Atoms

KVS Jaipur Region Special Study Material For Under Scorer In Physics For Class XII For the
Session 2009-10
UNIT 8: ATOMS
ATOMS AND NUCLEI
RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING (Discovery of atomic
nucleus)
Fig.1shows Rutherford’s apparatus to investigate the scattering of α -particles. Alpha-particles
emitted by a 214
83 Bi radioactive source were collimated into a narrow beam by their passage through
lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10–7 m. The
scattered alpha-particles were observed through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc sulphide
screen and a microscope. The scattered alpha- particles on striking the screen produced brief light
flashes or scintillations. These flashes may be viewed through a microscope and counted at different
angles from the direction of incidence of beam. The angle θ of the deviation of α –particles form its
original direction is called its scattering angle θ.
Fig.1
The graph between the total number of α -particles N (θ) scattered at angle θ and the scattering
angle θ is shown in Fig.2.
Fig.2
From the graph we conclude that -
Dr Mahesh Srivastava 208 Atoms and Nuclei

KVS Jaipur Region Special Study Material For Under Scorer In Physics For Class XII For the Session 2009-10
(i) A very few α-particles were scattered at angles greater than 90°. Some even bounced straight
back; a deflection of 180°.
(ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected through small angles i.e. scattering angle θ (angle
between the incident particle and the scattered one) was small.
(iii) Most of the α-particles passed straight way through the gold sheet with no change of direction.
Conclusions:
Rutherford made the following conclusions from the scattering of α-particles:
(i) The large angle scattering of α -particles could happen, Rutherford reasoned, only if the
positively charged α-particles were being repelled by a massive positive charge concentrated in a
very small region of space. Therefore, Rutherford proposed that:
Fig.3
(a) An atom has a tiny positively charged core (now called the nucleus) which contains most of the
mass (99.9%) of the atom.
(b) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons some distance away. The electrons are moving in orbits
about the nucleus — much like the planets move around the sun — because if they were at rest,
they would fall into the nucleus due to electrical attraction.
(c) As the atom is electrically neutral, the total positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the total
negative charge of the electrons in the atom.
DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH (SIZE OF NUCLEUS)
The smallest distance between the nucleus and α-particle fired for head on collision towards the
nucleus is called the distance of closest approach (r0).
To calculate the nuclear dimensions from the scattering experiment. Rutherford assumed the
following points
(i) Since the nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier than a α-particle, it is reasonable to
assume that it remains stationary throughout the scattering process.
(ii) The scattering is due to elastic collision between nucleus and α-particle.

Fig.4
Suppose a α- particle is directed towards the centre of the nucleus of an atom as shown in Fig. The
α- particle slows down and then comes to a momentary stop at a distance r0 from the nucleus before
it begins to move back along its original path. When the α-particle is outside the atom, the electric
potential energy of the system is zero because the atom is neutral and does not produce any external
electric field. But once the α- particle passes through the region of electron orbits on its way toward
the nucleus, it experiences a repulsive force due to the positive charge on the nucleus.
Consequently, the α-particle starts slowing down. As the α-particle slows down; its kinetic energy
starts transferring into electric potential energy of the system. The transfer is complete when the α-
particle stops momentarily. At this point, the distance of the α-particle from the nucleus is r0 and its
entire kinetic energy is transferred to the electric potential energy of the system. The α-particle now
retraces its path.
Mathematical expression for r0
Let m = mass of the α-particle
v = initial velocity of the α- particle
q1 = charge on α-particle (+2e)
q2 = charge on the nucleus (= +Ze)
Ze
Electric potential at distance r0 due to the nucleus =
4πε o ro
Ze
Potential energy of α-particle at this distance r0 from the nucleus = ×2e
4πε o ro
1
Kinetic energy of α- particle of mass m moving with velocity v is E = mv 2
2
At the distance of closest approach, K.E. = P.E
1 2 2 Ze 2
mv =
2 4πε o ro
2Ze 2
ro = ----- (1)
1
4πε o mv 2
2
In original experiment K.E. of α- particle = 5.5 MeV = 5.5 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J
Z = 79 for gold, e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C
From equation (1)

9 × 10 9 × 79 × (1.6 × 10 −19 ) × 2
ro =
8.8 × 10 −13
ro = 4.13 × 10 −14 metre
ro = 41.3 fermi
Therefore radius of gold nucleus must be less than 41.3 fermi
IMPACT PARAMETER
The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the α-particle
from the centre of the nucleus (Fig 5).
Fig.5
1
For large impact parameters, force experienced by α-particles is weak because F ∝
(dis tan ce) 2
Rutherford found mathematically the relation between impact parameter b and the scattering angle θ
as:
Ze 2 cot θ / 2
b=
1 
4πε o  mv 2 
2 
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM

The essential features of this model are:
(i) Every atom consists of a tiny central core, called the nucleus which contains all of the atom’s
positive charge and most of its mass (99.9%). Therefore, α-particle travelling close to the nucleus
(i.e. impact parameter b is small) will have large scattering angle. Thus Rutherford’s model explains
large angle scattering of α -particles.
(ii) The radius of the nucleus is of the order of 10–15 m and that of the atom is of the order of 10–10
m. Therefore, the nucleus occupies only a small portion of the available space.
(iii) The electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus. Since an atom is electrically neutral, the
positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the negative charge on the electrons.
(iv) Electrons are not stationary but revolve around the nucleus in circular paths. In this way
Rutherford provided stability to the atom. It is because now the force of attraction between the
electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary centripetal force to the revolving electrons.

Fig.6
Let e = charge on electron

Z = total number of protons in the nucleus
m = mass of the electron
r = distance of electron from the nucleus
v = linear velocity of the electron
Charge on the nucleus = Ze
Force of attraction between electron and nucleus
( Ze)e Ze 2
F= =
4πε o r 2 4πε o r 2
This force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary centripetal
force to the revolving electrons
Ze 2 mv 2
=
4πε o r 2 r
SUCCESS OF THE MODEL
(i) It could explain large angle scattering of α-particle through thin gold foil.
(ii) It justified the classification of elements in the periodic table on the basis of their atomic
number.
LIMITATIONS OR DRAW BACKS
(i) According to Maxwell’s theory of electro- magnetism, a charge that is accelerating radiates
energy as electromagnetic waves. The electron moving around the nucleus is under constant
acceleration and, therefore, it should continuously lose
energy. Due to this continuous loss of energy, the
electrons in Rutherford’s model was bound to spiral
towards the nucleus and fall into it when all of their
rotational energy were radiated [See Fig.7]. Hence,
Rutherford’s atomic model cannot be stable while in
actual practice, an atom is stable. This shows that
Rutherford’s model is not correct.
Fig.7

(ii) During inward spiraling, the electron’s angular frequency continuously increases. As a result,
electrons will radiate electromagnetic waves of all frequencies i.e. the spectrum of these waves will
be continuous in nature because there is continuous loss of energy. But this is contrary to
observation. Experiments show that an atom emits line spectra and each line corresponds to a
particular frequency/wavelength. But Rutherford’s model fails to explain the line spectra. Thus the
Rutherford model failed to account for the stability of the atom. It was also unable to explain the
emission of line spectra.
BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
The followings are the basic postulates of Bohr’s model
(i) The electrons in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of
radiant energy,
(ii) The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 ×
10–34 J s). Thus the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantized. That is L
= nh/2π
(iii) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to
another. The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted orbits is
absorbed when the electron jumps from inner to the outer orbit and emitted when
electron jumps from outer to the inner orbit. Suppose an electron jumps from a higher
orbit of energy E2 to a lower orbit of energy E1. According to Bohr, the atom will release
energy E2 – E1 in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The frequency f of the emitted
radiation is given by Planck’s law as:
E2 – E1 = h f
BOHR’S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus in the nth stationary orbit as shown in Fig. 8
Fig.8
m = mass of electron
rn = radius of the nth orbit
Z = number of positive charges (or protons)
vn = velocity of the electron in the nth orbit
1. Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits :
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus of charge (Ze) and electrons of charge (-e)
( Ze)e Ze 2
is F = 2
= 2
4πε o rn 4πε o rn

This force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary centripetal
force to the revolving electrons
Ze 2 mv 2
2
= ----- (1)
4πε o rn rn
According to Bohr’s theory, angular momentum (i.e. m vn rn) of electron is equal to

n h/2 π i.e. m vn rn = nh/2π
nh
vn = ------ (2)
(2π )mrn
Substituting this value in equation (1)
Ze 2 mn2 h 2
2
= 3
4πε o rn (4π 2 )m 2 rn
ε on2h 2
rn =
πZme 2
 ε h2  n2
rn =  o 2  ------ (3)
 πme  Z
 (8.85 × 10 −12 )(6.62 × 10 −34 ) 2  n 2 −10 n
2
rn =  − 31 −19 2 
= 0.53 ×[10 ]
metre
 3.14 × 9.1 × 10 (1.6 × 10 )  Z Z
For hydrogen atom Z=1,

rn = 0.53 AO n 2
rn ∝ n 2
Hence radii of different orbits are directly proportional to the square of n. In other words, the radii
are in the ratio of 12, 22, 32, 42 ... i.e. in the ratio 1: 4: 9: 16 ... It may be noted that the orbits are not
equally spaced.
For first orbit of hydrogen atom
i.e. n=1
r = 0.53 A O
2. Velocity of electron in the stationary orbits:
From equation (2) velocity of electron in the nth orbit
nh
vn = ------ (4)
(2π )mrn
Substituting the value of rn from equation (3) in equation (4)
nh  (π )mZe 2 
vn = × 
(2π )m  ε o n 2 h 2 

Ze 2
vn = ------ (5)
2ε o nh
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
e2
vn = ------ (6)
2ε o nh
3. Frequency of electron in stationary orbits: The number of revolutions completed per
second by the electron in a stationary orbit around the nucleus is called frequency of the electron.
It is denoted by f.
We know that
v n = rnω n = rn 2π f n
vn Ze 2 1
fn = = ×
2πrn 2ε o nh 2πrn
Ze 2
fn = ------- (7)
4πε o nhrn
For hydrogen atom Z = 1
e2
fn = --------- (8)
4πε o nhrn
For n = 1, r1 = 0.53 × 10–10 m.
Q Frequency of electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom is
e2
f1 =
4πε o hr1
(1.6 × 10 −19 ) 2
f1 = −12 − 34 −10
= 6.57 × 1015 rps
4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10 × 6.62 × 10 × 0.53 × 10
4. Total energy of electron in the stationary orbits:

The electron revolving around the nucleus has both electric potential energy (due to its position
w.r.t. the nucleus) and kinetic energy (due to its motion) i.e.
Total energy of electron in nth orbit, En = P.E. + K.E.
− Ze 2 − Ze 2πZme 2 − mZ 2 e 4
P.E. of electron in the nth orbit = = =
4πε o rn 4πε o ε o n 2 h 2 2
4ε o n 2 h 2
1 2 1 Z 2e 4 mZ 2 e 4
K.E. of electron in the nth orbit = mv n = m 2
= 2
2 2 4ε o n 2h 2 8ε o n 2 h 2
En = P.E. + K.E.
− mZ 2 e 4 mZ 2 e 4
En = 2
+ 2
4ε o n 2 h 2 8ε o n 2 h 2

− mZ 2 e 4  − 9.1 × 10 −31 × (1.6 × 10 −19 ) 4  Z2

En = 2
=  −12 2 −34 2  2
8ε o n 2 h 2  8 × (8.85 × 10 ) × (6.62 × 10 )  n
Z2
En = − 21.7 × 10 −19 2 joule
n
 − 21.7 × 10  Z 2
−19
En =  −19
 2
 1 .6 × 10 n
13.6Z 2
En = − eV --------- (9)
n2
For hydrogen atom Z=1
13.6
En = − 2 eV --------- (10)
n
The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the electron is bound to the
nucleus. If E were positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
When n → ∞, E∞ = 0 and the electron becomes free. Thus energy is required to remove an electron
from the atom; this is called ionisation energy. The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom has been
measured to be 13.6 eV and this corresponds precisely to removing the electron from the lowest
state E1 = – 13.6 eV to E∞ = 0 where it will
be free.
Spectral series
The whole hydrogen spectrum can be divided into distinct groups of lines; each group of lines is
called spectral series.
When an electron jumps from a higher orbit (n2) to the lower orbit (n1), the energy difference
between the two orbits is released because the energy of electron in the
higher orbit is more than in the lower orbit. Consider two orbits having principal quantum numbers
n2 and n1 where n2 > n1 [See Fig.9].
Fig.9
Then energy of electron in the two orbits is given by;

− mZ 2 e 4
E n2 = 2 2
8ε o n 2 h 2
− mZ 2 e 4
E n1 = 2 2
8ε o n1 h 2
The frequency f of the emitted radiation is given by ;
En2 –En1 = h f
− mZ 2 e 4 − mZ 2 e 4
[ 2 2
]-[ 2 2
]=hf
8ε o n 2 h 2 8ε o n1 h 2
mZ 2 e 4  1 1
f= 3  2
− 2
8ε o h  n1 n2 
c mZ 2 e 4  1 1
= 3  2
− 2
λ 8ε o h  n1 n2 
1 mZ 2 e 4  1 1
= 3  2
− 2
λ 8cε o h  n1 n2 
1 1 1
= RZ2  2 − 2  -------- (1)
λ n
 1 n 2 
R is a constant called the Rydberg constant, The value of R is 1.097 × 107 m–1
For hydrogen atom Z =1
1 1 1
=R 2 − 2  -------- (2)
λ  n1 n2 
This equation is known as Rydberg formula for the spectrum of hydrogen atom.The various spectral
series of hydrogen atom are represented as below:

1. Lyman series:
The lyman series is obtained when electrons jump to first orbit (n1 = 1) from outer orbits (n2 = 2, 3,
4, ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
1  1 1
=R 2 − 2 
λ  (1) n2 
This series lies in the ultraviolet region which is the invisible region.
2. Balmer series: The Balmer series is obtained when electrons jump to second orbit (n1 = 2)
from outer orbits (n2 = 3, 4, 5 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines
in this series is
1  1 1
=R 2 − 2 
λ  (2) n2 
This series lies in the visible spectrum and was found first of all in the hydrogen series.
3. Paschen series:
The Paschen series is obtained when electrons jump to third orbit (n1 = 3) from outer orbits (n2 = 4,
5, 6 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
1  1 1
=R 2 − 2 
λ  (3) n2 
This series lies in the infrared region.
4. Brackett series:
The Brackett series is obtained when electrons jump to fourth orbit (n1 = 4) from
outer orbits (n2 = 5, 6, 7 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in
this series is
1  1 1
=R 2 − 2 
λ  (4) n2 
This series lies in the infrared region
5. Pfund series:
The Pfund series is obtained when electrons jump to fifth orbit (n1 = 5) from outer orbits
(n2 = 6, 7, 8 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
1  1 1
=R 2 − 2 
λ  (5) n2 
This series lies in the infrared region
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OR THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE

HYDROGEN ATOM
A diagram which represents the total energies of electron in different stationary orbits of an atom by
the parallel horizontal lines is called energy level diagram.
Total energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by:
13.6
En = − 2 eV
n

By substituting the value of n, we can find the energy of electron of hydrogen atom in any orbit.
Table below gives the energy of electron of hydrogen atom in different orbits.
S. No. Orbits (n) Energy of Electron (En)

1 n=1 – 13.6 eV
2 n=2 – 3.4 eV
3 n=3 – 1.51 eV
4 n=4 – 0.85 eV
5 n=5 – 0.54 eV
6 n=6 – 0.38 eV
........
........
........
n=∞ 0 eV
The various lines in the atomic spectra are produced when electrons jump from higher energy state
to a lower energy state and photons are emitted. These spectral lines are called emission lines. But
when an atom absorbs a photon that has precisely the same energy needed by the electron in a lower
energy state to make transitions to a higher energy state, the process is called absorption.
LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S THEORY

The following are some of the limitations of Bohr’s theory
(i) Bohr’s model is applicable to simplest atoms like hydrogen with Z = 1. It fails for other
elements
(ii) this theory does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines in the hydrogen atom.
(iii) It could not explain the difference in the intensities of emitted radiations.
(iv) It does not take into account the wave properties of electrons.
(v) Bohr’s model does not explain why the orbits are circular while elliptical orbits are also
possible.

. de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have a wavelength λ = h/mv gave an explanation

for Bohr’s quantized orbits by bringing in the wave particle
duality. The orbits correspond to circular standing waves in
which the circumference of the orbit equals a whole number of
wavelengths.
NUCLEI
An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged. The radius of the nucleus is
smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of 104. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is
concentrated in the nucleus.
On the atomic scale, mass is measured in atomic mass units (u). By definition, 1 atomic
mass unit (1u) is 1/12th mass of one atom of 12C; 1u = 1.660563 × 10–27 kg.
A nucleus contains a neutral particle called neutron. Its mass is almost the same as that of
proton
The atomic number Z is the number of protons in the atomic nucleus of an element. The
mass number A is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus; A =
Z+N; Here N denotes the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
A nuclear species or a nuclide is represented as A X Z , where X is the chemical symbol of
the species. Nuclides with the same atomic number Z, but different neutron number N are
called isotopes. Nuclides with the same A are isobars and those with the same N are
isotones. Most elements are mixtures of two or more isotopes. The atomic mass of an
element is a weighted average of the masses of its isotopes. The masses are the relative
abundances of the isotopes.
A nucleus can be considered to be spherical in shape and assigned a radius. Electron
scattering experiments allow determination of the nuclear radius; it is found that radii of
nuclei fit the formula R = R0 A1/3,
where R0 = a constant = 1.2 fm. This implies that the nuclear density is independent of A. It
is of the order of 1017 kg/m3.
Neutrons and protons are bound in a nucleus by the short-range strong nuclear force. The
nuclear force does not distinguish between neutron and proton.

The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, Σm, of its constituents. The
difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the mass defect,
∆M = (Z mp + (A – Z )mn) – M
Using Einstein’s mass energy relation, we express this mass difference in terms of energy as
∆Eb = ∆M c2
The energy ∆Eb represents the binding energy of the nucleus. In the mass number range A
= 30 to 170, the binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant, about 8 MeV/nucleon.
Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which nuclei of a given species transform by giving
out α or β or γ rays; α-rays are helium nuclei; β-rays are electrons. γ-rays are
electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths shorter than X-rays;
Law of radioactive decay: N (t) = N (0) e–λt where λ is the decay constant or
disintegration constant.
The half-life T1/2 of a radionuclide is the time in which N has been reduced to one-half of its
initial value. The mean life τ is the time at which N has been reduced to e–1 of its initial
value
ln 2
T1 / 2 = = τ ln 2
λ
Energy is released when less tightly bound nuclei are transmuted into more tightly bound
nuclei. In fission, a heavy nucleus like 92 U 235 breaks into two smaller fragments, e.g
235
92 U + 01 n → 133 99 1
51 Sb + 41 Nb + 4 0 n
The fact that more neutrons are produced in fission than are consumed gives the possibility
of a chain reaction with each neutron that is produced triggering fission. The chain reaction
is uncontrolled and rapid in a nuclear bomb explosion. It is controlled and steady in a
nuclear reactor. In a reactor, the value of the neutron multiplication factor k is maintained
at 1.
In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus.
1
1 H + 11H →12 H + e + + ν + 0.42 MeV
Fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei is the source of energy of all stars including
our sun
4 11H+2e− → 24He+2ν +6γ +26.7MeV

Very short Answer type Questions [1 marks each]

1. What was the main conclusion of Rutherford’s experiment on the scattering of alpha
particles by thin foils?
Ans Rutherford concluded that there is a central massive positively charged core called
nucleus inside every atom.
2. What is the value of impact parameter for head on collision? Ans zero
3. Write two important inferences drawn from Rutherford’s alpha particles scattering
experiment. Ans (i) the most of the mass and the entire positive charge of an atom are
concentrated in a very small volume of an atom called nucleus. (ii) The nuclear radius
is about 1/10,000 of the atomic radius.
4. Why do we use a very thin gold foil in Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment?
Ans In thick foil, the entire kinetic energy of alpha particle will be absorbed and alpha
particle will not be able to penetrate through the foil.
5. Why is it that mass of the nucleus does not enter the formula for impact parameter, but its
charge does? Ans The scattering occurs due to electrostatic field of the nucleus. That is
why charge of nucleus enters the expression for the impact parameter.
6. Name the series of hydrogen spectrum which least wave length. Ans Lyman Series
7. Out of the three radiations of wave lengths 8000Ao, 5000 Ao, 1000 Ao, which one
corresponds to Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum? Ans 1000 Ao, because Lyman series
lies in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
8. Name the spectral series of hydrogen spectrum which lies in the visible region of e.m.
spectrum. Ans Balmer Series
9. Two nuclei have mass number in the ratio 1:2. What is the ratio of their nuclear densities?
Ans Nuclear density is independent to the mass number therefore ratio of nuclear
densities is 1:1.
10. Define decay constant of a radioactive element.
Ans It is the reciprocal of time in which number of undecayed nuclei of that element
falls to 1/e times of its initial value
11. Four nuclei of an element fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. If the process is
accompanied by release of energy, which of the two - the parent or the daughter nucleus
would have a higher binding energy/nucleon? Ans daughter nucleus

12. Can it be concluded from beta decay that electrons exist inside the nucleus?
Ans No
13. What will be the ratio of radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?
1/ 3
R A 
Ans 1 =  1 
R2  A2 
14. A nucleus of mass number A has a mass defect ∆m. Give the formula for the binding energy
per nucleon of this nucleus.
∆m c 2
Ans B.E. per nucleon =
A
15. Write the relation between half life and decay constant of a radioactive sample.
0.693
λ=
T1 / 2
32
16. Write the nuclear decay process for beta decay of 15 P.
32 32
Ans 15 P → 16 S + −10 e +ν
Short Answer Type Questions-I [2marks each]

17. The kinetic energy of α-particle incident on gold foil is doubled then how does the distance
of closest approach change? Ans as the distance of closest approach is inversely
proportional to the kinetic energy of the incident alpha particle, so the distance of
closest approach is halved when the kinetic energy of alpha particle is doubled.
18. What is the angular momentum of an electron in the third orbit of an atom? Ans
Angular momentum of an electron L = nh/2л for third orbit of an atom n=3
3 × 6.6 × 10 −34
∴L = = 3.15 × 10 −34 Js
2 × 3.14
19. What is the Bohr’s quantization condition of the angular momentum of an electron in the
second orbit? Ans According to the Bohr’s theory, the stationary orbits are those for
which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π. (Bohr’s quantization
condition.) That is L = nh/2π, where n is an integer called a quantum number

20. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of hydrogen atom is about -3.4eV.
What is the kinetic energy and potential energy of electron in this state?
Ans K.E. of the electron = - total energy of the electron = -(-3.4eV) =3.4eV
Potential energy of electron = 2(total energy of electron) = 2x (-3.4) = -6.8eV
21. Calculate the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of electron of hydrogen
atom from its,
(i) Second permitted energy level to the first level, and
(ii) Highest permitted energy level to the second permitted level
Ans E1= -3.4-(-13.6) = 10.2 eV And E2 = 0-(-3.4) = 3.4Ev
Ratio E1/ E2 =10.2/3.4 =3:1
22. A radioactive nucleus ‘A’ undergoes a series of decays according to following scheme;
γ
A α
→ A1 →
β A2 →
α A3 →−
A4
23. The mass number and atomic number of A are 180 and 72 respectively. What are these
numbers for A4?
180 176 176 172 172
Ans 72A α
→ 70A1
β
→ 71A2
−
α
→ 69A3 γ
→ 69A4
Thus the mass number and atomic number of A4 are 172 and 69 respectively
24. In a radioactive decay as follows :
+1e
αo
176
71
 A1 
A →  → A2
The mass number and atomic number of A2 are 176 and 71 respectively, what are the mass
number and atomic number of A1 and A2. Which of these three elements are isobars?
+1 e
o α
Ans 176
71 A →
 176
70 A1 
 → 172
68 A2
The elements A and A1 are isobars.

25. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
Ans Solution
Energy, E = 10–3 × ( 3 × 108)2 J
E = 10–3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013 J
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release of enormous
amount of energy.
26. You are given two nuclides 37 X and 43Y .

(i) Are they the isotopes of the same element? Why?

(ii) Which one of the two is likely to be more stable? Give reason.
Ans (i) since X and Y have the same atomic numbers, they are the isotopes of the same
element viz Li.
(ii) 3X7 (or 3Li7) is more stable than 3Y4 (or 3Li4) . This is due to the fact that number of
neutrons is more in 3X7 as compared to that in 3Y4. Therefore, attractive force between
the nucleons is greater in 3X7
27. The half-life period of a radioactive substance is 30 days. What is the time taken for 3/4 th
of its original mass to disintegrate?
t / T1 / 2 t / 30
1 N 1
Ans N = N O   , O = NO  
2 4 2
2 t / 30
1 1
  =  , t/30 = 2, t=60 days
2 2
Short Answer Type Questions-II [3 marks each]

28. State Bohr’s postulate for the ‘permitted orbits’ for the electron in a hydrogen atom. Use this
postulate to prove that the circumference of the nth permitted orbit for the electron can
‘contain’ exactly n wave lengths of the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron
in that orbit. Ans the stationary orbits are those for which the angular momentum is
some integral multiple of h/2π. (Bohr’s quantization condition.) That is L = nh/2π,
where n is an integer called a quantum number
h h
m v n rn = n or 2π rn = n
2π m vn
h
But = λn = the associated de Broglie wave length for electron in its nth orbit. Hence
m vn
2 л rn = n λn i.e. circumference of the nth permitted orbit for the electron is equal to n
wave lengths of the de Broglie wavelength.
29. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is about –3.4
eV.

(a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?

(b) What is the potential energy of the electron in this state?
(c) Which of the answers above would change if the choice of the zero of potential energy is
changed?
Ans (a) The quoted value of E = – 3.4 eV is based on the customary choice of zero of
potential energy at infinity. Using E = – T, the kinetic energy of the electron in this
state is + 3.4 eV.
(b) Using V = – 2T, potential energy of the electron is = – 6.8 eV
(c) If the zero of potential energy is chosen differently, kinetic energy does not change.
Its value is + 3.4 eV independent of the choice of the zero of potential energy. The
potential energy, and the total energy of the state, however, would alter if a different
zero of the potential energy is chosen.
30. Obtain the first Bohr’s radius and the ground state energy of a muonic hydrogen atom [i.e.,
an atom in which a negatively charged muon (µ–) of mass about 207me orbits around a
proton].
Ans All that is needed is to replace me by mµ in the formulas of the Bohr model. We
note that keeping other factors fixed, r ∝ (1/m) and E ∝ m.
Therefore,
re me 0.53 × 10 −13
rn = = = 2.56 × 10 −13 m
mn 207
E e mn
Eµ = = −(13.6 × 207 )eV ≅ − 2.8keV
me
31. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30 sec. Calculate :

(i) The decay constant, and
(ii) Time taken for the sample to decay to 3/4 th of its initial value.
[Ans. (i) λ= 0.023 sec-1. (ii) 60 sec]
0.693 0.693
Ans (i) λ = = = 0.023 sec −1
T1 / 2 30
t / T1 / 2 t / 30 2 t / 30
1 NO 1 1 1
(ii) Ans N = N O   , = NO     =  t/30 = 2, t=60 S
2 4 2 2 2

32. The nucles of an atom of 235

92Y , initially at rest, decays by emitting an -particle as per the
equation
235
Y → 231
92
4
90 X + 2 He + Energy
It is given that the binding energies per nucleon of the parent and the daughter nuclei are 7.8
MeV and 7.835 MeV respectively and that of -particle ia 7.07MeV/nucleon. Assuming the
daughter nucleus to be formed in the unexcited state and neglecting its share in the energy of the
reaction, calculate the speed of the emitted -particle. Take mass of -particle to be 6.68 x 10-27 kg.
Ans Total B.E. of parent nucleus = 7.8 x 235 = 1833 MeV
Total B.E. of Daughter nucleus = 7.835 x 231 = 1809.9 MeV
Total B.E. of alpha particle = 7.07 x 4 = 28.28 MeV
Increase in B.E. after the reaction = [(180.9+28.28)-(1833)] = 5.18 MeV
This is the energy released in the reaction, since it assumed to be taken up totally by the
alpha particle.
½ mv2 = 5.18 x 1.6 x 10-13 J
5.18 × 3.2
v2 = × 1014 m 2 s − 2
6.68
v = 2.48 × 10 7 m / s = 1.58 × 10 7 m / s
33. Define the term ‘Activity’ of a radioactive substance. State its SI unit.
Two different radioactive elements with half lives T1 and T2 have N1 and N2 (undecayed)
atoms respectively present at a given instant. Determine the ratio of their activities at this
instant.
Ans The activity of radioactive substance means the rate of decay of radioactive
dN
substance i.e. A = . Its SI unit is Becquerel (Bq)
dt
dN 1 0.693 dN 2 0.693
A1 = = −λ1 N 1 = − N 1 , A2 = = −λ 2 N 2 = − N2
dt T1 dt T2
A1 N 1 T2 NT
= × = 1 2
A2 T1 N 2 T1 N 2
34. Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and then in MeV. Using
this, express the mass defect of 168 O in MeV/c2.
Ans Solution

1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
To convert it into energy units, we multiply it by c2 and find that
energy equivalent = 1.6605 × 10–27 × (2.9979 × 108)2 kg m2/s2
= 1.4924 × 10–10 J
1.4924 × 10 −10
= −19
= 0.9315 × 10 9 e V
1.602 × 10
= 931.5 MeV
or, 1u = 931.5 MeV/c2
For 168 O , ∆M = 0.13691 u = 0.13691×931.5 MeV/c2
= 127.5 MeV/c2
The energy needed to separate 168 O into its constituents is thus
127.5 MeV/c2.
35. The half-life of 238
92U undergoing α-decay is 4.5 × 109 years. What is the activity of 1g
sample of 238
92 U ?
Ans Solution
T 1/2 = 4.5 × 109 y = 4.5 × 109 y x 3.16 x 107 s/y = 1.42 × 1017s
One k mol of any isotope contains Avogadro’s number of atoms, and so 1g of
238 1
92 U contains −3
k mol × 6.025 × 10 26 atoms / k mol = 25.3 × 10 20 atoms
238 × 10
0.693 0.693 × 25.3 × 10 20 −1
The decay rate R =λ N = N= 17
s = 1.23 × 10 4 s −1 or Bq
T1 / 2 1.42 × 10
36. Prove that the instantaneous rate of change of the activity of a radioactive substance is
inversely proportional to the square of its half life.
dN
Ans we know that A = =-λN
dt
2
dA d dN  0.693  dA 1
= (λN ) = λ = λ (− λN ) = −λ2 N = −  N ∴ ∝
dt dt dt  T1 / 2  dt (T1 / 2 )2
1
37. A radioactive material is reduced to of its original amount in 4 days. How much material
16
should one begin with so that 4 x 10-3 kg of the material is left after 6 days?
Ans we know that

t / T1 / 2 4 / T1 / 2 4 4 / T1 / 2
1 NO 1 1 1 4
N = NO   , = NO   ,   = NO   , 4= ,
2 16 2 2 2 T1 / 2
6 /1
1
T1/2 = 1day 4 × 10 −3 = N O   ∴Original amount = 4 × 10 −3 × 64 = 0.256kg
2
38. Explain with an example, whether the neutron to proton ratio increases or deceases during
(i) alpha decay and (ii) beta decay.
Ans (i) 238 234 4
92 U → 90 Th + 2 He
238 − 92 146
Neutron to proton ratio before alpha decay = = = 1.59
92 92
234 − 90 144
Neutron to proton ratio after alpha decay = = = 1.60
90 90
As 1.60 > 1.59 i.e. Increases
(ii) 234 234 0
90Th → 91 Pa + −1 β + ν
234 − 90 144
Neutron to proton ratio before beta decay = = = 1.60
90 90
234 − 91 143
Neutron to proton ratio after beta decay = = = 1.57
91 91
As 1.57 <1.60 i.e. decreases
39. Sketch the energy level diagram for hydrogen atom. Mark the transition corresponding to
Lyman series and Balmer series.
Long Answer Type Questions [5 marks each]
40. State Bohr’s postulates. Using these postulates derive an expression for the total energy of
an electron in the nth orbit of an atom. What does negative value of this energy signify?
(a) In a hydrogen atom, an electron revolves in certain stable orbits (called stationary
orbits) without the emission of radiant energy.

(b) The stationary orbits are those for which the angular momentum is some integral
multiple of h/2π. (Bohr’s quantization condition.) That is L = nh/2π, where n is an
integer called a quantum number.
(c) The third postulate states that an electron might make a transition from one of its
specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is
emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final
states. The frequency (ν) of the emitted photon is then given by
hν = Ei – Ef
The electron revolving around the nucleus has both electric potential energy (due to its
position w.r.t. the nucleus) and kinetic energy (due to its motion) i.e.
Total energy of electron in nth orbit, En = P.E. + K.E.
− Ze 2 − Ze 2πZme 2 − mZ 2 e 4
P.E. of electron in the nth orbit = = =
4πε o rn 4πε o ε o n 2 h 2 2
4ε o n 2 h 2
1 2 1 Z 2e 4 mZ 2 e 4
K.E. of electron in the nth orbit = mv n = m 2
= 2
2 2 4ε o n 2h 2 8ε o n 2 h 2
En = P.E. + K.E.
− mZ 2 e 4 mZ 2 e 4
En = 2
+ 2
4ε o n 2 h 2 8ε o n 2 h 2
− mZ 2 e 4  − 9.1 × 10 −31 × (1.6 × 10 −19 ) 4  Z2
En = 2
=  −12 2 −34 2  2
8ε o n 2 h 2  8 × (8.85 × 10 ) × (6.62 × 10 )  n
Z2
En = − 21.7 × 10 −19 2 joule
n
 − 21.7 × 10  Z 2
−19
En =  −19
 2
 1.6 × 10 n
13.6Z 2
En = − eV -------- (1)
n2
For hydrogen atom Z=1
13.6
En = − 2 eV --------- (2)
n
The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the electron is
bound to the nucleus. If E were positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit
around the nucleus.
41. Prove that the radius of the nth Bohr’s orbit of an atom is directly proportional to n2, where n
is the principal quantum number.
Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus in the nth stationary orbit as shown
in Fig.


m = mass of electron
rn = radius of the nth orbit
Z = number of positive charges (or protons)
vn = velocity of the electron in the nth orbit
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus
of charge (Ze) and electrons of charge (-e) is
( Ze)e Ze 2
F= 2
= 2
4πε o rn 4πε o rn
This force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary
centripetal force to the revolving electrons
Ze 2 mv 2
2
= ----- (1)
4πε o rn rn
According to Bohr’s theory, angular momentum (i.e. m vn rn) of electron is equal to

n h/2 π i.e. m vn rn = nh/2π
nh
vn = ------ (2)
(2π )mrn
Substituting this value in equation (1)
Ze 2 mn2 h 2
2
= 3
4πε o rn (4π 2 )m 2 rn
ε on2h2
rn =
πZme 2
 ε oh2  n2
rn =  2 
------ (3)
 πme  Z
 (8.85 × 10 −12 )(6.62 × 10 −34 ) 2  n 2 −10 n
2
rn =  − 31 −19 2 
[
= 0.53 × 10 ] metre
 3.14 × 9.1 × 10 (1.6 × 10 )  Z Z
For hydrogen atom Z=1,
rn = 0.53 AO n 2
rn ∝ n 2
Hence radii of different orbits are directly proportional to the square of n.
42. Draw a labeled diagram of experimental set up of Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering
experiment. Write two important inferences drawn from this experiment.

Define distance of closest approach and when the kinetic energy of α-particle incident on
gold foil is doubled then how does the distance of closest approach change?
The smallest distance between the nucleus and α-particle fired for head on collision
towards the nucleus is called the distance of closest approach (r0).
2Ze 2
ro =
1
4πε o mv 2
2
As the distance of closest approach is inversely proportional to the kinetic energy of the
incident alpha particle, so the distance of closest approach is halved when the kinetic
energy of alpha particle is doubled.
43. Draw the graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number of
different nuclei. State two inferences from the graph.
(i) The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is practically constant, i.e. practically

independent of the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170).
The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 and has a value of 7.6 MeV
for A = 238.
(ii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).
–λt.
44. State the law of radioactive decay. Deduce the relation between N=No e
Sketch a graph to illustrate the radioactive decay.
The rate of disintegration at any time (i.e. number of atoms that disintegrate per
second) is directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present in the
sample at that time. This is known as decay law.
Suppose at the beginning of disintegration (i.e. at t = 0), the number of radioactive
atoms present in a given sample is N0. As the time passes, the number of original
radioactive atoms decreases due to disintegration. Suppose after time t, the number of
radioactive atoms left is N. Let us now suppose that dN atoms further disintegrate in a
short interval of time dt.
dN
Rate of disintegration = −
dt
According to decay law, the rate of disintegration is directly proportional to the
number of radioactive atoms present at the instant of disintegration i.e.
dN dN
− ∝N Or = −λN -------------------- (i)
dt dt
where λ is a constant of proportionality and is called decay constant or disintegration
constant. The negative sign shows that N is decreasing with time.
Then equation (i) can be written as
dN
= −λdt
N
Integrating both sides, we get,
loge N = – λ t + K ............................................(ii)
where K is a constant of integration whose value can be found from the initial
conditions.
At t = 0, N = N0. Putting these values in eq. (ii), we get, K = loge N0.
Eq. (ii) becomes: loge N = – λ t + loge N0

N
log e = −λ t
NO
N
= e −λ t
NO
N = N0 e–λt …………………………………………………..... (iii)
Equation (iii) is known as decay equation. It can be used to find the number of
radioactive atoms N present at any time t if we know the value of decay constant λ and
the original number N0 of the radioactive atoms.
Fig. in a given sample decreases exponentially with time. From eq. (iii), it is clear that
N = 0 when t = ∞. Therefore, a radioactive substance will never disintegrate
completely.
The following points may be noted:
(a) Since the decay of a radioactive substance obeys exponential law, the rate of
disintegration is rapid in the beginning and becomes slower and slower with the
passage of time.
(b) Although all radioactive substances take infinite time to decay completely, yet they
are not identical in rate of disintegration. Some radioactive substances are more active
than the other.
(c) The slope of the decay curve gives the rate of disintegration (dN/dt) of the
radioactive substance.

45. (a) Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation.
What is the significance of negative potential energy in the graph drawn? Indicate the
regions in which nuclear force is attractive and repulsive.
(b) Write three characteristic features of nuclear force which distinguish it from the
Coulomb force.
(i) The nuclear force is much stronger than the
Coulomb force acting between charges
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons
falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more
than a few femtometres. This leads to saturation
of forces in a medium or a large-sized nucleus,
which is the reason for the constancy of the
binding energy per nucleon. A rough plot of the
potential energy between two nucleons as a function of distance is shown in the Fig.
The potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8 fm. This means that the
force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated
by distances less than 0.8 fm.
(iii) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is
approximately the same. The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.
46.Define the terms decay constant and half-life of a radioactive sample. Derive the relation
connecting the two.
Decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of time during which the number of
radioactive atoms of a radioactive substance falls to 37% of its original value.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time during which half of the
atoms of the radioactive substance present will disintegrate.
Relation between half-life and decay constant:
There is a simple relation between the half-life (T) and decay constant (λ) of a
radioactive substance.
We know N = N0 e–λt
When t = T; N = N0 / 2

NO
= N O e − λT e λT = 2 or λT loge e = loge 2 or λT = 0.693
2
47. State three properties of nuclear forces. Show that the density of nuclear matter is
independent of mass number A.
(i) The nuclear force is strongest force in nature and attractive force.
(ii) The nuclear force is short range forcei.e.up to 10-15m (1 fermi)
(iii) The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.
Let mass number of an element be A amu
Nuclear density = mass of nucleus / volume of nucleus
mA A × 1.66 × 10 −27
ρn = =
4 3 4
3
πR
3
(
× 3.14 × RO A1 / 3 )3
A × 1.66 × 10 −27
ρn = = 2.3 × 1017 kg m −3
4
3
(
× 3.14 × 1.2 × 10 −15 A )
Thus density of nuclear matter is independent of mass number A.
0.693
λ=
T
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KVS Jaipur Region Special Study Material For Under Scorer In Physics For Class XII For the

From the graph we conclude that -

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 208 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 209 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 210 Atoms and Nuclei

RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 211 Atoms and Nuclei

Let e = charge on electron

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 212 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 213 Atoms and Nuclei

According to Bohr’s theory, angular momentum (i.e. m vn rn) of electron is equal to

For hydrogen atom Z=1,

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 214 Atoms and Nuclei

4. Total energy of electron in the stationary orbits:

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 215 Atoms and Nuclei

− mZ 2 e 4  − 9.1 × 10 −31 × (1.6 × 10 −19 ) 4  Z2

Then energy of electron in the two orbits is given by;

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 216 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 217 Atoms and Nuclei

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OR THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 218 Atoms and Nuclei

S. No. Orbits (n) Energy of Electron (En)

LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S THEORY

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 219 Atoms and Nuclei

. de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have a wavelength λ = h/mv gave an explanation

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 220 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 221 Atoms and Nuclei

Very short Answer type Questions [1 marks each]

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 222 Atoms and Nuclei

Short Answer Type Questions-I [2marks each]

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 223 Atoms and Nuclei

The elements A and A1 are isobars.

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 224 Atoms and Nuclei

(i) Are they the isotopes of the same element? Why?

Short Answer Type Questions-II [3 marks each]

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 225 Atoms and Nuclei

(a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?

31. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30 sec. Calculate :

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 226 Atoms and Nuclei

32. The nucles of an atom of 235

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 227 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 228 Atoms and Nuclei

Long Answer Type Questions [5 marks each]

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 229 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 230 Atoms and Nuclei

Let e = charge on electron

According to Bohr’s theory, angular momentum (i.e. m vn rn) of electron is equal to

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 231 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 232 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 233 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 234 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 235 Atoms and Nuclei

Dr Mahesh Srivastava 236 Atoms and Nuclei

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