Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The process
of compressors, how they can be selected, and engineer’s role
the differences between air and gas units. The packaging
The gas compressor holds a special place in decisions should
most mechanical and chemical engineers’ be left to the rotat-
minds, and thoughts can range from admiration ing-equipment, me-
to hatred. The reason for this is that compres- chanical, or mainte-
sors are usually the most complex mechanical nance engineers on
units in a process; as a result, they must be un- any project. The pro-
derstood and selected carefully. A poorly select- cess itself and the appli-
ed unit will not only be unreliable in its own cation of the right com-
right, but also it will be less flexible to the in- pressor fall squarely on the
evitable changes that occur when most process- shoulders of the process en-
es evolve from theory to practice. gineer. If a flow scheme is al-
Compressor engineers will tell you that the ready fixed, and the conditions
majority of problems associated with the units required of a compressor are unre-
in service can be traced to the process, the se- alistic, then there is very little that the
©Copyright 2000 lection of the compressor itself, or to poor pack- mechanical engineer can contribute after
American Institute aging. For the uninitiated, packaging refers to the fact. Thus, a rudimentary knowledge of
of Chemical Engineers. all of the components that allow a compressor what existing, commercially available compres-
All rights reserved. to operate. These include drivers, couplings, lu- sors can do is necessary for a good process de-
Copying and brication and sealing systems, controls, and fil- sign. Keeping the numerical possibilities in
downloading permitted tration. If a plant is operating as planned, and mind while forming pressure/temperature/flow
with restrictions.
the proper compressor is chosen, most issues relationships can save a company a tremendous
rge
Su
chines are limited on the inlet side.
d
Rated Point
cte
For example, there are numerous rel-
Discharge Pressure, P2
pe
atively inexpensive, oil-injected
Ex
screw (OIS) compressors suitable for Preswirl
process gas duties that are limited to
values of P1 of 100 lb/in.2 (psi) (all
pressures here are gage, i.e., psig, un- -12
less otherwise noted). Specialized
OIS compressors can accept a P1 of 45
60 30 0
700 psi, but these are more costly
and have longer deliveries. 75
Most oil-free screw (OFS) units Approximate IGV Positions, deg.
designed for gas applications are lim-
ited to 150 psi at the inlet. There are Inlet Volume
special cases when they can achieve a
P1 as high as 225 psi, but these must ■ Figure 1. Example of “curved” performance on centrifugal compressors.
be checked on a job-to-job basis. Re-
ciprocating (recips) and centrifugal
types are available at nearly all inlet
pressures, but the centrifugals can be- 15,000
come costly under P1 and P2 condi- Diaphragm 15,000 psig/100 acfm
tions where special pressures or mul- Reciprocating 6,000/6,000
5,000
tistaging is required. These will be
discussed in the centrifugal section
below. 3,000
Discharge Pressure, P2,psig
Gas compressors
1,000
The compressor industry is seg- Centrifugal 5,000/4,000 (Start 200)
mented into numerous sections and 3,000/10,,000
2,000/30,000
subsections, and recent economic 800 1,500/100,000+
conditions have created considerable
crossover as compressor suppliers Oil-Injected Rotary Screw
600 870/10,000 (Start 150)
jockey for position on their next sale.
Fundamentally, there are two major
areas: gas and air. 400
Gas compression is the more diffi-
Oil-Free Rotary Screw
cult, since the processes they drive 400/50,000 (Start 250)
are normally very expensive and 200
gases must be handled delicately to Rotary Vane 150/4,000
avoid leakage, unwanted condensa- 0
tion, other phase problems, and flash 0 100 500 1,000 5,000 10,000 50,000 100,000
points. Different gases also have Flow Rate, acfm
varying market demands, which af-
fect the way a compressor is built and ■ Figure 2. Cost-effective sizes for commercially available gas compressors.
purchased.
Industries with high demand and curately predict, the global number of and volume, but standardizing the
volume will have gas compressors standardized refrigeration units sold machines is difficult, since their
“built for duty” and numerous com- (for ammonia, propane, propylene, P1/P2/flow relationships are widely
petitors, resulting in low prices. Re- Freon-replacements, and Freon) fall varied and inconsistent. Hydrogen is
frigeration is the best example. While well into the thousands annually. a good example where there are many
the exact numbers are difficult to ac- Other industries have fair demand applications, but disparate flows and
pressors normally try an iterative pro- ment engineer, or an engineering con- inlet flow, and gas characteristics.
cess. The engineer designs an initial sultant. In the end, process engineers Positive displacement (PD) types,
process that fits the range of what the should know a little about what com- which consist of all models other than
market has available, then these con- pressors can do, and mechanical engi- centrifugals, are sized on actual inlet
ditions are sent to various compressor neers should know a little about what volume (actual ft3/min (acfm)).
vendors and feedback is provided on a process’ needs and limitations are. For most reciprocating and rotary
issues of feasibility, availability, screw applications, the discharge pres-
price, and delivery. The process engi- Compressor sizing sure becomes almost secondary in the
neer than incorporates the revised information selection of the physical size of the
pressures, temperatures, and flows Important sizing information, re- unit. However, knowing the discharge
into a workable process model. quired by compressor vendors and pressure is necessary, since it will dic-
Naturally, this procedure may in- packagers, is listed in Table 1. Com- tate whether the compressor is capable
volve mechanical and maintenance pressors are sized on absolute inlet of the desired pressure, whether the
engineers, a corporate rotating-equip- pressure (psia), inlet temperature, gas will remain gaseous throughout
1,000
Forestalling against surge
By the same token, while PD units
800
can produce 20% higher discharge
pressures (or more) with only per-
600 centage-point changes in flow, dy-
Oil-Injected Rotary Screw 250/100-3,000 namic units can only rise in pressure
marginally with a heavy payment in
400 Centrifugal
250/200-3,000
flow and a very great danger of ap-
200/150-2,000 150/3,000-40,000 proaching surge. Surge is when a cen-
200 trifugal compressor approaches the
Dry Screw end of its curve at the left (Figure 1).
0 200 400 1,500 2,500 5,000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 It is best to keep the compressor op-
100 300 500 3,000 eration at least 5% (by flow) to the
right of this line.
Flow Rate, acfm Physically, as the compressor ap-
■ Figure 3. Air compressors — cost-effective units that are commercially available. proaches surge, vibration begins and
increases as you approach the surge
line (a line drawn by connecting all
the compression cycle, the number of gle-stage units by “preswirl,” which the left-most points on the IGV
stages required, and what the power is possible by reversing the IGVs. curves). Vibration is quite severe and
requirement for the unit will be. Centrifugal units can be seen as can heavily damage a compressor
Centrifugal compressors are dy- fixed-ratio compressors, which means whose impeller(s) may be spinning
namic, which means that their perfor- that only a ±5% change in inlet pres- anywhere from 7,000–50,000 rpm.
mance is “curved” and depends sure is normally allowed for a fixed For this reason, all centrifugals should
tremendously upon inlet flow and dis- discharge pressure. Dynamic com- be purchased with a surge system,
charge pressure requirements. Figure pression results from the conversion which unloads the machine via recir-
1 shows the typical pressure volume of gas velocity to pressure. Thus, culation, as conditions approach surge.
relationship for these devices. Note molecular weight (MW) plays a key Reciprocating, screw, and other
the P2 curves downward as the flow role, since the selection of the com- PD compressors will push the inlet
increases; this is found in all dynamic pressor is directly related to the head gas against whatever system resis-
compressors. The multiple curves are calculation for the process. This is tance exists at the discharge. This is
for different inlet guide vane (IGV) why centrifugals are not used for hy- why high-pressure shutdown and re-
settings on a single-stage compressor. drogen, or other low-MW gases. The lief valves are so important. PDs will
IGVs are pneumatically actuated head is simply too high for a cost-ef- continue to push until the system is
vanes at the entrance of the compres- fective solution when the MW dips satisfied, or something else gives
sor that alter the gas flow and create a below 10. When the MW is below 5, (system resistance, unloader setting,
pressure drop. Unlike butterfly a centrifugal selection is almost im- recycle setting, alarms/shutdowns, or
valves, they are quite efficient at possible, since the head may be at or the relief valve). Apart from volumet-
80–100% of compressor-design flow well over 100,000 ft. ric efficiencies, which can vary from
rates. The amount of turndown ob- The main difference that a user 70–95% depending upon the selec-
tained by using IGVs depends upon sees between PD and dynamic com- tion vs. requirement relationship, a
staging. Single-stage units will typi- pression is that the former’s compres- PD unit will compress the same
cally be capable of 65–105% of flow sors do not provide a significant in- amount of actual flow through its
range with IGVs, while the effect is crease in flow with a drop in dis- cylinder, regardless of pressure, tem-
closer to 90–100% on multistage ma- charge pressure, whereas dynamic perature, or MW.
chines. The 105% is achieved on sin- compressors do (this is called riding Naturally, one could get into se-
mantics over the issue of volume con- On PD units, the k-value directly af- thumb will be presented to help guide
sistency in PD equipment, but when fects the power requirements, and the the process engineer through the
you compare a 25% variance with the calculation of it, for bidding purposes. availability and selection process.
100+% found in dynamic units, the Heavy hydrocarbon gases, such as This becomes necessary since nearly
argument holds true. Thus, a com- propane, butane, and propylene, have every compressor manufacturer has
pressor system vendor must know the k-values around 1.14 under most inlet equipment with different pressure and
inlet absolute pressure and inlet tem- pressure/temperature conditions. Air, flow capabilities. However, the mar-
perature, along with the flow to cal- nitrogen, and hydrogen are typically ketplace will always dictate what is
culate the acfm and peg the proper at 1.4. Helium can be higher than 1.6. purchased and what is a fringe player,
compressor sizing. If there were two processes, one with and any good engineer must have
Reciprocating unit flow results propane and one with air, using iden- bottom-line sensitivity in this day and
from the multiplication of cylinder tical numbers except for gas compo- age. Figure 2 shows the general area
volume (based on stroke and diame- sition, the power used by a PD com- where the various types of gas com-
ter), number of cylinders, actual rpm, pressor could be 5–10% higher for pressors are cost-effectively available
and volumetric efficiency. Screw unit the air than the lower k-value in terms of pressure and flow. Figure
flow is based on swept volume times propane. This can often mean a frame 3 does this for the air machines.
rpm times volumetric efficiency. This break in the compressor driver, and The main types of compressors
illustrates the need for an acfm calcu- this has a significant impact on the used in the industry are reciprocating,
lation by the vendor and the fact that temperature rise across the compres- rotary screw, and centrifugal; lesser
the voltage must be known for motor sor. A frame break is a jump from one selected are rotary-vane, liquid-ring,
drives, since the calculation depends size to another. If the jump is from and diaphragm machines. Only the
on rpm, and many PD compressors smaller to larger, then it can be costly. major ones will be discussed at length
are direct driven. Temperature rise affects oil cooling in this article.
The compressor vendor, due to skid and gas cooling, so the entire system
pressure drops across each side of the can be affected if cost estimates are Reciprocating compressors
compressor, should calculate the acfm. based on a 1.15 k-factor, and the final In the U.S., from the 1900s to the
Vendors prefer to be given the process design balloons to 1.3, for example. 1960s, the reciprocating compressor
flow requirement in standard ft3/min There is one final note about the became the workhorse for all com-
(scfm), (normal) nm3/h, lb/h, or kg/h, gases lighter than 10 MW, specifical- pression (Figure 4). These have been
to ensure accuracy in sizing. This is ly hydrogen and helium. Although used in nearly every application, in al-
why the gas composition or character- PD compressors, notably reciprocat- most every conceivable way. Although
istics are so important. ing and screw units, are the best for their population is dwindling, and an-
these low-MW gases, these lighter nual sales volumes have been in
Effect of k-value gases are “slippery” and tend to result steady decline since the 1970s, these
If the buyer’s gas composition is in lower volumetric efficiencies in the machines’ capability in handling large
yet to be finalized, the buyer’s guess 70–85% range. “Slip-
on MW, the ratio of heat capacity at pery” means that the gas
constant pressure to that at constant molecules are small and ■ Figure 4.
Bare Y-type
volume Cp/Cv, and the compressibili- their density is light, so it reciprocating
ty Z will still be much better than the is difficult to “capture” compressor.
vendor’s. The MW and Z are obvious- the gas and make it go
ly necessary for flow calculations, where you want it to go.
particularly if the flow is provided in Thus, when compared to
the desired standardized or mass-flow a typical natural gas
format. However, Cp/Cv, often known (MW of 17 and k-value
as the k-value, is crucial as well. of 1.28), hydrogen and
The k-value is used in various cal- helium will require a
culations, including horsepower and roughly 10% larger ma-
mechanical volumetric requirements chine, due to lower volu-
for PD compressors. On centrifugal metric efficiency, and
types, the MW is critical, since the 5–10% more horsepow-
head calculation is so heavily affected er, due to the higher k-
by this number (the larger the MW, values.
the lower the head), and the head di- For the purposes of
rectly affects the power requirement. this article, some rules of
■ Figure 7.
GD-Turbo centrifugal for air contains
three stages.
steady stream of mist or aerosol in cost decrease of as much as 50% in manufacturer that offers it. In the 4/6
the inlet gas. On centrifugal units, certain instances. In addition, opera- configuration, a male rotor has the
this causes erosion similar to partic- tions needs only worry about one set input shaft, the female rotor is beside
ulate bombardment. On recips, this of bearings and seals, not two. it. They are “mated” for fit and must
liquid forms in the cylinder and pro- be replaced as a set.
duces a variety of problems from oil OFS capacity controls Note that tip-speed limitations are
dilution to excessive corrosion and The advantage do not end there. more easily achieved by large male
wear. OIS compressors may have OFS compressors are similar to mul- rotors, say 630 mm dia., than smaller
problems when the liquid does not tistage centrifugal units in the meth- ones, which can go down to 127 mm.
flash off in time and slowly accumu- ods by which capacity control is Some manufacturers have offered 91
lates in the lubrication system until it achieved. The three major forms of mm dia. versions, but these are very
either replaces or dilutes the injec- control — inlet throttling, gas recir- small and would have to be run in ex-
tion oil. culation, and variable speed — still cess of 12,000 rpm to achieve perfor-
In OFS systems, the liquid entrain- apply. However, OFS compressors mance-efficient tip speeds.
ment is easily flashed off due to the typically operate in the 3,000–8,000 OFS compressors are shown on
450–500°F maximum temperature for rpm range, so they are well below the P2/flow chart (Figure 2). They are
a compressor that can sometimes their typical first critical speed of good to inlet pressures of 150 psi,
achieve 5:1 ratios (with low k-value 12,000 rpm. This makes them excel- and, in some cases, to 225 psi. They
gases) in a single stage. This misting lent variable speed machines. They can be used to discharge pressures of
liquid capability was used by engi- can be operated down to roughly 50% 350 psi and, sometimes, 400 psi. Re-
neers in the actual design of some of design speed, depending upon the cent developments have allowed
process systems. application, and the entire range can flows up to 80,000 m3/h or 47,000
Capital costs for OFS machinery be used unless an unusual vibration is acfm. These higher flows can only be
are always competitive to API cen- found at one of the speeds in between realized with discharge pressures of
trifugal and API reciprocating units, (this is rare). 200 psi or less, but this has made a
as long as they can be kept in a single As mentioned previously, the great impact on hydrogen recircula-
stage. What industry has found is that styrene process uses water. It also tion and styrene.
certain gases can accept the introduc- uses steam, so the existence of boilers One disadvantage that the OFS
tion of liquids, such as water in allows for over-sizing and use of units have is that they use four shaft
styrene, since, many times, the liquid steam turbine drivers. Unlike cen- seals. Centrifugal compressors use
is a part of the process anyway. trifugal compressors, which require one (single-stage) or two (multistage)
For example, with styrene, it is gear speed increasers most of the seals, while OIS types need only one.
commonplace in both the Badger time when steam turbines are used, Four seals are expensive, necessitat-
(now Raytheon) and Lummus (now OFS units often run near the steam ing the use of dynamic dry gas seals.
ABB-Lummus Global) processes to turbine (backpressure, single-stage Four of these and a buffer system can
inject water into the OFS inlet. Water type) effective speed of 4,000–6,000 add $250,000 or more to the cost of a
is shot in as a mist and the flow rate is rpm. For styrene, this has allowed the compressor.
set to achieve a specific discharge use of direct-driven OFS compressors OFS compressors are very good
temperature from the OFS compres- with steam turbine drivers. process machines. Unfortunately,
sor, while increasing the pressure OFS compressors depend upon they have been underused in the U.S.,
ratio to 6:1 to 7:1, due to the dis- their rotors’ ability to capture gas and due to operators’ lack of experience
charge temperature drop created by push it through a smaller space at the with them as opposed to centrifugal
the energy required to flash the water discharge. This means that the most and reciprocating types. They would
during compression. important variable in the aerodynam- make excellent ethylene and
In low k-value gases such as iso- ic equation is the rotor tip speed. polyethylene units, compared with
butane, 8:1 pressure ratios can be Users should not be concerned that most centrifugals that are used in
achieved by reinjecting condensed i- smaller OFS units run at these processes today. In a recent
butane from the discharge into the 7,000–10,000 rpm, since the smaller comparison, an OFS screw package
suction. Each stage of an OFS com- rotor diameter reflects a desired tip was bid at $800,000 for a single-
pressor is basically a separate ma- speed. In most cases, OFS compres- stage, direct-driven unit vs. a $1.5
chine, with its own compressor body sors should operate in the 80–110 m/s million centrifugal. However, the ro-
and driver. Therefore, cramming the tip speed range. Anything over 110 tating engineer recommended the
application into one stage by either m/s, on a standard 4/6 male/female centrifugal, due to his comfort level.
using the temperature maximums or lobe configuration, should be exam- He had never used an OFS before,
liquid injection can yield a capital ined carefully and be proven by the but had used centrifugal units often.
0.01–1.0 ppm range. They could not costs by one-half on the OIS com- The OIS compressor can take the
be filtered by coalescing and filtra- pressor package. A bare OIS unit is entire range and unload at the high end
tion elements until very recently. shown in Figure 10. to reduce energy consumption by 60%.
Thus, entrained oil would be cap- The fuel gas market is a good ex- A regulating valve is not required, ei-
tured, but aerosols (or smokes), ample of how the newer OIS machines ther. Thus, the OIS compressor not
would get through and could contam- can be used to great advantage over re- only offers the same capital cost as an
inate a gas up to 1.0 ppm by weight. cips and centrifugals. Most power gen- API 11P reciprocating unit, but the
If 0.01 ppm is achieved, the gas is erating facilities built today use gas- client could purchase a unit that is
basically oil-free. fired turbines. The incoming natural more efficient over the entire range of
Oil-free is a truly a misnomer. Oil- gas from the utility normally fluctuates compression and more reliable, as
free screw compressors and centrifu- and must be regulated to the turbine well. The added flexibility of the slide
gals used on air are not necessarily oil- pressures. Unfortunately, the pressure valve also reduces the size of the recir-
free. This is because most industrial air often dips below the turbine require- culation cooler and saves water.
is drawn at a petroleum refinery, or a ments and compression is required. OIS units are sometimes called oil-
chemical or petrochemical plant, and On a recent project, the incoming flooded, but this term is entirely inac-
the atmospheric air is not free of oil natural gas ranged from 310 psi to curate. The oil is literally injected, at a
there. Granted, oil is not introduced, 600 psi and the desired discharge was pressure higher than discharge, into
but a sensitive process, such as phar- several key areas of the compressor to
maceutical production or processes provide lubrication, sealing, and cool-
using catalyst beds, would be ruined by ■ Figure 10. ing. Nearly two-thirds of a fully in-
Bare OIS gas
the oil that is drawn in air. Filtration is compressor jected screw compressor’s oil goes to-
the only solution to ensure air, or even with inlet wards cooling, not lubrication. This is
gas, quality. The goal is 0.01 ppm. valve why OIS units can produce pressure
Reciprocating compressor vendors mounted. ratios as high as 23:1 in a single stage.
accepted their inability to achieve oil- Most companies do not use these
free status long ago. That is why they machines at ratios above 10:1, since
are called nonlubricated reciprocating they become extremely inefficient with
compressors, instead of oil-free. Of adiabatic efficiencies dropping to 50%
course, nonlube recips often do intro- at 15:1 ratios. Normal adiabatic effi-
duce oil into the process, since ciencies for screws, at a single de-
reciprocating units produce sign point, are 70–80%. Howev-
considerable amounts of oil er, their true installed efficiency
vapors. remains close to those percent-
The third major reason is ages, since OIS units are con-
pressure and flow design. Until sidered among the most effi-
1990, OIS units could not ex- cient compressors for overall
ceed 4,500 acfm in a single operation at different points, due
compressor body, now there are to the slide valve.
units that can do 10,000 acfm. Until This valve is an internal ca-
the late 1980s, the discharge pressure pacity control device, and is built into
was limited to 350 psi, however, recent all reputable gas machines, without
innovations have brought standardized 650 psi. A centrifugal must be de- incurring an additional cost. In fact, it
units up to 520 psi and special designs signed for the worst case, so an inlet is part of the design. The slide valve
to 865 psi. The latter units accept a 700 pressure regulator was required to en- literally recirculates the compressed
psi inlet pressure, hence, their recent sure that it always received 310 psi, gas before compression is completed.
in-roads in the fuel gas market. ±5%. Thus, if the incoming gas were That means that only a little energy is
Depending upon the differential at 600 psi, energy would be wasted, required to boost the gas enough so
pressure across the compressor, and since the gas would be reduced then that it can be internally recirculated to
the flow, the inlet pressure may be recompressed. the internal suction of the machine.
pushed to 120 psi on ratios below 4:1 On a reciprocating compressor, the Most slide valves can operate in
or be limited to 70 psi on ratios above entire inlet range could not be accept- the 10–100% range, so 0% flow is
7:1. In many instances, a process de- ed, due to rod load problems at the achievable with a very small recircu-
sign inlet pressure of 125 psi can be high end. Again, a regulator or expen- lation system; GD recommends a
reduced to 100 psi without great im- sive unloaders would be required, and 25% size. This removes the need for
pact. This small change can reduce the latter are not always reliable. inlet throttling, full-size recirculation,
ple capacity control device, based on All these delivery times are shorter than
system pressures. The slide valve has those for centrifugal and API 618 recip-
also been proven to be very reliable. rocating machinery. D. G. Jandjel is product manager, gas
compressor systems, for The Gardner
The fact that screw compressors The inexpensive screw compressors
Denver Engineered Packaging Center
use injection oil for cooling is another can achieve discharge pressures of 520 (formerly Allen-Stuart Equipment), Houston
positive for process design. If a pro- psi, with some cost-effective modifica- ((713) 896-6510 ext. 131; Fax: (713) 896-
cess engineer would like to maintain a tions. Standard OIS gas units can 1154; E-mail: g-jandjel@allen-stuart.com).
He is involved in all aspects of marketing,
discharge temperature, or if the gas achieve 350 psi at the discharge, and
sales, and management of the company’s
condenses at a known temperature, this pressure level provides the buyer gas compressor division, and is responsible
then the oil injection can be throttled with many market options and creates for major accounts, worldwide. His technical
to maintain a preset discharge temper- a healthy competitive bid situation. duties include reviewing engineering data,
selecting the most appropriate systems for
ature. Using a control valve on the The main negative found in OIS
bidding, and client liaison throughout
main injection line and a temperature units is that they do require fairly production and testing. He has conducted
signal from the discharge does this. clean gas at the inlet during normal seminars for over 50 major clients and has
We recommend that a process stay operation. They handle upsets better extensive experience in specifying, costing,
troubleshooting, and engineering
18°F (10°C) above the discharge dew than recips and centrifugals, but they
compressors. Prior to his current
point for water, and 25°F (14°C) for cannot do so on a continuous basis. employment, he was a manager for both
hydrocarbon gases. Once the gas Oil carryover is really no longer an Howden Compressors and A-C Compressor
makes it through oil/gas separation, issue with the improvement in filtra- Canada, Inc. He began his career as a
mechanical engineer with Ingersoll-Rand
there is no the danger of fouling the tion technologies. However, polymer-
Canada, Inc. Jandjel holds three degrees: a
lubricant and harming the compressor. izing gases are still a problem, so DEC in pure and applied science from John
OIS compressors can operate up to styrene and butadiene applications Abbott College, a bachelor’s in mechanical
10,000 acfm in a single body unit, how- where these gases are above 20% engineering from McGill University, and an
MBA, also from McGill.
ever, the most cost-effective and com- content are definitely not recom-
petitive area is at 5,000 acfm and below. mended. Even antipolymerizing
Standard compressors are generally agents have been unsuccessful on All photos courtesy of Gardner Denver, Inc.
one-half the price of custom units, but OIS units.