Topic4 Series

Series
1.0 : Introduction
Here we cover the basics of series. This will include :
1.0 : Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 : Basic Issues : Sequences, Series and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 : Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 : Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 : Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 : Arithmetic Progressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 : Basic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 : The sum of an arithmetic progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 : Geometric Progressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 : Basic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 : The sum of a geometric progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 : Convergence of a Series and the Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progressions . . . . . . . 10
1.5 : Arithmetic and geometric means (private reading/self study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1 : Arithmetic means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.2 : Geometric means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.3 : The Arithmetic-Geometric mean inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 : Summation of Number Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 : Method of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 : Test for Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.1 : Test 1 : Limit test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.2 : Proof of limit test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.3 : Test 2 : Comparison test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.4 : Proof of the comparison test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8.5 : Test 3 : Ratio test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
www.ucl.ac.uk/~uczlcfe
1
1.1 : Basic Issues : Sequences, Series and Notation
Here we will summarise what sequences and series are, and the notation used in the study of these.
1.1.1 : Sequences
Consider, therefore, the following set of numbers :
1) 2, 3, 4, 5, ....... 2) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...... 3) 4, 9, 16, 25, ......
Informally we may say that : in 1) each number is one more than the previous number
in 2) each number is twice the previous number
in 3) each number is the square of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, ....
Formally we may then define a sequence as :
a set of terms (numbers, variables, etc...) in a specific

order with a rule for obtaining these terms
1.1.2 : Series
Consider now the following type of sequence
4) 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + .......
5) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 ......
6) 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + ......
Here we have added up all the terms of the sequences 1), 2), and 3). Formally we may then generally
define a series as :
the sum of terms of a sequence
The specific formal description for each of the series above can then be stated as :
for 4) r+1 for r = 1, 2, 3, ...

for 5) 2r for r = 1, 2, 3, ...
for 6) r2 for r = 2, 3, 4, ...
1.1.3 : Notation
The above formalisations of the series may be improved by using the sigma notation . Hence,
∞ ∞ ∞
for 4) r+1
r=1
for 5) 2r
r=1
for 6) r2
r=2
6
Of course we may define a series to have a finite, fixed, length, i.e. r 2 = 4 2 + 5 2 + 6 2 . in this series
r=4
the 1st term is 4², the 2nd term is 5², and the 3rd term is 6².
2
1.2 : Arithmetic Progressions
Here we will study a specific type of series where the same constant number is added from one term to
the next. This implies that the difference between each term is constant.
1.2.1 : Basic aspects

Consider then the sequence,
5, 8, 11, 14, ....., 29
Informally we may describe this sequence as having a 1st term of 5, 2nd term of 8, 3rd term of 11, 4th
term of 14, and nth term of 29. We notice that the difference between each number is a constant 3, and
therefore does not change.
We may now re-rewrite the above sequence in terms of this constant difference, i.e.
5, (5 + 3), (5 + 2x3), (5 + 3x3), ....., (5 + 8x3)
Formalising the above description we may then say that
the 1st term is a

the 2nd term is a+d
the 3rd term is a + 2d
...................... ..........
the nth term is a + (n-1).d
where ‘d’ is called the common difference. Such a sequence of terms is called an arithmetic
progression and it is ‘arithmetic’ because of the constant common difference. In general the common
difference can be found easily by subtracting one term by the previous term :
d = (a + k.d ) − (a + (k − 1 ).d )
Examples
See lecture.
Exercise on reading mathematically
By referring to any textbook, and/or the notes above, interpret fully the concept of arithmetic
progressions and their formalisation (i.e. how they are described mathematically). If necessary, use the
examples done in class in order to help you refer to the aspects of arithmetic progressions. How does
each term follow on from the previous term ? How does each term continue onto the next term ? How
is each term similar and/or different from any other term ?
End of Exercise
3
1.2.2 : The sum of an arithmetic progression
Given any particular arithmetic series (i.e. an arithmetic sequence whose terms are added together) how
do we go about finding it’s sum ? In other words what is the result of actually evaluating the series ?
Consider the arithmetic series
2 + 4 + 6 + ..... + 18 + 20
It can be tedious to manually add these terms in order to find the result. Furthermore, if there are 100s
of terms then it becomes impractical to do this. We therefore need a formula for being able to easily
find the sum of these terms.
Consider therefore re-writing the above series backwards and adding it to the above series, i.e.
S = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 +..... + 18 + 20
S = 20 + 18 + 16 + 14 + ..... + 4 + 2
__________________________________
2S = 22 + 22 + 22 + 22 + ...... + 22 + 22
Hence
2S = 10x22
So S= 110
We can generalise this method to a general arithmetic series which has 1st term a, common difference
d, and last term l :
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ...... + (l - d) + l
Sn = l + (l - d) + (l - 2d) + ......+ (a + d) + a
___________________________________________________________
2Sn = (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l) + ...... + (a + l) + (a + l)
Hence
2S n = n.(a + l ) (1.2.1)
But we know also that the last term l is a+(n-1).d, so substituting this into (1.2.1), and doing some
algebra, we get
S n = n [2a + (n − 1 ).d ] (1.2.2)
2
We can now state one standard result about series, namely the sum of the natural integers from 1 to n
(i.e. 1+2+3+4+5+....) :
n

i=1
i = n (n + 1 )
2
(1.2.3)
This can be derived from (1.2.2) knowing that a = 1 and d = 1. Similarly we can show that
n

i=1
2i = n (2n + 2 )
2
(1.2.4)
4
where, in this series, a = 2 and d = 2. Similarly we can show that
n

i=1
3i = n (3n + 3 )
2
(1.2.5)
and in general we have

n

i=1
ki = n (kn + k )
2
(1.2.6)
for any constant k. We can formally proves this by :
saying that since k is constant we can factorise it out of the sum and therefore we can write
n n

i=1
ki = k. i
i=1
Since we know from (1.2.3) that i=1

n
i = n/2(n + 1 ) we can see that (6) is true.
Examples
See lecture.
Exercises
See exercise sheets
1) Interpret the whole proof which leads to the formula (2) above. Describe fully the development
of the proof above, i.e. describe each step, and/or part of a step, in the proof above.
2) Interpret equation (2) above. Describe fully in plain English, and in your own words, the
expression as a whole as well as the separate parts of the expression. Also describe how you went about
interpreting the expression : this does not mean that you should repeat your interpretation, but that you
should describe what you did in order to get the interpretation you got. How did you read the
expression (2) in order to interpret it the way you did ? Was there any specific ways of reading that you
used in order to describe (2) as you did ? If so, what specific ways did you read (2) in ?
3) In equation 2) on the previous page, what does d=0 mean ? What is the effect on the series
when d=0 ? What kind of series would we have if d=0 ?
You may either interpret from the notes above, from any textbook, or from any other material you
wish. If you interpret from other material be sure to make a copy for yourselves for revision purposes.
End of Exercise
5
Exercise on mathematical thinking
Q : What is it about the idea of writing the series backwards that allows us to derive the formula (2) ?
What is it about the way in which the terms of the ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ series are added together
which allows for the formula to be developed ?
Separately, note that in developing the formula (2) above the whole ‘backward’ series is aligned
directly under the ‘forward’ series. Supposing instead that when we write the series backwards we shift
its position by 1 place. Will we get a formula which gives the same result as (2) ?. So, supposing we do
S = 2+4+6+8
S = 8+6+4+2
____________________
2S = 2 + 12+12+12+ 2
Hence we get
2S = 2x2 + 3x12
and formally
2S = 2.(1st term + last term) + 12.(n - 2)
Since the last term is the same as the 1st term we can say
2S = 2(a + a ) + 12(n − 2 ) ===> S = 2a + 6(n − 2 ) (i)
Q : Does (i) give the same result as (2) for the series 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 ?
By formalising the process above, develop an expression for a general arithmetic series containing 5
terms of 1st term a and common difference d, i.e. from
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d)
Sn = (a + 3d) + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a
develop a general formula for this arithmetic progression.
Repeat the numerical example above when the ‘backward’ series is shifted by 2 places, 3 places, etc...,
and again use mathematical analysis to develop general formulas for these cases.
Q : Do your formulae give the same result as (2) for the series 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 ? Do they give the same
result as (2) for any series ? Confirm that this is true or not by using any series of your choice.
End of Exercise
6
1.3 : Geometric Progressions
Here we will study a specific type of series where one number in the series differs from the next by a
constant multiple. This implies that the difference between each term is not constant.
1.3.1 : Basic aspects

Consider then the sequence,
3, 6, 12, 24, .....
Informally we may describe this sequence as having a 1st term of 3, 2nd term of 6, 3rd term of 12, 4th
term of 24. We notice that each number is always twice times more than the previous number in the
sequence.
We may now re-rewrite the above sequence in terms of this constant difference, i.e.
3, (3 x 2), (3 x 2²), (3 x 23), .....
Formalising the above description we may then say that
the 1st term is a

the 2nd term is a.r
the 3rd term is a.r²
...................... ..........
the nth term is a.rn-1
where ‘r’ is called the common ratio. Such a sequence of terms is called an geometric progression and
it is ‘geometric’ because of the constant common multiple. In general the common ratio can be found
an
easily by dividing one term by the previous term : r = a n−1
By referring to any textbook, and/or the notes above, interpret fully the concept of geometric
progressions and their formalisation (i.e. how they are described mathematically). If necessary, use the
examples done in class in order to help you refer to the aspects of geometric progressions. How does
each term follow on from the previous term ? How does each term continue onto the next term ? How
is each term similar and/or different from any other term ?
End of Exercise
7
1.3.2 : The sum of a geometric progression
Given any particular geometric series (i.e. a geometric sequence whose terms are added together) how
do we go about finding it’s sum ? In other words what is the result of actually evaluating the series ?
Consider the geometric series
1 + 3 + 3 2 + 3 3 ..... + 3 6 + 3 7
It can be tedious to manually add these terms in order to find the result. Furthermore, if there are 100s
of terms then it becomes impractical to do this. We therefore need a formula for being able to easily
find the sum of these terms.
Consider therefore multiplying the series by 3 (the common ratio) and subtracting them :
S = 1 + 3 + 3² + 33 + 34 + ..... + 36 + 37
3S = 3 + 3² + 33 + 34 + ..... + 36 + 37 + 38
____________________________________________________
S - 3S = 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ..... + 0 + 0 - 38
(Note how the 2nd series is positioned : it is shifted by 1 place). Hence
S= 1−3
8
S(1 − 3 ) = 1 − 3 8 ===>
(1 − 3 )
We can generalise this method to a general geometric series which has 1st term a, and common ratio r.
Consider therefore multiplying the series by r (the common ratio) and subtracting them :
Sn = a + a.r + a.r² + a.r3 + ..... + a.rn-1

r.Sn = a.r + a.r² + a.r3 + ..... + a.rn-1 + a.rn
___________________________________________________________
S - r.S = a + 0 + 0 + 0 + ..... + 0 - a.rn
Hence
a(1 − r n )
S n (1 − r ) = a(1 − r n ) ===> Sn = (7)
(1 − r )
Expression (7) is then the standard formula for the sum of a geometric series.

1) Interpret the whole proof which leads to the formula (7) above. Describe fully the development
of the proof above, i.e. describe each step, and/or part of a step, in the proof above.
2) Interpret equation (7) above. Describe fully in plain English, and in your own words, the
expression as a whole as well as the separate parts of the expression. Also describe how you went about
interpreting the expression : this does not mean that you should repeat your interpretation, but that you
should describe what you did in order to get the interpretation you got.
8
How did you read the expression (7) in order to interpret it the way you did ? Was there any specific
ways of reading that you used in order to describe (7) as you did ? If so, what specific ways did you
read (7) in ?
You may either interpret from the notes above, from any textbook, or from any other material you
wish. If you interpret from other material be sure to make a copy for yourselves for revision purposes.
End of Exercise

Q : Note that in developing the formula (7) above the series which is multiplied by ‘r’ is shifted by 1
place before doing the subtraction. What is it about the idea of shifting the series forward by 1 place
that allows us to derive the formula (7) ? What is it about the way in which the terms of the shifted
series are subtracted which allows for the formula to be developed ?
Supposing instead that when we write the 2nd series we don’t shift it at all. Will we get a formula
which gives the same result as (7) ?. So, supposing we do
S = 1 + 3 + 3² + 33 + 34 + ..... + 36 + 37
3S = 3 + 3² + 33 + 34 + 35 + ..... + 37 + 38
____________________________________________________
S - 3S = 1-3 + 3-3² + 3²-33 + ........
Hence we get
-2S = 1-3 + 3.(1-3) +3²(1-3) +33(1-3) + ....
-2S = (1-3).(1 + 3 + 3² + 33 + ....)
etc... What happens when we complete this analysis ?
Furthermore, by formalising the process above, develop an analysis of a general geometric series
containing 5 terms of 1st term a and common ratio r, i.e. from
Sn = a + a.r + a.r² + a.r3 + ..... + a.rn-1

r.Sn = a.r + a.r² + a.r3 + ..... + a.rn-1 + a.rn
analyse the effect of this structure on the development of any formula (if any).
Repeat the numerical example above when the series is shifted by 2 places, 3 places, etc..., and again
use mathematical analysis to develop general formulas for these cases.
Q : Do your formulae give the same result as (7) for the series 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 ? Do they give the same
result as (7) for any series ? Confirm that this is true or not by using any series of your choice.
End of Exercise
9
Examples
See lecture.
Exercises
See exercise sheets
1.4 : Convergence of a Series and the Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progressions

In the previous two sections we have studied the sum of series consisting of fixed number of terms.
What happens if we have an infinite number of term ? How does this affect the final answer we get
from an arithmetic or geometric series ? Will the series tend towards a finite answers, i.e. will it
converge ? Or will the series give us answer which is infinite, i.e. will it diverge ?
To understand the concept of convergence refer to the example discussed in the book on p599. In
summary, we may take a piece of string, of fixed length l, and cut it in half. We may continue cutting in
half any one of the parts we have left, and we can (theoretically) continue doing this forever. This
continual cutting in half can be represented as a geometric series :
l + l + l + l + ....
2 4 8 16
or, with r = ½ l + l + l + l + .... + l

2 22 23 24 2n
Although the series carries on forever, we know that it should add up to the total length of the string, l.
Informally we may say that the series converges to l, and formally we have that :
lim l + l + l + l + .... + l = l
nd∞ 2 22 23 24 2n
Not all series converge. Let us recap on the two formulae for the sum of arithmetic and geometric
progressions :
for an arithmetic progression (A.P.) of 1st term a, last term n, common difference d we have
S n = n [2a + (n − 1 ).d ]
2
for a geometric progression (G.P.) of 1st term a, and common ratio r we have
a(1 − r n )
Sn =
(1 − r )
Let us therefore consider the A.P. formula above. The question we need to answer is : ‘what is the main
term which controls the series ? what is the main term which determines whether or not the series may
converge ? This is where we need to be able to ‘read mathematically’. Consequently, knowing that an
A.P. is a series where we add a constant term we see that the critical term in the formula is n.
10
Then, if n increases so the sum of the series will increase, and ultimately if n d ∞ so the sum will
approach infinity, and the series will diverge : for an A.P. as n d ∞, S n d ∞, so arithmetic series never
converge.
For a G.P. the situation is different. Some G.P.s converge and some do not. The qualitative analysis is
left as an exercise (see below), but mathematically we have that if r < 1 then
a(1 − r n )
lim S = lim = a (8)
nd∞ n nd∞ 1−r 1−r
Interpret the mathematics of the convergence of G.P.s of the textbook. Describe in your own words
what it is about the series, or any part of it, that allows a G.P. to be convergent ? When you have
identified the part(s) of the series which controls convergence, describe the effect on convergence as
this term(s) changes : i.e. what happens to the series if the term(s) is/are small or large ? What happens
to the series as more and more terms are added to the series ? what happens to the series as less and less
terms are added to the series ? Etc....
End of Exercise
1.5 : Arithmetic and geometric means (private reading/self study)
1.5.1: Arithmetic means

Consider three numbers which form an A.P. : p 1 , p 2 , p 3 . Let p1 be the first number in the series, p2 the
second number in the series, and p3 be the first number in the series. Then
p 1 = a, p 2 = a + d, and p 3 = a + 2d
Let us calculate the average of these three numbers :

1
(
3 p1 + p 2 + p 3 ) = 13 (a + a + d + a + 2d )
i.e.
1
(
3 p1 + p2 + p3 ) = a + d
But p 2 = a + d so the mean of three numbers in arithmetic series is given by the middle term.
Another way of analysing this is by forming certain key combinations of p 1 , p 2 , p 3 . Then,
p 1 + p 3 = 2a + 2d = 2p 2
Hence
p 2 = 12 (p 1 + p 3 )
11
Hence we can interpret this as meaning that the average of the first and third terms give the middle
term of the arithmetic series.
1.5.2 : Geometric means

Let us now study the geometric mean of a three numbers in geometric progression. therefore, consider
three numbers which form an G.P. : p 1 , p 2 , p 3 . Let p1 be the first number in the series, p2 the second
number in the series, and p3 be the first number in the series. Then
p 1 = a, p 2 = ar, and p 3 = ar 2
Let us calculate the ‘geometric’ average of these three numbers :
3
p1p2p3 = 3 (a.ar.ar 2 )
i.e.
3
p 1 p 2 p 3 = ar
But p 2 = ar so the geometric mean of three numbers in geometric series is given by the middle term.
Again, another way of analysing this is by forming certain key combinations of p 1 , p 2 , p 3 . Then,
p 1 .p 3 = a 2 r 2 = (p 2 )
2
Hence
p 2 = (p 1 .p 3 )
Hence we can interpret this as meaning that the geometric average of the first and third terms give the
middle term of the geometric series.
Examples
See lecture and refer to Examples 15d, p601 of Bostock and Chandler.
Exercises
Refer to exercises 15d, p603 of Bostock and Chandler.

Extend the above analysis for arithmetic and geometric means by considering four, five, six, etc...
terms in arithmetic progression and geometric progression :
1) for three terms (as shown above) we saw the arithmetic mean to be p2. Show that for four terms
p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , p 4 in arithmetic series the arithmetic mean is 12 (p 2 + p 3 ) , and that for five terms terms
p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , p 4 , p 5 in arithmetic series the arithmetic mean is p 3 .
12
2) for three terms (as shown above) we saw the geometric mean to be p2. Show that for four terms
p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , p 4 in geometric series the geometric mean is p 1 .p 4 , and that for five terms p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , p 4 , p 5 in
geometric series the geometric mean is p 3 .
Make sure that you can develop the analysis using both of the two different lines of algebra shown in
the sections above
End of Exercise
1.5.3 : The Arithmetic-Geometric mean inequality

Given the arithmetic and geometric means above, we can find a relationship between them as follows.
Consider the difference between two arithmetic terms P1 and P2, Then we have :
P1 − P2
Squaring this difference implies that it will be greater than or equal to 0 :
(P 1 − P 2 ) 2 m 0
Therefore
P 21 − 2P 1 P 2 + P 22 m 0
Adding 4P1P2 to both side we get
P 21 − 2P 1 P 2 + P 22 + 4P 1 P 2 m 4P 1 P 2
(P 1 + P2 ) 2 m 4P1 P 2
Implying that
P1 + P2
m P1P2
2
Note that the above inequality is true for any numbers x and y and not just for numbers in arithmetic
/geometric sequence. Therefore in general we have that for any two numbers a, b c ‘ ,
a + b m ab
2
This is the arithmetic-geometric mean inequality and says that the arithmetic mean is always greater
than or equal to the geometric mean.
We can obtain the same result more directly by using a different binomial term to prove this inequality
: . Then we have
2
a − b m0
13
a − 2 ab + b m 0
so that directly we obtain
a + b m ab
2
Simply from the above example we might predict that
1) a+b+c m 3
abc 2) a + b + c + d m 4 abcd
3 4
for a, b, c, d c ‘ . To prove this let us consider proving 2). As such we might consider doing the
necessary algebra on (a + b + c + d ) . But there is a shorter way of proving 2) if we consider that
4
a+b+c+d = 1 a+b + c+d

4 2 2 2
m a+b c+d
2 2
m ab . cd
m 4 abcd
Adopting a similar mathematical trick for the algebra of 1) we can do
a+b+c = 1
4 a+b+c+ a+b+c
3 3
m 4 abc a + b + c
3
m (abc ) 1/4 a + b + c
1/4
3
implying that
a+b+c 3/4
m (abc ) 1/4
3
Taking the 4/3rds power of both sides we finally have
a+b+c m 3
abc
3
Exercise
Prove the following equalities :
1) a+b+c+d+e m 5
abcde 2) a+b+c+d+e+f m 6
abcde
5 6
14
1.6 : Summation of Number Series
Here we will find the sum of some standard number series. We saw on p4 of these notes that
n

i=1
i = n (n + 1 )
2
Lets us now consider the series called the ‘sum of squares’ :

n
r 2 = 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + 4 2 + .... + n 2
r=1
(1.6.1)
This is neither an A.P. nor a G.P. so we need to another analysis to find its sum. Consider therefore :
(r + 1 ) 3 − r 3 (1.6.2)
Expanding we get (r + 1 ) 3 − r 3 = r 3 + 3r 2 + 3r + 1 − r 3
n n n n
Therefore
r=1
(r + 1 ) 3 − r 3 = 3 r2 + 3 r + 1
r=1 r=1 r=1
(1.6.3)
Writing out the left hand side of (1.5.3) backwards we have

n n n
(n + 1 ) 3 − n 3 + n 3 − (n − 1 ) 3 + .... + [3 3 − 2 3 ] + [2 3 − 1 3 ] = 3 r 2 + 3 r + 1 (1.6.4)
r=1 r=1 r=1
All the terms of (1.5.4) cancel except the 1st and last terms. Hence
n n n
(n + 1 ) 3 − 1 3 = 3 r 2 + 3 r + 1 (1.6.5)
r=1 r=1 r=1
Also, we know r = n/2(n + 1 ) and also 1 = n. Hence (1.5.5) becomes

n
(n + 1 ) 3 − 1 3 = 3 r 2 + 3( n2 (n + 1 )) + n
r=1
From which (after some algebra) we can find r 2 to be

n
r 2 = n6 (n + 1 )(2n + 1 )
r=1
(1.6.6)
15
Interpret the mathematics of the proofs above. Describe in your own words what it is about doing
(r + 1 ) 3 − r 3 which allows the proof to work. Describe any and all steps in the proof
End of Exercise
In the proof above we used the identity (r + 1 ) − r 3 . Would we get the same result if we used
3
1)
the identity r 3 − (r − 1 ) ? If so, why does the identity work ? If not why does the identity not work ?
3
n
Use the identity (r + 1 ) − r 2 to prove that r = n (n + 1 )
2
2)
r=1 2
n 2
3) Find a relevant identity which would allow you to prove that
r=1
r 3 = n (n + 1 )
4
2
n
4) Find a proof for finding the sum : r 4 by using a relevant identity
r=1
5) From the results of r, r 2 , r 3 and r 4 can you predict the formula for the sums r n , n m 5
End of Exercise
Examples
See lecture
Exercises
See exercise sheets
1.7 : Method of Induction

So far we have looked at series from the perspective of finding its sum by using terms and
differences/ratios of the series. Here we will consider whether or not the general formula for such sums
are in fact true or not. We will therefore use a method of proof known as ‘Proof by Induction’ to show
whether or not these formula are correct.
As an example, consider the following series :

n
S n = r.(r + 1 ) = (1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) + (3 )(4 ) + .... + (n )(n + 1 ) (1.7.1)
r=1
16
This series does not fit the normal A.P. or G.P. structure so we can’t use their formulae to find the sum
of this series . However if we consider the partial sums of (1.7.1) :
S 1 = (1 )(2 ) = 2 = 13 (1 )(2 )(3 )

S 2 = (1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) = 8 = 13 (2 )(3 )(4 )
S 3 = (1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) + (3 )(4 ) = 20 = 13 (3 )(4 )(5 )
we can deduce the general pattern for the sum of the series to be
S n = 13 n.(n + 1 )(n + 2 ) (1.7.2)
However, we now need to prove that (1.7.2) is true for all n and not just for a few values. We do this in
two steps :
y firstly we need to prove that (1.7.2) actually works for at least one number. Usually we
take the easiest number to use, i.e. ‘1’ .....
y ..... then we need to prove that if the formula is true for any value k, then it is true for
any value k+1
Hence for (1.7.2) :
the 1st stage :

Here we test (1.7.2) for a specific value of n, say n = 1, and compare against the series, to see if
the formula is valid. So,
for n = 1, S n = 13 .1.(2 )(3 ) = 2
And (1.7.1) gives, for n = 1,

1
S n = r.(r + 1 ) = 1.(1 + 1 ) = 2
r=1
So we know that formula (1.7.2) does work for n = 1.
the 2nd stage :

The second stage in our proof is in two steps. The 1st step is a very formal step. Specifically let
the formula be true for any number n = k, 1 < k < n. Then we have
S k = 13 .k.(k + 1 )(k + 2 ) (1.7.3)
The 2nd step is to now show that if we add k+1 to both (1.7.1) and (1.7.2) they will both be
equal, in other words the answer we get from (1.7.2) will be the same we get from (1.7.1)
(which we know is the true answer) when we add the (k+1)th term.
17
Hence we need to show that
(1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) + .... + (k )(k + 1 ) + (k + 1 )(k + 2 ) = 13 .k.(k + 1 )(k + 2 ) + (k + 1 )(k + 2 )
(1.7.4)
The left hand side of (1.7.4) is simply (1.7.1) with n = k+1, i.e. r=1 r. r + 1 ). We therefore
k+1 (
need to show that the right hand side simplifies to (1.7.3) with k replaced by k+1. Simple
algebra shows that for the right hand side of (1.7.4) we get
3 .k. k + 1 k + 2 + k + 1 k + 2 = 13 (k + 1 )(k + 2 )(k + 3 )

1
( )( ) ( )( )
Hence (1.7.4) becomes
(1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) + .... + (k )(k + 1 ) + (k + 1 )(k + 2 ) = 13 (k + 1 )(k + 2 )(k + 3 )
k+1
i.e. r.(r + 1 ) = (1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) + .... + 13 (k + 1 )(k + 2 )(k + 3 )
r=1
(1.7.5)
which is what we wanted to obtain. Hence we have proved that (1.7.2) is true
We can therefore state this process of proof by induction more formally as :
Let S(n) be a series for integers n, and let the

following two statements be true :
i) S(1) is true
ii) for all k m 1, if S(k) is true then S(k+1) is
also true
Then for all n m 1, S(n) is true
Examples
Prove that
1) 1 + 3 + 5 + .... + (2n − 1) = n 2 2) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n = 12 n(n + 1 )
See lecture
Exercises
See exeercise sheet
18
Interpret the mathematical process of doing a proof by induction. Describe, in your own words, all the
steps done in the example above. What is the final aim we want to achieve ? How do we go about
achieving that aim mathematically ? Explain the reason for adding the (k+1)th term. Why do we not
need to add the (k+2)th term or any other term ?
End of Exercise
1.8 : Test for Convergence of Series

Let us now study more deeply how to analyse the convergence of a series. Series can do one of three
types of things : They can converge, they can diverge, or they can neither converge nor diverge.
consider then the series
1+ + ( 12 ) + ( 12 ) + ( 12 ) + .....
1 2 3 4
2
has the sum to one term (S1) of 1 ; has the sum to two term (S2) of 1.5
has the sum to three term (S3) of 1.75 ; has the sum to four term (S4) of 1.875
has the sum to five term (S5) of 1.9375
It seems therefore that the sum to infinity approach 2. If we look at the nth term we see that
S n = 2 − 2( 12 ) n
and as n d ∞, ( 12 ) n d 0, and therefore S n d 2. This series is therefore convergent.
If we now look at the arithmetic series
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + .....
we see that S1 = 1, S2 = 3, S3 = 6, ....., S n = n2 (n + 1 ) implying that as n d ∞, S n d ∞. This series is

divergent.
Finally the series

1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ....
neither converges nor diverges because the sum of more and more terms keeps changing/alternating
between 0 and 1. On this course we will only ever consider series which have positive terms.
19
1.8.1 : Test 1 : Limit test
Let us consider the series
S n = u 1 + u 2 + u 3 + ..... + u n + .....
If the series converges then

as n d ∞, S n d k
This implies that the difference between any two sums becomes smaller and smaller, i.e. that
S n − S n−1 d 0 as n d ∞.
But S n − S n−1 = u n . Hence as n gets larger and larger the general term un of the series must approach 0,
i.e.
lim u =0
nd∞ n
A general definition of convergence can now be stated :
u n is convergent ==> lim u =0

nd∞ n
(1.8.1)
Note however that lim u =0

nd∞ n
=/=> u n is convergent (1.8.2)
i.e. it will not always be the case that if lim nd∞ u n = 0 then the series will converge. In fact nothing can
be said about the convergence properties of the series. This therefore means that the condition in
(1.8.1) can only be used to test that a series is not convergent, i.e.
if lim u ! 0 then u n is divergent

nd∞ n
(1.8.3)
Examples
According to the limit test, the series
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 .....
3 9 81
converges, but the series
1 + 3 + 9 + 81 + ....
obviously does not converge
1.8.2 : Proof of limit test

We want to prove that if lim u ! 0 then u n is divergent. To do this we will try to prove the opposite,
nd∞ n
namely that
if u n converges then lim u = 0.
nd∞ n
20
To do this let S k be the sum of the first k terms. Hence, the kth term uk can be found from the partial
sums as
u k = S k − S k−1
Taking limits we have
lim u k = lim(S k − S k−1 )
kd∞ kd∞
= lim S k − lim S k−1

kd∞ kd∞
But as k t ∞ the partial sums become the total sum S. Therefore,
lim u k = S − S = 0
kd∞
Therefore, since we have proved that if the series converges then lim u = 0, this means that if
nd∞ n
lim u ! 0 then the series diverges. QED
nd∞ n
Examples
See lecture
1.8.3 : Test 2 : Comparison test

Consider the series below and use the limit test above to see if the series below converges or not :
Sn = 1 + 1
2 + 1
3 + 1
4 + 1
5 + ..... (*)
This series is called the Harmonic series. Let us group the terms of this series as follows :
1+ 1
2 + ( 13 + 14 ) + ( 15 + 1
6 + 1
7 + 18 ) + ( 19 + .... + 1
16
) + .... (1.8.4)
Make all the terms in each bracket the same as the last term of each bracket, i.e.
1+ 1
2 + ( 14 + 14 ) + ( 18 + 1
8 + 1
8 + 18 ) + ( 161 + .... + 1
16
) + .... (1.8.5)
Comparing the sum of terms between (1.8.4) and (1.8.5), we see that the sum of the terms in each
bracket of (1.8.5) is less than the sum of the terms in each bracket of (1.8.4). But (1.8.5) can be
re-written as
S ∏n = 1 + 1
2 + ( 12 ) + ( 12 ) + ( 12 ) + ..... (1.8.6)
Q : Does series (1.8.6) converge or diverge ? Well, it diverges, i.e.
as n d ∞, S ∏n d ∞
21
But we saw that Sn of (1.8.4) was greater than S ∏n . So, if S ∏n diverges, then the original series Sn also
diverges, even though lim u = 0 in (1.8.4) !
nd∞ n
Exercise on thinking mathematically
Describe, in your own words, the mathematical idea behind the development of expressions (*) to
(1.8.6) above. What is it about what we have done that makes the whole idea work ? Why do we want
to bracket the terms in the way we have done it in (1.8.4) and (1.8.5) ? How is this useful ? How does
this allows us to study the convergence/divergence characteristics of (*) ? What is it about (1.8.5) that
allows us to say that (*) is divergent ?
End of Exercise

1) Compared with the grouping of terms in (1.6.4) why is it not useful for us to consider the
grouping below ? :
1 + ( 12 + 13 ) + ( 14 + 1
5 + 1
6 + 17 ) + ( 18 + 1
9 + .... + 1
15
) + .... (1.8.7)
1+ 1
2 + 1
3 + ( 14 + 15 ) + ( 16 + 1
7 + 1
8 + 19 ) + ( 10
1
+ .... + 1
17
) + .... (1.8.8)
Describe both informally (i.e. in English description) and formally (i.e. in mathematical
notation) what happens to convergence/divergence aspects when we consider the grouping of (1.8.7)
and (1.8.8).
Note that if you truly understand the effect of the grouping of (1.8.4) and why it was done that
way then you will see that there is a difference in the effect of the groupings of (1.8.7) and (1.8.8).
Describe, both informally and formally, and in detail, the differences in the effects of the groupings of
(1.8.7) and (1.8.8). What does this imply about the way you have to group terms in the series ?
2) Difficult ? : Having identifies the true nature of the way we must group terms, create/find other
series which you can prove are divergent but which are based on grouping terms only two at a time,
three at a time, or four at a time, i.e.
1 + ( ## + ## ) + ( ## + ## ) + ( ## + ## ) + ..... or 1 + ( ## + #
# + ## ) + ( ## + #
# + ## ) + .....
etc... This means you will have to experiment with the structure and the terms of series so that you can
develop one which has the necessary structure to prove that it is divergent.
End of Exercise
22
The process for testing that the Harmonic series was divergent is called the comparison test for
convergence. The comparison test therefore relies on comparing the terms of the series with the
(smaller) terms of another series we know diverges. More generally we may then say that
if all the terms of a given series are greater than the terms of a
series we know diverges, then that original series must also diverge
Similarly
if all the terms of a given series are less than the terms of a series
we know converges, then that original series must also converge
The comparison test only works for series containing positive terms. Mathematically we may then
make the following definition : provided u n > 0 and a n > 0
1) if u n > a n , ≤ n > N where N is fixed
a r is divergent ==> u r is divergent
2) if u n < a n , ≤ n > N where N is fixed
a r is convergent ==> u r is convergent

Interpret the mathematical definition above Describe, in your own words, what each part(s) of the
definition means and what it implies. what do symbols and groups of symbols mean ? What are the
effects of the relevant operations ?
End of Exercise
1.8.4 : Proof of the comparison test

Let u k be the series we are testing and let a k be the series we know converges. Then
a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + .... + a k + .... [ A
where A represents the sum of the series a k . Since u 1 < a 1 , u 2 < a 2 , u 3 < a 3 , ....u k < a k , .... then
u 1 + u 2 + u 3 + .... + u k + .... < a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + .... + a k + .... [ A
hence u k converges. Generally speaking, if the ‘bigger’ series a k converges, then the ‘smaller’
series u k also converges. To prove divergence, we can use the concept opposite to the above : in
short if we know a k d ∞ , then since u k > a k , a k d ∞ also.
23
Then, to use the comparison test we need :
1) an expression for the general term of the series

2) a series to compare with which we know is either convergent or divergent. Some useful
series are :
∞ k ∞ ∞
Convergent series :
n=1
1
n
n=0
1
n!
n=1
1
n(n + 1 )
∞
Divergent series :
n=1
1
n
Other know tests can be found in the extra handouts.
Examples
See lecture.
You might think that series of the form 1p should either all diverges or all converge. But this is not
the case. Some will converge and some will diverge.
So what is it about the nature or character of 1p when p = n or p = n! (i.e. n!1 and 1n ) which
makes the difference ? What is it about the fractions and/or the sum of fraction terms which makes one
type of series converge and the other type of series diverge ?
End of Exercise
Let us examine the harmonic series in more detail. We want to study its convergence properties and
prove when it is convergent and when it is divergent. We will discuss this in the lecture, but in
summary we have that :
∞ k

n=1
1
n diverges when k [ 1
∞ k

n=1
1
n converges when k > 1
The proof of these two situations is in the extra handouts (ignore the small section on : “Another form
of the comparison test”).
24
1.8.5 : Test 3 : Ratio test
We now move to another way of testing the convergence or not of a series. This is similar to one form
of the comparison test we did in the examples above. There we could determine convergence by doing
either u n /a n > 1 or u n /a n < 1 as n d ∞. However, in the ratio test we test u n+1 /u n , i.e.
if u n is a series of positive terms :

u n+1
y if lim
nd∞ u n
< 1 the series converges
u n+1
y if lim
nd∞ u n
>1 the series diverges
u n+1
y if lim
nd∞ u n
=1 we cannot decide if the series converges or diverges
We will not look at the proof since this is beyond the scope of our course.
Examples
Do the following series converge or diverge ?
i) 1 + 3 + 52 + 73 + ..... ii) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + .....

2 2 2 2 3 4 5
See lecture.
Exercises
See exercise sheets
25
Series : Extra Topics
1.0 : Introduction
This is an extra set of notes which is included “free” (!) if you are interested in reading them. This extra
set of notes is not part of the syllabus, and you may therefore leave it aside if you wish. However, if
you are interested in reading on, then you will read about the topic of sequences and their properties.
This will include :
Introduction to Sequences
Here we will define what sequences and define the notation used in the study of these.
Recurrence Relations
Here we will look at types of formula which give rise to sequences. These formula contain
terms which refer to previous elements of a given sequences. As such they therefore allow us to
develop infinite sequences from simple expressions.
Fibonacci Sequences
Here we introduce the most well known of sequences, and study some basic numerical patterns
and properties of this sequence.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.1 : Sequences
Here we will summarise what sequences and series are, and the notation used in the study of these.
1.1.1 : Introduction
Consider, therefore, the following set of numbers :
1) 2, 3, 4, 5, ....... 2) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...... 3) 4, 9, 16, 25, ......
Informally we may say that : in 1) each number is one more than the previous number
in 2) each number is twice the previous number
in 3) each number is the square of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, ....
Formally we may then define a sequence as :
a set of terms (numbers, variables, etc...) in a specific

order with a rule for obtaining these terms
26
1.1.2 : Stating sequences mathematically
To describe a sequence mathematically we need three things :
1) a symbol which refers to the number of the sequences

2) a subscript symbol which refers to the position of the number in the sequence
3) a rule for calculating how each term of the sequence is calculated
As an example we can then write the sequence of natural numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .......
as a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , a 5 , a 6 , ....
Therefore the complete mathematical statement representing the sequence of natural number is
a i , i = 1, 2, 3, .....|a n = n
Exercise
1) Develop mathematical statements representing the following sequence
i) 2, 4, 6, 8, ..... ii) 1, 3, 5, 7, .....

iii) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ..... iv) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, .....
v) -1, 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, .....
2) Use your answer to 1) v) above to develop a mathematical statement representing the following
sequence :
1, 1, 3, 3, 5, 5, 7, 7, 9, 9, .....
ans : an=n-(1+(-1)n)/2
3) Given the sequence a i , i = 1, 2, 3, .....|a n = 1 and your answer to 1) v) above develop a

mathematical statement representing the following sequence :
0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, ......
ans : add the respective terms of the sequences
1.2 : Recurrence Relations

Important in the sequences we will study later is the concept of a recurrence formula, or recurrence
relations. A recurrence relation for the sequence a n is an equation that expresses an in terms of one
or more of the previous terms of the sequence, namely, a0, a1, …, an-1, for all integers n m 0 . This
recurrence formula is then used to generate the numbers of the sequence, and as such the sequence is a
solution to the recurrence relation.
27
Example 1
Consider the recurrence relation
a i , i = 2, 3, 4, ...|a n = 2a n−1 − a n−2
In order to be able to generate a sequence from this recurrence relation we need to provide initial
starting values, and the number of starting values depends upon how many terms there are in the right
hand side of the recurrence relations. In this case we need to define two starting values a0 and a1. Hence
let a 0 = 0 and a 1 = 1 . then we have the sequence :
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ......
Example 2
Consider the previous recurrence relation a i , i = 2, 3, 4, ...|a n = 2a n−1 − a n−2 . Are the sequences given
by
i) a n = 3n and ii) an = 5
solutions of this recurrence relation ? To show this we can substitute each of the suggested sequences
into the recurrence relation to see if they make these work :
for a n = 3n : 2a n−1 − a n−2 = 2(3(n − 1 )) − 3(n − 2 ) = 3n = a n
for a n = 5 : 2a n−1 − a n−2 = 2(5 ) − 5 = 5 = a n
Therefore, both sequences of a n are solutions to the recurrence relation.
Exercises
1) Show that the sequence 1, −1!, 2!, −3!, 4!, ..., (−1 ) n n! for n m 0 satisfies the recurrence relation
S k = −k.S k−1 for k m 1

example 8.1.4, p426, Epp
(*all the following are from No 9 onwards, p438, Epp*)
2) Show that the sequence given by a n = 3n + 1, for n m 0, satisfies the recurrence relation
a k = a k−1 + 3 for k m 1
3) Show that the sequence given by b n = 5 n , for n m 0, satisfies the recurrence relation
b k = 5b k−1 for k m 1
4) Show that the sequence 0, 1, 3, 7, ..., 2 n − 1, for n m 0, satisfies the recurrence relation
c k = 2c k−1 + 1 for k m 1
28
5) Show that the sequence 2, 3, 4, 5, ..., 2 + n, for n m 0, satisfies the recurrence relation
t k = 2t k−1 − t k−2 for k m 2
6) Show that the sequence 0, 1, 3, 7, ..., 2 n − 1, for n m 0, satisfies the recurrence relation
d k = 3d k−1 − 2d k−2 fork m 2
There are many different types of sequences, some of which give rise to interesting mathematical
patterns we shall now study.
1.3 : Fibonacci Sequences

This is probably the most well know sequence and was discovered through a mathematics competition
in 1225. The problem for this competition was based finding out how fast rabbits would breed in ideal
circumstances. This was assuming that none of the rabbits died, and that each pair of rabbits did not
give birth to more than one pair of rabbits each month.
The picture below shows a pair of rabbits that are born and only breed after the first month. After the
first month they give birth to a pair of rabbits which themselves only breed after their first month. This
pattern is then repeatedly continuously and can be seen in the diagram below
When we look at the sequence and pick a number we notice that it is composed of the previous two
numbers added together. 1 + 1 = 2 ... 1 + 2 = 3... 2 + 3 = 5 and so on.
29
The sequence then tends to be written as
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, ...........
and the recurrence relation which satisfies this sequence is Fibonacci recurrence relation
F n = F n−1 + F n−2
and this simply allows us to generate the next number in the sequence by adding the previous two
numbers in the sequence.
Exercises
1) Develop an expression for Fn in terms of
i) Fn-2 and Fn-3 only ; ii) Fn-3 and Fn-4 only

iii) Fn-4 and Fn-5 only ; iv) F1 and F0 only
(*all the following are from No 24 onwards, p438, Epp*)

2) Show, or prove by induction, that F2k − Fk−1
2
= F k .F k+1 − Fk+1 .Fk−1 , for all k m 1
3) 2
Show, or prove by induction, that Fk+1 − F2k − Fk−1
2
= 2Fk .F k−1 , for all k m 1
4) 2
Show, or prove by induction, that Fk+1 − F2k = Fk−1 .Fk+2 , for all k m 1
1.3.1 : Divisibility of sets of Fibonacci numbers

The Fibonacci sequence has some interesting arithmetic properties. Specifically, sets of Fibonacci
numbers have certain divisibility properties :
Divisibility by 11
The sum of any ten consecutive Fibonacci numbers is always divisible by 11 and gives a
answer which is itself a Fibonacci number :
1 5 89
1 8 144
2 13 233
3 21 377
5 34 610
8 55 987
13 89 1,597
21 144 2,584
34 233 4,181
55 377 6,765
143/11 = 13 979/11 = 89 17567/11 = 1579
30
Divisibility by Fibonacci numbers
As the consecutive Fibonacci integers (Fn) increase note how they are divisible by consecutive
Fibonacci numbers :
Every 3rd Fibonacci number is divisible by 2.

Every 4th Fibonacci number is divisible by 3.
etc....
1) What happens if you double/triple/... every Fibonacci number ? Is there another Fibonacci
sequence within this ? ...
2) ... then what about the divisibility properties of the sequences you have developed in 1) ? Are
their any numbers in your sequences of 1) wich are divisible by any other numbers in the
sequence ?
End of Exercise
Pascal’s Triangle and the Fibonacci sequence

Consider Pascal’s triangle. The diagram below shows that we can sum the numbers of the
diagonal to obtain the Fibonacci sequence :
Fn : 13 8 5 3 2 1 1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
31
1) How far does this diagonal property work ? If it breaks down at some specific diagonal, devise
a way of ‘fixing’ it (in any way you can make work) so that this property works again ?
End of Exercise
1.3.2 : The golden ratio

Another important number that can be found as a result of the Fibonacci sequence is 1.61803. This
number is called φ (Phi) which is the Golden Ratio and is the limit of the ratio of two consecutive
Fibonacci numbers, i.e.
1/1 = 1 ---> 1/2=0.5 ---> 2/3=0.66666666
3/5=0.6 ---> 5/8=0.625 ---> 8/13=0.6153846
13/21=0.619047 ---> 21/34=0.617647 ---> 34//55=0.6181818
and ultimately & = lim nd∞ F(n + 1 )/F(n ) = 1·618033988749894.... A graph of the convergence to φ can
be seen below :
The golden ratio can in fact be obtain by solving the quadratic x 2 − x − 1 = 0 . To see this consider any
three Fibonacci numbers F(i ), F(i + 1 ), and F(i + 2 ) . Then, for very large values of i, the ratio of F(i)
and F(i+1) will be almost the same as the ratio F(i+1) and F(i+2) (this is a standard number property :
i.e. 99/98 is closer to 98/97 than 2/3 is to 3/4)
32
So let's see what happens if both of these ratios have the same value x :
F(i + 1 ) F(i + 2 )
= =x
F(i ) F(i + 1 )
Substituting F(i + 2 ) = F(i + 1 ) + F(i ) into the above we have :
F(i + 1 ) F(i + 1 ) + F(i )

= =x
F(i ) F(i + 1 )
F(i + 1 ) F(i )
=1+ =x
F(i ) F(i + 1 )
F(i + 1 )
= 1 + 1x = x
F(i )
hence x2 = x + 1
the solution of which is the golden ratio φ. Since φ is a root to this quadratic then
φ2 = φ + 1
and what this tells us is that φ is a number such that, in order to square it, all we need to do is to add 1
to it. Solving this quadratic we get
5 5
= 1
2 + 2 and = 1
2 − 2
namely, α = 1·6180339887... and β = –0·6180339887... The root α is then the golden ratio number φ.
However, there are some interesting properties of the golden ratio (which are actually connections
between α and β) :
0) squaring property : α2 = α + 1 (as above)

1) reciprocal property : α = -1/β
2) unitary property : α.β = -1
3) sum property : α+β=1
4) difference property : α−β= 5
1.4 : Mathematical Analysis of Fibonacci Sequences

Here we will analyse certain mathematical properties of the Fibonacci sequence.
1.4.1 : Immediate successors and predecessors of Fibonacci numbers

This analysis is taken from Note 86.60 of Mathematical Gazette 2001. We know that in order to
calculate a Fibonacci number from the Fibonacci sequence :
F n = F n−1 + F n−2 ; F 1 = F 2 = 1, n m 2
33
we need to know the previous two numbers in the sequences. Here we shall show that this is in fact not
the case. We will see that it is possible to calculate the next Fibonacci number knowing only the
immediately previous Fibonacci number.
To see this let = (1 + 5 )/2 and = (1 − 5 )/2 = 1 − = −1/ . Let us now start with the difference
between two Fibonacci numbers as :
F n+1 − F n
Using the standard recurrence relation for the Fibonacci sequence we have
F n+1 − F n = (F n + F n−1 ) − F n = (1 − )F n + F n−1 i)
= F n + F n−1 ii)
Factorising β in this last expression we have
= (F n − F n−1 ) iii)
Comparing iii) with the left hand side of i) we see that they have the same structure, i.e. they have an
F ... − F ... structure. This means that the analysis which allowed us to get from the LHS of i) to iii) can
be used on iii). Hence
F n+1 − F n = (F n − F n−1 )
= 2 (F n−1 − F n−2 )
= 3 (F n−2 − F n−3 )
..............................
= n−1 (F 2 − F 1 ) = n−1 (1 − ) = n
However, we know that < 0.62 hence 2

< 1
2 for n m 2 . This implies that
− 12 < F n+1 − F n < 1

2
therefore
F n − 1
2 < F n+1 < F n + 1
2
In other words for n m 2 we can compute the immediate successor to the Fibonacci number Fn as the
biggest integer smaller than αFn + ½. i.e.
F n+1 = ≈F n + 12 ∆ (1.4.1)
34
where the symbols ≈ ∆ mean that we take the largest integer smaller than αFn + ½. Equation (1.4.1)
can also be used to find the immediate predecessor to the Fibonacci number Fn+1 as the smallest integer
bigger (Fn+1 - ½)/α, i.e.
F n+1 − 1
Fn =
2
(1.4.2)
where the symbols « » mean that we take the smallest integer larger than (Fn+1 - ½)/α.
1.4.2 : A recurrence relation among Fibonacci sums

This analysis is taken from Note 84.11 of Mathematical Gazette 2000. Consider partial sums of the
Fibonacci sequence, i.e. consider
$0 = f0
$1 = f0 + f1
$2 = f0 + f1 + f2
$3 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3
etc... Thus we define the sum

$ n = k=0 f k
n
with f 0 = 0, f 1 = 1, f 2 = 1 . We can tabulate a few partial sums as follows :
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
τn 0 1 2 4 7 12 20
The aim is to show the recurrence relation
1 + $ n + $ n+1 = $ n+2
To show this we have that
= 1 + k=0 f k + k=0 f k
n n+1
1 + $ n + $ n+1 (1.4.3)
Looking at the two sums we can write these out as :
k=0
n
f k + k=0 f k
n+1
= (f 0 + f 1 + f 2 + f 3 + .... + f n ) + (f 0 + f 1 + f 2 + f 3 + .... + f n + f n+1 )
= f 0 + f 0 + f 1 + f 1 + f 2 + f 2 + .... + f n + f n + f n+1
35
Then, by grouping terms appropriately, we have
k=0
n
f k + k=0 f k
n+1
= f 0 + (f 0 + f 1 ) + (f 1 + f 2 ) + (f 2 + ... ) + .... + (... + f n ) + (f n + f n+1 )
= f 0 + k=0 (f k + f k+1 )
n
Therefore,
= 1 + f 0 + k=0 (f k + f k+1 )
n
1 + $ n + $ n+1
and since f 1 = 1,
= f 0 + f 1 + k=0 (f k + f k+1 )
n
Using the Fibonacci recurrence relation on the summation term we have
1 + $ n + $ n+1 = f 0 + f 1 + k=0 f k+2

n
= k=0 f k
n+2
= $ n+2
and thus the recurrence relation is proved.
Is it the case that

1 + $ n + $ n+1 + $ n+2 = $ n+3 ?
If not develop a recurrence relation involving $ n , $ n+1 , and $ n+2 .
End of Exercise
36
1.0 : Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 : Basic Issues : Sequences, Series and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 : Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 : Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 : Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 : Arithmetic Progressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 : Basic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 : The sum of an arithmetic progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 : Geometric Progressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 : Basic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 : The sum of a geometric progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 : Convergence of a Series and the Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progressions . . . . . . . 10
1.5 : Arithmetic and geometric means (private reading/self study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1 : Arithmetic means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.2 : Geometric means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.3 : The Arithmetic-Geometric mean inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 : Summation of Number Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 : Method of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 : Test for Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.1 : Test 1 : Limit test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.2 : Proof of limit test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.3 : Test 2 : Comparison test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.4 : Proof of the comparison test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8.5 : Test 3 : Ratio test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
37
Basic Issues : Sequences, Series and Notation
Here we will define what sequences and series are, and define the notation used in the study of
these.
Arithmetic Progressions
Here we will study series whose terms differ from each other by a constant amount. We will see
how to prove a general formula which allows us to find the sum of such series, and we will
apply this to find the sums of certain arithmetic series,
Geometric Progressions
Here we will study series whose terms differ from each other by a constant multiple. We will
see how to prove a general formula which allows us to find the sum of such series, and we will
apply this to find the sums of certain geometric series,
Convergence of Series and the Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progressions

Here we will discuss in general terms the issue of the convergence, or not, of a series, .i.e. for a
series to move towards a specific, fixed result. We will then see what value a geometric series
converges to when there are an infinite number of terms. Finally we will study arithmetic and
geometric means.
Summation of Number Series

Here we will study how to find the sum of series which are neither arithmetic nor geometric
series. We will see a particular mathematical trick which can be used in order to help us
develop the formulae for such sums.
Method of Induction
Here we will study how to prove whether of not the formula for sums of series are correct..
Tests for Convergence of a Series

Here we will study what it takes for a series to converge, i.e. for a series to move towards a
specific, fixed result. We will study three different tests which we can use to analyse the
convergence or divergence properties of a series
38

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Series

1) 2, 3, 4, 5, ....... 2) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...... 3) 4, 9, 16, 25, ......

Formally we may then define a sequence as :

a set of terms (numbers, variables, etc...) in a specific

for 4) r+1 for r = 1, 2, 3, ...

1.2.1 : Basic aspects

5, 8, 11, 14, ....., 29

5, (5 + 3), (5 + 2x3), (5 + 3x3), ....., (5 + 8x3)

Formalising the above description we may then say that

the 1st term is a

Exercise on reading mathematically

and in general we have

for any constant k. We can formally proves this by :

Since we know from (1.2.3) that i=1

Exercise on reading mathematically

2S = 2(a + a ) + 12(n − 2 ) ===> S = 2a + 6(n − 2 ) (i)

develop a general formula for this arithmetic progression.

1.3.1 : Basic aspects

3, 6, 12, 24, .....

3, (3 x 2), (3 x 2²), (3 x 23), .....

Formalising the above description we may then say that

the 1st term is a

Exercise on reading mathematically

(Note how the 2nd series is positioned : it is shifted by 1 place). Hence

Sn = a + a.r + a.r² + a.r3 + ..... + a.rn-1

Exercise on reading mathematically

Exercise on mathematical thinking

etc... What happens when we complete this analysis ?

Sn = a + a.r + a.r² + a.r3 + ..... + a.rn-1

1.4 : Convergence of a Series and the Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progressions

or, with r = ½ l + l + l + l + .... + l

Exercise on reading mathematically

1.5 : Arithmetic and geometric means (private reading/self study)

1.5.1: Arithmetic means

Let us calculate the average of these three numbers :

Another way of analysing this is by forming certain key combinations of p 1 , p 2 , p 3 . Then,

1.5.2 : Geometric means

Let us calculate the ‘geometric’ average of these three numbers :

Exercise on mathematical thinking

1.5.3 : The Arithmetic-Geometric mean inequality

Squaring this difference implies that it will be greater than or equal to 0 :

Adding 4P1P2 to both side we get

Simply from the above example we might predict that

a+b+c+d = 1 a+b + c+d

Adopting a similar mathematical trick for the algebra of 1) we can do

Taking the 4/3rds power of both sides we finally have

Lets us now consider the series called the ‘sum of squares’ :

Writing out the left hand side of (1.5.3) backwards we have

Also, we know r = n/2(n + 1 ) and also 1 = n. Hence (1.5.5) becomes

From which (after some algebra) we can find r 2 to be

Exercise on mathematical thinking

1.7 : Method of Induction

As an example, consider the following series :

S 1 = (1 )(2 ) = 2 = 13 (1 )(2 )(3 )

S n = 13 n.(n + 1 )(n + 2 ) (1.7.2)

Hence for (1.7.2) :

the 1st stage :

for n = 1, S n = 13 .1.(2 )(3 ) = 2

And (1.7.1) gives, for n = 1,

So we know that formula (1.7.2) does work for n = 1.

the 2nd stage :

S k = 13 .k.(k + 1 )(k + 2 ) (1.7.3)

(1 )(2 ) + (2 )(3 ) + .... + (k )(k + 1 ) + (k + 1 )(k + 2 ) = 13 .k.(k + 1 )(k + 2 ) + (k + 1 )(k + 2 )

3 .k. k + 1 k + 2 + k + 1 k + 2 = 13 (k + 1 )(k + 2 )(k + 3 )

(all the following are from No 24 onwards, p438, Epp)

F n+1 − F n = (F n + F n−1 ) − F n = (1 − )F n + F n−1 i)