Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the

investigation of matter. The primary aim for applied research is discovering, interpreting,
and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge
on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use
the scientific method, but need not do so.

Research methods

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main
forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):

• Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems

• Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem
• , Empirical research which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical
evidence

Research can also fall into two distinct types:

• Primary research
• Secondary research

Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of

curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of
the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications
possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations
and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided
into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.

Scientific research

Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step

order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are
usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:

• Formation of the topic

• Hypothesis
• Conceptual definitions
• Operational definitions
• Gathering of data
• Analysis of data
• Test, revising of hypothesis
• Conclusion, iteration if necessary

A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis can be proven or tested.

Generally a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the
outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the
hypothesis is rejected. However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the
experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because
researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the
observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported
by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as
true (or better, predictive), but this is not the same as it having been proven. A useful
hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the
prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the
hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis
will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more
accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it.

Ways of Conducting Scientific Research

1) Naturalistic Observation - allow behavior to occur without interference or

intervention by the researcher.

we all do this (people watch)

weaknesses: often not easy to observe without being intrusive.

strengths: study behavior in real setting - not lab.

2) Case Study - in depth investigation of an individual's life, used to reconstruct major

aspects of a person's life. Attempt to see what events led up to current situation.

Usually involves: interview, observation, examine records, & psych. testing.

weaknesses: very subjective. Like piecing together a puzzle, often there are gaps - relies
on memory of the individual, medical records, etc.

strengths: good for assessing psychological disorders - can see history and development.

3) Survey - either a written questionnaire, verbal interview, or combination of the two,

used to gather information about specific aspects of behavior.

Goals of the Scientific Method

Describe, Predict, Select Method, Control, Collect Data, Analyze, Explanation

1) Description - the citing of the observable characteristics of an event, object, or

individual. Helps us to be systematic and consistent.

This stage sets the stage for more formal stages - here we acquire our topic of study and
begin to transform it from a general concept or idea into a specific, testable construct.
a) Operational Definitions - the definition of behaviors or qualities in terms of how they
are to be measured. Some books define it as the description of ...the actions or
operations that will be made to measure or control a variable.

Examples:

How can you define "life change"? One possibility is the score on the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale.

How do you define obesity, abnormality, etc. in a way that is testable and falsifiable?

2) Prediction - here we formulate testable predictions or HYPOTHESES about behavior

(specifically, about our variables). Thus, we may define a hypothesis as a tentative
statement about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, one may
hypothesize that as alcohol consumption increases driving ability decreases.

Hypotheses are usually based on THEORIES - statements which summarize and explain
research findings.

3) Select Methodology & Design - chose the most appropriate research strategy for
empirically addressing your hypotheses.

4) Control - method of eliminating all unwanted factors that may effect what we are
attempting to study (we will address in more detail later).

5) Collect Data - although the book is a little redundant and does not differentiate well
between this stage and selecting the design and method, data collection is simply the
execution and implementation of your research design.

6) Analyze & Interpret the Data - use of statistical procedures to determine the
mathematical and scientific importance (not the "actual" importance or meaningfulness)
of the data. Were the differences between the groups/conditions large enough to be
meaningful (not due to chance)?

Then, you must indicate what those differences actually mean...discovery of the causes of
behavior, cognition, and physiological processes.

7) Report/Communicate the Findings - Psychology is a science that is based on sharing

- finding answers to questions is meaningless (to everyone except the scientist) unless
that information can be shared with others. We do this through publications in scientific
journals, books, presentations, lectures, etc.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

How do we find scientific truth? The scientific method is NOT perfect, but it is the best
method available today.

To use the scientific method, all topics of study must have the following criteria:

1) must be testable (e.g., can you test the existence of god?)

2) must be falsifiable - easy to prove anything true (depends on situation), but

systematically demonstrating a subject matter to be false is quite difficult (e.g., can you
prove that god does not exist?)

Basic Steps in the Research Process

1. Select a general topic that interests you in some way.

2. List key words to help you look up information about the topic.

3. Go to an encyclopedia, or other reference source, to get an overview of the topic.

4. Make source cards for whatever sources you will use for information.

5. Using the general overview, begin to focus the topic into something you can cover
well.

6. Write a statement of purpose about the focused topic.

7. Brainstorm questions about the focused topic.

8. Group questions under similar headings.

9. Add any new questions you can think of under those headings.

10. Repeat step 2, listing more key words from your newly focused topic and questions.

11. Make a list of possible sources that can answer your questions. Identify the best
sources to use.

12. Find the sources in the library, on the computer, etc. Make a source card for each
one you use.

13. Begin making notecards. Use your brain stormed questions to guide your note
taking.
14. Change your statement of purpose into a draft thesis statement.

15. Make an outline of your headings. If you are ready to print your outline, try the
Outline Maker

16. Refocus your thesis statement if necessary.

17. Write the body of your paper from your notes.

18. Cite any necessary information with parenthetical citations.

19. Write your introduction and conclusion.

20. Write your Works Cited (it is similar to a bibliography).

21. Create a title page.

22. Evaluate your work.

23. Turn in your paper on time.

What Is Broad Problem Area In The Research Process?

Identification of the broad problem area through the process of observing and
focusing on the situation is called broad problem area in research. This refers to
the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and problem
solving. The specific issues that need to be researched within this situation may
not be identified at this stage. Such issues might pertain to problems currently
existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved, areas that a manger
believes need to be improved in the organization, a conceptual or theoretical issue
that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher wants to answer empirically.
Examples of each type are provided taking the issue of sexual harassment which
is a problem that at least some organizations will have to handle at some point in
time.

A situation might present itself where a manager might receive written complaints
from women in some departments that they are not being treated right by the
bosses. From the generalized nature of these complaints, the manager might
become aware that he is facing gender-related problem, but may not be able to
pin-point what exactly it is. That is the matter calls for further investigation before
the exact problem can be identified and attempts are made to resolve it.
Research Process
The research process is a step-by-step process of developing a research paper. As you
progress from one step to the next, it is commonly necessary to backup, revise, add
additional material or even change your topic completely. This will depend on what you
discover during your research. There are many reasons for adjusting your plan. For
example, you may find that your topic is too broad and needs to be narrowed, sufficient
information resources may not be available, what you learn may not support your thesis,
or the size of the project does not fit the requirements.

The research process itself involves identifying, locating, assessing, analyzing, and then
developing and expressing your ideas. These are the same skills you will need outside the
academic world when you write a report or proposal for your boss. As these activities are
frequently based on secondary sources from which recommendations or plans are
formulated.

Secondary sources are usually studies by other researchers. They describe, analyze,
and/or evaluate information found in primary sources. By repackaging information,
secondary sources make information more accessible. A few examples of secondary
sources are books, journal and magazine articles, encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks,
periodical indexes, etc.

Primary sources are original works. These sources represent original thinking, report on
discoveries, or share new information. Usually these represent the first formal appearance
of original research. Primary sources include statistical data, manuscripts, surveys,
speeches, biographies/autobiographies, diaries, oral histories, interviews, works or art and
literature, research reports, government documents, computer programs, original
documents( birth certificates, trial transcripts...) etc.

Before you begin any project, it is essential to have a plan. Whether your project is a two
page paper or a literature review, a research plan will help. Developing a plan will save
time, stress and in the final analysis, yield a superior product.

1. Define your topic

For topic ideas try the following:

o Browse current/hot topics sites, such as CQ-Researcher, Topic Search, and

Documents in the News
o Browse current interest magazines or newspapers for stories of interest
o Browse Encyclopedias or other reference books
o Browse "10,000 Ideas for Term Papers, Projects, Reports and Speeches"
(Ready Ref LB1047.3 L35 1998)
o Listen to radio or television programs
o Talk to people, such as teachers, friends

One way to define your topic is to select a broad topic, then identify one or more
sub topics you might like to explore.

o Broad topic: ______________________________

 Sub topic: ___________________________
 Sub topic: ___________________________
 Sub topic: ___________________________

Another approach is to select a topic, then list possible questions, such as...

o Who?
o What?
o Where?
o When?
o Why?
o How?
2. Write a thesis or problem statement: Begin with a question, research the topic
further, then develop an opinion.
3. Make an outline. Even a quick one will help organize your thoughts and keep
your research and your topic focused.
4. Develop a Search Strategy.

Make a list of subject or keywords that might be useful in your search. Consider
synonyms, such as hare and rabbit, or dog and canine. Alternate spellings are also
common, try variations such as Athabascan, Athabaskan, Athapascan, or
Athapaskan.

Consider what the best sources for information you need might be. What type of
information will you need? For tips on locating relevant sources see Library
Search Strategy.

o books
o periodicals
o newspapers
o government documents
o biographical sources
o videos
o reference books: almanacs, etc.
o people (experts)
o archives/special collections
o Internet sources
o other?

Consider where you would look for the sources you have selected:

o Goldmine (the UAF library catalog) or World Cat

o General periodical and newspaper indexes
o Alaska Periodical Index or other specialized periodical indexes
o Archives - finding aids, assistance from archives staff
o Expert knowledge (professionals, scientists, elders, etc.)
o Call agency/association
o Your aunt or uncle, the wildlife biologist
o Other?

Always gather more information/citations than you think you might need. Some
items might be missing, checked out, not owned, etc.

o If you get stumped ask for help at the REFERENCE DESK, ask a friend,
or send your instructor an e-mail.
o Remember the 15 minute rule -- if you've spent 15 minutes trying to figure
something out in your research activities, ask for help.
o When searching online databases -- read the screens carefully and
remember that it takes the same amount of time to find an article that is
1/8 of a page long as one that is 10 pages long -- use your time wisely. It
 may be that a smaller article gives you exactly the information you need,
but if you're looking for extensive information, the longer article or the
book will likely go into more depth on the topic, AND lead you to
additional resources through its bibliographies. Take time to read the
HELP or HOW TO SEARCH screens. Take advantage of Boolean
searching and other searching tips to refine and improve the accuracy of
your search.
o If you think you'll need assistance in your research try to use the library
during times when there is a reference librarian at the Reference Desk.
5. Evaluate your sources. Evaluation begins as early as examining your first
citation and continues through reading the information contained in the articles,
documents, books, etc. that you consider using and making judgments on their
authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and coverage.
6. Take careful notes. To save time, gather complete information the first time.

Document your sources carefully and take notes (with page numbers). For each
source that you consider using, gather the following information:

If you do have to refer back to the source, it will save time if this information is
readily available AND you will need it for your Bibliography or Works Cited list.

For Books: Required citation elements are indicated in bold

o Author:
o Title:
o Publisher (location, name, date):
o Helpful information to relocate material, if necessary (optional):
o Page numbers:
o Call number (if any):
o Subject you searched:
o Persistent Link for electronic resources:

For Articles: Required citation elements are indicated in bold

o Article title:
o Author's name (if any):
o Title of periodical:
o Volume & Issue number (if any):
o Page numbers:
o Date:
o Helpful information to relocate material, if necessary (optional):
o Call number of journal (if any):
o Index searched:
o Subject searched:
o Persistent Link for electronic resources:
7. Writing and revising the paper. Allow plenty of time for the writing process.
Your thesis and/or outline may need to be revised to reflect what was discovered
during your research.
8. Document your sources. Give credit for the intellect work of others. Many
citation style guides are available in print and via the Internet. If you are not sure
which citation style is appropriate for your project/paper, check with your
instructor.