Colour, Texture and Solubility:

In general, compounds of transition metals and

solutions containing transition metal ions have
characteristic colours.
Group I, II, and III metals form white salts and
colourless metal ions in solution.
Most metals in the laboratory, with the exception of
copper, are usually silvery grey or grey with a shiny
lustre.
Ionic compounds which are soluble in water form
solutions. The solubility of a sample is usually tested first
in cold water.

Solubility in
Solid/Salt Application in QA
Water
Nitrates All nitrates are This means that
soluble. any ion, when
combined with the
nitrate ion in
solution, will not
precipitate.
Sodium, All sodium, This means that
potassium potassium and any ion, when
and ammonium salts combined with the
ammonium are soluble. sodium, potassium
salts and ammonium
ion in solution, will
not precipitate.
Sulphates All sulphates are When a solution
soluble except containing barium,
for BaSO4, calcium, or lead
CaSO4 andPbSO4 (II) ions are mixed
. with sulphate ions,
a precipitate will

1
 be formed.
Chlorides All chlorides are When solutions
soluble except containing silver
for AgCl, PbCl2. or lead(II) ions are
mixed with
sulphate ions, a
precipitate will be
formed.
Carbonates All carbonates Any cation except
are insoluble NH4+and Group I
except for cations e.g. Na+,
Na2CO3, K+, and will
K2CO3 and combine with
(NH4)2CO3. carbonate ions in
solution to form a
precipitate.
Oxides and All oxides and Most cations
Hydroxides hydroxides are except NH4+ and
insoluble except Group I cations
for Na2O, K2O, e.g. Na+, K+, and
NaOH, KOH and will combine with
Ca(OH)2 [slightly hydroxide ions in
soluble]. solution to form
precipitates.

Colour & Texture of Inference

Solid
Gp I, II, III metal salts; no
Colourless/white transition metal ions
crystals present. Ammonium
compounds e.g. NH4Cl,

2
 NH4NO3
CuSO4.5H2O (hydrated) as
Blue crystals shown.

Cu(NO3)2
CuCl2
Green crystals
Hydrated iron(II) salts e.g.
Pale green FeSO4.7H2O
crystals
Fe(III) salts e.g. hydrated
Brown crystals FeCl3
K2Cr2O7
Orange crystals
KMnO4 (purple lustre)
Purple crystals
Iodine crystals
Black crystals
CaCO3, ZnCO3, ZnO (when
White powder cold); Anhydrous CuSO4
Lead(II) oxide, PbO as
shown.
Yellow powder
ZnO (yellow when hot and
white when cold),

AgI (pale yellow ppt),

PbI2 (bright yellow ppt).
Bright orange Dilead(II) lead(IV) oxide,
powder Pb3O4

3
 Green powder CuCO3

Cu2O, copper(I) oxide

Reddish brown (reddish brown) as shown.
solid or powder
Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, Fe(OH)3

PbO2 (dark brown)

CuO, FeO, MnO2, carbon powder
Black powder
Colour of Common Metals
Identity
Magnesium Copper foil
of Zinc granules
ribbon
metal
reddish
Colour grey silver grey
brown

Identity
Aluminium Aluminium
of Iron filings
powder foil
metal
Colour silver silver grey

Colours of Solutions

Colour of
Unknown Inference
solution
GpI, II & III cations; most acids
and alkalis;hydrogen peroxide,
Colourless
limewater
Cu2+ ions in solution

4
 Blue
Fe2+ ions in solution (pale
Pale green green), Cr3+, Ni
Cr3+, Ni2+, CuCl2 solution
Green
Fe3+ ions in solution
Yellow/yellow K2CrO4 [potassium
brown chromate(VI)]
Iodine solution
Brown
Complex ion of Cu2+ :
Dark blue Cu(NH3)42+
KMnO4 (potassium
Purple permanganate)
K2Cr2O7 (potassium
Orange dichromate) in acidic medium

Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation is a chemical reaction where a solid
separates from the solution by combination of ions. The
solid formed is called a precipitate.
When two salt solutions are mixed, new salt
combinations become possible. The positive metal ion in
one salt solution combines with the negative ion in the
other and vice versa. If one of these salts is insoluble,
then it will precipitate from the solution.
The general formula for a precipitation reaction is:

5
 AB (aq) + XY (aq)  AY (s) + XB (aq)

For example, when we mix together potassium

iodide solution and lead (II) nitrate solution, a yellow
precipitate of lead(II) iodide forms.

Chemical equation: Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq)

 PbI2(s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

Ionic equation: Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) 

PbI2 (s)

Precipitation Explained

Before mixing After mixing

Ions in Lead(II) nitrate 1. lead(II) ions combine
solution: with iodide ions to
Pb2+, NO3- form lead(II) iodide,
which is insoluble.
Ions in potassium
iodide solution: Pb2+ +
K+, I- 2I-  PbI2 (s)

This is the precipitation

reaction.

2. potassium ions and

nitrate ion remain as
free, mobile ions in the
solution.

K+ (aq) and NO3- (aq)

Potassium and nitrate

ions are
called spectator

6
 ions because they do
not take part in the
precipitation reaction.

Thermal Decomposition
Thermal decomposition is a chemical reaction where a
single compound breaks up into two or more simpler
compounds or elements when heated. It is also an
endothermic reaction as heat is required to break
chemical bonds in the compound undergoing
decomposition. The decomposition reaction is
irreversible.

Example 1: Copper (II) carbonate decomposes on

heating to form copper(II) oxide and carbon dioxide:
CuCO3 (s)  CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

Example 2: Zinc nitrate decomposes on heating to give

zinc oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen:
Zn(NO3)2 (s)  2ZnO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2(g)

Summary of Reactivity of Metals and Action of

Heat on Their Compounds
Generally compounds of very reactive metals such as
sodium and potassium are more stable to heat than the
metals lower down in the reactivity series of metals.

Reactivity Action of Action of Action of

Series for heat on heat on heat on
Metal hydroxide carbonate nitrates

7
 s s
Most Stable, Stable, Decompose
reactive does not does not to metal
decompose decompose nitrite +
K on heating on heating oxygen
Na

Ca

Mg

Al Decompose
Decompose
Decompose to metal
to metal
Zn to metal oxide +
oxide +
oxide + oxygen +
Fe carbon
steam nitrogen
dioxide
dioxide
Pb

Cu

Least
reactive

The possible deductions made from the colour

changes and colour of the residue after heating

Observations Possible Cations

Compounds of Gp I, II and
III metals.
white residue or Ammonium salts.
white deposits Residue is likely to be
oxides of Gp I, Gp II and
Gp III metals formed.

8
 Copper(II) compounds,
Black powdery iron(II) compounds.
residue Residue is likely to be CuO,
FeO
Yellow residue
when hot, Zinc compounds; residue is
white residue zinc oxide.
when cold.
Solid changes
Solid is Copper(II)
colour from green
carbonate.
to black powder
CuO residue formed.
residue.
Black residue from
Organic compound present;
charring, usually
residue is carbon.
with burning odour

Possible Deductions Based On The Gas Evolved

During Heating

Observations Possible Deductions

Carbonate is present.
But not Na2CO3 or
Carbon dioxide
K2CO3 because they are stable
produced.
to heat.
Organic compounds.
Ammonia
Ammonium salt is present.
produced.
Only Oxygen is NaNO3 or KNO3 is present.
produced. Oxidising agents.
Oxygen and All other metal nitrates e.g.
Nitrogen dioxide Ca(NO3)2 , Zn(NO3)2 , Pb(NO3)2 ,
are produced. Cu(NO3)2.

9
 All sulphites SO32-, eg.
Sulphur dioxide
iron(II) sulphate
Water droplets are
produced. Water of
Colourless
crystallisation from hydrated
droplets of liquid
crystals e.g. CuSO4.5H2O,
condensed on
FeSO4.7H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O or
cool walls of test
water from thermal
tube.
decomposition of metal
hydroxides

Examples:
1) Thermal decomposition of Copper(II) carbonate:
Before heating, copper(II) carbonate is a green powder.
When copper(II) carbonate is heated, it undergoes
thermal decomposition to produce: i) a black powder,
copper(II) oxide, ii) a colourless gas, carbon dioxide,
which turns limewater milky.

CuCO3 (s)  CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

2) Thermal decomposition of zinc nitrate: When

zinc nitrate crystals are heated, they melt to form a
colourless liquid. Stronger heating is required to
decompose zinc nitrate. On stronger heating, oxygen
gas which relights a glowing splint is evolved. Further
heating produces a pungent brown gas, nitrogen dioxide,
which turns moist blue litmus red. Complete
decomposition produces a yellow residue of ZnO which
turns white when cooled.

2Zn(NO3)2 (s)  2ZnO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2 (g)

10
3) Thermal decomposition of Pb3O4: When dilead(II)
lead(IV) powder are heated, they melt to form a dark
brown liquid. On stronger heating, oxygen gas which
relights a glowing splint is evolved. Complete
decomposition produces a yellow residue of lead(II)
oxide.

2Pb3O4 (s)  6PbO (s) + O2 (g)

Acid-base Reactions
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions
when dissolved in water. Eg. hydrochloric acid, nitric
acid and sulphuric acid

A base is a substance that reacts with acids to produce

a salt and water. Most insoluble metal oxides and metal
hydroxides are bases.

An alkali is a substance that dissolves in water to

produce hydroxide ions. An alkali is usually a soluble
base. Eg. sodium hydroxide solution, potassium
hydroxide solution and aqueous ammonia.

Neutralisation Reaction
In a neutralisation reaction, an acid reacts with an
alkali to produce a salt and water. For example:

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Neutralisation Reaction Explained

The chemistry of a neutralisation reaction is essentially

the chemistry of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in
solution. The ionic equation for neutralisation:

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  H2O (l)

11
 Before mixing After mixing
Hydrochloric acid 1. Hydrogen ions
dissociates completely in combine with
water to form a solution hydroxide ions to
of hydrogen ions and form water
chloride ions: molecules in the
solution.
HCl (aq)  H+ (aq) +
Cl-(aq) H+(aq) + OH-
(aq) H2O(l)
Sodium hydroxide also This is the
dissociates completely in neutralisation
water to form a solution reaction.
of hydroxide and sodium
ions. 2. Sodium ions and
chloride ions
NaOH (aq)  OH- remain as free,
(aq) +Na+ (aq) mobile ions in the
solution.
The sodium and
chloride ions are
called spectator
ions because they
do not take part in
the neutralisation
reaction.

In general:

• Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series do

not react with dilute acids.
• Metals above hydrogen in the series react to
produce hydrogen gas.
• The higher the metal in the reactivity series, the
more vigorous the reaction.
1) Metal + Acid  Salt + Hydrogen

12
 2) Metal oxide + Acid  Salt + Water
3) Metal hydroxide + Acid  Salt +
Water
4) Carbonate + Acid  Salt + Carbon
dioxide + Water

Summary of making salts:

Use precipitation method.Mix two solutions,
No one containing the correct positive ion and
Is the salt the other the correct negative ion.
soluble?

Yes
No React an acid with an excess of a
solid metal(if suitably reactive),
metal oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
Is it a sodium
potassium or
ammonium
salt? Use titration method. React an acid
with a solution of sodium or
Yes potassium hydroxide or carbonate(or
use ammonia solution).

Redox Reactions
A redox reaction is a chemical reaction whereby both
reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously. Reduction
and oxidation always occur together.

Definition Oxidation
Reduction Reaction
in terms of Reaction
Oxygen 1. Substance 1. Substance loses
gain or loss gains oxygen oxygen
Hydrogen 2. Substance 2. Substance gains
gain or loss loses hydrogen hydrogen
Electron 3. Substance 3.Substance gains
transfer loses electrons to electrons from

13
 another reactant another reactant
OILRIG OILRIG
Oxygen is loss Reduction is gain.
Oxidation 4. Increase in 4. Decrease in
number oxidation number oxidation number

Oxidising and Reducing Agents

a. An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises
another substance by

1. adding or donating oxygen to the substance

2. removing hydrogen to the substance
3. removing electrons from the substance

In the process of oxidising another substance, the

oxidising agent itself becomes reduced. In a redox
reaction, the substance that is reduced is an oxidising
agent.

b. A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another

substance by

1. adding/donating hydrogen to the substance

2. removing oxygen from the substance
3. adding/donating electrons to the substance

In the process of reducing another substance, the

reducing agent itself becomes oxidised. In a redox
reaction, the substance that is oxidised is a reducing
agent.

Displacement of metals from solution to

investigate the reactivity of metals

14
The displacement of metals from solution is a redox
reaction. In general, a more reactive metal will displace
a less reactive metal from a solution of its ions.

One common displacement reaction in qualitative

analysis is the displacement of copper from a solution of
copper(II) salt by zinc metal:

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Zinc displaces copper from the solution because it is

more reactive than copper metal. Zinc, being more
reactive, loses its electrons readily. The electrons are
transferred from the zinc atoms to the copper(II) ions in
the solution. Copper(II) ions are reduced to copper metal
and zinc atoms become oxidised to zinc ions.

Oxidation reaction: Zn (s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

Reduction reaction: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s)

Reactions of metals with water

General Summary:

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series:

• Metal + Cold Water  Metal Hydroxide +

Hydrogen
• Metal + Steam  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen

Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series do

not react with water.

How do you know when to heat a mixture?

Carbonates and magnesium usually react in the cold

Most other substances usually have to be heated.

15
 Test For Cations
Cations (postively charged ions) are usually identified
using two main reagents:

1. Aqueous sodium hydroxide 2. Aqueous

ammonia

A cation is usually detected by adding aqueous sodium

hydroxide or aqueous ammonia to the unknown
solution.

The solubility table shows that most hydroxides are

soluble except for Group I metal hydroxides e.g. NaOH,
KOH and Ca(OH)2, sparingly soluble.

All other metal ions react with hydroxide ions in solution

to form insoluble hydroxides. The chemical reaction
involved in the formation of the insoluble metal
hydroxide is called precipitation.

1. Sodium hydroxide

An aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide solution

consists of mainly free, mobile sodium ions, hydroxide
ions and water molecules.

NaOH (aq)  Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

a)Adding NaOH (aq) to salt solutions containing

transition metal ions usually form coloured
precipitates while salt solutions containing Gp I, II and
III metal ions form white precipitates.

b) Metal hydroxides as Al(OH)3 , Zn(OH)2, and

Pb(OH)2 react with excess sodium hydroxide to form
complex salts that are soluble to form colourless
solutions.

16
c) In the case of ammonium ion, NH4+, no precipitate is
formed with aqueous sodium hydroxide. However, when
the mixture of ammonium ions and sodium hydroxide is
warmed gently, ammonia gas is liberated

Colour of Ion present; Name Ionic Equation

precipitat of precipiate
e
Blue Copper(II) Cu2+(aq) + 2OH- 
ions;Copper(II)hydroxi Cu(OH)2(s)
de
OrangeBro Iron (III) ions; Fe3+(aq) + 3OH- 
wn Iron(III)hydroxide Fe(OH)3(s)
Green Iron(II) ions; Iron (II) Fe2+(aq) + 2OH- 
hydroxide Fe(OH)2(s)
(NH4)+ ions present; NH4+(s/aq) +OH- 
No precipitate but the NH3(g) + H2O(l)
smell of Ammonia.

2. Aqueous ammonia

Ammonia dissolves in water and dissociates partially to

form hydroxide ions:

NH3 (g) + H2O (l)  NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

a)Most metal ions (except sodium, potassium and

calcium) react with aqueous
ammonia to form insoluble hydroxides.

b) Some metal ions e.g. Cu2+ and Zn2+ form complexes

with ammonia. Hence, their hydroxides are soluble in
excess ammonia.

Al 3+ (aq) Cu2+ (aq) ion

ion

17
 Add dilute 1a) Add dilute NH3 (aq)
NH3 (aq) until until a change is
no further observed.
change is
observed 1b) Add an excess of
dilute NH3 (aq) to the
mixture in test 1(a).

Observatio White a) blue precipitate formed,

n precipitate,
insoluble in b) ppt. dissolved in excess
excess NH3 (aq) to form a dark
blue solution.
Name and Aluminium Copper(II) hydroxide,
formula of hydroxide, Cu(OH)2
precipitate Al(OH)3
Type of Precipitation a) Precipitation of
chemical of Al(OH)3 Cu(OH)2
reaction(s)
b) Formation of complex
salt solution, i.e. Cu(OH)2
reacts with excess
ammonia solution to form
a soluble salt.

Ionic Al3+ (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH-

equation 3OH- (aq) (aq) Cu(OH)2 (s)
Al(OH)3 (s)

Test for Anions

a)Test for Chloride, Bromide and Iodide ions Add

dilute nitric acid followed by a few drops of silver nitrate.
The dilute nitric acid may be added before or after the
addition of silver nitrate solution. It is important to note

18
that dilute hydrochloric acid cannot be used as it
introduces chloride ions that interfere with the test.

Chloride Bromide Iodide ion

ion ion
Observatio White Pale cream Yellow
n precipitate precipitate precipitate
Identity of Silver Silver Silver Iodide,
precipitate chloride, bromide, AgI
formed AgCl AgBr
Ionic Ag+(aq) + Ag+ (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + I-
equation Cl-(aq)  Br- (aq)  (aq)  AgI
AgCl (s) AgBr (s) (s)

b)Test For Sulphate ion, SO42-(aq)

A solution of the suspected sulphate is made in pure

water. Enough dilute hydrochloric acid is added to make
it acidic and then some barium chloride solution is
added. A sulphate will produce a white precipitate of
barium sulphate. Both barium chloride and barium
nitrate solutions are used to detect anions that form
insoluble barium salts.

Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  BaSO4 (s)

It is important to note that dilute sulphuric acid cannot

be used as it introduces sulphate ions that interfere with
the test.

c)Test for carbonate ion in solution, CO32-

In the cold if a dilute acid is added to a solid carbonate,

carbon dioxide is produced.

It is best to use dilute nitric acid because some acid-

carbonate combinations can produce insoluble salts that

19
coat the solid carbonate, stopping the reaction. As all
nitrates are soluble it is best to use dilute nitric acid.

Dilute Nitric acid is added to the solution. Effervescence

occurs in the cold of a colourless gas that turns
limewater milky, carbon dioxide is produced.

Ionic equation of carobate reacting with any acid:

CO32- (s) + 2H+(aq)  CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

Collecting and Identifying

Tests for Gases

a) Hydrogen: Hydrogen is a colourless and odourless

gas which is less dense than air and is almost
insoluble in water. It can be collected over water or
by upward delivery. Test: Hydrogen ‘pops’ when a
lighted splint is held to the mouth of a test tube of
hydrogen. The hydrogen combines explosively with
oxygen in the air to make water.

2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)

b)Oxygen: Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas

which is almost the same density as air and is only
slightly soluble in water. It is normally collected over
water. Test: Oxygen relights a glowing
splint.

c)Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas

and odourless gas which is denser than air and is
slightly soluble in water. It can be collected both
over water and by downward delivery.

Test: Carbon dioxide turns limewater(Calcium hydroxide

solution) milky due to the formation of a white

20
precipitate of Calcium carbonate.
CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

Limewater white ppt.

d) Chlorine Gas: Chlorine is a green and pungent

smelling gas which denser than air and too soluble in
water. It is usually collected by downward delivery.
It can also be collected over concentrate salt
solution as it is less soluble in the salt solution.
It turns moist blue litmus red and then bleaches it.
Chlorine gas dissolves in water to form a strong acid and
a bleaching agent. Hydrochloric acid dissociates to form
hydrogen ions, which turn blue litmus red. Cl2 (g) + H2O
(l)  HCl (aq) + HClO (aq)

(bleaching agent)

e)Ammonia Gas: Ammonia gas is a pungent smelling

alkaline gas which is less dense than air and
extremely soluble in water. It can only be collected
by upward delivery. It turns moist red litmus
blue. Ammonia gas dissociates partially in water to form
hydroxide ions, OH-, which turns red litmus blue.

NH3 (g) + H2O (l)  NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

Tests for water: Using anhydrous

copper(II)sulphate: Water turns white anhydrous
copper(II) sulphate blue. anhydrous copper(II)sulphate
lacks water of crystallization and is white. Dropping
water onto it replaces the water of crystallization and
turns it blue.

CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)  CuSO4.5H2O(s)

Using cobalt chloride paper: When cobalt chloride

paper is dry it is blue. Adding water to it turns it pink.

21
 Cobalt chloride paper is filter paper that has been
dipped into cobalt(II)chloride solution and then dried
thoroughly in a desiccator. A dessiccator is a piece of
glassware or a small cabinet that contains a tray of some
substance which absorbs water.

Testing Water Purity: These tests do not show that

water is pure. To check purity, it can be shown that
water freezes at exactly 0degrees C and boils at
100degrees C at 1 atmospheric pressure.

Flame tests:
Potassium (K+)  Lilac

Sodium (Na+)  Yellow/Orange

Lithium (Li2+)  Dark Red (Crimson)

Calcium (Ca2+)  Dull Red (Brick red)

Copper (Cu2+)  Bluish green

Barium (Ba2+)  Apple Green

22