance. A regular preventive maintenance can definitely bring down
break downs but failures can still occur. The implementation of condition based
maintenance or predictive maintenance can significantly improve the results obtained
from preventive maintenance. This is aimed at achieving reliability based maintenance
which is balanced approach including the good aspects of preventive maintenance,
predictive maintenance and pro -active maintenance.

3. NON-DESTRUCTIVE EVALUATIONS (NDE)

NDE techniques, such as, vibration analysis, acoustic emission, and infra red
thermography, which have capabilities for online monitoring applications, can be used
for the conditioning assessment applications. When a large number of machines are
involved, the one characteristic that is common to practically all machines is vibration.
When ever, machinery vibration increases beyond safe limits, the common reason is
some mechanical trouble-unbalance, misalignment, worn out gears or gearings, loose

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ness etc . . . . Condition assessment of plants through vibration analysis is a very

important method in spite of relatively higher initial cost of instruments. Acoustic
Emission Technique (AET) is an advanced technique for real time monitoring
application. An AE transducer or sensor acoustically coupled to a sample detects elastic
(Acoustic) energy emitted by the sample and gives information about the dynamic
changes taking place in the sample. AET is widely used for assessing structural integrity
of critical components, such as pressure vessels, pipe line, storage vessels and gas
cylinders. Infra red thermography (IR) is the mapping of IR radiations arising from the
natural or stimulated thermal radiations of an object and can be used for online
monitoring applications. Lubrication monitoring is carried out at periodic intervals to
identify the condition for the lubricant and to access the likely damages to the
machinery parts, through debris analysis by ferrography and quality assessment of
lubricants. More recently for condition monitoring and life extension problems, a new
dimension has been added to the existing NDE approaches with the availability and
adoption of procedure like field signature mapping.

1. VIBRATION MONITORING TECHNIQUES

Vibration is referred to as oscillation of an object about some equilibrium point.

VB monitoring technique has gained wide interest and acceptance for condition
monitoring applications. This is based on exciting vibrations in component by local
external impact or recording the vibration generated in a components under operating
conditions the most common source of vibration are gear gear-mesh, vane passing ,
rotor imbalance, misalignment, eccentricity, damaged bearings or gears, loose
components, rubbing components ,bend shafts, cavitations.

Vibration of a machinery is accessed with a help of transducers by measuring

the amplitude of vibration in terms of their parameters i.e. displacement velocity and
acceleration.

1.1 VIBRATION MONITORING INSTUMENTATION

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Following figure shows a measuring and analysis system that may be used for
monitoring the vibration signals from machines.

Following table gives general guide lines for identifying the causes of vibrations.
The relation between the fault and frequency, amplitude and direction of vibration, are
given. This is a useful guide for pin-pointing the cause in case vibration levels at certain
frequency are seen to increase.

Sl. DIRECTION OF
FAULT FREQUENCY
No VIBRATION
1. ROTATING UNBALANCE SAME AS RUNNING SPEED RADIAL

MISALIGNMENT OF
2. 2*SPEED RADIAL AND AXIAL
BEARINGS
AT BALL OR ROLLER SPEEED

3. ROLLER BEARING DEFECT ULTRA SONIC FREQUENCIES (20- RADIAL AND AXIAL

60KHZ)
OIL FILM WHIRL IN HIGHSPEED
4. 0.5*SPEED RADIAL
TURBO MACHINES
5. DAMAGED OR WORN GEARS NO: OF TEETH* RPM RADIAL

TABLE 1.1Fig(a): VIBRATION

1.2(a): CAUSES
detection methods IDENTIFICATION
of failures
vibration
45% vibration
1.2 APPLICATION OF VIBRATION MONITORING TECHNIQUES
oil analysis
oil analysis
23% temperature
Figure 1.2(b) shows one typical example of the failure rotational
rate of components
speed of
temperature
different machineries in plants which are maximum
10% for rolling bearings
torque as compared to
rotational speed fluorescence
others 6%
acoustic emission
4% torque 4 others
acoustic 6%
fluorescence
emission
3%
3%
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other components. One of the reasons why machinery problems are caused by failure of
rolling bearings is that the number of rolling bearings assembled into machinery is a few
orders of magnitude larger than any other machine elements. Among various NDE
techniques, vibration technique is the most commonly used method for the detection of
failure of rolling bearings as shown in figure 1.2 (a)

Fig1.2 (b): failure rate of different machineries of plant

valve
6%
sliding bearing
others
6% seal
24% valve
7%
sliding bearing
gear seal
7%
gear
oil pump
8% oil pump
slide way
rolling bearing slide way rolling bearing
29% 13%
others

1.3 CONDITION MONITORING THROUGH VIBRATION

ANALYSIS IN STEEL INDUSTRY

In steel industry, maintenance cost accounts for nearly 10%-15% of the

production cost. Maintenance affects the target, quality and profitability of the plant.
Implementation of modern concepts of condition based maintenance (CBM) can
appreciably reduce the maintenance costs and enhance reliability of machine
performance and quality of the output.

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The effectiveness of CBM through vibration analysis can be understood by the

example of the Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP). With implementation of CBM activities at
RSP, there has been substantial growth in all aspects encompassing the maintenance
system Figure 1.3 (a) was responded that the programme for condition monitoring in
RSP has grown from 40 to 140 critical equipments in a span of last three years. There
has been significant increase in the number of major breakdown prevention cases from
10 to 102, which is more than 10 times, during the previous five years, resulting in
substantial financial savings.

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120
e break
n downsprevented

100
hi savings
c 80 insitu balancing
a
60

m trend line
f
40

o
:
20

o
N
0

94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-00

FIG 1.3(A): CONDITION MONITORING IN R S P

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2. ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUE

Acoustic emission is the class of phenomenon whereby transient elastic waves

are generated by the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material.
The energy released travels as spherical wave front and can be picked up from the
surface of a material using highly sensitive transducers, usually electro-mechanical in
nature, placed on the surface of the material.

Figure 2 (a): A E Technique

The wave thus picked up is converted into electrical signal which on suitable
processing and analysis can reveal valuable information about the source causing the
energy release. In metals the different sources are generation and-propagation of cracks,
movement of dislocations, formation and growth of twins, decohesion and fracture of
brittle inclusions, phase transformations etc. In composites, the sources of AE are
matrix cracking, debonding and fracture of fibers.

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2.1 ACOUSTIC EMISSION SET UP

Fig: 2.1(a). TESTING SET UP

The diagnostics can be performed without the product pumping-over

interruption.

Among the existent non-destructive control methods, the acoustic-emission

method is the only one that provides to exclude completely the sudden damage of
constructions, pipelines, and vessels. Originally conceived as an NDT tool for pressure
vessels, Acoustic Emission testing (AE) has become much wider in scope. We now
apply it to all types of process monitoring as well as for its original purposes of flaw
detection and structural integrity inspection. AE sensors respond with amazing
sensitivity to motion in the low ultrasonic frequency range (10kHz - 2000kHz).
Motions as small as 10-12 inches and less can be detected. These sensors can hear the
breaking of a single grain in a metal, a single fiber in a fiber-reinforced composite, and a
tiny gas bubble from a pinhole leak as it arrives at the liquid surface. By detecting
sources as small as these, or as large as brittle crack advance, AE technology warns of
danger, informs about structural health and watches over costly and critical processes.

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2.2. A E DURING HYDRO TESTING OF A HORTON SPHERE

AE monitoring during hydro testing of a 17 m Horton sphere was carried out.

Figure 2.2 (a) shows typical locations of AE sensors (150 kHz resonant frequency each)
mounted on the Horton sphere, along with a typical AE source location map. The hydro
test of the vessel was carried out to a maximum pressure of 22 kg/ cm2, with periodic
holds at different pressures. A reloading cycle from 20 kg/cm2 to 22 kg/cm2 was
immediately carried out. During the hydro test, AE signals were generated only during
the pressure rise. With increase in pressure, AE signals were generated in newer areas
and the areas where AE occurred in the previous pressure steps do not generate AE in
the subsequent pressure steps. These signals were attributed to local micro-plastic
deformation of the material. A few AE signals were also generated from cracks in
concrete columns that were supporting the vessel. AE monitoring during hydro test was
useful to confirm the integrity of the vessel.

Fig: 2.2(a). A E monitoring during hydro testing of Horton sphere

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3. INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY

Infrared thermography is based on the principle of detection, and measurement

of infrared radiations QR) arising from the natural or stimulated thermal radiation of an
object. All objects around us emit electromagnetic radiations. At ambient temperatures
and above, these are predominantly infrared radiations.

Figure 3 (a): setup for infrared testing of lap joints

3.1 INFRARED TESTING OF LAP JOINTS

This image depicts the setup for infrared testing of lap joints. The images below
are of a such a lap joint with a three poor spot welds in the middle.

Here is the raw thermo graphic data.

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Here is the same data after removing the noise and vertical gradient.

Here is the same data processed for the local gradient in surface temperature.

The above series of images from thermographic data show that sophisticated
post processing of the raw data offers advantages in identifying good spot welds from
poor ones. Processing the matrix data with FFT algorithms and numerical
differentiation brings out important details that are hidden in the raw infrared data. The
strong change in the surface temperature gradients at the two spot welds on the outside
corresponded to high strength welds. The location of the three spot welds in the middle
can be determined and the weak temperature gradients correspond to low strength
welds.

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4. FERROGRAPHY

Ferrography is a state-of-the-art predictive maintenance technique based on wear

debris analysis. It provides a comprehensive non-intrusive evaluation of the health of
lubricated components while the equipment is in running condition. In today’s modern
power generation, manufacturing, refining, transportation, mining and military
operations, the cost of equipment maintenance, service, and lubricants are ever
increasing. Parts, labor, equipment downtime, lubricant prices and disposal costs are a
primary concern in a well run maintenance management program. Machine condition
monitoring based on oil analysis has become a prerequisite in comprehensive
maintenance programs the ferrography laboratory plays a key role in such programs. It
separates and concentrates wear and contaminant particles for microscopic examination.
Particle size, surface characteristics and composition are then used to determine wear
modes inside a machine so that maintenance recommendations can be made.

4.1. WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS

The mechanical systems used in plants have interacting surfaces in relative

motion which are lubricated by oil or grease. During operation, there is a steady
generation of wear particles at interacting surfaces caused by load and relative motion.
These wear debris are carried away by lubricant, which give very useful information
regarding the health of the equipment. Over a period of time, various abnormalities,
such as, excessive load, fatigue, corrosion, abrasion, misalignment, lubrication
starvation and capitation, may arise influencing the wear mechanism and formation of
wear debris. The four major findings from ferrography are the mode, rate, severity and
location of wear. A particular wear mechanism typically generates a particular type of
wear debris. The identified wear modes include abrasion, impact, fatigue, erosion,
corrosion, scuffing and severe sliding. The concentration of wear debris indicates the
rate of wear and the size of debris indicates the severity of wear. The color of the
particles identifies the type of material which pinpoints to the affected component.
Thus, an accurate analysis of all these features of 'the wear debris provides a powerful

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means of knowing the actual wear mechanism based on which, suitable corrective
measures can be taken well in advance.

METAL WEAR POSSIBLE ORIGIN.

BEARINGS, BLOCKS, BLOWERS, BUSHINGS,
ALUMINIUM
CLUTCHES, PISTONS.
CHROMIUM BEARINGS, PUMPS, RINGS, RODS.

COPPER BEARINGS, BUSHINGS, CLUTHES, WASHERS.

IRON BLOCKS, CRANK SHAFTS, CYLINDERS,DISCS.

SILVER SOLDERS.

TIN PISTONS.

Table 4.1.(a) wear metal origin table

4.2. ANALYSIS OF OIL SAMPLES

Spectrometric analysis is the most commonly used method for trending

concentrations of wear metals. Spectrometric analysis determines the elemental
concentration of various wear metals, contaminants, and additives present in an used oil
sample. But spectroscopy is less sensitive to the larger particles. A spectrometer is an
instrument with which one can measure the quantities and types of metallic elements in
a sample of oil. The operating principle is as follows. A diluted oil sample is pulverized
by an inert gas to form an aerosol, which is magnetically induced to form a plasma at a
temperature of about 9000°C. As a result of this high temperature the metal ions take on
energy, and release new energy in the form of photons. In this way, a spectrum with
different wavelengths is created for each metallic element. The intensities of the
emissions are measurable for each such element by virtue of its very specific
wavelength, calculated in number of ppm (parts per million). A special spectrometer can
detect the very small metal particles in suspension in the oil, i.e. with a size between 0
and 3 microns. Those small particles are a good indication of general wear. The human
eye can detect particles of a size starting from 50 microns, which allows them to be
visualized using more conventional means. Complementary analysis of such larger
particles can be done by spectrometry, by ferrography or by optical or electronic

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microscopy.

4.2.1. HOW IS THE TEST PERFORMED

After the laboratory receives the sample, a series of tests are performed. The
table below is a listing of each test, and the conditions detected by the test. All tests are
not necessarily performed as each laboratory has an established series of tests.

Tests Conditions Detected

Abnormal Fuel Incorrect Additive
# Dirt Water Coolant Oxidation
Wear Dilution Oil Depletion
Glycol Test *
Viscosity * *
Appearance/Odor * * * * *
Spectrometric Analysis * * * *
Alkaline Reserve * *
Blotter Spot Test * * *
Water Content *
Distillation *
Flash Point *

Table 4.2.1 (a): Tests on oil samples

4.2.2. SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS

In the spectrometer, oil is electrically excited to the point where light is emitted.
Each element present in the burning oil emits a light of its own particular color and
frequency. The spectrometer translates the intensity of this rainbow of colors into a
computerized readout. A typical report from this test would list major wear metals for
industrial gear oil and hydraulic oil. The computer compares the amount of wear metals
present with a fresh oil sample, and also records of samples from similar equipment.
Also, the computer compares the output from previous samples taken from the same
piece of equipment to establish wear trends.

5. FIELD SIGNATURE MAPPING

An efficient non-intrusive and rugged method called field signature mapping

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(FSM) or field signature method has been developed for condition monitoring of the
localized corrosion erosion or abrasion and cracking in steel and metal structures,
pipelines, pipe bends and vessels. FSM is based on feeding an electric direct current
through the selected regions of the structures to be monitored, and sensing the pattern of
the electrical field by measuring small potential differences generated on the surface of
the monitored structure. The potential difference generated on the surface of the
structure is monitored periodically / continuously. Selected area is fitted with a number
of sensing electrodes or pins distributed in a matrix with variable spacing. Typical
distance between electrodes is 2-3 times wall thickness. By proper interpretation of the
changes in the potential differences, information pertaining to wall thinning of the
structure or component under investigation can be obtained reliably. In the case of
installed components, the measured potentials are compared with those initially
measured. These values represent the initial geometry of the component, i.e., it
fingerprint, as implied by the name of the method. It has been established that
sensitivity for detection of internal corrosion by this method is an order of magnitude
higher than that by ultrasonic

5.1 INDUSTRIAL ARRANGEMENT

Fig. 5. 1(a). A typical refinery monitors high temperature areas such as heater bends in
the distillation unit

With FSM, you may:

- Reduce life cycle inspection costs

- Dramatically reduce inspection time

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- Reduce or eliminate scaffolding costs

- Eliminate costs
- Eliminate unnecessary pipe replacement
- Widely expand possibilities for monitoring

Fig 5.1(c). Sensing pins

Fig 5.1(b). Field signature mapping with
(electrodes) are distributed in an
Ideal field pattern and
array over the monitored area to
Corrosion distorted field pattern.
detect changes in the electrical field
pattern. The voltage measurements
(the signature).

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Fig 5.1 (d). FIELD PATTERN

The field proven FSM technique detects metal loss due to corrosion by detecting
small changes in the way an induced current flows through a metallic structure. The
system presents graphical plots indicating the severity and location of corrosion, and
calculates actual corrosion and metal loss. Both sensitivity and accuracy are typically
better than 0.5% of remaining wall thickness, but may vary with the application.

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6. CONCLUSION

The implementation of condition monitoring methodologies to components and

plants is very essential for ensuring safety and reliability and for increasing productivity
of plants. Nondestructive evaluation techniques which aim at detection and
characterization of defects, fatigue, stresses, corrosion, dimensional changes and micro
structural degradations in materials, bear unique potential for applications related to the
condition monitoring of components and plants.

It is probably safe to say that most organizations with a significant capital

investment in plant equipment are, these days, employing some form of Condition
Monitoring technology in order to predict at least some failures. This is the time from
which an incipient failure can first be detected, until functional failure occurs. The
primary determinant of frequency of a Condition Monitoring task is the lead time to
failure, or PF Interval. For example, the time interval from when overall bearing
vibration levels reach an "alarm" limit, until the bearing seizes completely. In order to
be completely sure that the failure is detected prior to the functional failure occurring,
the bearing must be monitored at a frequency less than the PF Interval. So far so good-
in theory. Unfortunately, the practice is that the PF Intervals for sophisticated Condition
Monitoring techniques are highly variable. For example, for Vibration Analysis on a
bearing, the PF Interval will vary depending on the type of failure detected, the type of
bearing installed, the severity of its operating cycle, the type of lubrication applied,

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ambient temperature conditions and many other factors. To date, no Condition

Monitoring organization can give anything but the most approximate estimate of the PF
Interval. Any error tends to be on the conservative (i.e. too frequent) side.

6.1 SUMMARY OF APPLICABILITY AND CAPABILITY OF

VARIOUS NDT TECHNIQUES

NDT DETECTION NON CONTACTAUTOMATED DEFECT

TECHNIQUE CAPABILITY INSPECTION INSPECTION SIZING

VIBRATION VOLUMETRIC POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE

ACOUSTIC NOT
VOLUMETRIC POSSIBLE POSSIBLE
EMISSION POSSIBLE
SURFACE ,
I R THERMO-
NEAR POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE
GRAPHY
SURFACE

FERROGRAPHY VOLUMETRIC POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE

SURFACE,
FSM NEAR POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE
SURFACE

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7. REFERENCES

1. Dr. C K Mukhopadhayay, Dr. T Jayakumar, Dr. Baldev Raj, ‘Non-Destructive

Evaluation Techniques for Condition Monitoring of Components and Plants’ .
Institute of Engineers (India) Journal, vol.15 , 2005, PP 144-155.

2. B C Nakra & K K Choudhry, ‘Instrumentation Measurement and Analysis’, Tata

Mc Graw Hill, 14th reprint, ISBN : 0-07-451791-0, pp 350-366

3. Sushil Kumar Srivastava, ‘Industrial maintenance management’, S.Chand &

company Ltd, 2002 Reprint, ISBN : 81-219-1663-1, pp 62-106,202-213.

4. Dr. Baldev Raj, NDT for realising better Quality of Life in Emerging Economies
like India, www.ndt.net/article/wcndt00.

5. http://www.engr.du.edu/profile/Marvin.htm

6. http://www.applied-infrared.com.au/thermography

7. http://lubricants.s5.com/index.htm\

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