AP&C

Automotive Pollution & Control (AP&C)
Chapter 01- Fuels

Generally fuel is defined as a substance containing carbon & hydrogen that on burning with presence of
oxygen produces a large amount of heat. Amount of heat generated is known as Calorific value of the
fuel.
Classification of Fuels
The fuels can be classified into the following types:
1. Solid Fuels
Eg: Wood, Charcoal, Coal, etc…
2. Liquid Fuels
Eg: Gasoline, Diesel, Kerosene, Vegetable Oil, etc…
3. Gaseous Fuels
Eg: Hydrogen, L.P.G, Natural Gas, C.N.G, Producer Gas, Bio Gas, etc…
1. Solid Fuels
Wood
It consists of mainly carbon & hydrogen. It can be converted into coal when burnt in the absence of air. It
can be used as a fuel in industries and domestic purposes.
The calorific value of wood varies depending on the moisture content. The average calorific value of the
wood is 19700 KJ/Kg.
Peat
It is spongy humid substance found in boggy land. It is the first stage in the formation of coal. It contains
up to 30% of water. It produces a smoky flame. Its average calorific value is 23000 KJ/Kg.
Lignite (Brown Coal)
It is the next stage of peat in the coal formation. It contains about 60% of carbon & 40% water when it is
dried. It crumbles & is converted into briquettes. Its average calorific value is 25000 KJ/Kg.
Bituminous Coal
It is the next stage of lignite in the coal formation. It contains very little (5%) of water & 75-90% of
carbon. It burns with a yellow flame. The average calorific value is 33500 KJ/Kg.
There are two types of Bituminous Coal:
i. Caking Bituminous Coal ii. Non-Caking Bituminous Coal
i. Caking Bituminous Coal:
Softens & swells on heating forming a pasty mass which makes firing difficult. It is very useful for
manufacturing gas. It is also known as soft coal. Its average calorific value is 35000 KJ/Kg.
ii. Non -Caking Bituminous Coal:
Burns with a shorter flame & gives off little or no smoke. It is used for steam boilers, hence it is known as
steam coal. Its average calorific value is 33000 KJ/Kg.
Anthracite Coal:
It is the final stage in the coal formation & contains more than 90% of carbon. It is smoke less generally
used for power plants. Its average calorific value is about 36000 KJ/Kg.
Wood Charcoal:
It is made by heating wood with a limited supply of air to about 280˚C. It is mostly used for metallurgical
and chemical process.
Coke:
It is produced when coal is heated for about two days in the absence of air in a closed vessel. This process
is known as carbonization of coal. Coke is dull black in colour, porous & smoke less. It has higher
calorific value than coal. If the carbonization is carried out at 500-700˚C the resulting in coke is called
soft coke that can be as a domestic fuel. If it is carried out at 900 to 1000˚C it is known as hard coke used
for blast furnace.
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Briquette Coal
It is produced from the molding under pressure of coal powder with sum binding material like coal tar,
crude oil, etc… It has the advantage of no loss of fuel & heating value of the fuel.
Pulverized Coal
It is a low-grade coal with high ash content. It is made from powered coal. It is widely used in Cement
Industry.
2. Liquid Fuels
All most all commercial liquid fuels are derived from crude oil. Crude oil is obtained in the earth’s crust
in certain parts of the world.
The liquid fuels consist of hydrocarbons. The process of fractional distillation or cracking of crude oil,
different fuels like petrol, kerosene, diesel, lubricating oil, etc… is obtained.
The important liquid fuels are:
Petrol (Gasoline)
It is the highest & most volatile liquid fuel mainly used for light petrol engines. It is obtained by boiling
crude oil at a temperature from 65-220˚C.
Kerosene (Paraffin Oil)
It is heavier & less volatile than petrol and is used as heating & lighting fuel. It is distilled at a
temperature from 220-345˚C.
Diesel (Heavy Fuel Oil)
It is heavier than kerosene mainly used in diesel engines and in oil fired boilers. It is distilled at a
temperature from 345˚- 470˚C.
3. Gaseous Fuels
The natural gas is found near the petroleum fields under the earth’s surface. It consists of methane (CH4)
it is also known as marsh gas. It also contains small amount of ethane (C2H6), Carbon dioxide (CO2) &
Carbon monoxide (CO).
The following are the prepared gases that are used as fuels:
Coal Gas
It is also known as Town Gas. It is obtained by carbonization of coal & consists of mainly hydrogen,
carbon monoxide & some other hydrocarbons. Its quality depends upon the quality of coal used &
temperature of carbonization. It is largely used in towns & street & domestic lighting & heating. It is also
used in furnaces & gas engines. Its calorific value is about 21000-25000 Kg/m³.
Producer Gas
It is obtained by the partial combustion of coal, coke, Anthracite Coal in a mixed air steam blast. It is
mostly used for glass melting furnaces & for power generation. Its manufacturing cost is low. Its calorific
value is about 5000-6700 KJ/m³.
Water Gas
It is a mixture of hydrogen & carbon monoxide. It is obtained by passing steam over incandescent coke. It
burns with a blue flame hence it is also known as blue water gas. It is mixed with coal gas to form town
gas. It is also used in furnaces & for welding.
Mond Gas
It is produced by passing air & steam over waste coal at about 650˚C. It is used for power generation &
heating. It is also suitable for gas engines. Its calorific value is about 5850 KJ/m³.
Blast Furnace
It is by product in the production of pig iron from the blast furnace. It is used in steam works, power
generation, gas engines, and steam boilers & reheating of blast furnace. Its calorific value is about 3750
KJ/m³.
Coke oven Gas
It is a byproduct from coke oven & is obtained by the carbonization of bituminous coal. Its calorific value
varies from 14500-18500 KJ/m³. It is used for industrial heating & power generation.
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Merits & De-Merits of Liquid Fuels over Solid Fuels
Merits
1. It has higher calorific value
2. It requires lower storage capacity
3. Its handling & transportation is easier
4. Using valves can easily control its consumption
5. It contains practically no ashes
6. It is cleaner & free from dust than a solid fuel
7. It is non-deterioration in storage
8. It is non-corrosive for boilerplates
9. It has higher efficiency
De-Merits
1. It is costlier
2. It has greater risk of fire & is highly inflammable
3. It requires costly containers for storage & transport
Merits & De-Merits of Gaseous Fuels

Merits
1. The temperature is easily controlled as per requirements.
2. They are directly used in I.C. Engines
3. They are free from impurities.
4. They do not produce ash or smoke.
5. They undergo complete combustion with minimum air supply.
6. High temperature can be obtained economically by preheating the gas & air by
the heat of waste gases of combustion.
De-Merits
1. They are readily inflammable, therefore risk of fire hazard.
2. They require large storage capacity that is costlier.
3. Their production is expensive.
4. Higher initial cost.
Requirements of a Good Fuel

1. A good fuel should have a low ignition point.
2. It should have a high calorific value.
3. It should not produce harmful gases during burning.
4. It should produce less smoke & ash.
5. It should be easily available & cheap.
6. It should be easy to store & convenient for transportation.
7. It should freely burn continuously once it is ignited.
8. It should not produce carbon residue after burning.
9. Knock Resistance.
10. It should readily mix with air.
Calorific Value of Fuels

The calorific value of a fuel may be defined as the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion
of 1Kg of fuel. It is expressed in terms of KJ/Kg or for gases KJ/m³.
There are two types of calorific value of fuel:
i. Gross or Higher Calorific Value
ii. Net or Lower Calorific Value
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i. Gross or Higher Calorific Value:
If the heat taken away by the flue gases & steam is recovered then the amount of total heat produced per
Kg is known as Gross or Higher Calorific Value of Fuel.
In other words the amount of heat obtained by the complete combustion of 1 Kg of a fuel, when the
products of its combustion or cooled down to the temperature of supplied air (15˚C) is called Higher
Calorific Value.
Calculation of Gross or Higher Calorific Value of Fuel
Dulong’s Formula
HCV = 33800 C + 144000 H2 + 9270 S KJ/Kg
Where,
C, H, S represents the mass of Carbon, Hydrogen & Sulphur in 1Kg of Fuel & the numerical values
indicate their respective calorific values.
If the fuel contains oxygen then it is assumed that it is combined with hydrogen having mass equal to ⅛
of that of oxygen. Therefore to find calorific value of fuel this amount of hydrogen should be subtracted
then Dulong’s Formula becomes
HCV = 33800 C + 144000 [H2 – 02/8] + 9270 S KJ/Kg
ii. Net or Lower Calorific Value of Fuel
When the heat carried away by the product of combustion is not recovered & the steam formed is not
condensed then the amount of heat produced per kg of fuel is known as Net or Lower Calorific Value of
Fuel.
LCV = HCV – Heat of Steam Formed During Combustion
LCV = HCV – ms 2466 KJ/Kg
Where,
ms = Mass of Steam formed per kg of fuel = 9 H2 Kgs
Therefore,
LCV = HCV – [9H2 2466] KJ/Kg
Problems
1. A fuel consists of 85% Carbon, 12.5% Hydrogen, 2.5% residual matter by mass
working from 1st principle. Find the H.C.V & L.C.V per kg of fuel.
Given
Carbon = 85% = 0.85 Kg
Hydrogen = 12.5% = 0.125 Kg
Residual Matter = 2.5% = 0.025 Kg
Solution
WKT,
From Dulong’s Formula
HCV = 33800 C + 144000 H2 KJ/Kg
= 33800 x 0.85 + 144000 x 0.125
HCV = 46.730 KJ/Kg
WKT,
LCV = HCV – [9H2 2466] KJ/Kg
= 46.730 – [9 x 0.125 x 2466]
LCV = 43956 KJ/Kg
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2. A sample of coal has the following composition by mass, Carbon 75%,
Hydrogen 6%, Oxygen 8%, Nitrogen 2.5%, Sulphur 1.5%, & Ash 7%. Calculate
its H.C.V & L.C.V per kg of coal.
Given
Carbon = 75% = 0.75 Kg
Hydrogen = 6% = 0.06 Kg
Oxygen = 8% = 0.08 Kg
Nitrogen = 2.5% = 0.025 Kg
Sulphur = 1.5% = 0.015 Kg
Ash = 7% = 0.07 Kg
WKT,
HCV = 33800 C + 144000 [H2 – 02/8] + 9270 S KJ/Kg
= 33800 x 0.75 + 144000 [0.06 – 0.08/8] + 9270 x 0.015
= 25350 + 144000 x 0.05 + 139.05
= 25350 + 7200 + 139.05
HCV = 32689 KJ/Kg
LCV = HCV – [9H2 2466] KJ/Kg
= 32689 – [9 x 0.06 x 2466]
= 32689 – 1331.64
L.C.V = 31357 KJ/Kg
Experimental determination of Higher Calorific Value

The most satisfactory method of obtaining the calorific value of a fuel is done by actual experiments. A
known mass of fuel is burnt in a calorimeter & the heat produced is found by measuring the rise in
temperature of the surrounding water.
There are two important fuel calorimeter:
1. Bomb Calorimeter
2. Boyle’s Calorimeter
Bomb Calorimeter
Bomb Calorimeter is used to find HCV of solid liquid fuels. A simplified diagram of bomb calorimeter is
as shown in figure. Here the fuel is burnt at a constant volume under a high pressure in a closed vessel
called Bomb.
The cover of the bomb has two valves at the top. Oxygen valve for admitting oxygen and a release valve
for exhaust gases. The ignition rods (Electrodes) as shown support a silica crucible. There is an ignition
wire (fuse wire) of platinum near the crucible that is connected by a battery and can be heated by the
current to ignite the fuel sample.
The bomb that is made up of stainless steel is completely immersed in a known quality of water. The
water absorbs the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel. This raise in temperature is measured by
accurate thermometer.
Procedure
A sample of fuel of 1 gram is accurately weighed in the crucible and a fuse wire whose weight is known
is stretched between the electrodes. It should be ensured that the wire is in close contact with the fuel.
Oxygen is admitted through the valve to about pressure of 30 atmospheres into the bomb. The bomb is
completely submerged in a known quantity of water in a copper vessel in the calorimeter and initial
temperature of water is noted. Then current is supplied to the fuse wires; & the fuel ignites & burns
completely and the temperature readings are recorded after ½ minute until maximum temperature is
attained. The bomb is then removed and the pressure slowly releases through the exhaust valve. Heat is
released & absorbed by the surrounding water. The raise in temperature of the water is noted down by the
thermometer. The contents of the bomb are carefully weighed for further analysis.
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The HCV of the fuel sample can be calculated by using the formula
HCV = (mw + me) cw (t2 – t1) / mf KJ/Kg
If cooling correction is added then,
HCV = (mw + me) cw (t2 – t1) + tc / mf KJ/Kg
Where, mf = Mass of fuel sample in Kg
mw = Mass of water sample in Kg
me = Water equivalent of apparatus in Kg
t1 = Initial temperature of water in ºC
t2 = Final temperature of water in ºC
cw = 4.2 KJ/Kg-K
tc = Cooling Correction
Problems
1. Calculate the H.C.V of coal sample from the following data mass of coal burnt
= 1gms, quantity of water in calorimeter = 2.5Kg, Increase in temperature of
water = 2.6ºC, Water equivalent of apparatus = 390gms. If the fuel used
contains 6% of hydrogen, Calculate its L.C.V.
Given
mf = 1gms = 1/1000 = 0.001Kg
mw = 2.5Kg
t2 – t1 = 2.6ºC
me = 390gms = 390/1000 = 0.390Kg
H2 = 6% = 0.06Kg
WKT,
= (2.5 + 0.390) 4.2 (2.6) / 0.001
HCV = 31558.8 KJ/Kg
WKT,
LCV = HCV – [9H2 2466] KJ/Kg
= 31558.8 – [9 (0.06) x 2466]
LCV = 30227.16 KJ/Kg
2. A sample of fuel on analysis is found to contain Carbon 85%, Hydrogen = 10%,

Sulphur = 2% & Ash = 3%. Find the HCV of the fuel?
Given:
C = 85% = 0.85Kg
H2 = 10% = 0.1Kg
S = 2% = 0.02Kg
Ash = 3% = 0.03Kg
Solution:
WKT,
HCV = 33800 C + 144000 H2
= 33800 (0.85) + 144000 (0.1)
HCV = 43130KJ/Kg
WKT,
LCV = HCV – [9H2 2466] KJ/Kg
= 43130 – [9 x (0.1) x 2466]
LCV = 40910.6 KJ/Kg
Page 6
3. The composition of sample of anthracite coal was found to be C = 91%, H2 =
2%, O2 = 2%, N2 = 0.8%, S = 0.8% & the reminder is ash. Calculate HCV &
LCV.
Given:
C = 91% = 0.91Kg
H2 = 3% = 0.03Kg
O2 = 2% = 0.02Kg
N2 = 0.8% = 0.008Kg
S = 0.8% = 0.008Kg
HCV = ?
LCV = ?
Solution:
WKT,
HCV = 33800 C + 144000 [H2 – 02/8] + 9270 S KJ/Kg
= 33800 (0.91) + 144000 (0.03 – 0.02 / 80 + 9270 (0.008)
= 30758 + 144000 (0.0275) + 74.16
HCV = 34792.16KJ/Kg
WKT,
LCV = HCV – [9H2 2466] KJ/Kg
= 34792 – [9 x (0.03) 2466]
LCV = 34126.18KJ/Kg
Boyle’s Calorie Meter (Junker’s Calorie Meter)
T = Exhaust Gas Thermometer
T1 = Inlet Temperature
T2 = Outlet Temperature
B = Gas Burner
M = Inner water Tubes
N = Outer Water Tubes
C = Combustion Chamber
HCV = mw cw (t2 – t1) / V
LCV = HCV – [m x 2466] KJ/KG
Where,
V = Volume of gas burnt at standard temperature & pressure [STP] in m³
mw = Mass of cooling water in Kg
t1 = Inlet temperature in ºC
t2 = Outlet temperature in ºC
m = Mass of water condensed in Kg
cw = 4.2
Boyle’s Calorie Meter is used for gaseous fuels, by some modifications it can be used for liquid fuels also
then it is known as Junker’s Calorie Meter.
A metered quantity of gas whose calorific value is to be determent is supplied o the gas burner through
gas meter and pressure regulator. Gas meter measures the volume of gas and pressure regulator measures
the pressure.
It consists of a gas burner ‘B’ in which a known volume of gas at a known pressure is burnt. The hot
gases produced by combustion rise up in the combustion chamber ‘C’, which is surrounded by a double
metal tubes through which a continuous flow of water under a constant heat is maintained. Since the top
of inner chamber is closed, hot gases are deflected downward through the space containing inner water
tubes ‘M’. From there the gases are deflected upwards through the space containing outer water tubes
‘N’. Finally the gases escape into the atmosphere from the top & the temperature is recorded just before
their exit by a thermometer.
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During this process the gases give out there heat to the circulating water. Any steam formed during
combustion is condensed into the water and collected as shown. The temperature of circulating water is
measured at inlet & outlet by thermometers T1 & T2 respectively. The higher calorific value of the given
gas is calculated using the relation as given above.
The LCV may also be calculated by knowing mass of water collected at the bottom.
Problems
1. The following data refers to a calorific value test of a fuel by means of a gas
calorimeter
Volume of Gas used = 0.7 m³ (@ STP)
Mass of water heated = 25 Kg
Raise in temperature of water @ Inlet & Outlet = 14ºC
Mass of steam condensed = 0.028Kg
Find the higher & lower calorific values per m³ @ STP. Take the heat liberated in condensing water vapor
& cooling the condensate as 2475 KJ/Kg.
Given
V = 0.7m³
mw = 25Kg
T2 - T1 = 14ºC
ms = 0.028Kg
HCV = ?
LCV = ?
WKT,
HCV = mw cw (t2 – t1) / V
= 25 x 4.2 (14) / 0.7
HCV = 2100 KJ/m³
LCV = HCV – Mass of Steam Condensed in Kg/m³ x Heat Liberated
= 2100 – [(0.028/0.7) x 2475]
LCV = 2001 KJ/m³
2. The following results were obtained when a sample of gas was tested in a
Junker’s Gas Calorimeter:
Gas Burnt = 0.03m³
Pressure of the gas = 54.4mm of water
Barometer reading = 750mm of Hg Hg - Mercury
Temperature of Gas = 27ºC
Temperature of Water at Inlet = 28ºC
Temperature of Water at Outlet = 40ºC
Mass of water passing through the Calorimeter = 10Kg
Steam condensed during test = 0.025Kg
Determine the higher & lower calorific values of gas at 15ºC & a standard Barometer of 760mm of Hg.
Given:
V1 = 0.03m³
P1 = 54.4mm of water = 54.4/13.6 +750 Molecular Weight of Hg = 13.6
= 754mm of Mercury
T1 = 27ºC = 27 + 273 = 300K
t1 = 28ºC
t2 = 40ºC
mw = 10Kg
ms = 0.025Kg
T2 = 15ºC = 15 + 273 = 288K
P2 = 760mm of Hg
Page 8
WKT,
From Perfect Gas Equation
P1V1 / T1 = P1V2 / T2
V2 = P1V1T2 / P2T1
= 754 x 0.03 x 288 / 760 x 300
V2 = 0.029m³
Now,
Mass of Steam Condensed = 0.025 / 0.029 = 0.86Kg/m³
WKT,
HCV = mw cw (t2 – t1) / V2
= 10 x 4.2 (40 – 28) / 0.029
HCV = 17379.31KJ/m³
WKT,
LCV = HCV – Mass of Steam Condensed in Kg/m³ x Heat Liberated
= 17380 – [0.86 x 2466]
LCV = 15259.24KJ/m³
3. The following data where recorded during the experiment of the calorific value
a coal:
Mass of Coal Burnt = 1gm
Mass of Water in Calorimeter = 1020gm
Water equivalent of the calorimeter = 170gm
Initial Temperature of Water = 23.3ºC
Final Temperature of Water = 26.2ºC
Determine the calorific value of the sample of coal.
Given:
mf = 1gm =1/1000 = 0.001Kg
mw = 1020gm = 1020/1000 = 1.02Kg
me = 170gm = 170/1000 = 0.17Kg
t1 = 23.3ºC
t2 = 26.3ºC
WKT,
= [1.02 + 0.17] 4.2 [26.2 – 23.3] / 0.001
= (1.19) (4.2) (2.9) / 0.001
HCV = 14494KJ/Kg
Page 9
Chapter 2 - Combustion
Combustion
The combustion of fuels may be defined as the chemical combination of oxygen of the air and
hydrocarbons of the fuels and by realizing heat is known as combustion.
Symbols
Substance Symbol Atomic Weight Molecular Weight
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Nitrogen N2 14 28
Oxygen O2 16 32
Carbon C 12 12
Sulphur S 32 32
Carbon monoxide CO - 28
Methane CH4 - 16
Acetylene C2 H2 - 26
Ethylene C2 H4 - 28
Ethane C2 H6 - 30
Carbon dioxide CO2 - 44
Sulphur dioxide SO2 - 64
Water or Steam H2 O - 18
Element
Elements are the simplest form of a substance that occurs in nature. About 109 such elements are
known so far.
Eg: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Helium, Iron, Carbon, Sulphur, etc…
Compounds
Compounds mean the combination of different elements in simple proportions. There are infinite
numbers of compounds that can be formed.
Eg: Water, Carbon dioxide, Methane, etc…
Atoms
It is the smallest particle of an element.
Molecule
It is the smallest quantity of a substance that can exist by itself.
Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times; the atom of that element is heavier than the
hydrogen atom. The latest substance is hydrogen and its mass is taken as unity.
Molecular Mass
It is the number of times a molecule of a substance that is heavier than the hydrogen atom.
Combustion Equation of Solid Fuels
1.
C + O2 CO2
1mol + 1mol 1mol
12kg + 32kg 44kg
1kg + 8/3kg 11/3kg
When carbon burns in sufficient quantity of oxygen, carbon dioxide is produced with a release of
large amount of heat.If one kg of carbon is to be burned completely, it requires 8/3kg of oxygen and
produce 11/3kg of carbon dioxide.
2.
2C + O2 2CO
2mol + 1mol 2 mol
(2 x 12) kg + (2 x 16) kg (2 x 28) kg
1kg + 4/3kg 7/3kg
Page 10
If sufficient oxygen is not available then combustion of carbon is incomplete then it produces
carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxide.
1kg of carbon requires 4/3kg of oxygen to produce 7/3kg of carbon monoxide.
3.
S + O2 SO2
32kg + (2 x 16) kg 64kg
1kg + 1kg 2kg
When Sulphur burns with oxygen it produces Sulphur dioxide.
1kg of Sulphur requires 1kg of oxygen for complete combustion and produces 2kg of Sulphur
dioxide.
Theoretical or Minimum Mass of Air required for complete Combustion

We know that 1kg of carbon requires 8/3kg of oxygen for its complete combustion. Similarly 1kg
of hydrogen requires 8kg of oxygen and 1kg of Sulphur requires 1kg of oxygen for its complete
combustion.
Therefore total oxygen required for complete combustion of 1kg of fuel
= 8/3 C + 8 H2 + S kg
If some oxygen is already present in the fuel then total oxygen for the complete combustion of 1kg
of fuel
= [8/3 C + 8 H2 + S] – O2 kg
Oxygen is present in atmospheric air alone with nitrogen, carbon dioxide and some quantities of
rare gasses like Argon, Neon, Krypton, etc…
For calculations the compositions of air is taken as:
N2 = 77% and O2 = 23% (By mass)
N2 = 79% and O2 = 21% (By Volume)
Thus for obtaining 1kg of oxygen, amount of air required
= 100/23 = 4.35kg (By mass)
N2 = 77%
O2 = 23% = 100/23
Hence Theoretical or minimum air required for complete combustion of 1kg of fuel
= 100/23 [(8/3 C + 8 H2 + S) – O2] kg
Eg: A fuel has the following compositions by mass. Carbon = 86%, Hydrogen = 11.75%, Oxygen =
2.25%. Calculate the theoretical air supply per kg of fuel and the mass of products of combustion per kg
of fuel.
Given Data
Carbon = 86% = 0.86kg
Hydrogen = 11.75% = 0.1175kg
Oxygen = 2.25% = 0.0225kg
WKT,
Theoretical air required for complete combustion of 1kg of fuel
= 100/23 [(8/3 C + 8 H2 + S) – O2] kg
= 100/23 [(8/3 x 0.86 + 8 x 0.1175 + 1 x 0) – 0.0225]
= 100/23 [(2.29 + 0.94 + 0) – 0.0225]
= 100/23 [3.23 – 0.0225]
= 100/23 (3.2075)
= 13.94kg
Mass of Products of Combustion

The chemical equations of Carbon and Hydrogen with Oxygen are:
C + O2 CO2
2H2 + O2 2H2 O
Page 11
WKT,
1kg of carbon produces 11/3kg of carbon dioxide and 1kg of hydrogen produces 9kg of water.
Total mass of the products of combustion = 11/3 C + 9 H2 kg
= 11/3 x 0.86 + 9 x 0.1175
= 3.1533 + 1.0575
= 4.21kg
Theoretical or Minimum Volume of Air required for complete Combustion
The volume of oxygen required for complete combustion of 1m³ of gaseous fuel may be
calculated from the chemical analyze of the fuel. The volume of oxygen required by each of the contents
of the fuel may be calculated for 1m³ of a gaseous fuel.
WKT,
1 volume of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 volume of oxygen for its complete combustion.
Similarly, 1volume of hydrogen requires 0.5 volume of oxygen for its complete combustion and 1 volume
of methane (CH4) requires 2 volume of oxygen and 1 volume of ethylene (C2 H4) requires 3 volume of
oxygen for its complete combustion.
Therefore, total oxygen required for complete combustion of 1m³ of fuel
= 0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2CH4 + 3C2 H4 m³
If some oxygen is already present in the fuel than the total oxygen required completing combustion of
1m³ of fuel
= [0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2CH4 +3 C2 H4] – 02 m³
Since the oxygen present in the air is 21% by volume, therefore:
Theoretical or Minimum Volume of Air required for complete combustion of 1m³ of fuel
= 100/21 [0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2CH4 + 3C2 H4] – 02 m³
Eg:
A producer gas used as a fuel has the following volumetric compositions,
H2 = 28%, CO = 12%, CH4 = 2%, CO2 = 16% and N2 = 42%. Find the volume of air required for
complete combustion of 1m³ of this gas. Air contains 21% of oxygen by volume.
Given Data
H2 = 28% = 0.28m³
CO = 12% = 0.12m³
CH4 = 2% = 0.02m³
CO2 = 16% = 0.16m³
N2 = 42% = 0.42m³
WKT
Theoretical air required = 100/21 [0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2CH4 + 3C2 H4] – 02 m³
= 100/21 [0.5 x 0.12 + 0.5 x 0.28 + 2 x 0.02 + 3 x 0] – 0
= 100/21 [0.24]
= 1.14m³
Conversion of Volume Analysis into Mass Analysis
When the volumetric composition of any gaseous fuel is known, it can be converted into mass analysis by
1. Multiplying the volume of each constituent by its molecular mass.
2. Add up these masses and divide each mass by the total mass then it is expressed
as a percentage.
Eg:
The volumetric analysis of a gas is CO2 = 14%, CO = 1%, O2 = 5% and N2 = 80%. Calculate the fuel gas
composition by mass.
Given Data
CO2 = 14% = 0.14m³
CO = 1% = 0.01m³
O2 = 5% = 0.05m³
N2 = 80% = 0.8m³
Volumetric analysis is converted into mass analysis by the following table:
Page 12
Constituent Volume in 1m³ Molecular Proportional Mass in Kg of fuel % By mass
of fuel gas (a) Mass (b) Mass gas d = c/Σ(c) = d x 100
c = (a x b)
CO2 0.14 44 6.16 6.16/30.44 =0.202 20.2%
CO 0.01 28 0.28 0.28/30.44 =0.009 0.9%
O2 0.05 32 1.6 1.6/30.44= 0.053 5.3%
N2 0.8 28 22.4 22.4/30.44 =0.736 73.6%
Total 1.00 Σc = 30.44 1.0 100%
The fuel gas composition by mass is given in the last column i.e., CO2 = 20.2%, CO = 0.9%, O2 = 5.3%,
N2 = 73.6%
Conversion of Mass Analysis into Volumetric Analysis
1. Divide the percentage mass of each constituent by its molecular mass.
2. Add these volumes and divide each volume by the total volume that gives
percentage analysis by volume.
Eg:
A fuel has the following percentage composition by mass; CO2 = 13.3%, CO = 0.95%, O2 = 8.35%, N2 =
77.4%. Convert these into volumetric analysis.
Given Data
CO2 = 13.3%
CO = 0.95%
O2 = 8.35%
N2 = 77.4%
Mass analysis is converted into volumetric analysis by the following table:
Constituent % Mass Molecular Proportional Mass in 1m³ per % By volume
analysis (a) Mass (b) Volume kg of fuel gas analysis = d x
c = a/b d = c/Σ(c) 100
CO2 13.3 44 0.302 0.09 9.0%
CO 0.95 28 0.034 0.01 1%
O2 8.35 32 0.261 0.78 7.8%
N2 77.4 28 2.76 0.822 82.2%
Total 1.00 Σc = 3.357 1.00 100%
The fuel gas composition by volume is given in the last column i.e., CO2 = 9%, CO = 1%, O2 = 7.8% and
N2 = 82.2%
Mass of Carbon in Flu Gasses
The mass of carbon present in 1kg of flue gas may be calculated from the mass of carbon dioxide
and mass of carbon monoxide present in flue gas.
Mass of carbon per kg of flue gas = 3/11 CO2 + 3/7 CO
Problems
1. The ultimate analysis of dry coal burnt in a boiler is C = 84%, H2 = 9% and
incombustible = 7% by mass. Determine the mass of dry flue gasses per kg of
coal burnt. If the volumetric composition of the flue gas is CO2 = 8.75%, CO =
2.25%, O2 = 8% and N2 = 81%.
Given Data
C = 84% = 0.84kg
H2 = 9% = 0.09kg
Incombustibles = 7% = 0.07kg
CO2 = 8.75% = 0.0875m³
CO = 2.25% = 0.0225m³
O2 = 8% = 0.08 m³
N2 = 81% = 0.81³
Page 13
Let us convert the volumetric analysis of fuel gas to mass analysis for the mass of carbon present
in 1kg of flue gas using the table
Constituent Volume in Molecular Proportional Mass in 1 Kg of % By mass
1m³ of flue gas Mass Mass flue gas d = c/Σ(c) = d x 100
(a) (b) c = (a x b)
CO2 0.0875 44 3.85 0.13 13%
CO 0.0225 28 0.63 0.021 2.1%
O2 0.08 32 2.56 0.086 8.6%
N2 0.81 28 22.68 0.763 76.3%
Total 1.00 Σc = 29.72 1.0 100%
= 3/11 x (0.13) + 3/7 x 0.021
= 0.035 + 0.009
= 0.044kg
Mass of dry flue gas/kg of Coal burnt =
Mass of Carbon in 1kg of Coal / Mass of Carbon in 1kg of flue gas
= 0.84 / 0.044 = 19.1kg
2. A blast furnace gas has the following volumetric composition CO2 = 11%, CO =
27%, H2 = 2% and N2 = 60%. Find the theoretical volume of air required for the
complete combustion of 1m³ of gas. Find the % composition of dry flue gasses
by volume. Assume air contains 21% of O2 and 79% of N2 by volume.
Given Data
CO2 = 11% = 0.11m³
CO = 27% = 0.27m³
H2 = 2% = 0.02m³
N2 = 60% = 0.60m³
WKT,
Theoretical air required = 100/21 [0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2CH4 + 3C2H4] – 02 m³
= 4.76 [(0.5 x 0.27) + (0.5 x 0.02) + (2 x 0) + (3 x 0) – 0]
= 0.69m³
% Composition of dry flue gasses
WKT, 1m³ of CO produces 1m³ CO2. Therefore volume of CO2 obtained from the data = 0.27m³.
Because CO = 0.27m³
Volume of CO2 already present in the fuel = 0.11m³
Therefore total volume of CO2 in the flue gas = 0.27 + 0.11 = 0.38
Now volume of N2 from the theoretical air supplied = 79/100 x 0.60
= 0.474m³
Volume of nitrogen is already present in the flue gas = 0.6 + 0.474
= 1.074m³
Total volume of dry flue gas = Total volume of CO2 + Total volume of N2
= 0.38 + 1.074
= 1.454m³
% of CO2 in flue gas = 0.38 / 1.454 x 100
= 26.13%
% of N2 in flue gas = 1.074 / 1.454 x 100
= 73.86%
3. A steam boiler uses pulverized coal in the furnace. The ultimate analysis of coal
by mass is C = 78%, H2 = 3%, O2 = 3%, S = 1%, ash = 10% and moisture = 5%;
Excess air supplied is 30%. Calculate the mass of air to be supplied & mass of
gaseous product formed per kg of coal burnt.
Page 14
Given Data
C = 78% = 0.78kg
H2 = 3% = 0.03kg
O2 = 3% = 0.03 m³
S = 1% = 0.01kg
Ash = 10% = 0.10kg
Moisture = 5% = 0.05kg
Excessive Air = 30% = 0.30kg
WKT,
= 100/23 [(8/3 C + 8 H2 + S) – O2] kg
= 100/23 [(8/3 x 0.78 + 8 x 0.03 + 1 x 0.01) – 0.03]
= 4.34 [2.08 + 0.24 + 0.01] – 0.03
= 4.34 [2.33 – 0.03]
= 4.34(2.3)
= 10kg
Excess air supplied per kg of coal = 30 x 10/100 = 3kg
Mass of air to be supplied per kg of coal burnt = Theoretical air + Excess air
= 10 + 3 = 13kg
Mass of gaseous products formed per kg of Coal
1. Mass of Carbon dioxide produced per kg of coal = 11/3 x 0.78 = 2.86kg
2. Mass of H2 produced = 9 x 0.03 = 0.27kg
3. Mass of O2 = 2 x 0.01 = 0.02kg
4. Mass of excess O2 = 23/100 x excess air supplied
= 23/100 x 3 = 0.69kg
5. Mass of N2 per kg of fuel = 77/100 x actual mass of air supplied
= 77/100 x 13 = 10.01kg
4. A flue gas has the following % composition by volume CO = 10%, H2 = 50%,

CH4 = 26%, O2 = 3%, CO2 = 2% and N2 = 9%. Estimate the minimum volume
of air required for complete combustion of 1m³ of the gas if 50% excess air is
supplied give the volumes of each of the dry constituents of the flue gas. Air
contains 21% by volume of oxygen.
Given Data
CO = 10% = 0.1m³
H2 = 50% = 0.5m³
CH4 = 26% = 0.26m³
O2 = 3% = 0.003m³
CO2 = 2% = 0.02m³
N2 = 9% = 0.09m³
Excess air supplied = 50% = 150 / 100 = 1.5
WKT,
Minimum volume of air required
= 100/21 [0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2CH4 + 3C2 H4] – 02 m³
= 100/21 [(0.5 x 0.1) + (0.5 x 0.5) + (2 x 0.26) + (3 x 0) – 0.03]
= 3.76m³
Volume of dry constituents of the flue gas:
Since 50% excess air is supplied,
Therefore,
Total amount of air supplied = Min Volume of air required x Excess Air
= 3.76 x 1.5
= 5.64m³
Page 15
Excess air supplied = 5.64 – 3.76
= 1.88m³
Excess oxygen supplied = 1.88 x 21/100
= 0.3948m³
Volume of CO2 present in the fuel = 0.02m³
WKT,
1m³ of CO produces 1m³ of CO2
Volume of CO2 obtained from 0.1m³ = 0.1m³
Also 1m³ CH4 produces 1m³ CO2
Volume of CO2 obtained from 0.26m³of CH4 = 0.26m³
Total volume of CO2 obtained from the flue gas = 0.02 + 0.1 + 0.26 = 0.38m³
5. During a boiler trail the day flue gas analysis by volume was reported as CO2 =
13%, CO = 0.3%, O2 = 6%, N2 = 80.7%. The coal analysis by mass was
reported as C = 62.4%, H2 = 4.2%, O2 = 4.5%, Moisture = 15%, ash = 13.9%.
Calculate minimum air required to burn 1kg of coal, mass of air actually
supplied per kg of coal & amount of excess air supplied per kg of coal burnt.
Given Data
For Dry Flu Gas
CO2 = 13% = 0.13m³
CO = 0.3% = 0.003m³
O2 = 6% = 0.06m³
N2 = 80.7% = 0.807m³
For Coal
C = 62.4% = 0.624kg
H2 = 4.2% = 0.042kg
O2 = 4.5% = 0.045kg
Moisture = 15% = 0.15kg
Ash = 13.9% = 0.139kg
WKT,
= 100/23 [(8/3 C + 8 H2 + S) – O2] kg
= 4.34 [(8/3 x 0.624) + (8 x 0.042) + 0 – 0.045]
= 8.5kg
Mass of air actually supplied per kg of Coal:
Let us convert volumetric analysis of flue gas into mass analysis by the following table:
Constituent Volume in 1m³ Molecular Proportional Mass Mass in 1 Kg of
of flue gas (a) Mass (b) c = (a x b) flue gas d = c/Σ(c)
CO2 0.13 44 5.72 0.18
CO 0.003 28 0.084 0.003
O2 0.06 32 1.92 0.0633
N2 0.807 28 22.6 0.745
Total 1.00 Σc = 30.32 1.0
WKT,
= 3/11 x (0.18) + 3/7 x 0.003
= 0.05 + 0.0013
= 0.0513kg
Page 16
= 0.624 / 0.0512
= 12.18kg
Total Mass of Nitrogen present in 11.77kg of flue gas
= 11.77 x 0.745
= 8.77Kg
Mass of actual air supplied per air supplied per kg of coal
= 100/77 x 8.77
= 11.3kg
Amount of excess air supplied per kg of fuel
WKT,
The amount of excess air supplied per kg of fuel
= Mass of air supplied – Min Air
= 11.35 – 8.5
= 2.88kg
6. Percentage composition by mass of a sample of coal as found by analysis is C =

90%, H2 = 3.3%, O2 = 3%, N2 = 0.8%, S = 0.9%, Ash = 2%. Calculate the
minimum mass of air required for the calculate combustion of 1kg of this fuel.
It 50% excess air is supplied. Find the total mass of dry flue gasses per kg of
fuel & percentage composition of dry flue gasses by volume.
Given Data:
C = 90% = 0.9kg
H2 = 3.3% = 0.033kg
O2 = 3% = 0.03kg
N2 = 0.8% = 0.008kg
S = 0.9% = 0.009kg
Ash = 2% = 0.02kg
Excess air supplied = 50%
WKT,
= 100/23 [(8/3 C + 8 H2 + S) – O2] kg
= 100/23 [8/3 (0.9) + 8(0.033) + 1(0.009) – 0.03] kg
= 4.34 [(2.4 + 0.264 + 0.009) – 0.03]
= 4.34 (2.40)
= 11.49kg
Total mass of dry flue gasses per kg of fuel,
Since,
50% excess air is supplied per kg of coal = 11.5 x 1.5 = 17.25kg
Excess air supplied = 17.25 – 11.5 = 5.75kg
WKT,
1kg of carbon produces 11/3kg of carbon dioxide and 1kg of Sulphur produces 2kg of Sulphur dioxide
Mass of CO2 contained in 0.9kg of carbon = 11/3 x 0.9 = 3.3kg
Mass of SO2 in 0.009kg in 0.009kg of Sulphur = 2 x 0.009= 0.018kg
Mass of excess O2 = 23/100 x Excess air supplied
= 0.23 x 5.75 = 1.323kg
Mass of Nitrogen in the flue gas = 77/100 x Actual air supplied
= 77/100 x 17.25= 13.28kg
Total mass of dry flue gasses per kg of fuel = 3.3 + 0.018 + 1.323 + 13.293
= 17.924kg
7. A fuel oil has the following analysis by mass C = 85%, H2 = 12.5%, O2 = 2%

and the residue = 0.5%. The dry flue has the following composition by volume
Page 17
CO2 = 9%, CO = 1%, O2 = 7.77% and N2 = 82.23%. Determine the air fuel
ratio.
Given Data
For fuel oil
C = 85% = 0.85kg
H2 = 12.5% = 0.125kg
O2 = 2% = 0.02 kg
Residue = 0.5kg = 0.005kg
For dry flue
CO2 = 9% = 0.09m³
CO = 1% = 0.01m³
O2 = 7.77% = 0.0777m³
N2 = 82.23% = 0.8223m³
WKT,
= 100/23 [(8/3 C + 8 H2 + S) – O2] kg
= 100/23 [8/3 (0.85) + 8 (0.125) – 0.02]
= 4.348 [2.26 + 1] – 0.02kg
= 4.348 [3.26 – 0.02] = 4.348 (3.24)
= 14.1kg
Let us convert the volumetric analysis of fuel gas to mass analysis for the mass of carbon present in 1kg
of flue gas using the table
Constituent Volume in Molecular Proportional Mass in 1 Kg of % By mass = d
1m³ of flue Mass (b) Mass flue gas d = x 100
gas (a) c = (a x b) c/Σ(c)
CO2 0.09 44 3.96 0.133 13.3%
CO 0.01 28 0.28 0.0094 0.94%
O2 0.0777 32 2.48 0.0833 8.3%
N2 0.8223 28 23.02 0.774 77.4%
Total 1.00 Σc = 29.74 1.0 100%
WKT,
1kg of CO2 contains 3/11kg of Carbon and 1kg of CO contains 3/7kg of Carbon.
= 3/11 (0.133) + 3/7 (0.0094)
= 0.03627 + 0.0040 = 0.04kg
WKT,
= 0.85 / 0.04 = 21.25kg
Since 1kg of CO required 4/7kg of oxygen
Mass of excess oxygen per kg of flue gas
= Oxygen already present in flue – 4/7 CO gas
= 0.0833 – 4/7 (0.0093) = 0.079kg
Mass of excess oxygen per kg of fuel
= Mass of excess oxygen/kg of gas x Mass of flue gas per kg of fuel
= 0.079 x 21.25 = 1.679kg
Mass of excess air/kg of fuel = 100/23 [1.679]
= 7.3kg
Total air required per kg of fuel = Min Air + Excess Air
= 14.1 + 7.3 = 21.4kg
Air fuel Ratio = 21.4:1
Page 18
Flue Gas Analysis by Orsat Apparatus
To check the combustion efficiency of boilers it is essential to determine the constituents of flue gasses.
Such an nalysis is done with the help of Orsat Apparatus as shown in the figure.
Construction
It consists of a glass tube and four absorption pipettes 1, 2, 3, 4. The pipettes are inter-cooled by
means of a manifold fitted with cocks S1, S2, S3, and S4.
They contain different chemicals to absorb carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxygen.
A bottle containing water is connected to the bottom of the glass tube by means of a tube. It can be
moved up and down as per required for producing a suction or pressure effect on the sample of flue gas.
“Pipette 1 consists of Caustic Soda i.e. KOH which absorbs carbon dioxide”.
“Pipette 2 consists of Caustic Soda & Pyrogallic Acid which absorbs oxygen”.
“Pipette 3 & 4 consists of Cuprous Chloride which absorbs carbon monoxide”.
Working
A 100cm³ of gas is drawn into the bottle by lowering the bottle. The stop cock S4 is thus opened
and the whole flue gas is forced into Pipette 1. The gas remains in the pipette for some time and most of
carbon dioxide is absorbed.
The leveling bottle is then lowered to allow the chemical to come to the original level. The
volume of gas is absorbed and read on the scale of the measurement glass tube. The flue gas is forced
through the pipette 1 for number of times to ensure the whole of carbon dioxide is absorbed.
Further remaining gas is forced into pipette 2 which contains Pyrogallic Acid to absorb whole of
oxygen. The reading on the measuring glass tube will be the sum of CO2 and O2. The oxygen content can
be found out by subtracting.
Similarly the sample of gas is forced through the pipette 3 and 4 to absorb carbon monoxide
completely.
The amount of nitrogen in the sample can be determined by subtracting the total volume of gas to
the sum of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxygen contents.
Page 19
Chapter 03 – Air Pollution & its Control
Pollution
Pollution may be defined in many ways. Generally the addition of harmful matter to our
environment is called as pollution.
Pollution causes ill-effects to both living and non-living things & our planet.
There are four types of pollution
1. Air pollution 2. Water pollution 3. Soil pollution 4. Noise pollution
Air pollution means addition of harmful gaseous matter to the air.
Water pollution means addition of harmful liquids and solids matter into the water.
Soil pollution means addition of harmful Solid matter into the soil.
Noise pollution means increasing of sound, which is disturbing the environment.
All these type of pollutions directly or indirectly affect the health of living organisms on our earth.
When the living organism respire polluted air during respiration, the harmful gasses enters into
their body and causes harmful effects.
To the human beings it causes respiration disorders, noise and eye irritation, throat infection,
cough, lungs problems and allergy.
If polluted water enters into the body, it causes several diseases which leads to even death over a
long period.
While noise pollution creates mental disturbances to animals and humans near to it which causes
bad effect of their life style.
Causes of Air Pollution
Basically there are two causes of air pollution:
1. Natural Causes
2. Artificial Causes
Natural Causes
1. Volcanic activities
2. pollen grains
3. Forest fires, etc.
Artificial Causes:
1. Industries
2. Automobiles
3. Power generating plants
4. Agricultural activities
5. Deforestation
6. Population explosion
7. Wars
Among this Automobile pollution and its control in particular is discussed in this chapter.
Automobile pollution
Automobile makes about 50% of total air pollution, in the form of
1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
2. Unburnt hydrocarbons (Ubhc)
3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
4. Particulate matter (Small particles of carbon) of emission through the exhaust
gasses.
Sources of pollutants from SI Engine
There are 4 possibilities of air pollution by a petrol engine they are:
1. From the Fuel Tank
2. From Carburetors
3. Crank Case
4. Exhaust Pipe
Page 20
The different pollutants with their approximate percentage is clearly shown in the above figure.
Evaporating Losses
It occurs in two places
1. Fuel tank
2. Carburetors
Here there are direct losses of raw petrol from the fuel system to the atmosphere.
Fuel Tank Loss
This occurs by the vaporization of petrol during fill and through the ventilation of fuel cap during
the operation of vehicle. If the fuel tank temperature increases, the fuel vaporizes escape through the vent
hole of the cap.
It is more when the fuel level is lesser in the tank, because it forms partial vapor pressure inside
the space.
Carburetor Loss
Carburetor loss occurs due to the evaporation of fuel through the vent hole of the float chamber of
the carburetor.
During engine operation, the carburetor heats up & some petrol from float chamber vaporizes &
escapes to the atmosphere through the vent holes. It is more when the vehicle is stopped after a long run
which is known as Hot Soak.
Crank Case or Blow-by Losses
Blow-by is the process of leakage of fresh charge past (near) the piston rings & the cylinder liners
of the crankcase.
Some of the unburnt charge b/w the cylinder & piston rings forced into the crankcase through the
ring gap continuously
Exhaust Gasses Losses
Maximum air pollution occurs by exhaust gas losses. In S.I. Engines due to so many reasons there
is always incomplete combustion of the fuel. Therefore the exhaust gasses contain unburnt hydrocarbons
& also harmful byproducts of the combustion like carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, Tetra Ethyl Lead
(TEL), harmful organic chemicals & particulate matter. All these pollutants finally escape into the
atmosphere which causes considerable air pollution.
S.I. Engine Emission Control or Different methods to control S.I. Engine Emission
1. Engine Design Modification
2. Treatment of Exhaust Gas
3. Fuel Modification
An emission control program aims at reducing the concentration of pollutants such as Carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) & oxides of nitrogen (NOx), in the exhaust system. The main
approaches used for this purposes are as follows:
Engine Design Modification, treatment of Exhaust gas, Full Modification.
Engine Modification
The following are the important factors to be considered to the modification of engine design so as
to reduce exhaust emission of the S.I. Engine:
1. Use of leaner air fuel ratio
2. Retarding Ignition Timing
3. Modification of combustion chamber
4. Use of lower compression ratios
5. Reduce valve overlap
6. Alteration in Induction system
Use of Leaner Air Fuel Ratio
If we use richer air fuel mixture which may lead to incomplete combustion because of many
factors & finally through the exhaust gasses it enters to the atmosphere in the form of UBHC (Unburnt
Hydrocarbons)
To achieve complete combustion of the charge, use of leaner air fuel ratios will be preferred so
that complete combustion of charge will be ensured.
Page 21
Retarding Ignition Timing
Ignition timing is a very important factor for the complete combustion of the charge for a high
speed engine time available for combustion process is very less which may lead to incomplete
combustion therefore the time for the combustion take place will be increased by retarding Ignition
timing.
Modification of Combustion Chamber
The shape of the combustion chamber is also one of the deciding factors of complete combustion.
The design of piston head, cylinder head, Inlet and Outlet valve, spark plug all include for the combustion
chamber design therefore the design should be such that it ensures complete combustion of the charge in
the available time.
Use of Lower Compression Ratio
Higher compression ratios affects process of smooth combustion leading to pre ignition,
detonation and high temperature of the combustion chamber which will cause oxidation of nitrogen and
forms NOx. Therefore use of lower compression ratios will reduce pollution.
Reduce Valve Overlap
By reducing the valve overlap, the chance of escaping of fresh charge through the exhaust valve
may be minimized which leads to lesser emission.
Alteration in Induction System
Induction system may be altered such that pre heating of the charge and proper air filter design
will also reduce emission of S.I. Engine.
Treatment of Exhaust Gas
Exhaust Gas oxidation can be done as treatment to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
emissions. The devises used for this purpose are:
1. After Burner 2. Exhaust Manifold Reactor 3. Catalytic Converter
After burner
Figure shows an after burner fitted to an engine manifold, it burns completely any traces of
unburnt hydro carbon present in the exhaust gasses. The exhaust gas enters into the after burner which is
exposed to a flame along with secondary air as shown in the above figure. Any traces of UBHC will burn
completely at this temperature than gas to atmosphere reducing the harmful hydrocarbons entering into
atmosphere.
However these burners have not been successful due to the difficultly in maintaining the
combustion process during low hydrocarbon emissions. Further, there is a heat loss due to secondary air.
Exhaust Manifold Reactor
Exhaust Manifold Reactor is another method of exhaust gas treatment. In this method additional
air is supplied to the exhaust manifold near the exhaust valve. The exhaust gasses coming out of the
exhaust valve having sufficient temperature mixes with additional air and any unburnt hydrocarbons will
be oxidized and completes the combustion process; then the clean exhaust gas goes to the atmosphere
through the exhaust pipe. The air pump is driven by crank shaft itself by a belt drive as shown.
The degree of oxidation depends on the temperature of exhaust gas, time factor and mixing of air
provided for oxidation.
Catalytic Converter
Catalytic Converter is one of the important methods of S.I. Engine Emission control. A Catalytic
Converter is a device which converts the harmful chemicals of the exhaust gasses into harmless chemicals
before discharging to the atmosphere.
Figure shows one such Catalytic Converter developed by Ford Company. It consists of two
separate elements one for NOx and other for HC/CO emission. The exhaust gasses from the engine are
made to pass through the Catalytic Converter which is in a cylindrical shape and installed in the exhaust
system.
It consists of NOx element at lst stage, which reduces NOx into Nitrogen and in the 2nd stage
HC/CO element which oxidizes them into CO2 and H2O which are harmless.
Usually iridium is used to reduce NOx and Platinum or Palladium is used to oxidized CO & HC.
The advantage of this Converter is that it oxidizes complete CO & HC in a normal exhaust temperature.
Page 22
Fuel Modification
It is a fact that use of leaner air fuel mixture results in lesser emission, but much leaner mixture
leads to misfiring which producers more emission.
If we use other fuels like propane, methane, we can use much leaner mixture without misfiring.
Use of propane reduces emissions of CO & HC to a great extent and lesser NOx. Use of methane reduces
emission of CO & HC to zero and NOx almost to zero. But at present they are not used as fuel because of
high cost involved.
Blow-by loss Control
Blow-by loss can be controlled by the proper designing of piston ring. The top land clearance
between piston and the top ring is very much important to the blow by losses. Also proper positioning of
spark plug and flame speed control the blow up losses.
Crank case blow by is effectively controlled by recirculation of vapor back to the engine cylinder.
Intake manifold Return system (PCV) [Positive crank case ventilation system]
Since the system makes slight vacuum in crank case due to suction it is called as positive crank
case ventilation system.
There are two types in PCV system:
1. Open type
2. Closed type.
Open type PCV system consists of a tube which connects the crank case to the intake manifold
through a central valve. In this case, if the valve is closed, there are chances of escaping of back flow
gases to the atmosphere through the open oil filter cap.
In closed PCV system an extra tube is connected between oil filter cap and air cleaner. Therefore
if the control valve is closed, the back glow gases are redirected to the air cleaner through the extra tube
and the back flow gasses burn in the combustion chamber. Hence there is no escape of vapor into the
atmosphere when the control valve closes.
Control of Evaporative Losses by using ELCD (Evaporative Loss Control Device)
Evaporative Loss Control Device (ELCD) is used for controlling of all evaporative emissions of
gasoline vapor and by capturing then re-circulating at the appropriate time. One such device in hot soak
condition is as shown in figure.
The canister chamber or absorbent chambers consists of charcoal bead or poly urethane foam
holds the hydro carbon vapor before they escape into the atmosphere.
The fuel tank and the carburetor chambers are directly connected to canister. When a warmed up
engine is turned off it results “Hot Soak”. Hot Soak is the condition when a warmed up engine is stopped
resulting in boiling of petrol in the carburetor and fuel tank.
These vapors of hydrocarbon are absorbed in the canister chamber along with the vapor due to
tank breathing. These vapors are re-circulated by the incoming air of air cleaner back to the intake
manifold during purging condition.
Purging condition means when the engine is running at higher speeds the exhaust gas pressure
opens the purge control valve and closes pressure balance valve resulting in absorbed vapors of the
canister is re-circulated to the engine.
The purge control valve is controlled by the exhaust back pressure. The pressure balance valve
maintains designed carburetor pressure. ELCD controls almost all evaporative losses.
Control of oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
The oxides of Nitrogen in the exhaust gasses are caused due to the peak cycle temperature of the
engine. Nitrogen present in the air oxidizes at the peak temperature to form NOx. Anything done to reduce
this temperature will reduce the oxides of Nitrogen.
The following are the three methods used to control NOx emission:
1. Exhaust Gas Re-circulating (EGR)
2. Water Injection
3. Catalyst
Page 23
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
Figure shows a simple arrangement of EGR system. In this a portion of exhaust gas is re-
circulated along with the fresh charge. Exhaust gas is a gas which absorbs certain temperature of the
combustion chamber and reduces the peak combustion temperature which is the cause for formation of
NOx in the exhaust emission.
The exhaust gas for recirculation is directly taken from reaction zone as shown in the figure then it
is passed to the inlet manifold through a control valve with filter (EGR valve). The valve controller
circulation of exhaust gas during idling and full throttle to avoid rough engine operation and power loss.
Too much exhaust gas recirculation reduces the quantity of oxygen available for combustion.
Hence a small quantity i.e., about 15% will reduce about 80% of NOx emission. The formation of NOx
depends on peak temperature. Therefore, the peak temperature should reduce using EGR method.
Water Injection
It is also one of the methods to reduce the formation of NOx in the combustion chamber. Here,
required quantity of water is injected into the Inlet manifold along with the fresh charge which absorbs
some temperature at the combustion chamber and avoids reaching of peak temperature and finally
prevents the formation of NOx in the exhaust emission.
Catalyst
Few types of Catalyst have been tested to reduce the NOx emission. The Catalyst converts harmful
NOx of the exhaust gas into harmless gasses before entering into the atmosphere. A Copper Catalyst in
the presence of carbon monoxide has been used for this purpose.
Total Emission Control Package
As per laws of pollution control board Automobile companies have developed two systems after
long experimental studies. They are:
1. Thermal Reactor Package
2. Catalytic Converter Package
Thermal Reactor Package
The Block diagram shows Thermal Reactor Package total Emission control.
This package controls the emissions to almost zero level. It gives sufficient Residence time to
allow oxidation of UBHC & CO to occur. A secondary Air Pump Supplies additional air for this purpose.
UBHC & CO are oxidized with the additional air in the thermal reactor. About 15% of Exhaust Gas is re-
circulated to the Engine through an EGR Control Valve Back to the Engine which absorbs some
temperature and avoids peak temperature and prevents formation of NOx.
Thus every possible exhaust emissions will be totally controlled. Due to this package about 20%
power will be lost and about 10% more fuel consumption.
Catalytic Converter Package
In this type of Total Emission Control Package, Catalytic are used to control the emission levels of
various pollutants by changing the chemical characteristics of the exhaust gasses. Catalyst materials such
as platinum and palladium with ceramic support and coated with Aluminum Oxide can control the
emission of CO & UBHC completely by converting them into Carbon dioxide into water vapor. Another
Catalyst reduces NOx into Nitrogen. It has in addition to the Catalyst an EGR Circuit for better NOx
control. To cool the EGR an inter cooler is provided.
A programmed by pass valve containing sensors is used to bypass the catalyst in case of
overheating which increases the life of Catalyst.
Thus the Catalytic Converter package controls every exhaust pollutants to almost zero level
without consuming the engine power.
Note:
Other Emission Control Device:
1. Direct Air Injection
2. Ammonia Injection
3. Electronic Injection
Diesel Emission Control
Emissions from Diesel engines can be classified in the same categories like, gelatin engines as
Page 24
CO, UBHC & NOx, but the levels of emission may be different.
The emission levels of a diesel engines depends on
1. Type of the engine.
2. Mode of operation.
1. Type of the engine
1. The two stroke engine produces high UBHC & Medium NOx. The some level
remain low.
2. Four stroke medium speed engine has lowest emissions but have very high
smoke level.
3. Four stroke high speed engine has high HC, high adour intensity.
4. The turbo charged 4 stroke engine produce high NOx, low UBHC and very low
smoke level.
Mode of Operation
Idling, full load and acceleration are the three modes of operation which affects the emission level
in the Diesel engine.
During the idle mode the consentsation of HC, NOx and Aldehyde emissions or lower than other
modes.
Full load made changes with the engine type. The two stroke and 4 stroke turbo charged engine
produces less smoke. But 4 stroke normally aspirated engines produces more smoke.
Oxides of Nitrogen Control in Diesel exhaust
The quantity of NOx varies greatly in diesel engine emissions. The mechanism of formation of
NOx is same as petrol engine i.e., the higher peak temperature in the presence of oxygen produce NOx.
Controlling methods includes use of pre-combustion chamber, high air fuel ratio, proper fuel injection
system and good quality of diesel, etc.,
Diesel Smoke and Control
Smoke is the term used for the
visible product of combustion. It is
produced due to the poor combustion of
diesel, it starts early in the combustion
cycle due to richer air fuel ratio and
farms soot (carbon particles) at high
pressure.
The soot will burn completely if
it gets sufficient oxygen otherwise it
become visible.
Types of Smoke
There are two types of smoke of a diesel
engine:
1. Blue white smoke.
2. Black smoke.
1. Blue white smoke
It is caused due to incomplete burning of lubricating oil or diesel droplets, while starting from a
cold. Due to low temperature the combustion products incompletely burns resulting in bluish while
smoke in the exhaust. It also occur when the rings are worn out and lubricating oil leaks near the piston.
2. Black smoke
It is caused due to the incomplete burning of diesel resulting in formation of carbon particles in
suspended form. It occurs due to insufficient air and high engine load.
Causes of Smoke
1. Incomplete burning of fuel. 2. Incorrect air fuel ratio and improper mixing.
3. Over loading. 4. Improper maintenance of engine.
5. Improper Injection System. 6. Lesser Quality fuel.
7. Incorrect engine rating.
Page 25
Measurement of Smoke
There are two types of smoke meters:
1. Filter Darkening type.
2. Light extinction type.
Filter Darkening type smoke meter measures the smoke by the amount of carbon particles deposited on a
filter paper when exposed to the exhaust
gas. Ex: Bosch smoke meter and Van
brand smoke meter.
Bosch smoke meter is one of the
filters darkening smoke meter. Hear a
known volume of exhaust gas is made to
pass through a filter paper for a known
time. The filter paper absorbs carbon
partials & become darken which depends
on the amount of carbon present & density
of smoke present in the exhaust.
The Density of carbon is then
measured by determining the amount of
light reflected from the filters paper. The
diameter of the filter paper, the volume of sample gas etc., are well defined.
Van Brand Smoke Meter
It is also one of the filter darkening type smoke meter. Hear a known volume of exhaust gas
sample is passed at a constant rate through a strip of filter paper.
A stain is produced on a filter paper. The intensity of this stain is measured by the amount of
light which passes through a filtered paper which indicates the density of smoke meter differ in that the
Bosch smoke meter measure the smoke level by the amount of light reflected & the Van Brand smoke
meter by the amount of light passing through the filter paper.
Light Extension type smoke meters
Schematic diagram of hard ridge smoke meter is as shown. This smoke meter works on the light
extinction principal. Hear the smoke intensity is calculated by comparing electric output from a photo
cell when exposed to a sample of exhaust smoke to that of clean air.
The output from the photo cell is connected to a micro volt meter & the readings are taken. It can
be used as continues testing smoke meter & can be used on the vehicles.
Continuously taken exhaust sample is passed through a tube which has a light source at one end &
photo cell or solar cell at the other end. The amount of light passed through this smoke column is used as
an indication of smoke level. By using number of photo cells the instrument becomes very sensitive and
accurate.
UTAC Smoke Meter
It is also one of the light extinction smoke meter. This also works on the principal of hart ridge
smoke meter but hear instead of taking a sample of smoke, all the exhaust gasses is passed through the
meter for certain time which avoids any error. However it is suitable only for small engines because of its
size factor.
Control of Smoke
Smoke level of diesel engines can be controlled by the following method.
1. Reducing land on the engine (Derating).
2. Designing of combustion chambers & fuel injection system (Maintenance of engine).
3. Using smoke suppressant additives (Mixing of volume components in to diesel to reduce sought
formation).
4. Use of catalyst which converts smoke causing gasses (catalytic mufflers).
5. Fumigation (Introducing a small amount of diesel in to intake manifold to make pre-combustion & to
reduce delay).
Page 26
Diesel odour & its control:
Diesel ODOUR is caused due to the presence of Aldehydes in it which results in bad smell or
pungent odour which causes hose & eyes irritation to the humans.
ODOUR is produced due to incomplete combustion & emitted through the exhaust gasses.
Factors Affecting Odour Production
1. Very lean air fuel mixture.
2. Acceleration of the engine.
3. Type of engine.(Two stroke engine produce more)
4. Fuel composition,
5. Absence of odour supresent additives.
Control of Odour
1. Avoiding very lean air fuel ratio.
2. Avoiding sudden Acceleration of the engine.
3. Using four stroke diesel engines in place of Z- stroke engines.
4. Using better composition of diesel.
5. Adding odour supresent chemicals to the diesel.
Page 27
Chapter 04 - Stratified Charge Engines
Stratification
The process of providing richer air fuel mixture near the spark plug & leaner air fuel mixture to
the rest of the combustion chamber so as to increase the efficiency of the engine by burning over all air
fuel mixture is known as stratification of engines.
Strata means layers, therefore stratification means making different layers of charge.
General Characteristics of Stratified Charge Engine
1. Stratified charge Engines have good part load efficiency
2. The exhaust emission characteristics are better than normal engines
3. The volumetric efficiency is higher than the normal engine
4. It has good knock resistance
5. By Stratification we can have smooth combustion & multi fuel can be used by
altering the design
6. It can operate on low octane gasoline & even kerosene
Advantages
1. It can tolerate a wide range of fuel quality (multi fuel capability)
2. It has low exhaust emission level
3. It has Anti knock
4. It has good fuel economy
5. It has smooth & quite engine operation
6. It has higher thermal efficiency
7. It can be manufactured be existing technology
Disadvantages
1. Charge stratification results in reduced power to a given engine size
2. It has a higher weight than that of a normal engine of same power out put
3. Its manufacturing cost is higher
4. Its maintenance cost is higher
5. Its Reliability is yet to be well established
Methods of Stratification
The stratified charged engines can be classified into two main types according to the method of formation
of the heterogeneous mixture in the combustion chamber:
1. Those using fuel injection & positive ignition (including swirl stratified charge
Engines)
2. Those using carburetion alone
Stratification by Fuel Injection
It was first introduced by Ricardo in 1922. The plan & elevation of fuel spray is as shown in
figure. A relatively rich mixture is formed at the spark plug by an auxiliary spray while another spray
injecting fuel along the major axis of the combustion chamber form a leaner mixture.
This arrangement can give combustion over a wide range of lean mixture giving higher efficiency
but at high speeds & high loads this engine fails due to too rich mixture near the spark plug.
Pre Chamber Stratification
Pre Chamber Stratification is the improvement of the Ricardo engine. Here a small pre chamber
fitted with an injector and a spark plug is used as shown in the above figure. In this a rich mixture is
supplied near the spark plug by the injector and a lean mixture is supplied to the main combustion
chamber by a carburetor.
The spark plug ignites the rich mixture of the pre chamber then it is passed to the main chamber to
burn lean mixture. Thus an overall lean mixture can be burnt.
The disadvantage of this method is again at full load, due to improper fuel distribution &
incomplete scavenging of pre chamber becomes incomplete.
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Volkswagen PCI Stratified Charge Engine
A simplified diagram of Volkswagen P.C.I. Stratified Charge Engine is as shown. It consists of
two combustion chambers connected by a wide opening. One is pre-combustion chamber which is
spherical in shape where fuel injector & spark plug are fitted & the other one is main combustion
chamber which is disc shaped having inlet & exhaust valves such that a slight swirl is induced during
suction stroke.
About 25-30% of the total charge is injected into the pre-combustion chamber & remaining part of
the charge is injected into the main combustion chamber.
The injector & spark plug are arranged in such a way that spark plug receives a constant rich
mixture irrespective of the speed and the load conditions.
The spark produced by the plug ignites a rich mixture then it expands to main combustion
chamber and burns a lean mixture present in the main combustion chamber.
Advantages of Volkswagen PCI Stratified Charge Engine
1. Fuel injection timing need not be varied. 2. Low octane petrol can be used.
3. Very lean mixture can be used. 4. Low exhaust emission.
5. Simple in construction.
Broderson Method of Stratification
Broderson stratified charged engine is as shown in the above figure. Here the combustion chamber
is divided into main chamber and auxiliary chamber. In auxiliary chamber spark plug and injector with
inlet valve are situated as shown.
Whole of the fuel is injected to the auxiliary chambers and the direction changes as the piston
passes B.D.C. Position. The fuel injected before B.D.C. is carried into the main chambers by the air
coming through the inlet valve. Fuel injected after B.D.C. remains in the pre-chamber because of the
reversal of air flow direction, thus providing rich mixture near the spark plug. At light loads fuel may be
injected after the beginning of compression stroke. Therefore air moves into pre-chamber at almost all the
fuel is injected into pre-chamber making rich mixture near the spark plug.
At full load, fuel is injected at the beginning of suction stroke resulting in uniform mixture
strength in the combustion chamber.
Advantages
1. There is pumping losses 2. Part load efficiency is increased
3. There is non-knocking at full load 4. Multi fuel can be used
5. Low exhaust emission
Disadvantages
1. It requires special attention for injection timing
2. Noise is produced during idling
3. Design of pre chamber and main chamber is complicated
Swirl Stratified Charge Engine (Witzky Swirl Stratification)

Swirl stratified charge engines are based on the principle that fuel is injected into the swirling air
which produces stratification.
1. Witzky Swirl Stratification Process 2. Texaco Combustion Process (T.C.P)
3. Ford Combustion Process (F.C.P) 4. Ford PROCO
5. Deutz Combustion Process (A.D)
Witzky Swirl Stratification Process
Above figures shows Witzky swirl stratification during suction stroke. This is basically unthrottled
spark ignition process with fuel injection without carburetors. During suction stroke a high velocity swirl
is created by the intake air and the fuel is injected during the compression stroke against the swirl
direction at an angle. The swirling air forces rich mixture towards center where the spark plug is located;
hence stratification is achieved and over all lean mixture is burnt.
Texaco Combustion Process (Barber’s Texaco Combustion Process)
Figure shows the Texaco Combustion Process in this process fuel is injected to the swirling air
and the spark plug is placed as near as possible to the injector which makes rich mixture near the spark
Page 29
plug zone. The spark is produced at the beginning of injection and the flame front travels in the
combustion chamber burning the remaining learner mixture. Thus stratification is achieved easily.
It has advantages such as absence of knocking, multi fuel capability, use of very lean mixtures and
good part load characters.
Ford Combustion Process
Combustion process is designed by proper coordination air swirls fuel injection and ignition to
achieve part load and full load stratification.
Here injector is located radially at about 56° from the head face. This provides good mixing of
charge at all loads and speeds. The spark plug has long electrode and it is so positioned that the gap is
about 10mm in front of the injector. The intake valve has recess (gap b/w valve to cylinder) which gives
maximum turbulence to the intake air which properly mixes the charge during engine operation.
Stratification by Carburetion Alone
1. Russian Stratified Charged Concept Engine (‘Nilov’ Jet Ignition Engine)
Russian Stratified charged concept Engine or Nilov Jet Ignition Engine is as shown in figure. It has
divided combustion chamber:
1. Pre-combustion chamber
2. Main combustion chamber
There are two carburetors and two intake valves as shown in figure. Lean mixture is supplied to main
combustion chamber & rich mixture is supplied to pre-chamber where the spark plug is situated. The
spark ignites rich mixture of the pre-chamber and the flame front is forced to the main chamber which
burns the leaner mixture of the main combustion chamber hence the stratification and burning of
overall lean mixture is achieved.
This system is about 10% economic than the conventional engines.
Losses due to pre-chamber reduce maximum engine output.
2. Honda CVCC (Compound Vertex Controlled Combustion)
The Honda CVCC Engine obtains stratification of charge in a different manner.
It uses a pre-chamber, which is supplied with a rich mixture and the main chamber, which is
supplied with lean mixture by two carburetors.
Two separate inlet valves for the two chambers are located as shown in figure.
The combustion sequence is as follows:
1. A large amount of lean mixture and a small amount of rich mixture is supplied
to the respective combustion chambers
2. At the end of compression stroke the rich mixture of the pre-chamber is ignited
by the spark plug
3. The frame front coming from the pre-chamber enters into main chamber and
ignites the lean mixture of the main chamber
4. Lean mixture continues to burn slowly
5. The temperature of burnt gas remains high for a long period compensating the
losses due to pre-chambers
Advantages of Honda CVCC
1. CVCC Engine burns much leaner charge
2. It has lower peak temperature
3. It has less emission
Page 30
Chapter 05 - Combustion in S.I. Engines
Combustion
Combustion may be defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of hydrogen and carbon in the
fuel with the oxygen in the air, resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat.
Conditions necessary for combustion
1. Presence of a combustible mixture
2. Some means of initiating combustion
3. Stabilization and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber
Stages of combustion in S.I. Engine:
In S.I. Engines a homogeneous mixture of vaporized fuel and air with residual gasses are ignited
by a spark producing a thin layer of flame which is like a soap bubble. It grows up gradually & expands
with great speed due to the turbulence and completely burn the remaining charge.
According to Ricardo the combustion can be imagined as occurs in three stages they are:
1. Ignition Lag 2. Propagation of Flame 3. After Burning
1. Ignition Lag
The growth and development of propagating nucleus of flame (flame bubble) is known as Ignition
Lag or Preparation stage.
It is a chemical process, which depends on the Nature of Fuel, Temperature, and Pressure etc. In
the graph the first stage is represented by ‘A-B’. Point ‘A’ shows occurring of spark and point ‘B’ shows
first rise in pressure.
2. Propagation of Flame
It is a second stage of combustion represented by the curve ‘B-C’ where combustion of the charge
takes place rapidly and point ‘C’ shows the completion of combustion and attaining of peak pressure.
This stage is purely mechanical.
3. After Burning
Although the point ‘C’ shows the completion of combustion, there is sum continuation of the
combustion due to chemical adjustments and re-association of gasses this is known as after burning which
will continue throughout the expansion stroke.
All these three stages are clearly as shown in ‘P-θ’ curve along with theoretical P-θ curve.
Effects of Engine variables on Ignition Lag: (Factors affecting Ignition Lag)
Ignition lag is the first stage (Phase) of combustion in S.I. Engines. It is a chemical process it
occurs about 10°-20° crank angle or about 0.0015 sec. The duration of ignition lag depends on the
following factors:
1. Nature of Fuel 2. Air fuel mixture ratio 3. Initial temperature & pressure of charge
4. Electrode gap of spark plug 5. Turbulence in combustion chamber
1. Nature of Fuel
The ignition lag depends on chemical nature of the fuel. Higher the self-ignition temperature of
the fuel longer is the ignition lag.
2. Air fuel mixture ratio
Ignition lag increases for lean mixture when the air fuel mixture is 10% riches than chemically
correct mixture then the ignition lag is smallest.
3. Initial temperature & pressure of charge
The rate of chemical reaction depends on temperature and pressure of the charge; the ignition lag
decreases as the temperature and pressure of charge increases.
4. Electrode gap of spark plug
Electrode gap is important for the development of flame bubble. If it is too small, flame bubble is
also small. For lower compression ratio higher electrode gap is required. Therefore, higher compression
ratio and higher electrode gap decreases the ignition lag.
5. Turbulence in combustion chamber
Turbulence is directly proportional to the Engine speed which increases the ignition lag because
turbulence near the plug increases heat transfer making unstable bubble of flame.
Page 31
Effects of Engine variables on Propagation of Flame
1. Air fuel ratio 2. Compression ratio 3. Inlet temperature and pressure 4. Engine load
5. Turbulence 6. Engine speed 7. Engine size
1. Air fuel ratio
Maximum flame velocity occurs when about 10% riches than normal mixture is supplied. The
flame velocity decreases if lean or too rich mixture is supplied.
2. Compression ratio
Higher compression ratio increases the temperature and pressure of the charge therefore flame
velocity also increases.
3. Inlet temperature & pressure
Increase in inlet temperature and pressure increases the flame speed.
4. Engine load
Increase in Engine load increases the pressure hence the flame speed increases.
5. Turbulence
Increase in turbulence increases the flame speed because of higher heat transfer rate.
6. Engine Speed
Higher the engine speed more is the turbulence hence higher flame speed.
7. Engine size
Flame velocity is not much dependent or engine size but normally for smaller engine flame
velocity is more.
Abnormal Combustion (Knocking or Detonation)
Above figure shows normal combustion and detonation process. In the normal combustion a
normal flame front travels across the combustion chamber from the point ‘A’ towards point ‘D’. The
speed of the flame front is about 30 m/sec. As the flame front advances it compresses the un-burnt charge
‘B-B’-D’ raising its temperature if this unburnt charge does not reach its critical temperature of auto
ignition, it will not auto ignite and the flame front move across unburnt charge to the point ‘D’ making
normal combustion. If the un-burnt charge reaches its critical temperature before the flame front reaches,
auto ignition occurs these results with abnormal combustion or detonation.
Before detonation occurs the un-burnt charge remain at the critical temperature for some time this
is known as Ignition Delay. During this period certain chemical reactions takes place which prepare the
charge for auto ignition.
Detonation results with a very high peak pressure wave which strikes the cylinder wall creating a
metallic sound known as knocking.
Effects of Detonation
1. Noise and roughness (A loud pulsating noise is produced due to the
development of a pressure wave which strikes the cylinder and crank shaft
vibrates hence engine runs rough)
2. Mechanical damage (Some of the parts like piston head cylinder head and
valves are burnt & damaged).
3. Carbon deposits (Detonation results in increased carbon deposits to the
combustion chamber).
4. Increase in heat transfer of the combustion chamber.
5. Decrease in power output due to increase in the rate of heat transfer.
6. Pre-Ignition (The increase in rate of heat transfer causes over heating of spark
plug, valves etc. which ignites the charge before spark is produced thus causing
pre-ignition.
7. Decrease in efficiency (Due to higher heat transfer efficiency of the engine
decreases).
Page 32
Control of Detonation
1. Detonation or knocking can be controlled by increasing engine speed.
2. Retarding spark.
3. Reducing pressure in inlet manifold.
4. Making correct air fuel ratio.
5. Use of high octane fuel.
6. Re-locating spark plug or use of more no. of spark plugs.
7. Proper combustion chamber design.
8. Use of lower compression ratio.
Detection of Detonation
Detonation control measures can be taken only when detonation is properly detected. The
following are the methods of detecting detonation:
1. Detonation can be heard if the engine noise is not too much.
2. The temperature of the spark plug gasket can be measured by a thermo couple.
High temperature reading indicates detonation.
3. The vibrations set up by detonation can be measured by knock meter using
vibration sensitive electric pick up.
4. Presence of intermittent puffs of gray smoke in exhaust indicates detonation.
Surface Ignition (Abnormal combustion)
It is defined as the initiation of a flame front by a hot surface other than the spark. The hot
surface may be spark plug electrode, exhaust valve head or hot carbon particle present in the
combustion chambers.
Effects of surface ignition
1. Run-on surface ignition 2. Run-away surface ignition 3. Engine rumble 4. Wild ping
1. Run-on Surface Ignition
If the engine continues to fire even when ignition system is switched of the condition is know as
run on and it is due to the presence of surface ignition.
2. Run-away Surface Ignition
It is a serious case of surface ignition in which surface ignition in one cycle heats the source of
ignition to a still higher temperature and a series of earlier and earlier pre-ignition set up this leads to
melting of piston or engine catches fire. This occurs due to defective spark plug or exhaust valve.
3. Engine Rumble
Engine Rumble means the noise produced due to vibrations which occur due to the surface
ignition at many places simultaneously inside the combustion chamber.
4. Wild Ping
Occasionally the knock occurs unevenly due to surface ignition which produces very sharp sound
known as wild ping.
Pre-Ignition
If the surface ignition occurs before the passage of spark is known as pre-ignition. In this the
charge ignites before the spark occurs by the hot spots.
The effects of pre-ignition are:
1. Advanced ignition timing. 2. Negative work done by the piston. 3. Higher peak pressure.
4. Higher temperature, which leads to detonation. 5. Increased heat loss efficiency.
Detection of pre-ignition
Pre-ignition may be detected by setting of the Ignition. If the engine continues firing there is a
possibility of pre-ignition.
Sudden loss of power without mechanical failure shows there is pre-Ignition.
Control of pre-Ignition
Pre-Ignition inhibitors like water, alcohol, led are mixed with fuel which controls pre-Ignition.
Page 33
Chapter 06 - Combustion of C.I. Engine
In C.I. Engines only air is compressed through a large compression ratio which is about 12:1 to
22:1 and during the compression stroke there is a rise in temperature and pressure. In this condition fuel
in the liquid state with a higher pressure than the combustion chamber enters into hot air (450°-550°) &
pressure (30-40 bar). Each droplet is surrounded by flame which vaporizes & mixes with the surrounding
air to make complete combustion.
To evaporate the liquid fuel heat is absorbed from the surrounding air which reduces the
temperature of surrounding air and sometime must be needed to raise this temperature again. Once its
temperature rises by the combustion then sudden combustion of remaining fuel takes place.
Thus at first there is a delay period before ignition take place.
The duration of delay period depends on temperature & pressure of the air and self-ignition temperature
of the fuel. The higher the air temperature or the lower self-ignition temperature, the shorter is the delay.
Once the delay period is over and the ignition is established, the rate of burning depends on the ability of
the droplet to find fresh oxygen which depends on turbulence inside the combustion chamber. Here in
C.I. Engine turbulence is called as swirl which depends on combustion chamber design.
1st Stage -Ignition delay period A-Injection starts
2nd Stage-Rapid or uncontrolled combustion B-Combustion starts
3rd Stage-Controlled combustion C-Injection ends
4th Stage-After burning
Ricardo considered there are four stages in the combustion of C.I. Engines they are as follows:
1. Ignition delay 2. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion
3. Controlled combustion 4. After burning
1st Stage (Ignition delay)
It is a preparatory phase, during this some fuel which is injected but not being ignited. It is
counted from the start of injection to the point where the curve separates from non-firing curve i.e. from
A-B.
2nd Stage (Rapid or uncontrolled combustion)
This stage starts after ignition. In this stage the pressure rise is rapid because the fuel droplets after
delay period burns rapidly with the help of air present in the surrounding area. This stage starts at the end
of delay period and continues up to the point where maximum pressure rise in the diagram.
3rd Stage (Controlled combustion)
At the end of second stage the temperature and pressure are so high that any further injection of
fuel burn as they enter into combustion chamber and causes further pressure rise. It is purely mechanical
and controlled by the rate of injection. This ends as the injection ends.
4th Stage (After burning)
Theoretically the combustion should end after the third stage but because of poor distribution of
the fuel particles combustion continues. This is called “after burning” of fourth stage of combustion.
During the combustion process about 95 – 97% of the fuel is burnt and 3 – 5 % goes in the
exhaust passes.
Delay period (Ignition lag)
It is the time between the start of injection and the start of Ignition or combustion. It has two processes:
1. Physical delay 2. Chemical delay
In physical delay the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed with air and rises in the temperature. Chemical
delay is a time from the end of physical delay to the time of Ignition. Generally it is longer than physical
delay it depends on temperature. The delay period means the sum of physical and chemical delay.
Variables affecting delay period
1. Fuel quality 2. Injection pressure 3. Size of droplets 4. Compression ratio
5. Intake temperature 6. Intake pressure 7. Fuel temperature 8. Cooling water temperature
9. Type of combustion chamber 10. Injection advance.
Page 34
Diesel Knock
If the delay period is more, a large amount of fuel will be injected and accumulated in the
combustion chamber. The auto ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause high rate of pressure rise
and high maximum pressure which may cause knocking in diesel engines.
Note:
Difference between detonation and knocking
1. In S.I. Engine, the detonation occurs near the end of combustion where as in the C.I. Engine knocking
occurs near the beginning of combustion.
2. The detonation is caused by a homogeneous charge but knocking is caused by imperfect mixed air and
fuel.
3. Detonation causes higher rate of pressure and temperature but knocking causes comparatively lower
pressure and temperature.
4. Pre-ignition may be caused in detonation but there is no question of pre-ignition in the C.I. Engine.
5. Detonation can be easily heard whereas knocking cannot be heard easily.
The factors that tend to reduce detonation in the S.I. Engine increase knocking in C.I. Engine.
Methods of controlling diesel knock (Reducing delay period)
1. By using high cetane number fuel.
2. By reducing degree of turbulence.
3. By reducing the fuel injection period.
4. By adding chemical dopes called ignition accelerators, such as ethyl nitrate and amyl nitrate.
Cold starting of C.I. Engines
Due to extreme cold climate, worn out cylinder liners or worn out valves. Starting of C.I. Engine is very
difficult. The following are the cold starting Aids:
1. Injection of a small quantity of lubricating oil or fuel oil (This helps rising the compression ratio and
sealing the piston rings and valves temporarily).
2. Provision of Cartridges (These are self-igniting which are inserted into the combustion chamber).
3. Starting of petrol Engines (Petrol Engines are provided with spark plug and carburetor at starting and
compression ratio is reduced by providing an auxiliary chamber and the engine are started as petrol
engine).
4. Pre heating the engine cylinder by warm water.
5. Modifying valve timings during starting.
Modern starting aids of High Speed Diesel Engines
1. Electric Glow plugs (These are commonly used in Swirl combustion chambers Electric plug initiates
combustion).
2. Manifold heaters (Some fuel is ignited in the manifold which contains electrical heater installed in it.
The in going air heals up which helps in easy starting).
3. Injection of low ignition temperature liquids like, ethyl ether into intake manifold.
Page 35

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Automotive Pollution & Control (AP&C)

Chapter 01- Fuels

Merits & De-Merits of Gaseous Fuels

Requirements of a Good Fuel

Calorific Value of Fuels

Experimental determination of Higher Calorific Value

2. A sample of fuel on analysis is found to contain Carbon 85%, Hydrogen = 10%,

Theoretical or Minimum Mass of Air required for complete Combustion

Mass of Products of Combustion

4. A flue gas has the following % composition by volume CO = 10%, H2 = 50%,

6. Percentage composition by mass of a sample of coal as found by analysis is C =

7. A fuel oil has the following analysis by mass C = 85%, H2 = 12.5%, O2 = 2%

Swirl Stratified Charge Engine (Witzky Swirl Stratification)

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Automotive Pollution & Control (AP&C)

Chapter 01- Fuels

Merits & De-Merits of Gaseous Fuels

Requirements of a Good Fuel

Calorific Value of Fuels

Experimental determination of Higher Calorific Value

2. A sample of fuel on analysis is found to contain Carbon 85%, Hydrogen = 10%,

Theoretical or Minimum Mass of Air required for complete Combustion

Mass of Products of Combustion

4. A flue gas has the following % composition by volume CO = 10%, H2 = 50%,

6. Percentage composition by mass of a sample of coal as found by analysis is C =

7. A fuel oil has the following analysis by mass C = 85%, H2 = 12.5%, O2 = 2%

Swirl Stratified Charge Engine (Witzky Swirl Stratification)

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