Third Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
Pure Bending

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Pure Bending
Pure Bending Example 4.03
Other Loading Types Reinforced Concrete Beams
Symmetric Member in Pure Bending Sample Problem 4.4
B di Deformations
Bending D f ti St
Stress Concentrations
C t ti
Strain Due to Bending Plastic Deformations
Beam Section Properties Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material
Properties of American Standard Shapes Plastic Deformations of Members With a Single
Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section Plane of S...
Sample Problem 4.2 Residual Stresses
Bending of Members Made of Several Example 4.05, 4.06
Materials Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry
Example 4.03 Example 4.07
Reinforced Concrete Beams Sample Problem 4.8
Sample Problem 4.4
44 Unsymmetric Bending
Stress Concentrations Example 4.08
Plastic Deformations General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading
Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material

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Pure Bending

Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected
j to equal
q and opposite
pp couples
p
acting in the same longitudinal plane

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Other Loading Types

• Eccentric Loading: Axial loading which

does not pass through section centroid
produces internal forces equivalent to an
axial force and a couple

• Transverse Loading: Concentrated or

distributed transverse load produces
internal forces equivalent to a shear
force and a couple

• Principle of Superposition: The normal

stress due to pure bending may be
combined with the normal stress due to
axial loading and shear stress due to
shear
h loading
l di to t find
fi d the
th complete
l t state
t t
of stress.
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Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

• Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent
to a couple. The moment of the couple is the
section bending moment.
• From statics, a couple M consists of two equal
and opposite forces.
• The sum of the components of the forces in any
direction is zero.
• The moment is the same about any axis
perpendicular to the plane of the couple and
zero about any axis contained in the plane.
• These requirements may be applied to the sums
of the components and moments of the statically
indeterminate elementary internal forces.
Fx = ∫ σ x dA = 0
M y = ∫ zσ x dA = 0
M z = ∫ − yσ x dA = M

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Bending Deformations
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure
bending:
• member remains symmetric
• bends uniformly to form a circular arc
• cross-sectional plane passes through arc center
and remains planar
• length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
• a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the
upper and lower surfaces and for which the length
does not change
• stresses and strains are negative (compressive)
above
b the
th neutral
t l plane
l andd positive
iti (tension)
(t i )
below it
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Strain Due to Bending

Consider a beam segment of length L.
After deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections,
L′ = ( ρ − y )θ
δ = L − L′ = ( ρ − y )θ − ρθ = − yθ
δ yθ y
εx = =− =− (strain varies linearly)
L ρθ ρ
c c
εm = or ρ=
ρ εm
y
ε x = − εm
c

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Stress Due to Bending

• For a linearly elastic material,
y
σ x = Eε x = − Eε m
c
y
= − σ m (stress varies linearly)
c

• For static equilibrium,

equilibrium
• For static equilibrium,
y
Fx = 0 = ∫ σ x dA = ∫ − σ m dA ⎛ y ⎞
c M = ∫ − yσ x dA = ∫ − y⎜ − σ m ⎟ dA
⎝ c ⎠
σ
0 = − m ∫ y dA σ σ I
c M = m ∫ y 2 dA = m
c c
First moment with respect to neutral Mc M
plane is zero
zero. Therefore,
Therefore the neutral σm = =
I S
surface must pass through the
y
section centroid. Substituting σ x = − σ m
c
My
σx = −
I
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Beam Section Properties

• The maximum normal stress due to bending,
Mc M
σm = =
I S
I = section moment of inertia
I
S = = section modulus
c
A beam section with a larger section modulus
will have a lower maximum stress
• Consider a rectangular beam cross section,
1 3
I 12 bh
S= = = 16 bh3 = 16 Ah
c h2

Between two beams with the same cross

sectional area, the beam with the greater depth
will be more effective in resisting bending.
• Str
Structural
ct ral steel beams are designed to ha
havee a
large section modulus.
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Properties of American Standard Shapes

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Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section

• Deformation due to bending moment M is
quantified by the curvature of the neutral surface
1 ε σ 1 Mc
= m = m =
ρ c Ec Ec I
M
=
EI

• Although cross sectional planes remain planar

when subjected to bending moments, in-plane
deformations are nonzero,
νy νy
ε y = −νε x = ε z = −νε x =
ρ ρ

• Expansion above the neutral surface and

contraction below it cause an in-plane curvature,
1 ν
= = anticlastic curvature
ρ′ ρ

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Sample Problem 4.2

SOLUTION:
• Based on the cross section geometry,
calculate the location of the section
centroid and moment of inertia.
Y =
∑ yA
∑A
(
I x′ = ∑ I + A d 2 )
• Apply the elastic flexural formula to
find the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses.
stresses
Mc
σm =
I
A cast-iron machine p part is acted upon
p
by a 3 kN-m couple. Knowing E = 165 • Calculate the curvature
GPa and neglecting the effects of 1 M
=
fillets, determine (a) the maximum ρ EI
tensile and compressive stresses, (b)
the radius of curvature.
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Sample Problem 4.2

SOLUTION:
SOLUTION
Based on the cross section geometry, calculate
the location of the section centroid and
moment of inertia.
Area, mm 2 y , mm yA, mm3
1 20 × 90 = 1800 50 90 ×103
2 40 × 30 = 1200 20 24 × 103
3
∑ A = 3000 ∑ yA = 114 ×10

3
∑ yA 114 ×10
Y = = = 38 mm
∑A 3000

( ) (1 bh3 + A d 2
I x′ = ∑ I + A d 2 = ∑ 12 )
( )(
1 90 × 203 + 1800 × 12 2 + 1 30 × 403 + 1200 × 182
= 12 12
)
I = 868 × 103 mm = 868 ×10-9 m 4

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Sample Problem 4.2

• Apply the elastic flexural formula to find the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
Mc
σm =
I
M c A 3 kN ⋅ m × 0.022 m σ A = +76.0 MPa
σA = =
I 868 ×10−9 mm 4
M cB 3 kN ⋅ m × 0.038 m
σB = − =− σ B = −131.3 MPa
I 868 ×10−9 mm 4

• Calculate the curvature

1 M
=
ρ EI
3 kN ⋅ m 1
= 20.95 ×10−3 m -1
(165 GPa )(868 ×10-9 m 4 )
=
ρ
ρ = 47.7 m

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Bending of Members Made of Several Materials

• C
Consider
id a composite i beam
b formed
f d from
f
two materials with E1 and E2.
• Normal strain varies linearly.
y
y
εx = −
ρ
• Piecewise linear normal stress variation.
E1 y E2 y
σ 1 = E1ε x = − σ 2 = E2ε x = −
ρ ρ
Neutral axis does not pass through
section centroid of composite section.
• Elemental forces on the section are
Ey E y
dF1 = σ 1dA = − 1 dA dF2 = σ 2 dA = − 2 dA
ρ ρ
My
σx = − • Define a transformed section such that
I
σ1 = σ x σ 2 = nσ x dF2 = −
(nE1 ) y dA = − E1 y (n dA) E
n= 2
ρ ρ E1

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Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross
section made entirely of brass

• Evaluate the cross sectional properties of

thee transformed
s o ed section
sec o

• Calculate the maximum stress in the

transformed section. This is the correct
maximum stress for the brass pieces of
the bar.
Bar is made from bonded pieces of
steel (Es = 29x106 psi) and brass • Determine the maximum stress in the
(Eb = 15x106 psi). Determine the steel portion of the bar by multiplying
maximum stress in the steel and the maximum stress for the transformed
b
brass when
h a moment off 40 ki kip*in
*i section
i by b the
h ratioi off the
h moduli
d li off
is applied. elasticity.
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Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross section
made entirely of brass.
Es 29 ×106 psi
n= = = 1.933
Eb 15 ×106 psi
bT = 0.4 in + 1.933 × 0.75 in + 0.4 in = 2.25 in

• Evaluate the transformed cross sectional properties

1 b h3 = 1 (2.25 in.)(3 in )3
I = 12 T 12
= 5.063 in 4

• Calculate the maximum stresses

Mc (40 kip ⋅ in )(1.5 in )
σm = = = 11.85 ksi
I 5.063 in 4

(σ b )max = σ m (σ b )max = 11.85 ksi

(σ s )max = nσ m = 1.933 ×11.85 ksi (σ s )max = 22.9 ksi

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Reinforced Concrete Beams

• Concrete beams subjected to bending moments are
reinforced by steel rods.
• The steel rods carry the entire tensile load below
the neutral surface. The upper part of the
concrete beam carries the compressive load.
• In the transformed section
section, the cross sectional area
of the steel, As, is replaced by the equivalent area
nAs where n = Es/Ec.
• To
T determine
d t i the
th location
l ti off the
th neutral
t l axis,
i
(bx ) x − n As (d − x ) = 0
2
1 b x2 + n As x − n As d = 0
2

• The normal stress in the concrete and steel

My
σx = −
I
σc = σ x σ s = nσ x

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Sample Problem 4.4

SOLUTION:
• Transform to a section made entirely
off concrete.

• Evaluate geometric properties of

transformed section
section.

• Calculate the maximum stresses

in the concrete and steel.

A concrete floor slab is reinforced with

5/8-in-diameter steel rods. The modulus
off elasticity
l ti it isi 29x106psi
29 106 i for
f steel
t l andd
3.6x106psi for concrete. With an applied
bending moment of 40 kip*in for 1-ft
width of the slab
slab, determine the maximum
stress in the concrete and steel.

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Sample Problem 4.4

SOLUTION:
• Transform to a section made entirely of concrete.
Es 29 ×106 psi
n= = = 8.06
Ec 3.6 ×106 psi

⎢⎣
( )
nAs = 8.06 × 2⎡π4 85 in ⎤ = 4.95 in 2
2
⎥⎦

• Evaluate the geometric properties of the

transformed section.
⎛ x⎞
12 x⎜ ⎟ − 4.95(4 − x ) = 0 x = 1.450 in
⎝ 2⎠
( )
I = 13 (12 in )(1.45 in )3 + 4.95 in 2 (2.55 in )2 = 44.4 in 4

• Calculate the maximum stresses.

stresses
Mc1 40 kip ⋅ in ×1.45 in
σc = = σ c = 1.306 ksi
I 44.4 in 4
M
Mc ki ⋅ in
40 kip i × 2.55 in
i σ s = 18.52 ksi
σ s = n 2 = 8.06
I 44.4 in 4

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Stress Concentrations

Stress concentrations may occur: Mc

σm = K
I
• in the vicinity of points where the
loads are applied

• in the vicinity
icinit of abrupt
abr pt changes
in cross section
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Plastic Deformations
• For any member subjected to pure bending
y
ε x = − εm strain varies linearly across the section
c
• If the member is made of a linearly elastic material,
the neutral axis passes through the section centroid
My
and σx = −
I

• For a material with a nonlinear stress-strain curve,

the neutral axis location is found by satisfying
Fx = ∫ σ x dA = 0 M = ∫ − yσ x dA

• For a member with vertical and horizontal planes of

symmetry and a material with the same tensile and
compressive stress-strain relationship, the neutral
axis is located at the section centroid and the stress-
strain
i relationship
l i hi may be b usedd to map theh strain
i
distribution from the stress distribution.
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Plastic Deformations
• When the maximum stress is equal to the ultimate
strength of the material, failure occurs and the
corresponding moment MU is referred to as the
ultimate
li bending
b di moment.

• The modulus of rupture in bending, RB, is found

from an experimentally determined value of MU
and a fictitious linear stress distribution.
MU c
RB =
I

• RB may be used to determine MU of any

member made of the same material and with the
same cross sectional shape but different
dimensions.

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Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material

• Rectangular
R l beam
b made
d off an elastoplastic
l l i material
i l
Mc
σ x ≤ σY σm =
I
I
σ m = σY M Y = σ Y = maximum elastic moment
c
• If the moment is increased beyond the maximum
elastic
l ti moment, t plastic
l ti zones develop
d l aroundd an
elastic core.
⎛ 2
3 M ⎜1 − 1 yY
⎞
M = ⎟ yY = elastic core half - thickness
2 Y⎜
⎝
3 2
c ⎟⎠

• In the limit as the moment is increased further, the

elastic core thickness goes to zero
zero, corresponding to a
fully plastic deformation.
M p = 32 M Y = plastic moment
Mp
k= = shape factor (depends only on cross section shape)
MY

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Plastic Deformations of Members With a

Single Plane of S
Symmetry
mmetr
• Fully plastic deformation of a beam with only a
vertical plane of symmetry
symmetry.

• The neutral axis cannot be assumed to pass

through the section centroid.

• Resultants R1 and R2 of the elementary

compressive and tensile forces form a couple.
R1 = R2
A1σ Y = A2σ Y
The neutral axis divides the section into equal
areas.

• The plastic moment for the member,

(
M p = 12 Aσ Y d )
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Residual Stresses
• Plastic zones develop in a member made of an
elastoplastic material if the bending moment is
large
g enough.
g

• Since the linear relation between normal stress and

strain applies at all points during the unloading
phase,
h it
i may be
b handled
h dl d byb assumingi the
h memberb
to be fully elastic.

• Residual stresses are obtained by applying the

principle of superposition to combine the stresses
due to loading with a moment M (elastoplastic
deformation) and unloading with a moment -M M
(elastic deformation).

• The final value of stress at a point will not, in

general, be zero.

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Example 4.05, 4.06

A member of uniform rectangular cross section is

subjected to a bending moment M = 36.8 kN-m.
Th member
The b isi made
d off an elastoplastic
l t l ti material
t i l
with a yield strength of 240 MPa and a modulus
of elasticity of 200 GPa.
Determine (a) the thickness of the elastic core, (b)
the radius of curvature of the neutral surface.
After the loading has been reduced back to zero,
determine (c) the distribution of residual stresses,
(d) radius of curvature.

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Example 4.05, 4.06

• Thickness of elastic core:
⎛ 2
3 M ⎜1 − 1 yY
⎞
M = ⎟
2 Y⎜ 3 2
⎝ c ⎟⎠
⎛ 2
3 (28.8 kN ⋅ m )⎜1 − 1 yY
⎞
36.8 kN ⋅ m = ⎟
2 ⎜ 3 2 c ⎟⎠
⎝
yY yY
= = 0.666 2 yY = 80 mm
c 60 mm

• Radius
d us oof cu
curvature:
v u e:
• Maximum elastic moment: σY 240 ×106 Pa
εY = =
E
I 2 2 2 −3
( −3 2
= bc = 3 50 ×10 m 60 ×10 m
c 3
)( ) = 1.2 ×10−3
200 ×109 Pa

= 120 ×10− 6 m3 yY
εY =
I
( )
M Y = σ Y = 120 ×10− 6 m3 (240 MPa )
ρ
c yY 40 ×10−3 m
= 28.8 kN ⋅ m ρ= = ρ = 33.3 m
εY 1.2 ×10−3

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Example 4.05, 4.06

• M = 36.8 kN-m • M = -36.8 kN-m • M=0

yY = 40 mm Mc 36.8 kN ⋅ m At the edge of the elastic core,
′ =
σm =
σ Y = 240 MPa I 120 × 106 m3 σx − 35.5 ×106 Pa
= 306.7 MPa < 2σ Y εx = =
E 200 ×109 Pa
1 .5 ×10− 6
= −177
yY 40 ×10−3 m
ρ =− =
εx 177.5 ×10 − 6

ρ = 225 m

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry

• Stress due to eccentric loading found by
superposing the uniform stress due to a centric
load and linear stress distribution due a pure
bending moment
σ x = (σ x )centric + (σ x )bending
P Myy
= −
A I
• Eccentric loading
• Validity requires stresses below proportional
F=P limit deformations have negligible effect on
limit,
M = Pd geometry, and stresses not evaluated near points
of load application.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Example 4.07
SOLUTION:
• Find the equivalent centric load and
bending moment

• Superpose the uniform stress due to

the centric load and the linear stress
due to the bending moment.

• Evaluate the maximum tensile and

compressive stresses at the inner
and outer edges, respectively, of the
An open-link chain is obtained by superposed stress distribution.
bending low-carbon steel rods into the
shape shown. For 160 lb load, determine • Find the neutral axis by determining
(a) maximum tensile and compressive the location where the normal stress
stresses, (b) di
distance between
b section
i is zero
zero.
centroid and neutral axis
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Example 4.07
• Normal stress due to a
centric load
A = πc 2 = π (0.25 in )2
= 0.1963 in 2
P 160 lb
σ0 = =
A 0.1963 in 2
= 815 psi

• Equivalent
q centric load • Normal stress due to
and bending moment bending moment
P = 160 lb I = 14 πc 4 = 14 π (0.25)4
M = Pd = (160 lb )(0.6 in )
= 3.068 ×10−3 in 4
= 104 lb ⋅ in
Mc (104 lb ⋅ in )(0.25 in )
σm = =
I .068 ×10−3 in 4
= 8475 psi

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Example 4.07

• Maximum tensile and compressive • Neutral axis location

stresses P My0
σt = σ0 +σm 0= −
A I
= 815 + 8475 σ t = 9260 psi
P I 3.068 ×10−3 in 4
y0 = = (815 ppsi )
σc = σ0 −σ m AM 105 lb ⋅ in
i
= 815 − 8475 σ c = −7660 psi
y0 = 0.0240 in

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Sample Problem 4.8

The largest allowable stresses for the cast
iron link are 30 MPa in tension and 120
MPa in compression. Determine the largest
force P which can be applied to the link.

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent centric load and
bending moment.

• S
Superpose the
h stress ddue to a centric
i
load and the stress due to bending.

• Evaluate the critical loads for the allowable

From Sample Problem 2.4, tensile and compressive stresses.
A = 3 ×10−3 m 2
• The largest allowable load is the smallest
Y = 0.038 m off the
th two
t critical
iti l loads.
l d
I = 868 ×10 −9 m 4

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Sample Problem 4.8

• Determine an equivalent centric and bending loads.
d = 0.038 − 0.010 = 0.028 m
P = centric load
M = Pd = 0.028 P = bending moment

• Superpose stresses due to centric and bending loads

σA = −
P Mc A
+ =−
P
+
(0.028 P )(0.022) = +377 P
A I 3 ×10−3 868 ×10−9
P Mc
σB = − − A = −
P
−
(0.028 P )(0.022) = −1559 P
A I 3 ×10−3 868 ×10 −9

• Evaluate critical loads for allowable stresses.

σ A = +377 P = 30 MPa
MP P = 79.6 kN
σ B = −1559 P = −120 MPa P = 79.6 kN

• The
Th largest
l allowable
ll bl load
l d P = 77.0 kN

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Unsymmetric Bending
• Analysis of pure bending has been limited
to members subjected to bending couples
acting in a plane of symmetry.

• Members remain symmetric and bend in

the plane of symmetry.

• The neutral axis of the cross section

coincides with the axis of the couple

• Will now consider

id situations
it ti in
i which
hi h the
th
bending couples do not act in a plane of
symmetry.

• Cannot assume that the member will bend

in the plane of the couples.

• IIn general,
l the
th neutral
t l axis
i off the
th section
ti will
ill
not coincide with the axis of the couple.
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Unsymmetric Bending
• 0 = Fx = ∫ σ x dA = ∫ ⎛⎜ − σ m ⎞⎟dA
y
⎝ c ⎠
or 0 = ∫ y dA

neutral axis passes through centroid

⎛ y ⎞
Wish
i h to determine
d i the
h conditions
di i under
d • M = M z = − ∫ ⎜ − σ m ⎟dA
y
⎝ c ⎠
which the neutral axis of a cross section σ I
of arbitrary shape coincides with the or M = m I = I z = moment of inertia
c
axis of the couple as shown
shown. d fi
defines stress distribution
di ib i

• The resultant force and moment

• 0 = M y = ∫ zσ x dA = ∫ z⎛⎜ − σ m ⎞⎟dA
from the distribution of y
elementary forces in the section ⎝ c ⎠
must satisfy or 0 = ∫ yz dA = I yz = product of inertia

Fx = 0 = M y M z = M = applied couple couple vector must be directed along

a principal centroidal axis

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Edition
Third
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Unsymmetric Bending
Superposition is applied to determine stresses in
the most general case of unsymmetric bending.
• Resolve the couple
p vector into components
p along
g
the principle centroidal axes.
M z = M cosθ M y = M sin θ

• Superpose the component stress distributions

Mzy Myy
σx = − +
Iz Iy

• Along the neutral axis,

σx = 0 = −
Mzy Myy
+ =−
(M cosθ ) y + (M sin θ ) y
Iz Iy Iz Iy
y Iz
tan φ = = tan θ
z Iy

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 - 38

Edition
Third
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Example 4.08
SOLUTION:
• Resolve the couple vector into
components along the principle
centroidal axes and calculate the
corresponding maximum stresses.
M z = M cosθ M y = M sin θ

• Combine the stresses from the

component stress distributions.
Mzy Myy
σx = − +
A 1600 lb-in couple is applied to a Iz Iy
rectangular wooden beam in a plane
• Determine the angle of the neutral
forming an angle of 30 deg. with the
axis.
vertical. Determine (a) the maximum y Iz
stress in the beam, (b) the angle that the tan φ = = tan θ
z Iy
neutral
t l axis
i forms
f with
ith the
th horizontal
h i t l
plane.
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 - 39
Edition
Third
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Example 4.08
• Resolve the couple vector into components and calculate
the corresponding maximum stresses.
M z = (1600 lb ⋅ in ) cos 30 = 1386 lb ⋅ in
M y = (1600 lb ⋅ in )sin 30 = 800 lb ⋅ in
1 (1.5 in )(3.5 in )3 = 5.359 in 4
I z = 12
1 (3.5 in )(1.5 in )3 = 0.9844 in 4
I y = 12
The largest tensile stress due to M z occurs along AB
M z y (1386 lb ⋅ in )(1.75 in )
σ1 = = = 452.6 psi
Iz 5.359 in 4

The largest tensile stress due to M z occurs along AD

σ2 =
M yz
=
(800 lb ⋅ in )(0.75 in ) = 609.5 psi
Iy 0.9844 in 4

• The largest tensile stress due to the combined loading

occurs at A.
A
σ max = σ 1 + σ 2 = 452.6 + 609.5 σ max = 1062 psi

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 - 40

Edition
Third
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Example 4.08

• Determine the angle of the neutral axis.

Iz 5.359 in 4
tan φ = tan θ = tan 30
Iy 0.9844 in 4

= 3.143

φ = 72.4o

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Edition
Third
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading

• Consider a straight member subject to equal
and opposite eccentric forces.

• The eccentric force is equivalent to the system

of a centric force and two couples.
P = centric force
M y = Pa M z = Pbb

• By the principle of superposition, the

combined stress distribution is
P Mz y M yz
σx = − +
A Iz Iy

• If the neutral axis lies on the section, it may

be found from
Mz My P
y− z=
Iz Iy A

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