TOPICS: EPRl CS-5198

Electrostatics Volume 1
Particulates Project 2243-1
Fly ash Final Report
Aa quality June 1987
Pollutron control
Env~ronment

Electrostatic Precipitator
Guidelines
Volume 1:
Design Specifications

Prepared by
Ebasco Sew~ces.Incorporated
Norcross, Georg~a
 R E P O R T S U M M A R Y
SUBJECTS Particulate control 1 Air quality

TOPICS Electrostatics Air quality

Particulates Pollution control
Fly ash Environment

AUDIENCE Environmental engineers / Generation operators

Electrostatic Precipitator Guidelines

Volumes 1-3
In summarizing the latest information on electrostatic precipitator
technologies, these three volumes make up a central utility refer-
ence source. Plant engineers and operators will find in it detailed
guidelines for preparing precipitator design specifications, for
planning and conducting operations and maintenance programs,
and for troubleshooting problem precipitators.

BACKGROUND Increasingly stringent particulate emission regulations place great demands

on the performance of electrostatic precipitators, the devices that control fly
ash emissions at most coal-fired utility plants. Fortunately, a slow but steady
improvement in electrostatic precipitator technology is making acceptable
performance easier to achieve and maintain. This evolution has, however,
created a need for a new examination of the developments that have taken
place in recent years and has also created the need for a new and com-
prehensive source of information on precipitator technology.

OBJECTIVES To evaluate the trends and to assemble in one source the most reliable
and useful information on electrostatic precipitator technology.
To recommend procedures for preparing design specifications, for plan-
ning operations and maintenance, and for troubleshooting.

APPROACH A team of engineers and scientists with extensive experience in precipitator

procurement and operation conducted a comprehensive review of the litera-
ture on the latest technical developments. Drawing on that review and on
their own knowledge, they prepared a set of practical manuals for utility use.

RESULTS The report includes three companion manuals for design specifications,
operations and maintenance, and troubleshooting. Although the manuals
primarily address users having some knowledge of precipitator design and
operation, they provide enough background material and precipitator theory
to make them useful as training aids. The loose-leaf format will aHow updating.
Volume 1, Design Specifications, contains information helpful to utility engi-
neers preparing or reviewing precipitator design specifications. Because long
experience indicated that many precipitator problems resulted from a lack
of attention to detail, this volume includes guidelines for the specification of

EPRl CS-5198s Vols. 1-3

 virtually every component of a precipitator and of viltually every step in
the specification and procurement process.
Volume 2, Operations and Maintenance, presents material useful to
plant engineers and operators developing operation and maintenance
programs for electrostatic precipitators. The manual-for use in con-
junction with vendor-supplied manuals-provides the information
needed to develop step-by-step procedures for precipitator startup, oper-
ation, and shutdown and for routine and periodic maintenance.
Volume 3, Troubleshooting, identifies approaches and details to help
utility engineers and plant operators determine the causes of unsatis-
factory precipitator performance. Because the root causes of perfor-
mance problems can be difficult to determine, the manual recommends
that troubleshooting be done by the most knowledgeable and ex-
perienced precipitator operators. Used with manufacturer-supphed
manuals, this volume is a guide to step-by-step procedures for examin-
ing the operation of a precipitator when a problem is suspected.
- - - -

EPRl Today, more than 1000 precipitators are in use at electric utility plants-
PERSPECTIVE and pollution control regulations require that all of them operate effi-
ciently and reliably. Because many precipitators were buift when cost
was a principal consideration in the selection of pollution control equip-
ment, many of these in use are difficult to operate and maintain. In re-
sponse to this ~ndustrywideproblem, EPRl has an ongoing program to
develop ways of improving both performance and reliability in precipita-
tors. That effort has advanced flue gas conditioning systems (project
RP724-2) and promoted the adoption of controls to improve performance
(project RP1835-8). The guidelines In these manuals address the reh-
ability issue. Users of these manuals will find a useful supplement in
the summary of precipitator technology in EPRt report CS-2809.

PROJECT RP2243-1
EPRl Project Manager: Ralph F. Altman
Coal Combustion Systems Division
Cantractors: Ebasco Services, Incorporated; Southern Electric Interna-
tional; Southern Research Institute

For further information on EPRl research programs, call

fPRl Technical Information Specialists (415) 855-2411.
Electrostatic Precipitator Guidelines
Volume 1: Design Specifications

CS-5198, Volume 1
Research Project 2243-1

Final Report, June 1987

Prepared by

EBASCO SERVICES, INCORPORATED

145 Technology Park
Norcross, Georgia 30092

Principal Investigators
C. A. Altin
G. J. Grieco

Prepared for

Electric Power Research Institute

3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304

EPRl Project Manager

R. F. Altman
Air Quality Control Program
Coal Combustion Systems Division
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
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COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW. NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
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RESULTlhG FROM YOU3 SELECTIOP. OR 3% OFTIilS RE?O?T OR ANY MFORVAT'OI, A?PAXATUS, METhCD. DROCfSS. OR
SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS REPORT.

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT

EBASCO SERVICES, INCORPORATED

ORDERING 1NFORMATION
R e q u e s t s for copies o f this report should be directed t o the EPRI Distribution C e n t e r , 207 Coggins Drive,
P.O. B o x 23205, Pleasant Hill, C A 94523, (510) 934-4212.

Electric P o w e r Research Institute a n d E P R I a r e regjstered s e w i c e marks of t h e Electric P o w e r Research Institute, Inc.

EPRI. P O W E R I N G P R O G R E S S i s a senoce m a r k of t h e Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright O 1987 Electric P o w e r Research Institute, Inc. All rights resewed.
 ABSTRACT

During the past few years, the electric utility industry has been faced with
ever more stringent, environmentally related regulations. In addition to
this regulatory pressure, political and public awareness has caused utilities
to continually reassess their efforts regarding environmental protection
equipment and procedures. As a result, electrostatic precipitators have
received particular attention because they represent the traditional and most
widely used piece of equipment for particulate controT in steam electric
generatins plants.

Currently, more than 1400 precipitators are in service i n the United States
electric utility industry. By and large, these precipitators have performed
in a satisfactory manner in terms of their original design conditions and the
regulatory climate. However, throughout the many years of operating
experience there have been persistent and sometimes serious problems. In
fact, significant efforts have been required by some electric utilities to
maintain compliance with environmental regulations. When considering today's
regulatory requirements of the Clean Air Act of 1970, its Amendments and
State statutes, very high particulate matter collection efficiencies are
required on a sustained basis. These laws provide for financial penaities
for noncompliance with emission regulations. Moreover, cease and desist
orders are available to the regulatory bodies for the more severe cases of
noncompliance. In addition to these regulatory requirements, electric
utilities must cope with changing fuel characteristics, fluctuating
precipitator performance levels and inherent equipment reliability.

In an effort to improve precipitator performance and reliability, the

Electric Power Research Institute, precipitator manufacturers, governmental
organizations, private research laboratories and electric utilities are
sponsoring and/or conducting research to enhance precipitator technology.
These efforts have resulted in the development of a significant and
substantial body of new information regarding theory, design, engineering,
construction, operation and maintenance of precipitators. This body of
information is generally complex as it represents the diversity of approaches
and perspectives of the many supporting groups. In order to promote
appropriate application of this information to electric utility practices,
the Electric Power Research Institute has developed a series o f
guidelines, in manual form, dealing with t h e current status of electrostatic
precipitator technology. These guidelines are separated into three separate
topical a r e a s , as the following manual out1 ines indicate:

Volume 1 - Design Specifications

. Introduction
. Overview of Principles of Precipitator Design
. Precipitator Size Selection
. Specification of Mechanical Features
. Specification o f Electrical/Control Features
. Specifications for Operation and Maintenance
Related Systems
. Specification Preparation, Inquiry, Proposal
Evaluation and Contract Administration
. Fuels Other Than Coal
. The Effects of Dry Scrubbers on Precipitators

Volume 2 - Operation and Maintenance

. Introduction
. Electrostatic Precipitation Process
. Precipitator Subsystems
. Operation
. Maintenance
. Equipment Re1 iability

Volume 3 - Troubleshooting and Upgrading

. Introduction
, Electrostatic Precipitation Process
. Electrical Condition Evaluation
. Mechanical Condition Evaluation
. Development of Operation Log
. Performance Measurement
. Performance Prediction
 . Analysis o f Troubleshooting Data
. Discussion of Specific Problems - Symptoms, Causes
and Cures
. Performance Upgrading

It is the intent of these manuals to provide utility personnel with a basic

understanding of the design, engineering, operation, maintenance and
troubleshooting of electrostatic precipitators. Every attempt has been made
to include all important topics common to most utility precipitator
applications. It is, however, impossible to cover all situations that can
arise in a specific application and it will still be necessary for a utility
to supplement the information contained in these manuals with the experience
and expertise of its own technical staff. Nevertheless, the understanding
and application of the information in these manuals should lead to improved
precipitator performance levels through better equipment selection practices
and an awareness by plant personnel o f the importance o f their role.

It i s planned that these manuals will be updated as the need arises

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h i s manual r e p r e s e n t s t h e e f f o r t s of many i n d i v i d u a l s . The p r i n c i p a l a u t h o r s

w i s h t o acknowledge t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g i n d i v i d u a l s : Warren Kinney
f o r h i s e d i t o r i a l e f f o r t s ; J e f f N i c h o l s o n f o r h i s g e n e r a l e d i t o r i a l e f f o r t s and
a u t h o r s h i p of S e c t i o n 2; Mike Nelson f o r a u t h o r s h i p of t h e economic e v a l u a t i o n
s u b s e c t i o n o f S e c t i o n 7; and J i m DuBard and Grady N i c h o l s f o r t h e i r work on
p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e e s t i m a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d e d i n S e c t i o n 3. Ebasco
S e r v i c e s , I n c o r p o r a t e d a l s o r e c o g n i z e s t h e t i m e and e f f o r t c o n t r i b u t e d by
D r . Ralph A l t m a n of EPRI, t h e T e c h n i c a l Review Committee ( s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s
representing architect/engineers, ESP m a n u f a c t u r e r s , and e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s
r e q u e s t e d b y EPRI t o r e v i e w and comment on t h e manuals), and t h e s t a f f o f t h e
E n g i n e e r i n g P u b l i c a t i o n s S e c t i o n o f S o u t h e r n Company S e r v i c e s , I n c .
 CONTENTS

Section

1 INTRODUCTION
Purpose
Scope

2 OVERVIEW OF PRINCIPLES OF PRECIPITATOR DESIGN

P h y s i c s and P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n
Theoretical Simulation 3f ESPs
F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g ESP Performance
O p e r a t i n g F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g ESP Performance
Design F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g ESP Performance

3 PRECIPITATOR SIZE SELECTION

Introduction
H i s t o r i c a l Perspective
Contemporary S i z i n g P r a c t i c e s
Parameter S e l e c t i o n
D e s i g n Coal P r o p e r t i e s
F l u e Gas Volume F l o w
P r e c i p i t a t o r Gas V e l o c i t y
I n l e t Mass Loading
I n l e t Particle Size D i s t r i b u t i o n
F l y Ash R e s i s t i v i t y
E l e c t r i c a l Operating Points
P r e c i p i t a t o r S i z i n g Models
The Deutsch-Anderson E q u a t i o n
The M a t t s - O h n f e l d t E q u a t i o n
The EPA/SRI Computer S i m u l a t i o n
Design M a r g i n s
F1 ue Gas Flow
Col i e c t i ng P l a t e Area
Section
Spare Casing Capacity
Flue Gas Opacity
Hot Side Versus Cold Side
Size Reduction With Gas Conditioning

4 SPECIFICATION OF MECHANICAL FEATURES

Physical Design
Number Of Precipitators
Number Of Chambers
Number O f Gas Passages
Collecting Plate Spacing
Collecting Plate Height
Ductwork/Precipitator Gas Velocities And
Distribution
Mechanical Sectionalization (Number O f Fields)
Electrical Sectionalization
Aspect Ratio
Treatment Time
General Arrangement
Precipitator Arrangement
Ductwork Arrangement
Flue Gas Dampers
Structural Requirements
General
Seismic Considerations
Wind, Ice And Snow Loads
Common Division Walls
Ductwork
Hoppers - Dust And Ash Handling Equipment Loads
Sl ide Bearings
Expansion Joints
Materials Of Construction And Thickness
Temperature Excursions
Section Page
Electrode Systems 4-25
Collecting Electrode Design 4-25
Discharge Electrode Design 4-23
Anti-Sway/Positioning Deuices 4-33
Hoppers and Accessories 4-33
Hopper Design 4-33
Hopper Heaters 4-35
Hopper Vibrators 4-36
Hopper Aerators 4-36
Hopper Pokeholes and Anvils 4-37
Hopper Level Indicators 4-37
Hopper Materi a 1 s of Construction 4-38
Hopper Access 4-38
Hopper Enclosure 4-39
Ash Handling System and Precipitator Interface 4-39
Thermal Insulation System 4-40
Thermal Insulation 4-40
Lagging 4-40
Testing 4-41
Flow Modeling 4-42
Rapping Tests 4-44
Field Leakage Test 4-45
Field Velocity Distribution Test 4-46
Field Performance Tests 4-47

5 SPECIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL/CONTROL FEATURES

Design Philosophy
Electrical Power Systems
Central Versus Localized Control
Section

C o n t r o l Room Equipment L o c a t i o n
A l a r m and M o n i t o r i n g F e a t u r e s
I n t e r f a c e s w i t h O t h e r P l a n t Systems
E l e c t r i c a l and C o n t r o l Equipment C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
Transformer-Rectifier Sets
Hopper H e a t e r s
Control Cabinets
Power D i s t r i b u t i o n Equipment
Instrumentation
P r e c i p j t a t o r C o n t r o l System Phi 1 osophy
Automatic Voltage Control
Rapper C o n t r o l
Hopper H e a t e r C o n t r o l
Vibrator Control
I n t e g r a t i o n w i t h Ash H a n d l i n g
Power Management S y s t e m / S u p e r v i s o r y C o n t r o l System
P r e c i p i t a t o r C o n t r o l System Hardware
Analog
Digital
CRTs, Keyboards, P r i n t e r s
System A r c h i t e c t u r e
I n s t a l l a t i o n Considerations
T e s t i n g and I n s p e c t i o n
S h i p p i n g and S t o r a g e
Installation
System Documentation

6 SPECIFICATION FOR OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE RELATED SYSTEMS

Key I n t e r l o c k System
S a f e t y Feature
Lock Components
System Design
A p p l i c a t i o n t o ESPs
R e l i a b i l i t y o f Operation
D e f e a t o f t h e System
Procurement Aspects
Section %
Grounding - Permanent and Temporary, L i g h t i n g 6-8
General G r i d 6-9
D e s i g n Methods 6-9
Special Consideration 6-11
S p e c i f i c a t i o n Requirements 6-13
Enclosures 6-14
ESP Roof 6-14
ESP Hopper Areas 6-15
O t h e r Areas 6-16
S p e c i f i c a t i o n Requirements 6-16
H e a t i n g , V e n t i l a t i o n and A i r C o n d i t i o n i n g (HVAC) 6-17
ESP C o n t r o l Room 6-17
Sample P o r t s 6-17
P a r t i c u l a t e Sampling 6-17
Opacity Meters 6-18
Temperature 6-18
Access Doors, P l a t f o r m i n g , S t a i r w a y s , I n t e r - F i e l d Walkways 6-18
Types o f F a c i l i t i e s 6-18
Approach 6-19
S p e c i f i c a t i o n Requirements 6-20
Monorails/Equipment H o i s t s 6-22
L i m i t e d System 6-22
E x t e n s i v e System 6-22
Access Problems 6-22
Vacuum C l e a n i n g Systems 6-23
Sizing 6-23
P e r s o n n e l Hoist 6-23
W a t e r Washing C o n s i d e r a t i o n s 6-23
Types o f C l e a n i n g 6-24
A c o u s t i c a l Treatment 6-24
Air 6-24
Water 6-24
Electrical 6-25
Welding C i r c u i t s 6-25
- -
Section
Special Tools
Maintainability Review of Drawings
Lighting
The Normal Lighting System
Normal/Emergency Lighting System
Isolation Dampers
Maintenance Drawings and Check Sheets

7 SPECIFICATION PREPARATION, INQUIRY, PROPOSAL EVALUATION

AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
Introduction
Purchasing Process
Sequence of Activities
Performance Oriented Versus Design Specifications
Material Only Versus Deliver and Erect Contracts
Preparation of Technical Specifications
Organization
Scope of Supply
Data Requirements
Document Requirements
Performance Warranty
Q u a l i f i e d Suppliers Review and Comment o f
Draft Specifications
Supplier Qualification
Assembly o f Vendor Experience
Commercial Eva1 uation
Criteria for Vendor Selection
Preparation of Commercial Terms and Conditions
Organization
Treatment o f Exceptions and Negotiations
Proposal Review
Preparation of Exception/Negotiation Book
Clarification Meetings
Negotiation Meetings
Investment Eva1 uation
Section

Performance Warranty E v a l u a t i o n
Technical M e r i t Evaluations
Commercial E v a l u a t i o n
Terms and C o n d i t i o n s
Terms o f Payment
Escalation
C a n c e l l a t i o n Charges
L i m i t a t i o n o f L i a b i l i t y t o F i x Nonperforming
Equipment
L i q u i d a t e d Carnages
Qua1 it y A s s u r a n c e
i n s u r a n c e and Bonds
Retention
C o n t r a c t Award
Contract Administration
Economic Eva1 u a t i o n
General
A l t e r n a t i v e Economic Comparison Methods
F i n a n c i a l Mathematics
I n v e s t m e n t s and Expenses
Revenue R e q u i r e m e n t s
D i s c o u n t Rate f o r P r e s e n t Value A n a l y s i s
The E f f e c t o f I n f l a t i o n on t h e D i s c o u n t Rate
O c c u r r e n c e o f Payments
P r e s e n t V a l u e o f Revenue Requirements
C a p i t a l Charges
Annual O p e r a t i n g C o s t s
H e a t Loss Energy C o s t s
O p e r a t i n g and M a i n t e n a n c e L a b o r
8 FUELS OTHER THAN COAL
Introduction
Oil-Fired Boilers
C a l c u l a t i o n o f Process Parameters
Precipitator Size Selection
S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f M e c h a n i c a l and E l e c t r i c a l
Features
Section
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
Calculation of Process Parameters
Precipitator Size Selection
Specification of Mechanical and Electrical
Features
Coal -Water Slurry (CWS)
Calculation of Process Parameters
Coal -0i 1 Mixture (COM)
Plant Description
Pilot Precipitator Description
Performance Results
Limestone Injection Multistaged Burners (LIMB)
Modified Boilers

9 THE EFFECTS OF DRY SCRUBBERS ON PRECIPITATORS

Lime Spray Dryer Process
Process Parameters
Precipitator Sizing
Design Considerations
Energy Management System
Rapping Systems
Insulation Design a n d Hopper Heater Design

APPENDIXES
4A Flow Model i ng
4% Rapping Tests
4C Field Velocity Distribution Tests
40 Performance Tests
7A Example Scope o f Supply Statement
70 Example o f Purchaser Provlded Technical Data
7C Example of Seller Provided Technical D a t a
70 Commercial Terms and Conditions
7E Example o f Seller Provided Microprocessor Based
Control System Data

REFERENCES

INDEX

xvi
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure

2-1 Wire and Pipe Precipitator

2-2 Typical Wire and Plate Precipitator
2-3 Relationship Between Electric Field at Corona Wire Surface
and Corona Wire Radius
Corona Generation Process
Variation in Corona Start Voltage and Wire Size
Simple Precipitator
Typical Data for Effective Migration Velocity and Collection
Efficiency as a Function of Particle Diameter
Typical Precipitator Fractional Curves
Comparison of Deutsch-Anderson and Matts-Ohnfeldt
Efficiencies
Fly Ash Resistivity as a Function of Temperature
A Typical Electrostatic Precipitator Peak Voltage Versus
Dust Collection Efficiency Curve
Electrical Clearance
Gas Velocity In a Precipitator Passage
Components of Aspect Ratio
Normal Precipitator Current Voltage Curves
Plan of Precipitator Bus Sections
Geometrical Parameters in the Mechanical Design of One
Precipitator Section
Total Mass Loading of Fly Ash from 28 Coals Versus the
Percent Ash i n the Ultimate Coal Analysis
Average Particle Size Distribution of Fly Ashes from
17 Bituminous Coals and 15 Subbituminous Coals
Particle Size Distributions of Fly Ashes from Western
Subbituminous Coals
Precipitator Performance Data Correlated Using the
Matts-Ohnfeldt Eouation

xvii
Figure
Measured Precipitator Collection Efficiencies Compared
with ESP MODEL Computations
ESP MODEL Simulations o f the Example Precipitator
Comparison of Measured and Computed Opacity of Flue Gas
from Eleven Utility Fly Ash Precipitators
Computed Opacity of the Flue Gas from the Example
Precipitator with an Optical Path Length of 24 ft.
ESP MODEL Simulations of the Example Precipitator
Components of Aspect Ratio
Basic Diffuser Configurations
Typical Arrangement of Power Supplies
Key Interlock System Iliustration
Guarantee Performance Curve Gas Flow Versus Emission
Correction Factor
Sample Sheet from Exception/Negotiation Book
Actual Capability Versus Generation in the United
States for 1982
Test Results Showing Effects o f Combu=tion Air Swirl
on Particulate Emissions From An Oi ?-Fired Boiler
Variation of Particul ate €mi ssions from Oi 1-Fi red
Boilers with O2 Content in Flue Gas
Uncontrolled Oil-Fired Boiler Emissions Versus
Boiler Operating Capacity
Controlled Electric Utility Residual Oil-Fired Boiler
Emissions Versus Boiler Operating Capacity
Carbon/Acid Relationship in Oil-Fired Boiler Particulate
Emissions
Effect on Fuel Oil Additive on Composition of Superheater
Oil Ash Deposit
Particulate Ratio (with and without Additive)
Uncontrolled Industrial Oil-Fired Boiler Participate
Emissions Versus Wt. Percent Ash in Fuel Oil
Controlled Particulate Emissions versus W t . Percent
Ash in Fuel Oil for Residual Oil Fired Base-Loaded
Utility Boilers at or Above 70 MW Capacity

xvi i i
Figure
Controlled and Uncontrolled Particulate Emissions as
a Function of Fuel Sulfur Content (at or Above 70 MW
Capaci tyf
Effect of Fuel Oil Carbon Residue on Particulate
Emissions from Industrial Oil -Fired Boilers
Sulfuric Acid Mist Loading Versus Flue Gas Temperature
for Oil Fired Boilers
Typical Particle Size Distributions of Oil Fired Boiler
Emissions
Typical Resistivity versus Gas Temperature Curve for a
No. 6 Fuel Oil-Fired Boiler
Typical Oil Ash Resistivity Measurements, for Very Low-
Sulfur Content Fuel Oil Ash
Maximum Particulate Emissions for 20% Stack Opacity
versus Particle Diameter for Three Oil-Fired Boiler
Emissions Components
Stack Opacity versus Particulate Loading for Inorganic
Ash,Carbon Soot and Carbon Residue Emissions Components
from Oil-Fired Boilers
Stack Opacity versus Particulate Loading for Sulfuric
Acid Mist Emissions from Oil-Fired Boilers
Design Collection Efficiency versus Specific Col7ecting
Data for Precipitators on Oil-Fired Boilers
Design and Tested Collection Efficiency versus Specific
ColTecting Area for Five Oil-Fired Boiler Precipitator
Installations
Uncontrolled Particulate Emissions versus RDF Heat
Input at Ames Boiler Unit 7
Particulate Size Distribution for 80 Percent Load at
Ames Boiler Unit
Particulate Size Distribution for 100 Percent Load at
Ames Boiler Unit 7
Pilot Precipitator Test Results
Boiler Oxygen Effect on Ash Loss on Ignition (LOI)
SCA vs. Migration Velocity, K = 1.0
SCA vs. Migration velocity, K = 0.5

xix
Figure
8-29 Estimated Precipitator Size
7A-1 Bus Section and Transformer-Rectifier Arrangements for
any Single Electrical Field as Used with Precipitators
having Various Groups o f Cells and Numbers of Fields
7C-1 Electrostatic Precipitator Terminology
7C-2 Bus Section and Transformer-Rectifier Arrangements for
Any Single Electrical Field as Used with Precipitators
Having Various Groups of Cells and Numbers of Fields
 TABLES

Coal and Ash A n a l y s e s

An Example S t o i c h i o m e t r i c Combustion C a l c u l a t i o n f o r a
Western S u b b i t u m i n o u s Coal and P r e d i c t i o n o f F l y Ash
Resistivity
Combustion C a l c u l a t i o n s - C o i l and O i l
L i n e a r Least-Square F i t t i n g Parameters
E l e c t r i c a l O p e r a t i n g P o i n t s f o r t h e Example Western
S u b b i t u m i n o u s Coal
ESP MODEL I n p u t Data f o r t h e Example P r e c i p i t a t o r
Maximum H e i g h t o f C o l l e c t i n g P l a t e f o r N i n e M a j o r
P r e c i p i t a t o r Manufacturers
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f M a t e r i a l Supply Contracts
Organization o f Erection Contracts
Economic Eva1 u a t i o n D a t a
Present Value A n a l y s i s
C u m u l a t i v e Annual Cash F l o w A n a l y s i s
Terms o f Payment D a t a
Terms o f Payment A n a l y s i s ( L a b o r )
Terms o f Payment A n a l y s i s ( M a t e r i a l )
Terms o f Payment A n a l y s i s ( I n t e r e s t )
A s s o c i a t e d A u x i l i a r y and A n c i l l a r y M a t e r i a l , Equipment,
C o n s t r u c t i o n and E r e c t i o n C o s t s and Economic E f f e c t s
A u x i l i a r y Power C o s t
I m p a c t on C y c l e o f E x t r a c t i o n Steam
O p e r a t i n g and Maintenance Labor C o s t s
ASTM S t a n d a r d S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r F u e l Oi 1 s
T y p i c a l Ranges o f A n a l y s e s o f No. 2 and No. 6 Grade
Fuel O i l s
Combustion Data Summary f o r T y p i c a l No. 6 Fuel O i l
Comparison o f a Clean No. 6 Clean O i l v e r s u s a D i r t y
No. 6 F u e l O i l

xxi
Seven Distillate Fuel Oil Additives Found to Sub-
stantially Reduce Particulate Emissions
Estimated Particulate Emissions for Three Different
Fuel Oils Fired in a Utility Boiler
U.S.E.P.A. Emissions Factors for Determination
of Uncontrolled Emissions from Oil Fired Power Plants
Particle Size Range of Oil-Fired Boiler Particulate
Emissions Components
Resultant Opacity Levels from Various Emissions
Components of Oil-Fired Boiler
Summary of Design and Test Data for Participators on
Oil-Fired Boilers
Design Data for Weighted-Wire Precipitators on Oil-Fired
Boi 1ers
Summary of Electric Utility Experience with Co-Firing
RDF with Coal
Average Properties of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) as
Reported at Various Facilities
Average RDF Proximate and Ultimate Analyses as
Reported at Various Facilities
Average RDF Composition and Size as Reported at
Various Facilities
Average RDF Ash Properties as Reported at Various
Facilities
Average Air, Feedwater, and Steam Characteristics for
Experimental Runs at Ames Boiler Unit
As Fired Coal and RDF Characteristics at Ames Facility
Analysis of Bottom Ash Before and After Installation of
Dump Grates at Ames Boiler Unit 7
Analysis o f FlykhBefore and After Installation of Dump
Gates at Ames Boiler Unit 7
Selected Emissions Before and After Installation of Dump
Gates at Ames Boiler Unit 7
Average ESP Efficiency for Coal and Coal/RDF Firing as
Reported at Various Facilities
Review of Changes in Critical ESP Process Parameters
During RDF Co-Firing at Ames Boiler Unit 7

xxii
Tab1 e
9-1 Riverside ESP Results
9-2 Comparison of Range of Operating Variables Dry Product
Collection vs. Fly Ash Collection Range
9-3 Case I Steam Generator Fuel D a t a
9-4 Case I FED Requirements
9-5 Case I Dry FGD Expected Performance
9-6 Case I1 Flyash Requirement
9-7 Case I1 Expected Flyash Performance
9-8 Case I1 FGD Requirement
9-9 Case I1 FGD Expected Performance
4A-1 Velocity Measurement Inside Modeled Precipitation Chamber:
Instrumentation and Test Procedures

xxi i i
 Section 1
INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

The purpose of this manual is to assist the utility engineer i n the

preparation o f specifications for electrostatic precipitators. Further, the
manual is intended to provide a framework within which the utility engineer
can evaluate precipitator proposals. This manual provides basic engineering
design information to enable the utility engineer to continue to broaden his
or her knowledge regarding electrostatic precipitators.

SCOPE
This manual includes discussions of precipitator design principles; process
parameter calculations; size selection; mechanical and electrical/control
features; operation and maintenance related systems; specification
preparation, inquiry, proposal evaluation, and contract administration; fuels
other than coal; and the effects of dry scrubbers on precipitators.

The information in the following sections may be summarized as follows:

Section 2 contains a d i scussi on of precipitator theory and design

principles. It presents precipitator terminology and concepts of electric
field generation, particle charging, and fly ash collection. In addition, it
addresses factors which limit or affect performance under start-up and stable
unit-load operation.

Section 3 discusses various, currently used sizing techniques. Fuel quality

is discussed in terms establishing appropriate ranges of constituents and in
identifying the effect of fuel purchasing strategies. Methods are presented
for calculating fly ash generation rates, design collection efficiency, and
flue gas flow rates. The nature and magnitude of design margins are also
addressed.
A summary of sizing hi story is presented with specific comparative examples,
and the issue of hot- or cold-side precipitators is also addressed.

Section 4 addresses the mechanical features of precipitators. Physical

design aspects such as the number of precipitators, chambers,
transformer-rectifier sets along with treatment time and aspect ratio are
discussed, Structural requirements, collecting and discharge electrode
features, hoppers and accessories, thermal insulation, and access facilities
are also addressed. Moreover, laboratory and field performance testing
methods are discussed, and erection procedures and tolerances are reviewed.

Section 5 treats the electrical components of a precipitator system:

automatic voltage controllers (analog and digital), microprocessors, control
philosophies, and component design requirements. Codes, standards, quality
control, and drawing requirements are reviewed.

Section 6 presents those features which enhance operation and maintenance

activities such as key interlock and grounding procedures, access, and
enclosures. Water-washing considerations are also addressed.

Section 7 discusses the procurement cycle for electrostatic precipitators,

beginning with specification preparation and continuing through contract
award and administration. Concepts for evaluating bidder's qualifications
and proposals are presented as well as techniques for evaluating technical
and commercial proposals.

Section 8 addresses the concerns and effects on electrostatic precipitators

when fuels other than pulverized coal are used.

Section 9 discusses the effect of lime spray drying for sulfur dioxide
removal on precipitator performance.
2 OVERVIEW OF PRINCIPLES OF
PRECIPITATOR DESIGN
 Section 2
OVERVIEW OF PRINCIPLES OF PRECIPITATOR DESIGN

The electrostatic precipitation process consists of three basic steps: (1)

particle charging, (2) particle collection, and (3) removal of the collected
fly ash. Particle charging is accomplished by the generation of a corona
which produces gaseous ions that attach themselves to the gas borne dust
particles. Figure 2-1 shows a basic wire and cylinder type of electrostatic
precipitator (ESP). The wire acts as the discharge or corona electrode, and
the cylinder acts as the coilection (grounded) electrode. Corona generation
requires that a highly non-uniform electric field be developed between the
corona electrode and the collection electrode, a condition that occurs when a
high voltage is applied across the two. The electric field near the discharge
electrode causes free electrons in the gas stream to be accelerated to a
velocity necessary to ionize gas molecules through collision. These new
electrons are accelerated i n the electric field near the wire and generate
more free electrons and positive ions in an avalanche mode. The electrons
then move away from the wire surface and attach to gas molecules to form
negative ions or produce more collisions. The negative ions, produced as a
result of the corona, migrate toward the collecting electrode and in the
process collide with and become attached to the particles suspended in the
flue gas stream. Ion attachment to flue gas particles results in a build-up
of electric charge on the particle; the magnitude of the charge depends on
the number of attached ions.

The charge on the particles in the presence of the electrical field produces
a force on the particle in the direction of the collecting electrode. The
magnitude of the force is dependent directly on the particle charge and the
electrical field strength. The particles are deposited on the collecting
electrode and are held there by a combination of mechanical, electrical, and
molecular forces.

Once collected, particles must be periodically removed from the collecting

electrodes. Removal may be accomplished by periodic rapping or vibrating in
 ELECTRODE
DUST ON
PREClPlTATOR

COLLECTED DUST

Figure 2-1. Wire and Pipe Precipitator (1)

the case of solid material. A sufficiently thick layer of dust should be
allowed to accumulate so that it falls into the collecting hopper or bin i n
coherent masses to reduce the degree of reentrainment of particles into the
gas stream.

Particle charging and particle collection steps have been studied in detail,
and several mathematical formulae, and procedures have been developed to
quantify them. Removal of the collected particulate is less mathematically
quantifiable, a1 though empirical relationships have been developed through
experience and are useful in describing the precipitation process.

Physical arrangements of precipitators differ, depending upon the

application. Wire and cylinder precipitators are used in some cases;
however, for the majority of commercial applications, including the electric
utility industry, plate type collection electrodes are used.as shown in
Figure 2-2.

Most precipitators are of the single stage type. That is, the charging and
collecting steps occur in the same general region. Some precipitators have
an independent charging section followed by a section for particle
collection. Such precipitators are referred to as two-stage units.

The performance, or collection efficiency, of a precipitator i s defined as

the mass of particulate collected divided by the mass of particulate entering
the precipitator. Precipitator performance is primarily a function of
design, operating parameters, fly ash characteristics, and maintenance of the
precipitator and associated equipment.

PHYSICS AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

The three basic steps in the electrostatic precipitation process interact
with each other i n a manner that makes mathematical simulation quite
complex. For example, as the particles in the flue gas stream are charged i n
the interelectrode space, a space charge is established which affects the
corona and electric field necessary for further particle charging and
collection. Also, particles, which are reentrained during rapping, must be
recharged and recollected if high collection efficiencies are to be achieved.
HIGH VOLTAGE
SYSTEM ,
SUPPORT
INSULATOR

PERFORATED-
PLATES

BOTTOM END 3
FRAMES

i
UPPER D.E. HAN
FRAME ASSEMI

Figure 2 - 2 . Typical Wire and Plate Precipitator

Courtesy of Research-Cottrell, Inc.
T h i s section includes a general discussion o f corona generation, t h e e l e c t r i c
f i e l d , and p a r t i c l e charging. A l s o , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i m u l a t i o n of
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s u s i n g t h e Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n i s
addressed. L i m i t a t i o n s and d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h i s e q u a t i o n a r e d e s c r i b e d .
F i n a l l y , a n e m p i r i c a l m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Deutch-Anderson e q u a t i o n b y
M a t t s - O h n f e l d t i s d e s c r i b e d and e v a l u a t e d .

The p h y s i c s o f c o r o n a d i s c h a r g e h a v e been i n v e s t i g a t e d e x t e n s i v e l y b e c a u s e o f
i t s importance i n h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n , i n plasmas, a s w e l l a s f o r i t s
uses i n e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n . I n ESPs, c o r o n a g e n e r a t i o n o c c u r s i n a
r e g i o n o f h i g h e l e c t r i c a l s t r e s s produced by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a h i g h
v o l t a g e a c r o s s an e l e c t r o d e s y s t e m w i t h a s h a r p , s m a l l , e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s o f
c u r v a t u r e ( d i s c h a r g e w i r e ) and a v e r y l a r g e e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s ( c o l l e c t i n g
plate) electrode. T h i s arrangement produces a h i g h l y non-uniform e l e c t r i c
field. The f i e l d m a g n i t u d e i s h i g h n e a r t h e d i s c h a r g e o r c o r o n a e l e c t r o d e
and decreases r a p i d l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e w i r e s u r f a c e . Figure
2-3 shows t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p .

The c o r o n a p r o c e s s i n ESPs c a n b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d by c o n s i d e r i n g e l e c t r i c a l
conduction i n gases. Gases f o u n d i n t h e f l u e g a s s t r e a m f r o m a u t i l i t y o r
i n d u s t r i a l b o i l e r a r e made up p r i m a r i l y o f t h e o x i d e s o f c a r b o n , sulfur,
n i t r o g e n , a n d h y d r o g e n a n d t h e m o l e c u l a r gases o f n i t r o g e n a n d o x y g e n .
E x c e p t f o r s l i g h t p o l a r i z a t i o n , t h e s e gaseous m o l e c u l e s a r e n o t a f f e c t e d b y
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f an e l e c t r i c f i e l d . However, when e x p o s e d t o r a p i d l y
a c c e l e r a t i n g f r e e e l e c t r o n s , some o f t h e g a s m o l e c u l e s w i l l b e i o n i z e d b y
s t r i p p i n g a n e l e c t r o n f r o m t h e m o l e c u l e , c r e a t i n g a f r e e e l e c t r o n and a
positive ion. B o t h t h e e l e c t r o n a n d t h e p o s i t i v e i o n a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e
a p p l i e d e l e c t r i c f i e l d and m i g r a t e toward t h e c o l l e c t i n g and d i s c h a r g e
electrode, respectively. The m o v i n g c h a r g e s c o n s t i t u t e a c u r r e n t , a l t h o u g h
i t s magnitude i s s m a l l . However, a s s t a t e d e a r l i e r , t h e h i g h i n t e n s i t y
e l e c t r i c f i e l d n e a r t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e causes t h e f r e e e l e c t r o n s t o be
rapidly accelerated t o high velocities. The e n e r g y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e
h i g h v e l o c i t y e l e c t r o n s i s enough t o r e l e a s e a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o n s o n i m p a c t
w i t h n e u t r a l g a s m o l e c u l e s as shown i n F i g u r e 2 - 4 . T h i s p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e s so
t h a t a l a r g e number o f f r e e e l e c t r o n s a n d p o s i t i v e i o n s a r e p r o d u c e d i n an
a v a l a n c h e manner, The a v a l a n c h e p r o c e s s , a s i t i s c a l l e d , i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e
i o n i z a t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f t h e gases p r e s e n t i n t h e f l u e gas s t r e a m and t h e
 \ COi3ONA CURRENT FLOWS
IN THIS REGION

------
NO CORONA CURRENT
FLOWS I N THlS REGION

0
0.0 0.2
I
0.4
I
0.6
I
0.8 1.O
CORONA WIRE RADIUS. cm

Figure 2-3. Relationship Between Eleciri c Fie1 d

a t Corona Wire Surface and Corona Wire Radius
 SMALLRADIUS ELECTRODE A T
HIGH NEGATIVE POTENTIAL

REGION OF ELECTRON AVALANCHE

WHERE POSITIVE IONS AND ELECTRONS
ARE PRODUCED

REGION OF IONiZATION WHERE ELECTRONS

ATTACH TO NEUTRAL MOLECULES TO
FORM NEGATlVE IONS

F i g u r e 2-4. Corona Generation Process

e l e c t r i c f i e l d s t r e n g t h near t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e . Ionization potentials
of t y p i c a l f l u e gas s p e c i e s range from 10 t o 25 kV.

The e l e c t r i c f i e l d in t h e i n t e r e l e c t r o d e space of an ESP serves a t h r e e f o l d

purpose: f i r s t , a high e l e c t r i c f i e l d near t h e discharge e l e c t r o d e causes
g e n e r a t i o n of an e l e c t r i c a l corona; second, t h e f i e l d i s t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e
t h a t c a u s e s i o n s t o c o l l i d e with and a t t a c h t o p a r t i c l e s in t h e f l u e gas; and
t h i r d , i t e s t a b l i s h e s t h e force necessary f o r c o l l e c t i o n of t h e charged
particles.

The f i e l d r e q u i r e d t o g e n e r a t e an e l e c t r i c a l corona i s t h a t which w i l l

produce e l e c t r o n e n e r g i e s s u f f i c i e n t t o i o n i z e t h e gas molecules p r e s e n t .
Semi-empirically, i t has been shown t h a t t h e o n s e t of corona i n a i r occurs
when t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s t r e n g t h , Ec, i s d e f i n e d by Peek's formula:

where a = discharge e l e c t r o d e r a d i u s i n meters

m = wire roughness f a c t o r
6 = r e l a t i v e a i r d e n s i t y = ( T P/TPo)
0
T = a i r temperature (OK)
To = 2 9 8 ' ~
P = a i r pressure (atm)
Po = I atm
= corona s t a r t e l e c t r i c f i e l d ( v o l t s / m e t e r )
Ec

For a c y l i n d r i c a l c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e , i n t e g r a t i o n of t h i s i n i t i a t i n g f i e l d
equation from t h e discharge e l e c t r o d e s u r f a c e t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e
s u r f a c e y i e l d s t h e a p p l i e d voltage (Vc) r e q u i r e d f o r corona generation:

where b = c y l i n d r i c a l c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e r a d i u s (meters)
From e q u a t i o n (2-2), t h e a p p l i e d v o l t a g e r e q u i r e d f o r corona i n i t i a t i o n
i n c r e a s e s as t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s as shown i n F i g u r e
2-5. As t h e d i s c h a r g e - e l e c t r o d e d i a m e t e r d e c r e a s e s , t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d n e a r
the discharge surface increases. However, w i t h v e r y s m a l l d i a m e t e r w i r e s t h e
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d strength f a l l s o f f r a p i d l y w i t h increasing distance from t h e
discharge surface. With l a r g e r diameter wires, the f i e l d strength near the
d i s c h a r g e s u r f a c e i s l o w e r and f a l l s o f f l e s s r a p i d l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
d i s t a n c e from t h e discharge surface.

Once t h e a v a l a n c h e p r o c e s s has begun, t h e p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r i n t h e f l u e gas

s t r e a m must be c h a r g e d s o t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d may i m p a r t a d r i v i n g f o r c e
on t h o s e p a r t i c l e s t o w a r d t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e . Obviously, t h i s f o r c e i s
d o m i n a n t i n removing t h e p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r o r p a r t i c l e s f r o m t h e gas and i s
dependent d i r e c t l y on t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c h a r g e on t h e p a r t i c l e and t h e
strength o f the e l e c t r i c f i e l d .

P a r t i c l e c h a r g i n g i s n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o o c c u r i n t h e r e g i o n between t h e
c o r o n a g l o w boundary and t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e ( s e e F i g u r e 2-4). There
a r e two b a s i c mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p a r t i c l e c h a r g i n g : f i e l d a n d
d i f f u s i o n charging. B o t h mechanisms a r e a c t i v e i n t h e c h a r g i n g p r o c e s s , b u t
one t e n d s t o dominate depending on t h e s i z e r a n g e o f t h e p a r t i c l e s b e i n g
collected. F i e l d c h a r g i n g dominates f o r p a r t i c l e s w i t h a r a d i u s g r e a t e r than
a b o u t 0 . 5 p m . , w h i l e d i f f u s i o n c h a r g i n g i s t h e d o m i n a n t mechanism f o r
p a r t i c l e s w i t h a r a d i u s o f l e s s t h a n 0.2 urn. I n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e range,
b o t h mechanisms c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c h a r g i n g p r o c e s s .

F i e l d c h a r g i n g i s r e l a t e d t o t h e o r d e r e d m o t i o n o f i o n s under t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f an a p p l i e d e l e c t r i c f i e l d r e s u l t i n g i n t h e c o l l i s i o n o f t h e i o n s w i t h t h e
p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f l u e gas stream. D i f f u s i o n charging i s the r e s u l t o f
p a r t i c i e / i o n c o l l i s i o n s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y random t h e r m a l m o t i o n o f t h e i o n s .
I n e i t h e r case, i f t h e p a r t i c l e s r e t a i n t h e i o n s a f t e r c o l l i s i o n , t h e
p a r t i c l e s become e l e c t r i c a l l y charged.

T h e o r e t i c a l S i m u l a t i o n o f ESPs

E a r l y r e s e a r c h e r s i n e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n observed t h a t p a r t i c l e s
were c o l l e c t e d i n an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y a l o n g i t s
length. T h e r e f o r e , t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f an ESP can be w r i t t e n i n t h e f o r m :
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
WIRE DIAMETER .in.
F i g u r e 2-5. Variation i n Corona S t a r t Voltage and
Wire S i z e - P i p e Diameter = 20 cm (1)
where L = length of t h e ESP
c = a constant

An equation such a s (2-3) was determined e m p i r i c a l l y by Anderson in 1919.

Deutsch derived a s i m i l a r equation based on t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n
1922.

The development of t h e o r i g i n a l Deutsch equation was based on several

s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions. These assumptions a r e l i s t e d below.
The p a r t i c l e s were considered f u l l y charged immediately upon
e n t e r i n g t h e ESP.

- P a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n any c r o s s s e c t i o n was uniform.

The migration v e l o c i t y (a) of t h e p a r t i c l e toward t h e c o l l e c t i o n

e l e c t r o d e was not a f f e c t e d by t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e gas stream.

Dust p a r t i c l e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s e p a r a t e d so t h a t t h e i r mutual
repulsion i s n e g l i g i b l e .

Erosion, reentrainment, uneven gas flow d i s t r i b u t i o n , back corona

o r o t h e r d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t s a r e non-existent.

Charged p a r t i c l e s always move a t t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l terminal v e l o c i t y .

A11 p a r t i c l e s move w i t h t h e same v e l o c i t y (uniform p a r t i c l e s i z e

and c h a r g e ) .

Consider t h e simple w i r e / c y l i n d e r p r e c i p i t a t o r shown in Figure 2-6. A single

charged p a r t i c l e moving in t h e g a s stream w i l l a c q u i r e a v e l o c i t y , w , i n
t h e d i r e c t i o n toward t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e . As t h e p a r t i c l e moves i n t o
t h e boundary l a y e r , t h e overal v e l o c i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e w i l l be the v e c t o r
sum of w and t h e average veloc t y o f t h e gas i n t h e boundary l a y e r ( 6 ) .
Therefore, in a time i n t e r v a l , ~ t a ,l l d u s t p a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t in t h e
boundary l a y e r ( 6 ) w i l l impact t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e i f

6 = wAt

During t h e time i n t e r v a l At, t h e gas stream w i l l have moved through t h e

precipitator a distance
Ac-CROSS SECTION
OF PRECIPITATOR
ZONE 6 -THIN
LAYER
'8
\ 1
--e
5 - PERIMETER OF
PRECIPITATOR ELECTRODE
HIGH VOLTAGE

CORONA WIRE

GAS -WIRE WEIGHT

Figure 2-6. Simple Precipitator (2)

where V = a v e r a g e gas v e l o c i t y .

The i n c r e m e n t a l e q u a t i o n f o r p a r t i c l e removal can be w r i t t e n as,

where AN = change i n t h e number o f p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f l u e gas s t r e a m

N = p a r t i c l e s r e m a i n i n g i n gas s t r e a m

S = circumference o f t h e c y l i n d e r

= cross sectional area o f c y l i n d e r

Ac

E q u a t i o n (2-6) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r a t i o o f t h e p a r t i c l e s removed t o t h e
p a r t i c l e s r e m a i n i n g i n t h e gas s t r e a m a t t h a t t i m e i s e q u a l t o t h e n e g a t i v e
o f t h e r a t i o o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e boundary l a y e r t o
t h a t o f the o v e r a l l p r e c i p i t a t o r cross section. That t h e area r a t i o i s
n e g a t i v e i n d i c a t e s t h a t p a r t i c l e s a r e b e i n g removed. S u b s t i t u t i n g equations
(2-4) and (2-5) i n t o e q u a t i o n (2-6), results i n the following:

where AAco = i n c r e m e n t a l c o l l e c t i o n a r e a (SAL).

P a s s i n g t o t h e l i m i t w i t h e q u a t i o n (2-7)

where - A V = volume gas f l o w

vg c

I n t e g r a t i n g (2-8) y i e l d s an e x p r e s s i o n f o r p a r t i c l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e
precipitator outlet.
 - wAco
N = No exp
"LI
where N = number o f p a r t i c l e s remaining i n f l u e gas stream

No = p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t ESP i n l e t .

As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , p r e c i p i t a t o r e f f i c i e n c y i s the r a t i o o f t h e p a r t i c l e s
removed t o t h e i n l e t p a r t i c l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

A t h e o r e t i c a l equation f o r w can be derived from p a r t i c l e charging t h e o r y

and p a r t i c l e k i n e t i c s . The d e r i v a t i o n of an equation d e f i n i n g w depends on
b o t h f i e l d charging and d i f f u s i o n charging. The s a t u r a t i o n charge a c q u i r e d by
a p a r t i c l e s u b j e c t t o f i e l d charging i s given by t h e equation

where q = charge (coulombs)

= s t r e n g t h o f charging f i e l d (volt/rneter)
Ec

p = 3 f o r a conducting p a r t i c l e and approximately 2 f o r a

non-conducting p a r t i c l e and i s r e l a t e d t o t h e p a r t i c l e
d i e l e c t r i c constant.
a = p a r t i c l e radius (m)
P a r t i c l e s s u b j e c t t o f i e l d charging c l o s e l y approach t h e i r s a t u r a t i o n charge
i n a f r a c t i o n of a second o r in t h e time r e q u i r e d f o r t r a v e l through t h e f i r s t
few inches of a t y p i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r .

P a r t i c l e s s u b j e c t t o d i f f u s i o n charging have been shown t o have a charging

r a t e due t o thermal motion a s follows:

2
@ = a e S N exp (-qe/akT)
dt

= S r a 2 N exp (e)
I n t e g r a t i n g t h i s equation with r e s p e c t t o time r e s u l t s i n t h e following
expression f o r t h e charge, q , acquired i n time t , by an f n i t i a l l y uncharged
particle:

where a = p a r t i c l e radius (m)

k = Boltzmann's c o n s t a n t
0
T = a b s o l u t e gas temperature ( K)
e = t h e elementary e l e c t r o n i c charge ( c )
S = average ion v e l o c i t y (rn/s)
-3
N = ion concentration (m )
t = time ( 8 )

Lowe and Lucas, using equations (2-:2) and (2-14), computed t h e charges t h a t
may be acquired by various p a r t i c l e s i z e s and charging times under t y p i c a l
precipitator conditions.

2
Particle Number of elementaw charges acquired in t seconds, under
Radius Field c h a r g i n g - D i f f u s i o n Charging
(Microns) t=0.01 0 . 1 - 1.0 -
0.01 - 0.1 1.0
- - 10
0.1 0.7 2 2.4 2.5 3 7 11 15
1.0 72 200 244 250 70 110 150 190
10.0 7,200 20,000 24,000 25,000 1,100 1,500 1,900 2,300
E q u a t i o n (2-14) shows t h a t d i f f u s i o n c h a r g i n g c o n t i n u e s i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h
time. T h a t i s , t h e r e i s no p h y s i c a l l y r e a l i z a b l e maximum c h a r g e . From t h e
Lowe and Lucas t a b l e i t may be i n f e r r e d t h a t d i f f u s i o n c h a r g i n g o f a p a r t i c l e
continues during i t s e n t i r e t r a n s i t through a t y p i c a l precipitator. Also,
f o r e x t r e m e l y f i n e p a r t i c l e s , t h e amount o f c h a r g e a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h f i e l d
c h a r g i n g i s n e g l i g i b l e a s compared w i t h t h a t a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h d i f f u s i o n
charging.

F o r p a r t i c l e s i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s i z e r a n g e , f o r w h i c h f i e l d and d i f f u s i o n
c h a r g i n g a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t , t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t m e n t i s much
more complex. The t i m e r a t e o f c h a r g i n g b y e i t h e r method i s r e l a t e d t o t h e
amount o f c h a r g e a l r e a d y on t h e p a r t i c l e , however a c q u i r e d . As a n
approximation, White (1) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a c t u a l p a r t i c l e s i z e s h o u l d be
i n c r e a s e d b y a b o u t one mean-free p a t h o f t h e i o n , o r t y p i c a l l y b y 0 . 1 vm.

I f t h e p a r t i c l e i s t h e n assumed t o be c h a r g e d t o i t s s a t u r a t i o n c h a r g e b y
f i e l d c h a r g i n g f o r i t s e n t i r e r e s i d e n c e i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r , an e x p r e s s i o n
f o r t h e m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y , w , may b e d e r i v e d . The f o r c e , F1, acting
upon a p a r t i c l e c a r r y i n g a c h a r g e o f q i n a p r e c i p i t a t i n g f i e l d o f s t r e n g t h
E i s g i v e n by
P

where E = strength o f precipitating f i e l d ,

P

and is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e . I f q i s expressed b y
e q u a t i o n (2-12), t h e e q u a t i o n becomes

From S t o k e s ' l a w , t h e v i s c o u s d r a g , F2, a c t i n g upon a s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e o f

radius a, moving t h r o u g h a f l u i d o f v i s c o s i t y p , w i t h a v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e
t o the f l u i d o f w , i s
The e x t r e m e l y b r i e f p e r i o d o f p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n can bs n e g l e c t e d . Than
f l can be equated t o F2 f o r s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e e q u a t i o n
r e a r r a n g e d , and t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n e d f o r

As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , p = 3 f o r a c o n d u c t i n g p a r t i c l e and can v a r y between 1 . 5

and 2.0 f o r n o n - c o n d u c t i n g p a r t i c l e s h a v i n g a d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t o f
a v e r a g e va1 ue.

E q u a t i o n (2-18) i s u s e f u l because o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i t r e v e a l s . The

migration velocity f o r field charqing large, conducting p a r t i c l e s varies
d i r e c t l y w i t h p a r t i c l e diameter, charging f i e l d strength, p r e c i p i t a t i n g
f i e l d s t r e n g t h , and i n v e r s e l y w i t h gas v i s c o s i t y . Since, i n s i n g l e stage
precipitators, such as t h o s e used f o r f l y a s h c o l l e c t i o n , b o t h t h e c h a r g i n g
and p r e c i p i t a t i n g f i e l d s a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e v o l t a g e a p p l i e d t o t h e
e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n can be i n f e r r e d :

where E i s u s u a l l y t a k e n t o be t h e average e l e c t r i c f i e l d between t h e

d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e and t h e c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e .

F l y ash i s composed o f w i d e l y v a r y i n g p a r t i c l e s i z e s t h a t have a r a n g e o f

r o u g h l y 0 . 0 1 t o 100 Vms. I t w o u l d be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e
o f w f o r a 100 urn p a r t i c l e w o u l d be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1000 t i m e s t h a t f o r a
0 . 1 urn p a r t i c l e ( n e g l e c t i n g d i f f u s i o n c h a r g i n g ) . i n fact, it i s not. Many
t e s t s have been r u n on p r e c i p i t a t o r s i n w h i c h e f f i c i e n c y as a f u n c t i o n o f
p a r t i c l e s i z e has been o b t a i n e d . The v a r i a t i o n i n w from t h o s e p a r t i c l e s
c o l l e c t e d w i t h maximum e f f i c i e n c y t o t h o s e c o l l e c t e d w i t h minimum e f f i c i e n c y
i s t y p i c a l l y a b o u t 2 o r 3 t o 1. (See F i g u r e 2-7.) This l i m i t e d variation i s
t h o u g h t t o be r e l a t e d t o n o n - i d e a l i t i e s i n t h e system.

F u r t h e r m o r e , e q u a t i o n (2-19) i m p l i e s t h a t t h e v a l u e o f w w o u l d approach
z e r o as t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e decreases ( a g a i n n e g l e c t i n g d i f f u s i o n c h a r g i n g )
The minimum e f f i c i e n c y and t h e r e f o r e minimum w i s u s u a l l y f o u n d f o r some
0.1 1.o
PARTICLE DIAMETER, urn

F i g u r e 2-7. Typical Data for Effective Migration

Velocity and Collection Efficiency as a Function
of Particle Diameter (2) -
particle size i n the vicinity of 0.5 to 1 pm. (See Figure 2-8 for a
typical fractional efficiency curve from EPRI project 780-1, Figure 1-4.)
For particles smaller than this size, the collection efficiency and w
actually increase (see Figure 2-8) because of diffusion charging.

Equation (2-19) also indicates that the migration velocity i s quite sensitive
to the applied voltage. Therefore, design objectives include maximizing
voltages with proper corona current for a maximum collection efficiency. The
above discussion implies several other basic concepts which are listed below.
As specific collection area (SCA) increases, collection performance
generally increases.
An increase i n the physical size of the fly ash particles is
beneficial to collection efficiency.
A decrease in gas viscosity generally results in an increased
colTection efficiency. Viscosity decreases with decreasing
temperature.
A minor increase i n the electric field strength can often
substantially increase collection performance.

In an attempt to quantify the theoretical considera .ions di scussed

previously, the following example is offered. The example is based on the
theoretical effect of fie Id charging on large particles and shows how
strongly w depends on the electric field.

then, approximately,
 10.0 90
+ CASCADE

PARTICLE DENSITY 2.1 glee

--s
- 1.o 99 5
-s z
-u-
W
z U
G
kr IW
.L

I- z
ill 0
5n
0.1 99.9 =
I-
0
W

0
0

0.01 99.99
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
ACTUAL DIAMETER (cm)

Figure 2-8. Typical Precipitator Fractional Curves (L)

If the electric field can be increased to 4.0 kV/cm, then

The particle drift velocity to the collecting plate increased approximately

30 percent when the precipitator voltages were increased another 14.3
percent.

Consider the same example again, except with an average particle radius of
10 pm.

The purpose of the foregoing examples is to illustrate basic concepts.

Diffusion charging, process variables, particle characteristics, etc. tend to
make the analysis more difficult in reality.

Because of the previously mentioned problems with the theoretical value of

w, in practice the w value used in the Deutsch-Anderson equation has always
been obtained empirically by measuring the dust losses and gas quantity i n a
precipitator of known size, and calculating the value of w . However, the
value of w so obtained is not in itself particularly useful because of the
spread in actual particle size distribution which violates the original
assumptions in the Deutsch-Anderson equation as well as other nonidealities.
The equation can be written in several ways, for example:

where w = drift velocity for a given particle size

Aco = collecting plate area
 V = gas volume treated per unit time
9
L = total length of collecting electrode
R = distance between emitting and collecting electrodes
V = gas velocity
t = gas treatment time

Compatible units are to be used throughout so that the exponent is

dimensionless.

This equation can also be written as

-w SCA
~ f f( n ) = 1-e (- ) (2-21)
508

2
when w is expressed in the customary units of cm/sec and SCA = ft /I000
acfm.

This form of the equation suggests that incremental portions of the

precipitator would have equal incremental efficiencies. For example,
doubling the size of a 90 percent precipitator would raise its efficiency
to 99 percent, while tripling its size would result in 99.9 percent
collection efficiency. For this condition to be true in fact would require
the precipitator to be non-discriminatory in its collection. That is, no
particle may be more difficult or easier to collect than any other. This
is known to be untrue since dust samples obtained from the outlet of a
precipitator usually differ in size distribution and chemical composi tion
from those entering, which shows that the precipitator is particle-size
sensitive.

Furthermore, adding increments of size to a precipitator (or decreasing the

gas volume handled) does not result in efficiencies that increase as
rapidly as the Deutsch-Anderson equation indicates because of the actual
particle size distribution of the particulate matter. The equation used in
this manner is useful anly for qualitative evaluation of ESP performances.

A modification to the Deutsch-Anderson equation, to account for these

nonideal effects, was devised by Sigvard Matts and Per-Olaf Ohnfeldt of
Svenska Flaktfabriken in 1964. They rewrote the Deutsch equation in the
following form:
 E f f (s) = 1-exp (-wkA/Vg) k

where wk = an e m p r i c a l parameter w i t h u n i t s o f v e l o c i t y
k = a c o n s t a n t , u s u a l l y 0.4 t o 0.6, depending on t h e s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and o t h e r d u s t
properties affecting efficiency.

S i n c e b o t h w k and k a r e unknowns, two d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f e f f i c i e n c y

v e r s u s gas volume d a t a a r e needed t o s o l v e f o r b o t h unknowns f o r a s p e c i f i c
application. However, most u s e r s o f t h i s e q u a t i o n r e p o r t t h a t a v a l u e o f k
equal t o 0.5 u s u a l l y gives s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . F i g u r e 2-9 i l l u s t r a t e s
e f f i c i e n c y p r e d i c t i o n s f o r increased p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g using t h e
Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n and t h e M a t t s - O h n f e l d t m o d i f i c a t i o n w i t h v a l u e s
o f 0.4, 0.5 and 0 . 6 f o r k. Note t h a t t h e M a t t s - O h n f e l d t e q u a t i o n i s
i d e n t i c a l t o t h e D e u t s c h e q u a t i o n when k = 1 . 0 .

N o t e t h a t t o p r e d i c t t h e e f f i c i e n c y due t o an i n c r e a s e i n r e l a t i v e s i z e ,
(i.e., d e c r e a s i n g t h e gas volume h a n d l e d by an e x i s t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r ) ,
u s i n g l o w e r v a l u e s o f k y i e l d s more c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s . The r e v e r s e i s
t r u e when a t t e m p t i n g t o p r e d i c t t h e changes i n e f f i c i e n c y due t o a decrease
i n r e l a t i v e size. I n t h i s case, more c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s w i i l be o b t a i n e d
b y u s i n g a h i g h e r v a l u e of k . F o r example, compare t h e Deutsch p r e d i c t i o n
w i t h t h a t o f the Matts-Ohnfeldt, u s i n g a k o f 0.5; i f the r e l a t i v e size o f
a 90 p e r c e n t ESP w e r e d o u b l e d , Deutsch w o u l d p r e d i c t 99 p e r c e n t , w h i l e
M a t t s - O h n f e l d t w o u l d p r e d i c t 96.2 p e r c e n t . However, i f t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e
o f a 99 p e r c e n t ESP were h a l v e d , Deutsch w o u l d p r e d i c t 90 p e r c e n t , w h i l e
M a t t s - O h n f e l d t w o u l d p r e d i c t 96.2 p e r c e n t . The M a t t s - O h n f e l d t
a p p r o x i m a t i o n g i v e s a more r e a l i s t i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e a c t u a l b e h a v i o r
o f a given p r e c i p i t a t o r . ( I n preparing the foregoing material, s i g n i f i c a n t
u s e was made of R e f e r e n c e 2 . )

FACTORS AFFECTING ESP PERFORMANCE

The f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g f a c t o r s w h i c h
a f f e c t o n l i n e p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. The i n f o r m a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o
two areas o f i n t e r e s t : o p e r a t i o n a l f a c t o r s and d e s i g n f a c t o r s .
Operational f a c t o r s considered i n t h i s section include f u e l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p r e c i p i t a t o r maintenance, t h e ash h a n d l i n g system,
e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r o l s and b o i l e r operations. The d i s c u s s i o n o f f u e l
 Deutsch-Anderson, k = 1.0
A Matts-Ohnfeidt, k = 0.6
Matts-Ohnfeldt, k = 0.5
* Matts-Ohnfeldt, k = 0.4

I I I I
1 2 3 4 5
RELATIVE ESP SIZE (COLLECTION AREA/V9)

Figure 2-9. Cornparision o f Deutsch-Anderson and Matts-Ohnfeldt

Efficiencies

2-24
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s encompass c o a l q u a l i t y and v a r i a b i l i t y a n d g e n e r a l f l y ash
properties. The d i s c u s s i o n o f d e s i g n f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r
performance i n c l u d e e l e c t r o d e system d e s i g n , s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n a r e a ,
d e s i g n gas v e l o c i t y , a s p e c t r a t i o and t h e number o f e l e c t r i c f i e l d s . Where
a p p r o p r i a t e , r e f e r e n c e s a r e made t o o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h i s manual f o r a
more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n .

O p e r a t i n g F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g ESP Performance

P r e c i p i t a t o r performance i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d b y o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s t o
which i t i s subjected. These v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e f u e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f l y
a s h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , maintenance o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r and i t s a u x i l i a r y
equipment, and o t h e r p r o c e s s f a c t o r s .

Coal C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Consistant coal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o

a c h i e v e o v e r t h e l i f e o f a power p l a n t . Generally, coal-fired b o i l e r s
p r o d u c e a w i d e spectrum o f i m p o r t a n t f l y a s h c o n s t i t u e n t s based on a change
o f c o a l s u p p l i e r s , c o a l v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e same mine, a n d c o a l s t o r a g e
and b l e n d i n g procedures. This fuel v a r i a b i l i t y i s c r i t i c a l i n precipitator
a p p l i c a t i o n s and must be t h o r o u g h l y e v a l u a t e 1 t o m i n i m i z e i t s e f f e c t on
p r e c i p i t a t o r performance.

Coal V a r i a b i l i t y . S a t i s f a c t o r y p r e c i p i t a t o r performance i s h e a v i l y
dependent on m a i n t a i n i n g a s t e a d y s u p p l y o f f l u e gas w i t h u n i f o r m
characteristics t o the precipitator. A l t h o u g h some f l e x i b i l i t y may be
d e s i g n e d i n t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r t o accommodate w i d e r a n g e s o f c o a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o a l v a r i a b i l i t y s h o u l d be l i m i t e d t o e n s u r e s u c c e s s f u l
precipitation. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t has become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t i n
r e c e n t y e a r s s i n c e l a r g e u t i l i t y b o i l e r s r e q u i r e a s t e a d y and dependable
s u p p l y o f f u e l f r o m s e v e r a l mines. One e f f e c t i v e a p p r o a c h i s t o base t h e
d e s i g n on t h e w o r s t case c o a l .

Coal Q u a l i t y . A n a l y s i s o f c o a l i s g i v e n i n two f o r m s : p r o x i m a t e and

ultimate. Proximate a n a l y s i s i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e t y p e --
b i t u m i n o u s , subbiturninous, o r l i g n i t e -- o f coal. Ultimate analysis
d e f i n e s t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f c o a l on an a s - r e c e i v e d b a s i s .
P r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s i s g e n e r a l l y used f o r d e t e r m i n i n g q u a l i t y f o r
c o n t r a c t u a l purposes and i n c l u d e s measuring s u r f a c e w a t e r c o n t e n t , ash
p e r c e n t a g e , f i x e d c a r b o n c o n t e n t , s u l f u r c o n t e n t and h e a t i n g v a l u e .
Volatile matter i s a l s o reported. Table 2-1 shows proximate and u l t i m a t e
a n a l y s e s of f o u r c o a l s chosen t o demonstrate t h e d i v e r s i t y among various
types of c o a l s .

The h e a t c o n t e n t , based p r i m a r i l y on f i x e d carbon, v o l a t i l e m a t t e r , ash and

s u l f u r f r a c t i o n s , w i l l b a s i c a l l y determine t h e q u a n t i t y of coal required t o
produce a given amount o f steam in a p a r t i c u l a r b o i l e r . In g e n e r a l , t h e
higher t h e a s h c o n t e n t , t h e lower heat c o n t e n t of t h e c o a l . This f a c t
impacts p r e c i p i t a t i o n performance because t h e need t o burn more coal with a
higher ash c o n t e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e net c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r
processed by t h e c o l l e c t i o n system.

Fly Ash C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The term " f l y ash" i s used t o d e s c r i b e t h a t

portion o f t h e s o l i d combustion waste t h a t i s e n t r a i n e d i n t h e f l u e gas and
carried t o the precipitator. Fly ash c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a f f e c t
p r e c i p i t a t o r performance i n c l u d e chemical composition, e l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t i v i t y , and p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n . Fly ash c o n c e n t r a t i o n a1 so
a f f e c t s p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. These f a c t o r s a r e b r i e f l y discussed
be1 ow.

Concentration. The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f f l y ash l e a v i n g t h e b o i l e r can be

r e p o r t e d i n a v a r i e t y of ways; t h e most useful f o r p r e c i p i t a t o r
performance a n a l y s i s i s in terms of mass per u n i t volume of f l u e g a s ,
u s u a l l y i n g r a i n s per a c t u a l cubic f o o t (grains/ACF). However, s i n c e
f l u e g a s volume v a r i e s w i t h temperature, p r e s s u r e , and excess a i r ,
comparison of f l y ash c o n c e n t r a t i o n s under d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s can be d i f f i c u l t using mass l o a d i n g s p e r a c t u a l cubic f o o t .
Hence, f l y a s h c o n c e n t r a t i o n has a l s o been expressed i n u n i t s of g r a i n s
per s t a n d a r d cubic f o o t (qrains/SCF) and g r a i n s p e r s t a n d a r d dry cubic
f o o t ( g r a i ns/SDCF) . The United S t a t e s E n v i ronmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency
(U.S. EPA) has defined f l y ash c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s pounds per m i l l i o n Btu
6
(lbs/lO Btu) of h e a t i n p u t t o t h e b o i l e r and may now be t h e
p r e f e r r e d manner f o r e x p r e s s i n g such a c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
 T a b l e 2-1

Coal and Ash A n a l y s e s (1)

North Eastern
Proximate Analyses(%) Wyoming Dakota L i g n i t e Alabama High S u l f u r

Water 11.8 37.1

Volatile matter 33.8 26.5
F i x e d Carbon 42.7 28.6
Ash 11.7 7.8
Sul f u r 0.56 0.68

Water
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sul f u r
Ash
Oxygen 12.9

Total 100.0

M i n e r a l A n a l y s e s o f Ash(%)

Fez 0 3
CaO
MgO
NazO
K2 0
S i O2
T i 02
A1203
p205
SO 3
Undetermined &
Errors

Total 100.0
The ash c o n t e n t and heating value of a p a r t i c u l a r coal are g e n e r a l l y
s p e c i f i e d a s t h e average value obtained from a number of samples. Ash
1) i t allows f o r
v a r i a b i l i t y t a k e s two f a c t o r s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n :
d e v i a t i o n s i n ash c o n t e n t from t h e mean f o r a given a n a l y s i s , and 2 ) i t
a p p l i e s a s t a t i s t i c a l f a c t o r t o t h e mean t o obtain t h e upper l i m i t of
t h e ash c o n t e n t a t t h e 95 percent confidence l e v e l . The second f a c t o r
can vary c o n s i d e r a b l y with coal t y p e , mining method and blending which
occurs d u r i n g mining, shipping, and s t o r a g e . The E l e c t r i c Power
Research I n s t i t u t e (EPRI) r e p o r t s ash v a r i a b i l i t y f a c t o r s ranging from
1.25 t o 1.90.

Carbon c o n t e n t of f l y ash i n c r e a s e s t h e o v e r a l l p a r t i c u l a t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o some e x t e n t . Carbon c o n t e n t v a r i e s with b o i l e r excess
a i r , b u r n e r p o s i t i o n , p u l v e r i z e r s e t t i n g s , p u l v e r i z e r maintenance, and
A t y p i c a l e s t i m a t e of f l y ash carbon c o n t e n t i s around 5
b o i l e r Toad.
percent f o r a pulverized-coal f i r e d b o i l e r .

Ash c a r r y o v e r i s t h a t portion of t h e ash i n t h e coal t h a t appears a s

f l y ash r a t h e r than a s b o i l e r bottom a s h . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , 80 percent
has been used with higher percentages r e p r e s e n t i n g more c o n s e r v a t i v e
approaches. Ash carryover v a r i e s w i t h b o i l e r d e s i g n , o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s and ash fusion temperatures.

Generally, higher p r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t d u s t loadings cause corona

suppression i n t h e i n l e t f i e l d s (See Manual 2 , Section 4 ) . Also,
higher i n l e t loadings r e q u i r e h i g h e r o v e r a l l removal e f f i c i e n c i e s t o
meet t h e same o u t l e t emissions s t a n d a r d .

Chemical Composition and Fly Ash R e s i s t i v i t y . The chemical composition

of t h e coal f i r e d i n a b o i l e r and t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e r e s u l t i n g f l y
ash a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d . Other f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g f l y a s h r e s i s t i v i t y
include t h e amount of excess combustion a i r , t h e moisture c o n t e n t o f
t h e combustion a i r , and a d d i t i o n a l f l y a s h c o n d i t i o n i n g agent used
e i t h e r b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e coal i s burned. Fly ash r e s i s t i v i t y i s
g e n e r a l l y expressed i n u n i t s of ohm-centimeters (ohm-cm), which i s
numerically e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a cube of f l y ash one
c e n t i m e t e r on each s i d e .

Fly ash c o n s i s t s mainly of g l a s s y spheres c o n t a i n i n g t h e ash

c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e coal with some unburned carbon a l s o p r e s e n t . The
s u r f a c e l a y e r s of t h e p a r t i c l e s w i l l , depending upon f l u e gas
t e m p e r a t u r e , contain adsorbed gases and vapors, t h e most important of
which a r e s u l f u r i c a c i d and water vapor.

Fly a s h r e s i s t i v i t y involves two independent conduction paths: one

through t h e bulk of t h e material (volume conduction) and one a long t h e
s u r f a c e of each individual p a r t i c l e ( s u r f a c e conduction). The bulk
chemistry of f l y ash determines i t s volume r e s i s t i v i t y . The p r e v i o u s l y
noted adsorbed gases and vapors s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e t h e s u r f a c e
r e s i s t i v i t y a s well a s adhesive, cohesive, and m a t e r i a l handling
characteristics.

The temperature of t h e f l u e gas has a strong e f f e c t on t h e r e s i s t i v i t y

of f l y ash. When f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y i s p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of f l u e
gas t e m p e r a t u r e , an i n v e r t e d "U" shaped curve t y p i c a l l y r e s u l t s ( s e e
Figure 2-10). The r e s i s t i v i t y curve has a maximum a t some temperature
in t h e 300 t o 400°F range. This curve can be e x p l a i n e d i n terms of
volume and s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t i e s .

A s f l u e gas temperature i n c r e a s e s t h e adsorbed s u r f a c e contaminants

have l e s s i n f l u e n c e on t h e s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y . (At temperatures of up
t o approximately 200°F volume r e s i s t i v i t y shows very 1 i t t l e
influence.) As a r e s u l t , with s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y dominating, a n e t
i n c r e a s e in r e s i s t i v i t y up t o around 250 t o 30OoF i s observed. Between
approximately 200 and 350°F both s u r f a c e and volume conduction c o n t r o l
t h e f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y . Above t h i s range, volume conduction becomes
t h e dominant conduction mechanism, i n c r e a s i n g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e , r e s u l t i n g in a decreasing r e s i s t i v i t y .
 TEMPERATURE
20I636

F i g u r e 2-10. Fly Ash R e s i s t i v i t y as a F u n c t i o n o f T e n p e r a t u r e

Analyses of f o u r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of coal a r e t a b u l a t e d i n Table 2-1.
Analyses were performed by following ASTM procedures. I t i s important
t o note t h a t t h e s e a n a l y t i c techniques r e s u l t in a t a b u l a t i o n of
m e t a l l i c o x i d e s f o r t h e ash c o n t e n t . No attempt i s made t o determine
t h e a c t u a l chemical compounds t h a t may e x i s t i n t h e f l y ash. For
example, t h e r e p o r t e d SOj c o n t e n t may have a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d a s
calcium o r i r o n s u l f a t e , and complex calcium-alumino-silicates may be
present.

Examination of Table 2-1 y i e l d s information about how a p r e c i p i t a t o r

would f u n c t i o n on each of t h e f o u r c o a l s . The following statements a r e
q u a l i t a t i v e because t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r cannot be q u a n t i t a t i v e l y s i z e d i f
only coal and ash chemistry a r e known. Sizing a l s o requires a
knowledge of p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , f l u e gas volume and average
temperature, temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e r e q u i r e d c o l l e c t i o n
efficiency.

Wyoming Coal. The low-sulfur c o n t e n t of t h e coal would i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y w i l l be high. Furthermore, i t s
low-sodium, high-calcium ash w i l l a l s o have a high volume
resistivity. Thus, t h e a s h w i l l have a very high r e s i s t i v i t y a t
c o l d - s i d e temperature c o n d i t i o n s and would d i s p l a y s i m i l a r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t hot-side o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

North Dakota L i g n i t e . The low- s u l f u r c o n t e n t would again r e s u l t

i n a high s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y . However, t h e very high sodium
c o n t e n t of t h e ash would tend t o make the volume r e s i s t i v i t y q u i t e
low, even a t c o l d - s i d e temperatures. Hence, a moderately s i z e d
c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r could be c o n f i d e n t l y s e l e c t e d .

Alabama Coal. Both t h e s u l f u r c o n t e n t and t h e sodium c o n t e n t a r e

a t a l e v e l such t h a t cold-side r e s i s t i v i t y may be b o r d e r l i n e . If
a c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r i s s e l e c t e d , i t should be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y
s i z e d because t h e r e s i s t i v i t y may be high. Hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s
have been used on Alabama coal with some s u c c e s s , and t h i s might
a l s o be a good choice f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n .
 Eastern H i g b S u l f u r Coal. With a s u l f u r c o n t e n t i n excess o f 4%,
t h e s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t l y l o w a t v i r t u a l l y any
cold-side temperature. A c i d c o n d e n s a t i o n may be a p r o b l e m a t l o w
gas t e m p e r a t u r e s , so adequate h e a t i n s u l a t i o n i s a n e c e s s i t y .

I n many h o t - s i d e i n s t a l l a t i o n s , p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e d e g r a d a t i o n
occurs w i t h time. That i s , a clean hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r w i l l perform
as e x p e c t e d after s t a r t u p a n d show a t r e n d o f d e g r a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e as
t h e u n i t i s operated. I n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e cause o f t h i s o c c u r r e n c e
has r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e i s a r e g i o n o f sodium i o n d e p l e t i o n i n t h e d u s t
l a y e r i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e s ( < I mrn
thick). T h i s sodium i o n d e p l e t e d l a y e r causes d r a s t i c i n c r e a s e s i n
that layer's resistivity. I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e sodium i o n s
m i g r a t e from t h e p l a t e under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d .
Sodium d e p l e t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r w i t h sodium o x i d e i n a s h l e v e l s
o f l e s s t h a n 0.5% a n d l o w c a l c i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s on t h e o r d e r o f 5.0%
c a l c i u m o x i d e , w h i l e f l y a s h w i t h sodium o x i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n excess
o f 1 . 0 p e r c e n t may e x h i b i t t h i s e f f e c t when c a l c i u m o x i d e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t y p i c a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n 15 t o 20 p e r c e n t .

P a r t i c l e Size D i s t r i b u t i o n . Most i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s o f f l y ash,

h a v i n g been f o r m e d by t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f l i q u i d ash i n gas
suspension, a r e s p h e r i c a l i n shape. A few o f t h e spheres may be
h o l l o w , some a r e i n c o m p l e t e o r b r o k e n , and some f l y a s h p a r t i c l e s a r e
f l a k e s , aggTomerates o f s l a g , o r p i e c e s o f unburned o r p a r t i a l l y b u r n e d
fuel.

When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n a sample o f f l y
ash, i t i s common t o c o n s i d e r a l l p a r t i c l e s t o be s o l i d spheres. This
a s s u m p t i o n p e r m i t s t h e use o f a n a l y t i c a l methods w h i c h measure t h e
p a r t i c l e s i z e i n d i r e c t l y , by observing t h e behavior o f t h e p a r t i c l e s
when s u b j e c t e d t o aerodynamic, g r a v i t a t i o n a l , and e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s .
As previously noted, fly ash consists of a wide range of particle sizes
from about 150 urn to 0.01 pm in diameter. By weight, some 5 to 10
percent o f fly ash typically consists of fine particles, i.e., those
smaller than about 2 pin.

Electrostatic precipitators are particularly sensitive to fine

particles in several different ways:
Space Charge Effect (Corona Suppression) - All of the uncollected
dust in a precipitator consists of suspended particles in the
interelectrode space. These particles are electrically charged
and carry some of the precipitator current from the emitting
electrodes to the grounded plates. However, more than 99 percent
of the current is carried by gaseous ions which have mobilities
several hundred times greater than the drift mobilities of the
dust particles.
The charged dust particles provide a space charge which tends to
suppress the corona current. This effect is most pronounced for
fine particles since the total charge carried by the dust per unit
volume of gas is proportional to the surface area of the dust.
Efficiency - Theoretically, the log of penetration is inversely
proportional to particle diameter. Although actual experience
does not confirm this relationship, tests on precipitators do show
a reduced collection efficiency for fine particles. Hence, the
finer the dust entering a particular precipitator, the lower the
efficiency.
Put another way, a larger precipitator is required to achieve the
same overall mass efficiency on fly ash containing a larger
proportion of fine particles.
Physical Properties - Because of their greater surface area, a
mass of fine particles has greater adhesive and cohesive
properties than do coarse particles. Thus, fine particles are
generally less "free flowing" than ccarse particles. Since a
precipitator is less efficient on fine particles, there is a size
gradation in the collected material; coarse particles are more
prevalent in the material collected i n the front of the
precipitator, and fine particles tend to predominate in the
material collected in the rear. Thus, the material caught in the
rear-most hoppers of a precipitator, although smaller in quantity
than that collected in the front, can have a greater tendency to
bridge the hopper outlet 2nd cause ash handling problems.

Most of the fly ash particles larger than about 1 pm are formed by
the coalescence of the ash content of an individual coal particle into
a solidified sphere. Particles smaller than about 0.5 um are thought
to be formed by vaporization and subsequent condensation of those
 volatile compounds found in the ash. Thus, the chemical composition of
fine particles may be expected to differ from that of the total ash,
having been enriched by the more volatile species. Since fine
particles are collected in the precipitator with lower efficiency than
that of coarse particles, it follows that the fly ash escaping a
precipitator will also show enrichment by the more volatile species in
the ash.

Maintenance. The best-designed ESP will not give satisfactory performance

if it and its related equipment are not operated and maintained properly.
ESP manufacturers supply instruction manuals with their equipment which
should be followed closely as each supplier's equipment is unique in some
respects. General operation and maintenance guidelines are discussed in
Manual 11.

Electrical Contro7s. The control circuits of modern ESPs contain

sophisticated logic circuits designed to maintain the maximum possible
time-averaged voltage on each bus section. They have internaT sensors to
detect the onset of an arc, quench it by momentarily reducing voltage, and
restore power within milliseconds. Their design uses analog or digital
computer elements which are sensitive to ambient temperatures: hence, the
controls should be kept in a clean, air conditioned room. Routine
maintenance consists of cleaning them and checking their operation.
Failure of circuit elements can be detected by erratic operation, and
repair is usually made by replacing a complete circuit board.

Rappers. It is necessary to rap collecting plates and emitting electrodes

periodically to remove the accumulated fly ash. Most rigid frame ESPs use
tumbling hammers fastened to a rotating motor-driven shaft for this
purpose. Most manufacturers of weighted wire precipitators use a rapper
design in which a weight i s electromagnetically raised then dropped against
an anvil, or electric vibrators.

With either design, hammers and anvils may wear, or coils and control
timers may malfunction. If a portion of the rapping system ceases to
operate, the electrical characteristics of the affected bus section(s) will
d e t e r i o r a t e , and t h e o v e r a l l performance o f t h e ESP w i l l d e c r e a s e . Hence,
maintenance programs must i n c l u d e i n s p e c t i o n s of t h e r a p p e r s t o a s c e r t a i n
t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e rapping system.

P r e c i p i t a t o r Clearances. As d e s i g n e d , a l l d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s i n an ESP
should be e x a c t l y t h e same d i s t a n c e from t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s . This
e n a b l e s maximum v o l t a g e t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s and
maximum performance t o be achieved by t h e ESP. In r e a l i t y , f a b r i c a t i o n and
c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s n e c e s s i t a t e a compromise w i t h t h e i d e a l c o n d i t i o n ;
p l a t e s and wire frames warp t o some e x t e n t i n s p i t e of t h e b e s t e f f o r t s of
the builders. Some t o l e r a n c e i s s p e c i f i e d a s p e r m i s s i b l e by most
suppliers. Since h i s t o r i c a l performance d a t a has been o b t a i n e d from
p r e c i p i t a t o r s having alignment t o l e r a n c e , i t should n o t be considered a
deficiency.

However, o p e r a t i o n a l f a c t o r s such a s ash p r e s s u r e from o v e r f i l l e d hoppers

o r t r a n s i e n t e p i s o d e s of high t e m p e r a t u r e may cause t h e e l e c t r i c a l
c l e a r a n c e t o d e c r e a s e t o unacceptable v a l u e s . This decreases the voltage
t h a t can be a p p l i e d t o t h e e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e s and t h e performance of t h e
ESP.

Whenever an i n t e r n a l i n s p e c t i o n of an ESP i s made, t h e e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e

between high-voltage and grounded p a r t s should be checked t o v e r i f y t h a t i t
i s s t i l l within t h e s u p p l i e r ' s s p e c i f i e d t o l e r a n c e .

Ash Deposits. When an ESP, o r a p o r t i o n of one, i s a t a temperature below

t h e dewpoint of t h e f l u e g a s e s , condensation of a c i d and/or m o i s t u r e occurs
i n t h a t region. Such e v e n t s a r e most l i k e l y t o occur d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a t
low b o i l e r load o r when s t a r t i n g t h e b o i l e r a f t e r an outage. Condensate i s
c o - p r e c i p i t a t e d w i t h and absorbed by t h e f l y a s h , c r e a t i n g a damp, cohesive
mass. Some f l y a s h e s a r e q u i t e p o z z o l a n i c ; upon d r y i n g , t h e y remain
cemented t o g e t h e r and adhere t e n a c i o u s l y t o t h e s u r f a c e on which they a r e
deposited. A s u c c e s s i o n of such i n c i d e n t s can cause ash d e p o s i t s of
c o n s i d e r a b l e s i z e t o be formed in t h e ESP. When t h e s e appear on c o l l e c t i n g
p l a t e s o r e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e s , t h e s i z e of t h e d e p o s i t s r e d u c e s e l e c t r i c a l
c l e a r a n c e , r e s u l t i n g i n a d e c r e a s e i n t h e maximum v o l t a g e s t h a t can be
s u p p l i e d and a r e s u l t a n t d e c r e a s e i n performance.
Hard, c r u s t y , almost uniform d e p o s i t s a r e o f t e n found on e m i t t i n g
e l e c t r o d e s following i n c i d e n t s of condensation. These d e p o s i t s i n c r e a s e
t h e e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of t h e e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e , r e s u l t i n g in a d e c r e a s e of
corona c u r r e n t .

Large cemented masses of f l y ash sometimes f a l l i n t o t h e hoppers. When

such masses a r e too l a r g e t o pass through t h e hopper o u t l e t , pluggage
o c c u r s , r e s u l t i n g in o v e r f i l l e d hoppers.

T h e r e f o r e , o p e r a t i o n of t h e ESP a t temperatures below t h e a c i d dewpoint i s

t o be avoided, o r a t l e a s t minimized. Maintenance i n s p e c t i o n s should
i n c l u d e t h e removal of any ash d e p o s i t s t h a t may be found.

Gas D i s t r i b u t i o n Devices. In order t o o b t a i n uniform gas v e l o c i t y

throughout t h e treatment zone of an ESP, custom designed vanes, b a f f l e s ,
and/or p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e s a r e used a t t h e ESP gas i n l e t and l e s s f r e q u e n t l y
a t the outlet. These d e v i c e s a r e u s u a l l y designed and s e l e c t e d a s a r e s u l t
of a flow study conducted on a model of a p a r t i c u l a r duct system and ESP.
I f t h e modeling work i s properly done, t h e gas d i s t r i b u t i o n devices perform
t h e i r intended t u n c t i o n .

However, f l y ash d e p o s i t s can form on t h e gas d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s , as

d e s c r i b e d above. Such d e p o s i t s can cause m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f l u e g a s
w i t h i n t h e ESP, lowering i t s performance. In severe c a s e s , t h e ash
d e p o s i t s can cause s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e due t o t h e increased weight of ash
bui 1d u ~ .

Plugging of t h e gas d i s t r i b u t i o n devices can a l s o occur without

condensation i f t h e dry f l y ash i s unusually a d h e r e n t . I n such c a s e s , t h e
a d d i t i o n of rappers or v i b r a t o r s w i l l o f t e n s o l v e t h e problem.

Frequent o p e r a t i o n a t low gas v e l o c i t i e s w i l l cause d u s t t o s e t t l e t o t h e

bottom of an i n l e t d u c t . This d e p o s i t may not be swept away a t h i g h e r
v e l o c i t i e s and r e s u l t s in an i n c r e a s i n g depth of d e p o s i t w i t h time of
operation. I f t h e d e p o s i t covers a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of t h e gas
d i s t r i b u t i o n b a f f l e s , m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f l u e gas i n t h e ESP w i l l f o l l o w .
F u r t h e r , r e e n t r a i n m e n t o f t h e f l y ash may t e m p o r a r i l y o v e r l o a d t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r , reducing c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . Redesign o f t h e i n l e t d u c t ,
p o s s i b l y i n c l u d i n g t h e a d d i t i o n o f a hopper b o t t o m , may be r e q u i r e d .

Gas d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s may be d e s i g n e d w i t h i n a d e q u a t e c l e a r a n c e f o r
e x p a n s i o n due t o t e m p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n s . I n such cases, e x p a n s i o n r e s u l t s
i n b u c k l i n g and d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e d e v i c e s . Redesign and r e p a i r s h o u l d be
e f f e c t e d a s soon as such an e v e n t i s d i s c o v e r e d .

Boiler. The q u a l i t y o f maintenance o f a b o i l e r a n d i t s a c c e s s o r i e s can

a l s o a f f e c t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e ESP.

F o r example, b o i l e r t u b e l e a k s have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o cause t h e cementing o f

f l y ash t o p l a t e s and d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s .

Ifone o r more b u r n e r s a r e d e f l e c t e d f r o m t h e i r p r o p e r p o s i t i o n , t h e
f i r e - b a l l p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f u r n a c e w i l l be
altered. T h i s has been known t o r e s u l t i n m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f l u e gas
e n t e r i n g a h o t - s i d e ESP. M a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f i u e gas t o c o l d - s i d e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s can a l s o r e s u l t f r o m p a r t i a l p l u g g i n g o f a i r h e a t e r s .

Coal M i l l s . Wear on c o a l m i l l s can change p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n . It

can a l s o i n c r e a s e t h e c a r b o n l o s s o f t h e b o i l e r , r e s u l t i n g i n carbon r i c h
f l y ash p a r t i c l e s . Such p a r t i c l e s , because o f t h e i r l o w r e s i s t i v i t y ,
r a p i d i y l o s e t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l charge when d e p o s i t e d on t h e c o l l e c t i n g
p l a t e s , become r e e n t r a i n e d i n t h e gas stream, and a r e l o s t i n
disproportionate quantities.

Ash H a n d l i n q System. O v e r f i l l e d hoppers a r e a m a j o r cause o f p r e c i p i t a t o r

problems. Hopper e v a c u a t i o n p r o b l e m s a r e m i n i m i z e d i n p l a n t s where t h e
hoppers a r e k e p t warm by adequate h e a t e r s , i n s u l a t i o n , and e n c l o s u r e s , and
where t h e a s h i s removed as c o n t i n u o u s l y as p o s s i b l e . F l u i d i z i n g hopper
ash w i t h d r y a i r , w h i c h must be p r e h e a t e d above t h e d e w p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e ,
i s sometimes h e l ~ f u. l
Hopper level alarms a r e advantageous i n ensuring t h a t hoppers a r e not
allowed t o o v e r f i l l . Level sensors come in a v a r i e t y of mechanical,
pneumatic, e l e c t r i c a l , and nuclear t y o e s . Some, such a s c a p a c i t a n c e
probes, may g i v e f a l s e alarms when o u t of adjustment o r when
h i g h - r e s i s t i v i t y ashes a r e involved. Non-contacting n u c l e a r type l e v e l
i n d i c a t o r s appear t o have fewer shortcomings than o t h e r d e v i c e s , and a r e
being used more o f t e n than o t h e r s a t t h e p r e s e n t time. They a r e more
expensive and r e q u i r e a licensed t e c h n i c i a n f o r maintenance.

The e n t i r e ash removal system should be maintained in accord with i t s

manufacturer's recommendations, and i t should not be allowed t o
deteriorate. Fly ash i s highly a b r a s i v e ; worn p a r t s must be r e p a i r e d o r
rep1 aced a s r e q u i r e d .

Design Factors A f f e c t i n g ESP Performance

Proper design i s c r i t i c a l t o a c c e p t a b l e long term performance of a

precipitator. Design c o n s i d e r a t i o n s should include power supply, e l e c t r o d e
system d e s i g n , s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n a r e , . , gas v e l o c i t y , a s p e c t r a t i o , number
of f i e l d s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of gas flow and e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n a l i z a t i o n .

Power Supply. The power supply of an ESP c o n s i s t s of t h r e e main components:

Highvoltagetransformer

Rectifier

VoTtage c o n t r o l , metering and p r o t e c t i o n c i r c u i t r y

The high v o l t a g e transformer i s s p e c i f i c a l l y designed f a r use i n

p r e c i p i t a t o r s w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o withstand winding s t r e s s when s e v e r e
sparkover occurs i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r . G e n e r a l l y , t r a n s f o r m e r r a t i n g s range
from 15 t o 95 kVA with secondary v o l t a g e l i m i t s of 45 t o 55 kV average and
secondary output c u r r e n t s of 250 t o 1500 milliamps (mA) D.C.

Most modern r e c t i f i e r s a r e of t h e s i l i c o n t y p e and a r e g e n e r a l l y contained

i n s i d e the t r a n s f o r m e r tank on newer i n s t a l l a t i o n s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of
t h e s i l i c o n c o n t r o l l e d r e c t i f i e r (SCR) o f f e r s g r e a t improvement i n power
i n p u t c o n t r o l and can minimize t h e e f f e c t of e l e c t r i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e
ESP by t h e speed of i t s response.

The power supply must be matched c o r r e c t l y t o t h e o p e r a t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

o r s e v e r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s may a r i s e . The major d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e l i s t e d below.
The impedance of t h e power supply may not be enough t o dampen
e l e c t r i c a l breakdowns s u f f i c i e n t l y . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s l i k e l y i f
the high v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r c u r r e n t r a t i n g i s much l a r g e r than
required.

If t h e power supply i s t o o small t o handle t h e physical s i z e of

t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r , lower than d e s i r a b l e p r e c i p i t a t o r v o l t a g e s may
e x i s t because transformer c u r r e n t l i m i t s would be exceeded.

I f t h e power supply i s too l a r g e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e

power usage as a percentage o f c a p a c i t y i s s m a l l . This may c a u s e
poor power input c o n t r o l because t h e c o n t r o l l e r may be unable t o
d i s c r i m i n a t e a c o n t r o l s i g n a l from l i n e n o i s e .

Figure 2-11 shows t h e importance of maintaining a high secondary v o l t a g e i n

a precipitator. P r e c i p i t a t o r e f f i c i e n c y i s d i r e c t l y e f f e c t e d by t h e
secondary peak v o l t a g e .

E l e c t r o d e System Design. Electrode system design has a d i r e c t e f f e c t on

the voltage-current relationship inside a p r e c i p i t a t o r . The two major
e f f e c t s a r e l i s t e d below:
The d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e d i a m e t e r , o r s h a r p n e s s of t h e corona
e m i t t i n g p o i n t s o r e d g e s , determines t h e corona s t a r t i n g v o l t a g e .
T h e r e f o r e , f o r a given v o l t a g e , a small d i a m e t e r wire o r p o i n t e d
e l e c t r o d e w i l l y i e l d more c u r r e n t .

C o l l e c t o r s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s may produce sparkover a t a

reduced v o l t a g e .

C o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e spacing i s d e f i n e d a s t h e c e n t e r l i n e t o c e n t e r l i n e
d i s t a n c e between two a d j a c e n t c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e s , In modern ESPs,
c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e spacings g e n e r a l l y range from 9 t o 12 i n . f o r f l y ash
col\ection. Weighted wire p r e c i p i t a t o r s u s u a l l y have a 9 i n . spacing
whereas r i g i d frame and r i g i d e l e c t r o d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s t y p i c a l l y use 10 t o
12 i n . spacing. G e n e r a l l y , 12 i n . spacing i s r e q u i r e d f o r p l a t e s t a l l e r
than 40 f t t o ensure t h a t a c c e p t a b l e alignment t o l e r a n c e s may be
maintained.
 - increases in Two (2)Kilowtts Steps.
Typical Range 36 to 60 kV

PRECIPITATOR PEAK VOLTAGE (Kitovolts)

Figure 2-1 1 . A Typical E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t o r Peak

Voltage Versus Dust C o l l e c t i o n E f f i c i e n c y Curve Shows
How E f f i c i e n c y I n c r e a s e s w i t h Voltage (-
3)
In p r e c i p i t a t o r design i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o maintain adequate e l e c t r i c a l
c l e a r a n c e between t h e high v o l t a g e ( d i s c h a r g e ) e l e c t r o d e and t h e grounded
(collection) electrode. A t sparkover v o l t a g e , a p r e c i p i t a t o r of good
design w i l l spark only between t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e and t h e c o l l e c t i o n
electrode. Sparking a t any o t h e r p o i n t i s a sign of poor design o r
c o n s t r u c t i o n inadequacy; sharp edges on c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e s or o u t of
t o l e r a n c e alignment, f o r example. As a r e s u l t of t h e spacing requirement,
r i g i d frame d e s i g n s g e n e r a l l y have a wider p l a t e spacing t o provide
adequate e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e between t h e discharge e l e c t r o d e frame and
s t i f f e n i n g elements on t h e c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e . Similarly, r i g i d electrode
d e s i g n s use wider p l a t e spacing t o allow f o r t h e i n c r e a s e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e
discharge electrode.

A d i s t i n c t i o n betweeh physical c l e a r a n c e and e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e needs t o

be made. As shown i n Figure 2-12, two smooth s u r f a c e s i n c l o s e physical
proximity w i l l n o t sparkover a t t h e same v o l t a g e a s two pointed s u r f a c e s
physically f u r t h e r a p a r t . T h e r e f o r e , a smooth pipe frame may be p h y s i c a l l y
c l o s e r t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e than t h e discharge e l e c t r o d e and s t i l l
possess adequate e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e .

In designing a p r e c i p i t a t o r , t h e manufacturer e s t a b l i s h e s f a b r i c a t i o n and

c o n s t r u c t i o n t o l e r a n c e s s i n c e i t i s impossible t o f a b r i c a t e o r c o n s t r u c t
t h e c o l l e c t i o n o r d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e system p e r f e c t l y plumb and s t r a i g h t .

S p e c i f i c C o l l e c t i o n Area. S p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n area (SCA) i s defined a s t h e

t o t a l e f f e c t i v e c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e a r e a of a p r e c i p i t a t o r d i v i d e d by t h e
t o t a l g a s volume being t r e a t e d . T h i s parameter has found wide use
throughout t h e i n d u s t r y and i s important because i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e
A /V r e l a t i o n s h i p found i n t h e Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n .
co 9

Design Gas V e l o c i t y . P r e c i p i t a t o r g a s v e l o c i t y i s a common design

parameter, but i t s t r u e value a s a design tool can be q u e s t i o n a b l e unless
t h e gas flow d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t i s well understood.
Causes f o r gas d i s t r i b u t i o n e f f e c t s i n c l u d e p l a t e b a f f l e s , and emitting
system elements ( s e e Figure 2-13). These e f f e c t s a r e unique t o each
p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n and a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d e s c r i b e in d e t a i l . As a r e s u l t ,
NOTE THAT THE ARC FORMS BETWEEN THE TWO POINTS
EVEN THOUGH THEY HAVE A GREATER PHYSICAL
SEPARATION THAN THE TWO SMOOTH SPHERES.

Figure 2-12. Electrical Clearance (-

2)
F i g u r e 2-13. Gas Velocity i n a P r e c i p i t a t o r Passage (-2 )
only an overall gas velocity can be calculated by dividing the total gas
volume entering the precipitator by the effective cross-sectional area of
the ESP. Effective cross-sectional area is obtained by multiplying the
height of the collecting plates by the number and width of the gas
passages. Mathematically,

Gas Velocity (fthec) = (2-22)

Total Gas Flow (ACFM)
Plate Height (ft) x Width of Gas Passage (ft) x Number of Gas Passages x
(60 sec/min)

In designing a precipitator both excessively high velocities and excessively

low velocities must be considered. High velocities in a precipitator may
result in scouring collected dust f r o m the collecting plate and excessive
reentrainment during rapping. High velocities also reduce SCA. Low gas
velocities such as occur during low-load operation can result in excessive
dust fallout in the ductwork leading to the precipitator, resulting in higher
than normal emissions during load increases and the possibility of structural
damage.

In general, there is a lack of agreement regarding the definition of

excessively high gas velocities. Velocities in excess of 8 ft/sec have been
shown to contribute to excessive reentrainment. Design velocities of 6 to 8
ft/sec were considered normal up to about 1970, but 3 to 6 ft/sec is
considered reasonable to achieve modern efficiency goals. Less than 3 ft/sec
is considered too low and will cause the previously noted low velocity
problems to become noted. in addition, such low velocities will adversely
effect the economic design o f the precipitator.

Aspect Ratio. The aspect ratio (AR) of a precipitator i s defined as the

effective length (L) of the precipitator divided by the effective height (H)
of the collecting plates. Figure 2-14 illustrates the concept of aspect
ratio. In the figure, the aspect ratio is mathematically described as
Figure 2-74. Components o f Aspect R a t i o (2)
Notice that the walkways and other nonelectrified regions of the precipitator
are not included in the calculation. The quantity of dust dropout i n
non-electrified regions or dead spaces is unknown, and conservative design
practice does not include this space in calculating aspect ratio.

Historically ( -I ) , minimum aspect ratios ranged from 0.6 for 98 percent

collection efficiency to 1.5 for better than 99.6 percent collection
efficiency. TO meet today's New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), aspect
ratios of 1.5 to 2.0 are generally used.

It is generally believed that all other parameters being equal, a

precipitator having a high aspect ratio is more efficient than one with a
lower aspect ratio. The logic behind this reasoning is that the agglomerated
fly ash at the top of the col~ectionplate tends to disperse and become
reentrained during rapping. The reentrained material must be reprecipitated
if it is to be collected before leaving the precipitator. The longer
effective length associated with a high aspect ratio helps achieve the
recollection of reentrained fly ash.

Using the aspect ratio to compare precipitators can present problems due to
the fact that all other design and operating parameters may not be equal.
For example, two precipitators with the same aspect ratios can have
drastically different SCAs. SCA will have an overriding affect on
precipitator performance and cost.

Number of Fields in Direction of Gas Flow. Precipitator fields are

arrangements of bus sections in the direction of gas flow that are
independently energized by one or more power supplies situated laterally to
the gas flow direction (See Manual 11, IGCI Definitions). Each electrical
f i e l d o f an ESP i s an i n d e p e n d e n t p r e c i p i t a t o r , i n e f f e c t , and i s p r e c e d e d
and/or f o l l o w e d by another f i e l d . As a r e s u l t , each f i e l d e n c o u n t e r s f l u e
g a s o f t h e same q u a n t i t y , c o m p o s i t i o n , and a p p r o x i m a t e t e m p e r a t u r e . The f l y
a s h c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e f l u e gas h a n d l e d by each f i e l d i s r e d u c e d by t h e
amount o f f l y ash p r e c i p i t a t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g f i e l d The l e n g t h o f a g i v e n
f i e l d v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o each m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s d e s i g n . Generally, f i e l d
l e n g t h r a n g e s from t h r e e f e e t t o a b o u t f i f t e e n f e e t .

When d u s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e h i g h , as i n an i n l e t f i e l d , t h e space c h a r g e
e f f e c t reduces the corona c u r r e n t a v a i l a b l e a t a g i v e n voltage. The space
c h a r g e e f f e c t decreases i n subsequent f i e l d s due t o t h e charged p a r t i c l e s
b e i n g removed from t h e gas stream. As a r e s u l t , i n l e t f i e l d s g e n e r a l l y show
h i g h v o l t a g e s f o r a given c u r r e n t d e n s i t y ; decreasing voltages and i n c r e a s i n g
c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s o c c u r r i n g i n subsequent f i e l d s . F i g u r e 2-15 i l l u s t r a t e s
t h i s trend.

Since t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s v a r y from t h e i n l e t t o t h e o u t l e t o f a
p r e c i p i t a t o r , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o have a l a r g e number o f i n d i v i d u a l l y
e n e r g i z e d f i e l d s making up t h e e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r . This s o r t
o f d e s i g n enables o p t i m i z i n g e l e c t r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r given p a r t i c u l a t e
c o n d i t i o n s a t any p o i n t i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g more f i e l d s i n t h e d e s i g n o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r
i s reliability. O b v i o u s l y , e l e c t r i c a l f a i l u r e o f one f i e l d i n a t h r e e f i e l d
p r e c i p i t a t o r w o u l d have a g r e a t e r e f f e c t on c o l l e c t i o n performance t h a n a one
field failure i n a ourteen f i e l d p r e c i p i t a t o r . E l e c t r i c a l f a i l u r e can
r e s u l t f r o m s e v e r a l m a l f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g o v e r f i 71 hoppers, w i r e breakage,
a n d power s u p p l y f a l u r e . Such e l e c t r i c a l f a i l u r e i s n o t an uncommon e v e n t .
When e l e c t r i c a l f a i u r e o c c u r s , t h e f i e l d s t o p s p r e c i p i t a t i n g and c o l l e c t s
f l y a s h o n l y b y n a t u r a l s e t t l i n g and space c h a r g e c o l l e c t i o n . The f o l 1 owing
t a b u l a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l e f f e c t on e f f i c i e n c y o f v a r i o u s
numbers o f f i e l d s o u t o f s e r v i c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r c e l l i n t h e t h r e e f i e I d and
fourteen f i e l d precipitators.
 f it-i '
CLEAN PLATE AIR LOAD
-
CURVE ALL FIELDS

DIRTY PLATE AIR LOAD

CURVE - ALL FIELDS
SPARK

OPERATING CURVE, T H I R D FIELD

OPERATING CURVE, SECOND F1EL

I
OPERATING CURVE, FIRST FIELD

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
V = ESP, VOLTAGE, k V

Figure 2-1 5. Normal Precipitator Current Voltage Curves (2)

 Number o f F i e l d s C a l c u l a t e d C e l l E f f i c i e n c y (%)@I
Out o f S e r v i c e T h r e e F i e l d ESP F o u r t e e n F i e l d ESP

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

"Efficiency i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y 0 percent, b u t g r a v i t a t i o n a l s e t t l i n g r e s u l t s
i n an e f f i c i e n c y o f a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t .

The c a l c u l a t i o n s used i n t h i s t a b u l a t i o n assume t h a t t h e d e s i g n e f f i c i e n c y

i s 99.60 p e r c e n t and t h a t t h e M a t t s - O h n f e l d t e q u a t i o n a p p l i e s w i t h a k
v a l u e o f 0.5. A l s o t h e v a l u e s r e p r e s e n t t h e e f f i c i e n c y f o r one c e l l o f t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r o n l y and t h e e f f e c t on o v e r a l l c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s
dependent on t h e number o f c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l .

C u r r e n t d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s use f r o m f o u r t o s i x f i e l d s f o r an ESP w i t h a
d e s i g n e f f i c i e n c y i n excess o f 99 p e r c e n t .
Electrical Sectionalization. A precipitator may also be electrically
divided in a direction perpendicular to that of gas flow. Divisions such
as these are referred to as cells. Consequently, the sma7lest portion of a
precipitator that can be independently energized is one field in one cell,
otherwise known as a bus section.

As in the case of fields, a greater number of bus sections i n a

precipitator offers some protection against drastic collection 'performance
degradation when a given section experiences electrical failure. Figure
2-16 shows typical field arrangements. The three field precipitator has
four cells, yielding twelve independent bus sections with twelve power
supplies. The fourteen field precipitator has two cells, yielding 28 bus
sections. However, in this case each power supply powers two bus sections
in the same field. Arrangements such as those shown in Figure 2-16 are
chosen in part to produce an economical power supply selection.

To illustrate the positive aspects of an increased number of power

supplies, consider the effect on each precipitator in Figure 2-16 when one
power supply experiences electrical failure. The three-field precipitator
has one-fourth of its width reduced to two fields while the remaining three
cells operate at the design efficiency of 99.6 percent. The overall
precipitator efficiency, from page 2-47, under these conditions is:

The fourteen field precipitator becomes a thirteen field precipitator,

resulting in an overall efficiency of 99.51 percent (see page 2-48).

Another very important reason for designing a precipitator with more

sectionalization across its width is the temperature gradients which may
exist i n the flue gas. Flue gas temperature gradients are often caused by
rotary air heaters and may persist in the precipitator. Since fly ash
resistivity is a function of temperature, this gradient can cause
significant variations in electrical characteristics across the
precipitator width. Also, poor gas distribution of fly ash stratification
may cause variations in dust loading across the precipitator, resulting in
non-uniform electrical characteristics.
 3 FIELD PRECIPITATOR

14 FIELD PRECtPI'FATOR

Figure 2-16. P l a n o f Precipitator Bus 'ections (2)

3 PRECIPITATOR SIZE SELECTION
 Section 3

PRECIPITATOR S I Z E SELECTION

INTRODUCTION

T h e r e i s one c r i t i c a l a s p e c t o f p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n w h i c h has c r e a t e d and

w i l l continue t o create the greatest opportunity f o r differences o f opinion
among p r e c i p i t a t o r e x p e r t s - precipitator size selection. This section
p r e s e n t s v a r i o u s s i z e s e l e c t i o n p r a c t i c e s and d e s c r i b e s c r i t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s
which a f f e c t s i z e selection. A summary o f e a r l i e r d a t a bases and s i z e
-
s e l e c t i o n p r a c t i c e s was p u b l i s h e d i n 1977 (24).

H i s t o r i c a l Perspective

P i o n e e r i n g w o r k i n t h e f i e l d o f e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n was c o n d u c t e d b y
D r . F r e d r i c k C o t t r e l l i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and S i r O l i v e r Lodge i n E n g l a n d
d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1800s and e a r l y 1900s. I n i t i a l application o f precipitators
were i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r d u r i n g t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .
The f i r s t f u l l - s i z e u t i l i t y a p p l i c a t i o n o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r t o a p u l v e r i z e d
coal-fired steam g e n e r a t o r o c c u r r e d i n 1923 a t a u n i t o p e r a t e d by t h e D e t r o i t
E d i son Company.

Between t h a t f i r s t u t i l i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n and t o d a y , s i g n i f i c a n t s t r i d e s have

been made i n hardware d e s i g n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
fundamental processes involved. These equipment improvements have been
f o s t e r e d by t h e d i f f e r i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s d e v e l o p e d b y numerous s u p p l i e r s . This
t e n d e d t o p r o d u c e d i f f e r e n t i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r o c e s s and s i z i n g
practices.

S i n c e s u p p l i e r s sponsor t h e i r own r e s e a r c h work, t h e work was and i s

c o n s i d e r e d p r o p r i e t a r y and t h e r e f o r e n o t p u b l i c l y a v a i l a b l e . Thjs
n o n - p u b l i c i z e d w o r k r e s u l t e d i n a u n i q u e d a t a base f o r each s u p p l i e r . Even
t o d a y , w i t h a l l o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s , funded b y t h e government and p r i v a t e
i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e s u p p l i e r s ' d a t a bases s t i l l p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s upon w h i c h
s u p p l i e r s base t h e i r guarantees. A l l o f t h i s makes i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r a
u t i l i t y t o independently e s t a b l i s h p r e c i s e p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g techniques.
Contemporary Sizing Practices
Although a utility does not have direct access to suppliers' data bases for
size selection, there are sizing models, to be discussed later, which are
available to a utility. Of course, any model is only as good as its data
input and data base. Recognizing the limited precipitator sizing resources
available to the utility, a practical approach must be taken in order to
develop a minimum precipitator size with which the utility will be confident.

Considering the penalties associated with a failure to comply with applicable

regulations, it is absolutely essential that the utility be confident i n its
selected precipitator size. This confidence can be generated either by
development of a utility's own sizing procedures, selecting only qualified
suppliers to bid on the project, by extended performance warranties, or by
increased levels o f financial liability on the part of the suppliers. Over
the years, these techniques have been employed either singly or in discrete
combinations. The utility should consider using all of these techniques to
increase the probability of successful precipitator operation. A prudent
sizing procedure is to employ all of the following techniques to develop a
consensus size:

Empirical models based on units firing the same or simi lar coal

Mathematical simulation models

Test burns i n full or pilot size units

Size selections developed by qualified manufacturers.

These techniques will result in distinct sizing factors for each case
studied. It is still the responsibility of the utility to identify the
performance level required for a particular coal and ultimately to select the
size which i s believed to attain the objective. This responsibility leads to
a consensus size approach with a guiding rule that the minimum size to be
considered would never be less than the largest size submitted by the
qualified supplier. This largest size, i f significantly different from those
of other suppliers, must be thoroughly examined by a utility to ensure its
a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o the project. O f course, t h e s i z e s e l e c t i o n process occurs
p r i o r t o a "request f o r proposals." Once t h e u t i l i t y e s t a b l i s h e s a minimum
p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e and t h e n a p p l i e s d e s i g n m a r g i n s , a s d i s c u s s e d below, t h e
minimum d e s i g n s i z e i s t h e n e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s minimum d e s i g n s i z e i s t h e n s e t
f o r t h i n t h e d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e b i d d e r s t h a t any
o f f e r i n g w h i c h does n o t e x a c t l y c o n f o r m t o t h i s minimum w i l l be t h o r o u g h l y
reviewed.

PARAMETER SELECTION

C o a l , f l u e gas, and f l y ash p a r a m e t e r s a r e c r i t i c a l i n p u t d a t a t o any f l y ash

p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g procedure. S e v e r a l s i z i n g p r o c e d u r e s a r e used i n t h e
precipitator industry. Two p r o c e d u r e s a r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w w i t h examples, and
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o c e d u r e s i s s t r o n g l y recommended. No p r o c e d u r e w i l l g i v e
r e l i a b l e answers w i t h o u t r e l i a b l e d a t a on v a r i o u s c o a l s t h a t may be f i r e d a n d
r e l i a b l e d a t a on t h e f l u e gas and f l y ash t h a t t h o s e c o a l s p r o d u c e . The
f o l l o w i n g subsections discuss parameter s e l e c t i o n f o r :

t h e f l u e gas e n t e r i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r (volume f l o w , v e l o c i t y , and

t e m p e r a t u r e , w a t e r and s u l f u r t r i o x i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) and

t h e f l y ash e n t e r i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r ( t o t a l i n l e t mass l o a d i n g ,
p a r t i c l e size distribution, b u l k e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y . )

D e s i q n Coal P r o p e r t i e s

The s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n f l y ash p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e s e l e c t i o n i s a s p e c i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e v a r i o u s c o a l s t h a t may be f i r e d o v e r t h e l i f e t i m e o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e coal heating value (Btu/lb), necessary c o a l data are
obtained i n a standard u l t i m a t e a n a l y s i s (C, Hz, N2, S, H 0, O2 and
2
ash, by w e i g h t p e r c e n t ) . I f f a m i l i a r c o a l s a r e t o be f i r e d a t a new
i n s t a l l a t i o n , t h e s e d a t a may be r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . I f a new c o a l f i e l d i s t o
b e mined, e x t e n s i v e t e s t b o r i n g s must be p e r f o r m e d t o o b t a i n c o a l samples f o r
laboratory tests. A d e t a i l e d map o f t h e v a r i a t i o n i n c o a l p r o p e r t i e s o v e r t h e
new c o a l f i e l d w i l l be developed. F o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o a l samples, f l y ash
p r o p e r t i e s t h a t a r e c r i t i c a l t o p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e m u s t b e determined.
The p r o p e r t i e s i n c l u d e t h e b u l k e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y o f a c o l l e c t e d f l y a s h
l a y e r and t h e d f s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e mass among t h e f i n e p a r t i c l e s i z e s .
These d a t a and t h e i r e f f e c t s on p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
d e t a i l below.
R e l i a b l e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g can be obtained
only by i n s i t u measurements during a t e s t burn o f t h e coal i n a b o i l e r
similar t o the projected installation. I f a p i l o t - s c a l e t e s t burn i s used,
p a r t i c l e s i z e d a t a from the p i l o t - s c a l e furnace must have been p r e v i o u s l y
c a l i b r a t e d a g a i n s t d a t a from a f u l l - s c a l e b o i l e r . In s i t u measurements of t h e
c o l l e c t e d f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y should be performed during a p i l o t - s c a l e o r
f u l l - s c a l e t e s t burn. These measurements shou7d be compared with r e s u l t s from
l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s from simulated f l u e gas environment and with numerical
e s t i m a t e s based on t h e mineral a n a l y s i s of t h e f l y ash and t h e c o n s t i t u e n t
a n a l y s i s of the f l u e gas. A numerical c o r r e l a t i o n of l a b o r a t o r y t e s t d a t a i s
avai 1 a b l e f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e f l y ash e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y from core-bore
sample d a t a ( I 3 ) . However, coal ash ( r a t h e r than f l y ash) samples do not y i e l d
meaningful l a b o r a t o r y measurements of r e s i s t i v i t y .

A t y p i c a l r e s u l t of p r e l i m i n a r y coal and ash a n a l y s e s i s a map showing such

wide v a r i a t i o n s i n c r i t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s t o cause wide v a r i a t i o n s i n
precipitator size selection. I f t h e d e s i g n e r focuses on t h e worst-case
c o a ? / a s h combinations, t h e . r e s u l t w i l l be a p r e c i p i t a t o r which i s oversized
and uneconomical) f o r a l l but a small p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t e d o p e r a t i n g
experience. T h e r e f o r e , a numerical p r o b a b i l i t y of use must be assigned t o
v a r i o u s c o a l s , o r t o v a r i o u s p a r t s of a new coal f i e l d . Then a r e s t r i c t e d
worst-case coal/ash combi nation w i ? 1 be s e l e c t e d a t some boundary of
cumulative p r o b a b i l i t y o f use t h a t i s below 99.99 p e r c e n t . The adverse e f f e c t
on p r e c i p i t a t o r performance of coal/ash combinations t h a t l i e beyond t h i s
boundary e n t e r s i n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of s a f e t y margins in a p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g
procedure(gf.

The numerical example of a 0 . 6 percent s u l f u r , western subbituminous coal i s

used throughout t h i s s e c t i o n t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e coal and ash parameters t h a t
are c r i t i c a l t o precipitator sizing. Two d i f f e r e n t numerical procedures a r e
used t o s i z e a p r e c i p i t a t o r t o c o l l e c t f l y ash from f i r i n g t h a t coal i n a
500 MW e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i n g p l a n t . The as-received u l t i m a t e a n a l y s i s f o r t h e
example coal i s given i n Table 3-1.
 Table 3-1

An Example S t o i c h i o m e t r i c Combustion C a l c u l a t i o n f o r a Western

Subbituminous Coal and P r e d i c t i o n o f Flyash R e s i s t i v i t y

R e s i s t i v i t y p r e d i c t i o n based on work done by Dr. Roy B i c k e l h a u p t o f Southern

Research I n s t i t u t e . The Research was sponsored by t h e P a r t i c u l a t e Technology
Branch, I n d u s t r i a l Environmental Research Laboratory of t h e Environmental
P r o t e c t i o n Agency, D r . L. E. Sparks, P r o j e c t O f f i c e r .

Western Subbituminous Coal

Required f o r Combustion
Moles/100 Lb Fuel
As Received Moles Per a t 100% T o t a l A i r
U l t i m a t e Coal 100 Lb.
Analysis Fuel 02
- Dry A i r

Hz0
Ash

Required f o r Combustion
Moles/l00 Lb Fuel
a t 30% Excess A i r

-
02 Dry A i r

O2 and A i r x 130/100 T o t a l 7.067 33.635

Excess A i r 7.762
Excess 0 1.631

Products o f Combustion
Total
Moles/100 % By Val % By Vol
Lb Fuel Wet Basis Dry Basis

c02 4.854 13.337 14.663

H20 3.290 9.041 0.000
SO, 0.019 0 .052 0.057
li2 26 - 6 0 1 73.089 80.353
02 1.631 4.481 4.927
Sum Wet 36.395
Sum Dry 33.105

H 20 9.0%
so 2 570 PPM
so s 2.3 PPM
 T a b l e 3-1 ( C o n t i n u e d )

Corrected
Ash Ash Atomic
Analysis Analysis Concentration

Sum o f L i t h i u m and Sodium Atomic C o n c e n t r a t i o n s

Sum o f Magnesium and C a l c i u m A t o m i c C o n c e n t r a t i o n s
I r o n Atomic Concentration
Potassium Atomic Concentration

SO3 E f f e c t C a l c u l a t e d For Western Ash

Temp 100/T(OK) &

A s t o i c h i o m e t r i c combustion c a l c u l a t i o n , assuming 30 p e r c e n t e x c e s s a i r ,
p r e d i c t s t h a t t h i s c o a l w i l l produce 9.0 p e r c e n t b y volume w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e
f l u e gas and 570 ppm SO2, as shown i n T a b l e 3-1. Combustion e x c e s s a i r
l e v e l s n o r m a l l y r a n g e f r o m 20 t o 35 p e r c e n t .

F l u e Gas Volume Flow

The volume o f f l u e gas f r o m any b o i l e r must be d e t e r m i n e d t o a c c u r a t e l y s i z e

the precipitator. Generally t h e s i z e o f t h e b o i l e r i s determined from heat
b a l a n c e s and knowing t h e amount o f e l e c t r i c a l power t o b e g e n e r a t e d . Once t h e
b o i l e r s i z e has been determined, t h e f l u e g a s volume can be d e t e r m i n e d b y
combusion a n a l y s i s f o r the f u e l s w h i c h w i l l b e burned.

The combustion a n a l y s i s method uses t h e u l t i m a t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e f u e l t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o d u c t s o f combustion. Each pound o f c a r b o n , h y d r o g e n , and
s u l f u r i s m u l t i p l i e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e f a c t o r s t o a r r i v e a t t h e pounds o f oxygen
r e q u i r e d f o r combustion. A t y p i c a l c o m b u s t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s h e e t i s g i v e n as
T a b l e 3-2. Combustion a i r m o i s t u r e i s sometimes assumed t o be .013 l b s of
w a t e r p e r l b o f d r y a i r o r 60 p e r c e n t r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y . Excess a i r f o r t h e
c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n o f t h e f u e l must be added t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n a i r r e q u i r e d .

F l u e gas volume u n i t s can be e x p r e s s e d i n A c t u a l Cubic F e e t (ACF), o r Standard

C u b i c F e e t (SCF). B o i T e r and a i r q u a l i t y c o n t r o l equipment d e s i g n n o r m a l l y
c o n s i d e r s ACF. A c t u a l c u b i c f e e t volume i s t h e gas volume a t t h e a c t u a l
t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e o f t h e gas. S t a n d a r d c u b i c f e e t volume i s r e f e r r i n g
t o a standard c o n d i t i o n f o r temperature and pressure. S t a n d a r d p r e s s u r e and
t e m p e r a t u r e i s g e n e r a l l y 14.7 p s i a and 60°F. However, s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e
may be 80°F, 68OF, o r 32OF and s h o u l d a l w a y s be d e f i n e d when u s i n g t h e SCF
notation.

The p e r f e c t gas l a w s h o u l d be used t o c o r r e c t gas volumes. F o r example:

Where: PA = A c t u a l p r e s s u r e i n PSIA
TA = A c t u a l t e m p e r a t u r e i n OF
SCF = S t a n d a r d c u b i c f e e t volume (14.7 p s i a and 60°F)
Gas volume i s a l s o a f f e c t e d by a i r l e a k a g e i n t o t h e b o i l e r and a i r h e a t e r .
Some b o i l e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s use 10 p e r c e n t gas i n - l e a k a g e f o r a i r h e a t e r l e a k a g e
rate. T h i s a d d i t i o n a l gas volume must be p r o c e s s e d b y t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r and
s h o u l d be n o t e d b y t h e b o i l e r m a n u f a c t u r e r p r i o r t o d e s i g n i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

P r e c i p i t a t o r Gas V e l o c i t y

Given a v a l u e o f volume gas f l o w , t h e a v e r a g e g a s v e l o c i t y e n t e r i n g t h e

p r e c i p i t a t o r i s determined b y t h e face area o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r . Lower d e s i g n
v a l u e s o f gas v e l o c i t y r e q u i r e g r e a t e r p r e c i p i t a t o r f a c e a r e a and p o s s i b l y
aggravate problems w i t h g r a v i t a t i o n a 7 s e t t l i n g o f f l y ash i n t h e i n l e t
nozzles. H i g h e r d e s i g n v a l u e s o f gas v e l o c i t y r e q u i r e g r e a t e r p r e c i p i t a t o r
l e n g t h ( f o r t h e same g a s t r e a t m e n t t i m e ) a n d p o s s i b l y l e a d t o p r o b l e m s o f
r e e n t r a i n i n g c o l l e c t e d f l y ash. R e e n t r a i n i n g c o l l e c t e d f l y ash may become a
s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n on p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e i f t h e f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y
f a l l s b e l o w a b o u t 2x10' ohm-cm; t h e corona c u r r e n t i s n o t u n i f o r m l y
d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a o r t h e f l y ash has a h i g h carbon
content. O p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t optimum v a l u e s o f f l u e gas
v e l o c i t y i n a p r e c i p i t a t o r are u s u a l l y i n t h e range o f 3 f t / s t o 5 f t / s . For
l o w - r e s i s t i v i t y f l y a s h , a d e s i g n e r s h o u l d w o r k a t t h e l o w e r end o f t h i s
v e l o c i t y range.

E q u a l l y as i m p o r t a n t a s t h e average v a l u e o f gas v e l o c i t y i s a u n i f o r m
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f gas v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e f a c e o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r . Lower average
v e l o c i t y can o f f s e t v e l o c i t y m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . The d e g r a d i n g e f f e c t on
p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e o f r e g i o n s of h i g h gas v e l o c i t y i s n o t compensated b y
o t h e r r e g i o n s o f l o w gas v e l o c i t y . T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
r e e n t r a i n m e n t o f f l y a s h caused by t h e h i g h v e l o c i t y gas i s n o t compensated
f o r by t h e a r e a s o f l o w gas v e l o c i t i e s . W i t h a n o n - u n i f o r m gas v e l o c i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n , a r e a s o f h i g h gas v e l o c i t y c a n cause e x c e s s i v e r e e n t r a i n m e n t o f
flyash. The h i g h e r c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y t h a t o c c u r s i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
a r e a s o f l o w e r gas v e l o c i t y does n o t compensate f u l l y f o r t h e e x c e s s i v e
reentrainment. T h i s f a c t can r e s u l t i n a degraded o v e r a l l p r e c i p i t a t o r
performance. Common causes o f p o o r gas v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n o l d e r
p r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e p o o r gas f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n due t o i n a d e q u a t e t u r n i n g vanes
i n t h e i n l e t a n d o u t l e t d u c t s , plugged, warped o r e r o d e d d i f f u s e r p l a t e s , o r
deep beds o f s e t t l e d f l y ash i n i n l e t n o z z l e s .
The gas velocity distribution is quantified by a matrix of measurements of gas
velocity over the face of the precipitator--inside the box, under air load.
The normalized standard deviation of the distribution ( a ) is calculated
9
as the standard deviation of the matrix of measurements divided by the average
value. An IGCX standard sets an upper limit of 0.25 for a Proper
9'
design in modern precipitators achieves a value of about 0.15. Scale-model
air flow measurements are essential to the design of inlet and outlet ducts
and nozzles to the design of baffles inside the box. The importance of this
part of the precipitator design process cannot be overemphasized (L,?,?).

Geometrical relationships in the mechanical design of one electrical section

of a precipitator are shown in Figure 3-1.

Vol m e Flow = Velocity x Face Area (3-2)

= Velocity x Plate Height x N x Plate Spacing (3-3)

A design value of average gas velocity determines the precipitator face area.
Given manufacturing design standards of plate height and plate spacing, the
only remaining variable for adjusting the design value o f average gas velocity
i s the number of parallel gas passages (N). The specific collection area
(SCA) of one electrical section is given by

Section SCA = Section Plate Area

Volume Flow
- 2N x Plate Height x Plate Length
Volume Flow

The only remaining variable for adjusting the SCA of one electrical section i s
the total plate length, or the number of standard plate sections used
end-to-end along each gas passage.

For example, the design of a precipitator to collect fly ash from western
subbituminous coal with a total volume gas flow of 1,760 kacfm can be divided
into eight precipitator chambers. Each electrical chamber is designed to
 1 PLATE

HEIGHT

1
N GAS PASSAGES

/ GAS FLOW
- b- PLATE SPACING

Figure 3-1. Geometrical Parameters i n the Mechanical

Design of One P r e c i p i t a t o r Section
handle 220 kacfm at an average gas velocity of 4 ft/s. Therefore, the face
area of each electrical field i s 916.67 ft2. The plates are 41.67 ft high,
and there are 22 parallel gas passages with 12-inch plate spacing per bus
section. The section length is chosen to be 12.0 ft. This gives a total
plate area of 22,000 ftz and an SCA of 100 ft2/kacfm for each electrical
chamber.

Inlet Mass Loading

The total mass loading of fly ash at the precipitator inlet can be obtained
from a stoichiometric combustion calculation, given assumptions about excess
air in combustion, percent fly ash carryover, and air in-leakage ahead of the
precipitator. Assuming 85 percent fly ashcarryover and no air in-leakage, the
combustion calculation i n Table 3-1 yields.

0.85 (0.117 lb,ash/lb,coal) (7000 qrain/lb)

0.331 lb mole,gas 359ft3- 273 + 20
( lb, coal ) (lb mole, PC ( 273 1

which equals 5.46 grain/dscf (20°C). In terms of Ib/MBtu, the combustion

calculation yields (4)

Calculations of this sort are not very reliable because of the large
uncertainties in the severai assumptions. One alternative is a purely
empirical correlation of measured mass loading with the percent ash in the
coal. Figure 3-2 shows such a corr~lationof data from 28
pulverized-coal-fired utility boilers ( 5 ) . The calculated value 5.46 gr/dscf
lies above the upper margin of scatter i n the data in Figure 3-2. The data
include actual effects of air in-leakage.

For example design of a precipitator to collect fly ash from a western

sub-bituminous coal, an inlet mass loading of 10 lb/MBtu is assumed. The
value corresponds to 5.46 grain/dscf (20°C), or 3.5 grain/acf of wet flue gas
at 290°F ( 1 4 3 T ) . To meet an outlet emission standard of 0.03 Ib/MBtu, a
precipitator collection efficiency of 99.7 percent is required.
 PERCENT ASH IN COAL

F i g u r e 3-2. T o t a l Mass Loading of Fly Ash from 28 Coals versus

the Percent Ash i n t h e U l t i m a t e Coal Analysis

PARTICLE DlAMETER,pm

F i g u r e 3-3. Average P a r t i c l e S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f F l y Ashes

from 17 Bituminous C o a l s and 16 S u b b i t u m i n o u s C o a l s
Inlet Particle Size Distribution
A utility fly ash precipitator typically has minimum collection efficiency
(maximum penetration) for particles of diameter somewhere in the range of
0 . 1 vm to 1.0 un. Therefore, a specification of particulate mass
concentration in the submicrometer particle size range is needed for a
reliable estimate of overall mass collection efficiency. Furthermore,
particle diameters around 0.55 pm lie in the middle of the wavelength range
of visible light. The light scattered by escaping submicrometer particles is
the major cause of plume opacity. The loss of particles larger than a few
micrometers is due almost entirely to the reentrainment of large-particle
agglomerates. Reentrainment loss is typically around 10 pm particle
diameter (maximum).

Particle size distribution measurement by centrifugal separation (BAHCO) is a

standard laboratory technique. The data are obtained i n the form of
cumulative percentages of the total m a s s that are contained in particles o f
diameter less than a sequence of cutpoints, typically over the range of I pm
to 3 0 urns. These data are easy to obtain and give a rough measure of
particulate characteristics. Because the lowest cutpoint is about 1 pm,
however, these measurements have limited value in any estimate of collection
efficiency of a fly ash precipitator. Cascade impactors are routinely used
far sampling fly ash particle size distribution in situ. This technique
requires highly ski Iled operators for both aerosol sampling and data reduction
@,I,!). Under ideal conditions, impactor data can be extrapolated from the
lowest cutpoint (typically around 0.3 pm down to about 0 . 1 ~m). Thus, the
most reliable aerosol data for sizing a new precipitator are obtained by
cascade impactor sampling during a test burn of the design coal in a boiler
that is similar to the projected installation,

Cascade impactor data have been reported from field tests of the aerosol from
33 pulverized-coal-fired utility boilers (5). There are 17 bituminous coals
and 16 subbituminous coals in this data base. The average data are plotted on
log-probability graph paper in Figure 3-3, for the particle diameter range
1 urn to 1 0 pms. For both data sets, the average values of cumulative
percent mass lie almost exactly along a log-normal distribution--a straight
line on the log-probability graph paper. However, there are large variations
in t h e d a t a f o r f l y ash from western subbituminous c o a l s , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e
wide e r r o r b a r s . For f l y ash from bituminous c o a l s , t h e d a t a i n Figure 3-3
can be used a s a f i r s t e s t i m a t e of t h e i n l e t p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
e x t r a p o l a t i n g down t o 0 . 1 prn along the f i t t e d log-normal
straight line. The log-normal parameters a r e MMD = 1 6 . 3 pm, and a = 3 . 4 .

Several measured p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s ( c a s c a d e impactor d a t a ) f o r f l y

ash from w e s t e r n subbituminous c o a l s a r e p l o t t e d on l o g - p r o b a b i l i t y graph
paper i n F i g u r e 3-4 (9). The curve marked "Wyoming" i s an average p a r t i c l e
s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t was used i n an economic a n a l y s i s of u t i l i t y f l y ash
precipitators (2). Figure 3-4 shows t h a t most measured p a r t i c l e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s do not l i e along a log-normal straight line. For a numerical
example of p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g , however, t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e marked with t h e
log-normal p a r a m e t e r s MMD = 2 1 . 1 pm, and a = 4 . 8 i s used i n t h e
following s e c t i o n s . This s t r a i g h t l i n e i s t h e f i t t e d mean l i n e shown i n
Figure 3-3 f o r f l y ash from 16 western subbituminous c o a l s ( 5 , l O ) .

Estimates of p r e c i p i t a t o r performance can be made using t h e average p a r t i c l e

s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n shown i n Figure 3-3 ( a s i n t h e numerical example being
c a r r i e d o u t ) o r , p r e f e r a b l y , using a p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n measured
during a t e s t burn of t h e design coal i n a s i m i l a r b o i l e r . I t should be
noted, however, t h a t p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y not used i n b i d
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and performance g u a r a n t e e s . A performance g u a r a n t e e should n o t
be based on p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n because i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t e i t h e r t o
measure o r t o c o n t r o l p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

Fly A s h R e s i s t i v i t y

The amount of u s e f u l e l e c t r i c a l power t h a t can be s u p p l i e d t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r

i s l i m i t e d f o r t h e most p a r t by t h e e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e f l y ash
l a y e r on t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s . The corona c u r r e n t from t h e high v o l t a g e
d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s flows through co l l e c t e d f l y ash t o r e a c h an e l e c t r i c a l
ground. The p r o d u c t o f f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y (p, ohm-crn) and l o c a l p l a t e
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y ( j , A/cmZ) g i v e s t h e l o c a l value of a v e r a g e e l e c t r i c f i e l d
w i t h i n t h e c o l l e c t e d f l y ash ( E = p j , volt/cm). In t h e l i m i t of high
resistivity or
 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2, 4. 6. 8. 10.0 20. 40. 60. 80. 100.0

PARTICLE DlAMETER {MICROMETERS)

F i g u r e 3-4. P a r t i c l e S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n s o f Fly Ashes f r o m Western Subbi tuminous C o a l s

h i g h c u r r e n t d e n s i t y , t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d w i t h i n t h e c o l l e c t e d f l y ash becomes
h i g h enough t o i n i t i a t e e l e c t r i c a l breakdown, c a u s i n g s p a r k i n g and/or b a c k
corona.

W i t h f l y ash o f h i g h r e s i s t i v i t y ( 2 ~ 1 0 ' ohm-cm,

~ f o r example) e l e c t r i c a l
breakdown may b e g i n w i t h a c u r r e n t d e n s i t y as l o w as 2 nA/cm2, o r an a v e r a g e
e l e c t r i c f i e l d a b o u t 4 kV/cm w i t h i n t h e c o l l e c t e d f l y ash. The breakdown
e l e c t r i c f i e l d r a r e l y exceeds 10 t o 1 5 kV/cm. The breakdown p o i n t i s so l o w
i n v o l t a g e on a t y p i c a l secondary V - I c u r v e t h a t t h e i n t e r e l e c t r o d e e l e c t r i c
f i e l d i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o cause a s p a r k t o p r o p a g a t e f r o m t h e f l y ash l a y e r t o
the discharge electrode. Instead, p o i n t s o f p o s i t i v e corona discharge (back
c o r o n a ) f o r m i n t h e f l y ash l a y e r , g r o w i n g i n number and i n t e n s i t y w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g secondary c u r r e n t . S t a b l e p o i n t s o f i n t e n s e back corona a c t i n t h e
same way a s n e e d l e p o i n t s on t h e h i g h v o l t a g e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e . Back
c o r o n a has a r e g e n e r a t i v e feedback e f f e c t on t h e h i g h v o l t a g e
c o r o n a d i s c h a r g e , c a u s i n g a runaway V-1 c u r v e i n w h i c h t h e c u r r e n t i s l i m i t e d
b y t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t o f t h e T-R s e t .

W i t h f l y ash o f l o w r e s i s t i v i t y , t h e u s e f u l e l e c t r i c a l power s u p p l i e d t o t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r i s l i m i t e d by sparking. ( W i t h modern T-R s e t c o n t r o l l e r s a n d a
c o n s e r v a t i v e l y l a r g e p r e c i p i t a t o r , however, t h e e l e c t r i c a l power i n p u t may be
s e t w e l l b e l o w s p a r k l i m i t f o r r e a s o n s o f energy c o n s e r v a t i o n . ) A t t h e same
t i m e , c o l l e c t e d f l y ash p a r t i c l e s q u i c k l y l o s e t h e i r charge, and t h e
e l e c t r i c a l h o l d i n g f o r c e on t h e c o l l e c t e d f l y a s h i s g r e a t l y d i m i n i s h e d . With
d e c r e a s i n g f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y , e x c e s s i v e r e e n t r a i n m e n t becomes t h e l i m i t on
p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. O p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e may be s e r i o u s l y l i m i t e d b y t h e f l y a s h r e s i s t i v i t y
i f t h e va:w f a l l s b e l o w 2x109 ohm-cm.

The e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y o f f l y ash f r o m t h e d e s i g n c o a l may be d e t e r m i n e d

b y measurements i n s i t u d u r i n g a t e s t b u r n (g), b y l a b o r a t o r y measurements
p e r f o r m e d on f l y ash samples from a t e s t b u r n , o r f r o m e s t i m a t e s based on t h e
m i n e r a l a n a l y s e s o f c o a l ash samples f r o m t e s t b o r i n g s (11,12,23) (see
Manual 111). A t f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w 350°F, f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y can be
s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by w a t e r vapor and s u l f u r t r i o x i d e v a p o r . Therefore,
l a b o r a t o r y measurements must be p e r f o r m e d i n a s i m u l a t e d f l u e gas
environment. A c o m b i n a t i o n o f methods i s recommended. Comparing r e s u l t s from
d i f f e r e n t methods c a n be v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n r e v e a l i n g u n e x p e c t e d a n o m a l i e s i n
f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t l a b o r a t o r y measurements
p e r f o r m e d on c o a l ash samples do n o t g i v e a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t i o n o f f l y ash
resistivity.

A m a t h e m a t i c a l model has been d e v e l o p e d f r o m c o r r e l a t i o n s o f l a b o r a t o r y

r e s i s t i v i t y measurements w i t h gas c o n s t i t u e n t a n a l y s e s and t h e m i n e r a l
-
a n a l y s e s o f 35 d i f f e r e n t f l y ashes (13). The computer l i s t i n g s o f t h i s model
a r e p u b l i s h e d i n an E P R I r e p o r t (23). The model s h o u l d b e used w i t h c a u t i o n
f o r f l y ashes whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i e o u t s i d e t h e r a n g e o f t h e d a t a base.
W i t h c o a l ash samples, a r e - i g n i t i o n a t 1050°C i s recommended b e f o r e o b t a i n i n g
the mineral analysis. The e l e m e n t a l ash c o n s t i t u e n t s t h a t c o r r e l a t e s t r o n g l y
w i t h f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y a r e Na, K, Fe, Ca, and Mg. The measured c o r r e l a t i o n
o f r e s i s t i v i t y w i t h SO3 v a p o r i s o b t a i n e d a f t e r s u f f i c i e n t e x p o s u r e t i m e a t
a f i x e d temperature f o r the r e s i s t i v i t y value t o s t a b i l i z e . The e l a p s e d
exposure t i m e t o e q u i l i b r i u m i s t y p i c a l l y much g r e a t e r w i t h SO3 t h a n w i t h
H20 Ashes o f h i g h a l k a l i n i t y can a d s o r b c o n s i d e r a b l e SO3 f r o m t h e gas
b e f o r e a s h r e s i s t i v i t y b e g i n s t o be a f f e c t e d . Therefore, t h e p r e d i c t e d
c o r r e l a t i o n o f r e s i s t i v i t y w i t h SO i n f l u e gas i s based on t h e r e s i d u a l
3
l e v e l o f SO3 t h a t r e m a i n s i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e f l y ash.

T a b l e 3 - 1 shows a p r i n t o u t f r o m t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l model o f f l y a s h r e s i s t i v i t y
(13). The i n p u t d a t a a r e t h e u l t i m a t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e example w e s t e r n
s u b b i t u m i n o u s c o a l and t h e m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e f l y a s h , o r r e - i g n i t e d c o a l
ash. C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f H20 and SO2 i n t h e f l u e gas a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m a
s t o i c h i o m e t r i c c o m b u s t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n , assuming 30 p e r c e n t excess a i r . From a
s m a l l base o f f i e l d t e s t d a t a , t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l model e s t i m a t e s a r a t i o o f
2.3 ppm SO3 t o 570 ppm S O p F o r t h i s h i g h l y a l k a l i n e f l y a s h , however, a
r e a s o n a b l y c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t a s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f SO3 w i l l
be c o m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d b y f l y a s h p a r t i c l e s w i t h o u t r e d u c i n g t h e r e s i s t i v i t y
o f t h e c o l l e c t e d f l y ash l a y e r . Assuming t h a t no SO3 r e m a i n s i n e q u i l i b r i u m
i n t h e f l u e gas, t h e mathernatica? model p r e d i c t s a r e s i s t i v i t y , RHO(VS), o f
2 x 1012 ohm-cm a t f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e 290°F. For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n
refer t o (13).
E l e c t r i c a l Operating P o i n t s

The design value of f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y i s t h e b a s i s f o r e s t i m a t i n g

e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s i n each e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n of a p r e c i p i t a t o r .
E l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e t h e s i z e of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e d e s i g n - p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y .

Numerical v a l u e s of e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o e s t i m a t e
c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , f l u e g a s o p a c i t y , and e : e c t r i c a l power consumption, and
t o s p e c i f y T-R s e t r a t i n g s and e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n a l i z a t i o n . The v a l u e s of
secondary v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t d e n s i t y t h a t a r e a c t u a l l y useful in t h e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r o c e s s a r e r e q u i r e d t o e s t i m a t e c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y and f l u e
gas o p a c i t y . I f a p r e c i p i t a t o r i s allowed t o o p e r a t e i n a mode of s e v e r e
sparking o r back corona, t h e a c t u a l e l e c t r i c a l consumption can be very much
g r e a t e r t h a n useful power consumption. Modern T-R s e t c o n t r o l l e r s a r e
designed t o optimize t h e e l e c t r i c a l power consumption.

Estimated u s e f u l secondary e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s v e r s u s i n s i t u
measurements of f l y a s h r e s i s t i v i t y have been r e p o r t e d from 17 f i e l d t e s t s of
13 c o l d - s i d e u t i l i t y f l y ash p r e c i p i t a t o r s (g,E).
(Four of t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s were t e s t e d with and without f l u e g a s c o n d i t i o n i n g t o reduce f l y
ash r e s i s t i v i t y . ) Measured v a l u e s of r e s i s t i v i t y ranged from 2 x 10
10
t o 7 x lo1* ohm-cm. Mathematical c o r r e l a t i o n s of t h e s e d a t a a r e given in
Table 3-3. For each e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , t h e f i r s t e q u a t i o n c o r r e l a t e s useful
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y with f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y . The e q u a t i o n g i v e s t h e f i t t e d
o r d i n a t e i n t e r c e p t value of both an average s t r a i g h t l i n e c o r r e l a t i o n and t h e
90% c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s . The second equation c o r r e l a t e s t h e useful c u r r e n t
d e n s i t y w i t h t h e average i n t e r e l e c t r o d e e l e c t r i c f i e l d , E = AV/AX.
M u l t i p l y i n g E by t h e w i r e - p l a t e spacing ( w i t h i n t h e d a t a base range of 4 . 5 t o
6 . 0 i n c h e s , 11.43 t o 15.24 cm) g i v e s an e s t i m a t e of o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e . The
c o r r e l a t i o n s i n Table 3-3 a r e based on a l i m i t e d s e t of d a t a from
small-to-medium size precipitators. Like t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t a
in Figure 3-3, however, they can be used t o advantage in t h e absence of an
appropriate proprietary data base.

Because h i g h - r e s i s t i v i t y f l y ash can be expected t o s e v e r e l y l i m i t useful

e l e c t r i c a l power consumption, t h e example e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s given i n
 Table 3-3
Linear Least-Squares Fitting Parameters (With 90 Percent Confidence Levels)
for the Relationships Between Ash Resistivity, Current Density, and
Effective Interelectrode Electric Field in Each Electrical Section

Section 1
loglO(J, nA/cm2) -- (6.455 + 0.370) - 0.5013 loglO(p, ohm-cm)
loglO(J, nA/cm2 ) -
- -3.5394 + 8.3841 loglo(E, kV/cm)

Section 2
loglO(J, nA/cm 2 ) -
-
(6.839 + 0.360) - 0.5214 loglO(p, ohm-cm)

Section 3
logl0(J, nA/cm 2) -- (5.497 + 0.304) - 0.3905 1 o g l 0 ( p , ohm-cm)
logI0(J, nA/cm 2) -
- -3.1735 + 8.5755 loglO(E, kV/cm)

Section 4
2 -
loglO(J, nA/cm ) - (5.718 + 0.327) - 0.4005 loglO(p, ohm-cm)
ioglO(J, nA/cmL) = -2.3438 + 7.5195 loglO(E, kV/crn)

Sections 5 and 6
loglO(J, n ~ / c r n l ) = (3.328 1 0.306) - 0.1736 loglO(p, ohm-cm)
- -3.1818 + 10.0909 loglO(E, kV/cm)
loglO(J, nA/cm 2 ) -
Table 3-4 are conservatively estimated. That is, the estimates of useful
current density are calculated from the lower 90 percent confidence limits of
the data correlations in Table 3-3.

PRECIPITATOR SIZING MODELS

This section describes the use of three conventional numerical tools for
precipitator sizing:

the Deutsch-Anderson equation,

the Mstts-Ohnfelat equation, and
the EPA/SRI computer simulation.
The discussion includes numerical examples of the use o f these tools to size a
precipitator for collecting fly ash from a western subbituminous coal.

The Deutsch-Anderson Equation

The most fami.liar mathematical equation of electrostatic precipitation is the
Deutsch-Anderson collection efficiency equation

(- w A/V)
Penetration Fraction (p) = e

- w A/V
Percent Efficiency (q) = 100 (1 - e 1 (3-6)

A/V is the ratio of collecting plate area to the volume gas flow. Omega
(w) is the electrical migration velocity of charged fly ash particles of a
particular size.

It has been common practice in the precipitator industry to describe the

overall collection efficiency of a precipitator by the Deutsch-Anderson
equation. An effective value of w can be calculated from measured values
 Table 3-4
Electrical Operating P o i n t s f o r t h e Example Western Subbituminous Coal

For the design o f a precipitator with 1 2 - i n c h plate spacing t o collect fly ash
of resistivity 2 x l o L 2 ohm-cm from t h e example western subbituminous coal,
the data correlations i n Table 3-2 predict t h e following electrical operating
points.

Section Voltage Current Density Current

Number kV nA/cm2 mA/ft2 mA
of A/V and collection efficiency. When used in this way, however, w loses
its physical meaning and becomes an empirical data correlator. This type of
data correlation is not recommended for precipitator sizing. On the other
hand, the recommended methods of precipitator sizing are based on extensions
of the Deutsch-Anderson equation. (See Chapter 2 for greater detail.)

The Matts-Ohnfeldt Equation

A more appropriate measure of the overall collection efficiency of a fly ash
precipitator (a measure that is approximately independent of the size of t h e
precipitator) is the parameter wk. This parameter appears in the Matts-
Ohnfeidt collection efficiency equation, sometimes called the modified Deutsch
equation (15).

In contrast to the Deutsch-Anderson equation, the Matts-Ohnfeldt equation was

not mathematically derived from first principles. Instead, it was deduced by
analogy with the mathematical form of the exact integral collection efficiency
equation for an ideal log-normal particle size distribution. Thus, the
principal advantage of the Matts-Ohnfeldt equation is that it approximately
accounts for the strong effect of a polydisperse particle size distribution on
the overall collection efficiency of a precipitator. The general form for
this equation is:
k

Efficiency (n) = 100 (1 - e - (uk A/V)

1, (3-7)

Both the parameter wk, which has the physical dimensions of velocity, and
the exponent k are purely empirical parameters, determined by fitting
experimental data. For precipitators collecting fly ash from pulverized coal-
fired boilers, the value of the exponent k typically ranges between 0 . 4 and
0.6 (a reasonable estimate is k = 0.5). Then a percent penetration is given by:

0.5
Percent Penetration (P) = 100 e - ( w k A/V)
a n d t h e v a l u e o f p a r a m e t e r w k can be e x t r a c t e d f r o m a measurement o f
p e r c e n t p e n e t r a t i o n as

I f A/V i s g i v e n i n u n i t s o f f t 2 / a c f r n , 'k has u n i t s o f f t / m i n

P r e c i p i t a t o r performance d a t a t o b e c o r r e l a t e d u s i n g t h e M a t t s - O h n f e l d t
e q u a t i o n c a n be p l o t t e d on u n c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a p h p a p e r , d e r i v e d as f o l l o w s :

a) Take t h e n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m o f t h e M a t t s - O h n f e l d t e q u a t i o n t o g e t

k
log, (10O/P) = (wk A/V) .

b) Take t h e common l o g a r i t h m t o g e t

c) Use commercial s e m i - l o g g r a p h p a p e r and p l o t A/V along t h e l o g scale.

d) Map a s c a l e o f loglO(loge (100/P)) o n t o t h e l i n e a r s c a l e b y hand

calculation. The d o u b l e l o g a r i t h m can be expanded o v e r any c o n v e n i e n t
l i n e a r scale by a normalization constant.

An exampTe o f t h i s g r a p h p a p e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-5. I t s advantage i s t h a t

t h e M a t t s - O h n f e l d t e q u a t i o n appears as a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The s l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t i s j u s t t h e e x p o n e n t k, as shown i n e q u a t i o n (3-11). Three s t r a i g h t
dashed l i n e s a r e p l o t t e d on F i g u r e 3-5 f o r k = 0.5 and t h r e e v a l u e s o f w k :
0.8, 1.1, a n d 1.5 f t / s . The v a l u e s o f c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f p r e c i p i t a t o r s o f
d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , b u t c o l l e c t i n g t h e same f l y ash, s h o u l d l i e a l o n g a g i v e n
s t r a i g h t l i n e according t o t h e Matts-Ohnfeldt equation.
 - DESIGI
#

F i g u r e 3-5. P r e c i p i t a t o r Performance Data C o r r e l a t e d Using the M a t t s - O h n f e l d t

Equation
Figure 3-5 shows measured performance d a t a from t h r e e p r e c i p i t a t o r s ( P l a n t s 8,
9, and 13) c o l l e c t i n g f l y ash from western subbituminous c o a l s (10). The
unlabeled d a t a p o i n t s a r e h y p o t h e t i c a l d a t a p o i n t s , used only t o i l l u s t r a t e
t h e s i z i n g procedure. Fly ash r e s i s t i v i t y values measured in s i t u a r e given
in t h e following t a b l e :

Plant
- R e s i s t i v i t y , ohm-cm

Figure 3-5 shows t h a t t h e t r e n d in d e c r e a s i n g f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y ( i n c r e a s i n g

useful e l e c t r i c a l power consumption) corresponds t o a t r e n d in i n c r e a s i n g
values of w Figure 3-4 shows t h a t t h i s t r e n d corresponds a l s o t o
k'
d e c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e i n l e t mass loading among submicron p a r t i c l e s .

None of t h e t h r e e measured p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s r e a l l y c l o s e t o t h e
example log-normal d i s t r i b u t i o n (Figure 3-41, but t h a t of Plant 9 i s c l o s e s t .
P l a n t 9 has a more f a v o r a b l e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( t h a t i s , s m a l l e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of mass in submicron p a r t i c l e s ) i n a d d i t i o n t o a lower f l y ash
r e s i s t i v i t y than t h e design v a l u e of 2x?012 ohm-cm. P l a n t 8 has a much l e s s
f a v o r a b l e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n nd a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l y ash
resistivity. The value of w k f o r t h e new p r e c i p i t a t o r should l i e between
t h e values f o r PTants 8 and 9 , but c l o s e r t o t h e value f o r P l a n t 9 . A
reasonably c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e f o r 99.7 p e r c e n t c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s an
SCA of 550 ft2/kacfm, a s shown in Figure 3-5. T h i s design value of SCA d o e s
not i n c l u d e t h e necessary margins f o r o p e r a t i n g c o n t i n g e n c i e s . Design margins
a r e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n this c h a p t e r .

The EPA/SRI Computer Simulation

Another method of p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g uses t h e computer program (ESP MODEL)

developed by Southern Research I n s t i t u t e under sponsorship of t h e U. S.
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency (16).
T h e computer program mathematically
computes t h e charging and c o l l e c t i o n of f l y ash p a r t i c l e s t h a t t r a v e l through
a s i n g l e gas passage of a p r e c i p i t a t o r . Each e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n o f t h e gas
passage is subdivided into small computational length increments, within each
of which the electrical conditions (including both ionic and particulate space
charge density) are approximately uniform. The inlet particle size
distribution is subdivided into small bands, within each of which the particle
size is approximately uniform. The ideal collection efficiency for each
psrticle size in each computational length increment i s calculated using the
Deutsch-Anderson equation. The bulk of the time required to execute the ESP
MODEL is used i n computing the particle charge and the collecting electric
field that are needed to compute the Deutsch migration velocity ( w ) , for
each particle size in each computational length increment. The computation of
ccl1ec~:on efficyency under ideal precipitator operating condirions is
followed by approximate corrections for the degrading effects of non-ideal gas
flow and rapping reentrainment. Corrections for rapping reentrainment are
based on the results of field tests of utility fly ash precipitators supported
by the Electric Power Research Institute ( E ) .

The complete documentation of the ESP MODEL is available from the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) in two companion volumes, as well as the
FORTRAN code o n magnetic tape (16). The first volume describes the physical
theory used in the model and the mathematical structure of the model. Each
FORTRAN variable is identified, and the complete FORTRAN listing is given.
-
!he second volume is a user's nanual. The manual describes each computation
option that is available to the user and each numerical parameter that must be
specified by the user. The manual contains twelve worked examples, using the
ESP MODEL, with complete listings of input data and output data.

A summary of experience in using the ESP MODEL to simulate the performance of

cold-side utility fly ash precipitators has been reported by Southern Research
institute (s, 18). A direct comparison of measured and computed collection
effjciency of 18 precipitators is shown in Figure 3-6. The ESP MODEL input
data for inlet particle size distribution and electrical operating points were
obtained by measurements on site. The horizontal error bars indicate the
range of scatter in day-to-day measurements of collection efficiency on site.
Plants 8, 9, and 13 in Figure 3-6 are the same as those in Figures 3-4 and
3-5.
 MEASURED PENETRATION, %

MEASURED COLLECTION, %

Figure 3-6. Measured Precipitator Col I e c t i o n E f f i c i e n c i e s Compared w i t h ESP

MODEL Computations U s i n g Measured I n p u t D a t a , f o r 5% Gas Sneakage i n Each
B a f f l e d Section and a = 0.75
9
The p l a n t s w i t h measured c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y l e s s t h a n about 97 p e r c e n t a r e
o u t l i e r s f r o m t h e p e r f e c t agreement l i n e i n F i g u r e 3-6, as i s P l a n t 9 .
P l a n t s 3 , 7, 9 , and 11 o p e r a t e i n severe back c o r o n a . Estimated values o f
u s e f u l v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t d e n s i t y ( e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e measured V - I c u r v e s )
were u s e d i n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l i n g . However, t h e computed c o l l e c t i o n
e f f i c i e n c y remained h i g h e r t h a n t h e measured c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . Plant 4
i s t h e same as P l a n t 3 , and P l a n t 1 2 i s t h e same as P l a n t 11, b u t t h e y were
t e s t e d w i t h f l u e gas c o n d i t i o n i n g t o e l i m i n a t e t h e b a c k c o r o n a problem.
P l a n t s 22 and 25 s u f f e r e d e x c e s s i v e r e e n t r a i n m e n t o f f l y ash. P l a n t 26 i s t h e
same as P l a n t 22, b u t i t was t e s t e d under l o w - l o a d c o n d i t i o n s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e
r e e n t r a i n m e n t problem.

The ESP MODEL i n p u t d a t a i n c l u d e a s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t i o n a l gas

sneakage ( S ) w i t h i n each b a f f l e d s e c t i o n and t h e n o r m a l i z e d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
(a ) o f t h e i n l e t gas v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . The c o m p u t a t i o n s i n
9
F i g u r e 3-6 were p e r f o r m e d u s i n g S = 0 . 0 5 , and o = 0.15. F i g u r e 3-6 shows
9
t h a t t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e ESP MODEL f o r n o n - i d e a l gas f l o w g i v e
a r e l i a b l e s i m u l a t i o n o f p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e , u s i n g v a l u e s S,o that
9
a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t y p i c a l gas f l o w i n modern p r e c i p i t a t o r s .

F o r t h e d e s i g n o f an example p r e c i p i t a t o r t o c o l l e c t f l y ash from a w e s t e r n

s u b b i t u m i n o u s c o a l , t h e ESP MODEL i n p u t d a t a a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 3-4. The ESP
MODEL was r u n on a m a i n f r a m e computer f o r t h e sake o f speed, b u t a
microcomputer version i s a v a i l a b l e ( 2 ) .Table 3-4 shows t h e i n p u t d a t a i n
t h e a c t u a l f o r m a t o f computer p r i n t o u t . Parameter s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e example
p r e c i p i t a t o r was d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r . The p r e c i p i t a t o r h a n d l e s 220,000 acfrn o f
f l u e g a s p e r s e c t i o n a t 290°F and an average gas v e l o c i t y o f 4 . 0 f t / s . Each
e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n i s d e s i g n e d w i t h 22,000 f t 2 o f c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a , o r
100 f t 2 / k a c f m . The i n l e t p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d as t h e
l o g - n o r m a l s t r a i g h t l i n e i n F i g u r e 3-4 w i t h p a r a m e t e r s MMd = 2 1 . 1 urn, and
a = 4.8. The f l y a s h r e s i s t i v i t y i s e s t i m a t e d i n T a b l e 3-1 t o be 2 ~ 1 0 ' ~
o hm-cm.

U s i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f d a t a i n T a b l e 3-3 f o r e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s ,
t h e e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s o f secondary v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t d e n s i t y a r e g i v e n i n
Table 3-5. The ESP MODEL cannot s i m u l a t e p r e c i p i t a t o r o p e r a t i o n i n a mode of
s e v e r e sparking o r back corona. The s p e c i f i e d v a l u e s of secondary v o l t a g e and
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y a r e t h e v a l u e s t h a t a r e a c t u a l l y u s e f u l i n charging and
collecting particles.

R e s u l t s of t h e ESP MODEL computations f o r t h e example p r e c i p i t a t o r a r e shown

i n Figure 3-7 on semi-log graph paper. The c u r v e s of c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y
v e r s u s SCA a r e approximately l i n e a r because of t h e e x p o n e n t i a l form of the
Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n . For each of 5 , 6 , and 7 e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s in t h e
d i r e c t i o n of gas flow, t h e gas v e l o c i t y i s v a r i e d approximately + I 0 p e r c e n t
around t h e design value of 4 f t / s i n o r d e r t o g e n e r a t e c u r v e segments. The
curve segments a r e d i s j o i n t e d because of t h e reduced performance d e g r a d a t i o n
due t o gas sneakage when a b a f f l e d s e c t i o n i s added. The number of b a f f l e d
s e c t i o n s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of gas flow i s t h e same a s t h e number of e l e c t r i c a l
fields,

The dashed curve segments i n Figure 3-7 show t h e e f f e c t of changes i n the.

i n l e t p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y .
The dashed curve segments a r e c a l c u l a t e d using t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
l a b e l e d "Wyoming" i n Figure 3-4, w i t h a l l o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s t h e same. At first
g l a n c e , t h i s p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n might appear l e s s f a v o r a b l e than t h e
log-normal s t r a i g h t l i n e i n Figure 3-4 because of h i g h e r mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
t h e small p a r t i c l e s i z e s . However, t h e two c u r v e s c r o s s below 0 . 7 pm, i n a
t y p i c a l region of minimum p r e c i p i t a t o r c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . I t turns o u t
t h a t t h e lower mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p a r t i c l e s i z e s above 0.7 pm diameter
r e s u l t s i n a s l i g h t l y more f a v o r a b l e e s t i m a t e of c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h e
Wyoming f l y a s h .

F i g u r e 3-7 shows t h a t t h e ESP MODEL p r e d i c t s a c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y of about

99.74 p e r c e n t f o r t h e SCA of 550 f t 2 / k a c f m t h a t was e s t i m a t e d i n t h e
preceding s e c t i o n using t h e Matts-Ohnfeldt e q u a t i o n . The two numerical models
f o r p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g y i e l d r e s u l t s i n c l o s e agreement f o r t h i s example.

T h e e f f e c t s of s a f e t y margins on t h e d e s i g n v a l u e of SCA a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
detail later. Operating c o n t i n g e n c i e s t h a t must be c o n s i d e r e d i n each s t e p of
t h e p r o c e s s of parameter s e l e c t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d . The cumulative e f f e c t of
 Table 3-5

ESP Model I n p u t D a t a for t h e Example Precipitator

TITLE: EXAEPLE P R E C I P I T A T O R

C a l c u l a t i o n Parameters

Type o f d a t a s e t ( 1 = c o m p l e t e , 2-4 = s h o r t e n e d ) NDATA (1) 1

Model t y p e ( 0 = r e g u l a r , 1 = m e t r i c , MODL (0) 0
2 = i n t e r n a l d a t a , 3 = VI o n l y )
Reduced p r i n t i n g (0-3) NOPRI.17' (0) 0
Rigorous o r e s t i m a t e d f i e l d c a l c u l a t i o n ( 1 o r 2) NEST 1
Rigorous o r e s t i m a t e d c h a r g e c a l c u l a t i o n (0 o r 1) NCALC 0
V I c u r v e s known o r c a l c u l a t e d by E i L G 2 ( 1 o r 2 ) NVI (1) 1

Dimsnsion of X g r j d (15 m a x ) KX (IC) 11

Dioiension of Y g r i d ( 1 5 m a x ) NY (10) 1i
Max number of i t e r a t i o n s t o c o n v e r g e n c e NITER --2
Number of i n t e g r a t i o n i n c r e m e n t s i n c h a r g e c a l c NN (5) 1D
E s t i m a t e d e f f i c i e n c y (%) ETA0 99.0

P a r t i c l e S i z e Data

Number o f s i z e band end p o i n t s (21 max) KENDPT

Type o f s i z e d a t a (1 = measured, 2 = c a l c ) NDIST
S i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n mrnd 030
Smndard deviation S I GMAP

S i z e Eand
End Points Cumulative
(lm) Percent Kass

ENDPT PRCU

L l .
 Table 3-5 (Continued)

S e c t i o n a l Data

Number of ESP S e c t i o n s NUMSEC 6

Number o f Increments Incremental
per S e c t i o n Length f f t )

LSECT LINCS

S e c t i o n No. 1

Val t a g e VOS
Current TCS
Plate area AS I L

Total w i r e l e n g t h WLS ft
Corona w i r e r a d i u s AC S in.
Number of w i r e s NWS
F i r e - t o - p l a t e spacing BS in.
Wire-to-wire spacing SYS"2 in.
Gas volume flow r a t e VGS acfm
Gas v e l o c i t y VGPSS
Gas t e m p e r a t u r e TEMPS
Gas p r e s s u r e PS atm
Gas v i s c o s i t y ViSs kg/m/s

S e c t i o n No. 2

Vol tage VOS

Current TCS
Plate area AS 1 L
Total w i r e l e n g t h WLS ft
Corona w i r e r a d i u s ACS in.
Number of w i r e s NWS
W i r e - t o - p l a t e spacing BS in.
Wire-to-wire spacing SYS*2 in.
Gas volume flow r a t e V6 S acfm
Gas v e l o c i t y VGASS ft/s
Gas t e m p e r a t u r e TEMPS W L
Gas p r e s s u r e PS atm
Gas v i s c o s i t y VISS kc/m/s
 T a b l e 3-5 (Continued)

Physical
- Parameters

I n l e t mass l o a d i n g DL
Particle density DD
Dielectric ratio EPS (100)
Ion m o b i l i t y US
Resistivity RHO

T o t a l ESP l e n g t h PL
Cold s i d e o r h o t s i d e ( 1 o r 2 ) NTEMP (1)
Peak-to-average v o l t a g e r a t i o VRATIO ( 1 . 2 )
E l e c t r i c 2 1 breakdown s t r e n g t h EBD

Non-Ideal Parameters

Number of Non-Ideal Data S e t s NONID 2

eakage f r a c t i o n .OO Gas v e l . sigma .00 No. b a f f l e s 6
.05 .15 6

Rapoinq Data

Type o f r a p p i n g c a l c u l a t i o n ( 0 , 5 - o l d e s t i m a t i o n , 1-3 = d y n a m i c ) (0) 0

Kumber o f r z p p i n g d a t a s e t s NRAPD (1)

Source o f r a p p i n g ti-st N E ~ F (1)
F l r s t r a p p i n g d u s t MMD ARSIGM 6 . 0 um
F i r s t r z p p i n g d u s t SIGMA ARDX 2.5
Additional values ARS i GM

O p a c i t y Data

O p a c i t y p a t h l e n g t h (0 = no o p a c i t y c a l c u i a t i o n ) PATHL 24.0 ft
Number i n d i c e s of r e f r a c t i o n (0-10) b:CO"" ((0)
Number w a v e l e n g t h s f o r o p a c i t y c a l c (D-10 , l=l) NWAVES (0)
Number i n d i c e s o f r e f r a c t i o n f o r v a r i a b l e i n d e x (0-10) NLAMDA ( 0 )
 1
0
4

7 3 FIE

I
4

Figure 3-7. ESP MODEL Simulations o f the Example Precipitator Designed t o

Collect Fly Ash from a Western Subbituminous Coal
u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n s e l e c t i n g a margin f o r o p e r a t i n g c o n t i n g e n c i e s r e s u l t s i n t h e
use of t h e following r u l e of thumb: A t l e a s t one e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n of gas flow i s u s u a l l y added t o t h e d e s i g n SCA of a p r e c i p i t a t o r .
The a d d i t i o n of a f i e l d t y p i c a l l y adds p l a t e a r e a t h a t i s e q u i v a l ~ n tt o 100 -
150 f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 acfm f o r a p r e c i p i t a t o r of medium s i z e . For t h e example
p r e c i p i t a t o r , 99.70 p e r c e n t c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s e s t i m a t e d t o r e q u i r e more
than f i v e s e c t i o n s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of g a s flow. A reasonably c o n s e r v a t i v e
d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g s a f e t y margins, would s p e c i f y seven s e c t i o n s with a t o t a l
SCA of 700 ft2/kacfm.

DESIGN MARGINS

The s e l e c t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s e t of
c o n d i t i o n s has been d i s c u s s e d . I t i s now important t o t u r n o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n t o
t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s which w i l l occur over t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e u n i t . The
o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t p r e c i s e l y . Hence,
t h e r e i s a need t o e s t a b l i s h prudent design margins o r s a f e t y f a c t o r s .

One of t h e most widely used design margins i s t o couple maximum a s h c o n t e n t

and minimum coal h e a t i n g value i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a maximum ash p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e i n terms of pounds p e r m i l l i o n Btu. T h i s ash production r a t e i n c l u d e s
both bottom ash and f l y a s h . The p r e d i c t i o n of t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l s p l i t between
bottom and f l y ash i s d i f f i c u l t t o accomplish s i n c e i t i s i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d
t o and a f u n c t i o n of steam g e n e r a t o r design and ash p a r t i c l e s i z e
distribution. Hence, i n terms of e s t a b l i s h i n g a p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n
e f f i c i e n c y , i t would be most c o n s e r v a t i v e t o assume t h a t a l l of t h e ash w i l l
be f l y a s h . H i s t o r i c a l l y , approximately 70 t o 95 p e r c e n t of t h e ash would
appear a s f l y ash on p u l v e r i z e d coal u n i t s . These c a r r y o v e r p e r c e n t a g e have
been used with s u c c e s s . However, t h e u t i l i t y should look t o i t s own
e x p e r i e n c e t o s e l e c t an a p p r o p r i a t e f a c t o r f o r a s p e c i f i c t y p e of f u e l . The
f o l l o w i n g s u b s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b e o t h e r design margins.

Flue Gas Flow

Techniques f o r determining f l u e gas flow were d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s

section. Now, t h e u t i l i t y must determine what degree of v a r i a t i o n may occur
during actual operations. Some approaches look a t gas flow under f u l l l o a d
o p e r a t i o n when f i r i n g a steam g e n e r a t o r " p e r f o r m a n c e " c o a l ; t h e n a m a r g i n o f
10 t o 25 p e r c e n t i s a p p l i e d t o i t . O t h e r s e s t a b l i s h m u l t i p l e gas f l o w s , e a c h
f o r an i n d i v i d u a l f u e l a n a l y s i s . Hence, some c o a l s may have s i g n i f i c a n t
m a r g i n s w h i l e o t h e r s have p r a c t i c a l l y none when i t comes t o a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n .
It appears t h a t everyone has h i s own c r i t e r i a f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a p r e c i p i t a t o r
d e s i g n gas f l o w .

Development o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n gas f l o w s h o u l d be p r u d e n t i n c o n c e p t a n d
s h o u l d a c c o u n t f o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e f l u e gas system. The
f o l l o w i n g d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s a r e s u g g e s t e d f o r use i n t h e development o f a
p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n gas f l o w :

Parameter Criteria

Steam g e n e r a t o r h e a t i n p u t V a l v e s w i d e open w i t h 5% o v e r p r e s s u r e

Steam g e n e r a t o r excess a i r l e v e l A minimum o f 20%

A i r h e a t e r leakage r a t e A minimum o f t w i c e t h e maximum l e v e l

g u a r a n t e e d b y t h e steam g e n e r a t o r
s u p p l ie r

Coa 1 a n a l y 5 T h a t c o a l which produces t h e g r e a t e s t

gas volume on a p e r m i l l i o n B t u b a s i s .

APP l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a w i l l y i e l d a maximum a n t i c i p a t e d gas f l o w . To

t h i s f l o w an i n d u c e d d r a f t f a n m a r g i n r a n g i n g between 15 t o 25 p e r c e n t i s t h e n
added i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a t e s t b l o c k c o n d i t i o n . This t e s t block condition
i s used a s t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n g a s f l o w . A11 o t h e r p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n
m a r g i n s a r e t h e n added t o t h e d e s i g n gas f l o w .

C o l l e c t i n g P l a t e Area

I t has become common p r a c t i c e t o s p e c i f y t h e minimum p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e w i t h a

c e r t a i n p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r o u t o f service; t h i s i s subsequently
c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e performance w a r r a n t y . Commonly u s e d c o n c e p t s f o r p l a t e
areas out-of-service range f r o m o n e - h a l f o f a f i e l d o u t t o one whole f i e l d o u t
t o 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e bus s e c t i o n s o u t . T h i s i s done i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t a
u t i l i t y t o meet e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s u n d e r t h e w o r s t c a s e d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s
(maximum d u s t l o a d i n g , maximum gas f l o w , maximum f l y a s h r e s i s t i v i t y ) and w i t h
o p e r a t i n g m a l f u n c t i o n s such as b r o k e n d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s , o v e r f i l l e d
hoppers, f a i l e d t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r sets. Each one o f t h e o u t - o f - s e r v i c e
c o n c e p t s a f f e c t s p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n , p l a n t a r e a , and c o s t . In
a d d i t i o n , t h e s e e f f e c t s and t h e i r r e l a t e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s w i l l be s e n s i t i v e
t o the size o f the units. I n essence, a p r u d e n t s a f e t y f a c t o r on a s m a l l u n i t
may be i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a l a r g e r u n i t . Examine t h e case o f a f o u r - f i e l d u n i t
precipitator--a s p a r e f i e l d w o u l d r e s u l t i n a 25 p e r c e n t l a r g e r p r e c i p i t a t o r .
I n t e r m s o f a 200 t o 300 MW u n i t t h i s may r e s u l t i n r e a s o n a b l e c o s t a n d p l a n t
a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t e f f e c t s , whereas a p p l i e d t o a 750 MW u n i t i t may be
unacceptable. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e may have t o be d i f f e r e n t m a r g i n s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h w e i g h t e d w i r e and r i g i d d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e d e s i g n s . Generally, i t would
be p r u d e n t t o s t a r t w i t h t h e 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e b u s s e c t i o n s o u t o f s e r v i c e
concept f o r a l l s i z e u n i t s . Then c o s t i m p a c t s t u d i e s can be p e r f o r m e d t o
o p t i m i z e t h e d e s i g n i n t e r m s o f t r a d e o f f s between a d v e r s e e f f e c t s .

Spare Casing C a p a c i t y

A n o t h e r c o n c e p t ' f o r d e a l i n g w i t h u n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s has been t h e use o f

s p a r e f i e l d s o r , more a p p r o p r i a t e l y , s p a r e c a s i n g c a p a c i t y . This provides
a d d i t i o n a l space f o r a d d i n g more c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a a t a f u t u r e d a t e
w i t h o u t t h e need t o m o d i f y d u c t w o r k and p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g . The s i m p T e s t
approach t o t h e c o n c e p t i s t o f i r s t l e a v e an empty space, w i t h no d i s c h a r g e o r
c o l l e c t i n g electrodes. A d d i n g t h e i n t e r n a l s n e c e s s i t a t e s an e x t e n d e d o u t a g e
s h o u l d t h e d e c i s i o n be made a f t e r t h e u n i t i s i n o p e r a t i o n s i n c e t h e m a j o r
p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r r o o f o r hoppers w o u l d have t o be removed i n o r d e r
t o place the internals.

FLUE GAS OPACITY

F l u e gas o p a c i t y i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r o u t l e t p a r t i c l e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a t e c o l o r and t h e t o t a l o u t l e t mass l o a d i n g . Scattering
v i s i b l e l i g h t i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e mass i n
t h e submicron p a r t f c l e s i z e r a n g e ( a r o u n d 0.55 pm) where f l y ash p a r t i c l e
d i a m e t e r s a r e comparable t o t h e w a v e l e n g t h s o f v i s l b l e l i g h t . This i s the
p a r t i c l e s i z e r a n g e w h e r e i n a p r e c i p i t a t o r t y p i c a l l y has minimum c o l l e c t i o n
efficiency. T h e r e i s no s i m p l e c o r r e l a t i o n between t o t a l p a r t i c u l a t e mass
e m i s s i o n and f l u e gas o p a c i t y . G i v e n two f l y a s h p r e c i p i t a t o r s h a v i n g
0.03 lb/MBtu mass e m i s s i o n , one may produce a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r f l u e gas
opacity i f it
treats fly ash with a much finer inlet particle size distribution. Opacity
also varys exponentially with the optical path length. That is, the opacity
of a visible plume rising from a stack depends on the stack diameter.

All calculations of flue gas opacity use the mathematical theory of light
scattering developed by Gustav Mie in 1908 (ZJ,G). Various computer models
differ in their methods of handling input data for particle size
distribution. Calculations which use an estimated log-normal particle size
distribution are known to be unreliable because precipitator outlet particle
size distribution is rarely well-approximated by a log-normal distribution.
Figure 3-8 shows a comparison of measured and computed opacities of the flue
gas from eleven utility fly ash precipitators (19). The particle size
distributions were determined by cascade impactor measurements i n the
precipitator outlet ducts. The effect of fitted log-normal approximations to
those measured particle size distributions is also shown. The flue gas
opacity calculation illustrated by the open circles in Figure 3-8 is
incorporated in the EPA mathematical model o f electrostatic precipitation (ESP
MODEL). The computed outlet particle size distribution and outlet mass
loading are used in the opacity calculation, together with a specified optical
path length (16).

For the example precipitator designed to collect fly ash from a western
subbituminous coal, an optical path length of 24 ft is assumed. For the
550 MW generating plant, there are eight identical precipitator chambers
feeding a single stack. The total volume gas flow is 1,760 kacfm. A stack
gas velocity of 65 ft/s is achieved with a stack diameter of 24 f t . Values of
plume opacity computed by the ESP MODEL are shown in Figure 3-9. For a
99.7 percent co?lection efficiency (for 0.03 lb/MBtu), the design value of SCA
is about 550 ft2/kacfm with no design margins. The corresponding plume
opacity is about 21 percent. After consideration of design margins, the SCA
is increased to 700 ftz/kacfm, and plume opacity declines to 6 percent.

HOT SIDE VERSUS COLD SIDE

During the 1960s, utilities became more aware of the need to reduce emissions
of sulfur dioxide. Because of a need to produce more electric power and the
availability of low-sulfur coal i n the eastern United States, the use of
 LOG-NORMAL SIZE DlSTRlBUflON

MEASURED OPACITY, X

F i g u r e 3-8. C o m p a r i s o n o f M e a s u r e d and C o m p u t e d O p a c i t y o f the Flue

Gas from Eleven U t i l i t y Fly ash P r e c i p i t a t o r s
Figure 3-9. Computed Opacity of the Flue Gas from the Example
Precipitator with an O p t i c a l Path Length o f 24 ft
low-sulfur coal became important, but i t r e s u l t e d in poor performance f o r
t r a d i t i o n a l cold-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s . Cold-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s , l o c a t e d
downstream of t h e a i r h e a t e r s , whose f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e s range betwehn 260
and 30D0F, encountered h i g h - r e s i s t i v i t y ash c o n d i t i o n s . In an attempt t o
overcome t h e h i g h - r e s i s t i v i t y c o n d i t i o n s , some s u p p l i e r s found t h a t in t h e i r
i n i t i a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s of e a s t e r n low-sulfur c o a l s , f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y
l e v e l s s i g n i f i c a n t l y and d r a m a t i c a l l y decreased with f l u e gas temperatures
exceeding 600°F.

This reduction in r e s i s t i v i t y i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t would then be p o s s i b l e t o

c o l l e c t t h e f l y ash i f a p r e c i p i t a t o r was l o c a t e d upstream of t h e a i r
heaters. Since f l u e gas temperatures l e a v i n g t h e economizer would normally be
in t h e range of 550 t o 85OoF, t h e term " h o t - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r " i s used.

I n i t i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s of hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s were g e n e r a l l y on r e l a t i v e l y
small u n i t s f i r i n g e a s t e r n low-sulfur c o a l s . These p r e c i p i t a t o r s performed
very well with very l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e e f f e c t i v e m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y .
T h i s , then, seemed t o be t h e answer t o t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n e f f e c t i v e migration
v e l o c i t y , hence performance, experienced by cold-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s . This
reduction in t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of e f f e c t i v e migration v e l o c i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with
hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s l e d t o expedient s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n s i z i n g hot-side
p r e c i p i t a t o r s with migration v e l o c i t i e s on t h e o r d e r of 10 cm/sec. The
hot-side s i z i n g f a c t o r , when compared t o cold-side s i z i n g f a c t o r s , y i e l d e d
p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g s which o f f e r e d a perceived c o m p e t i t i v e advantage t o
cold-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s . The t r e n d of applying hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s t o
low-sulfur c o a l s expanded i n t o t h e western coal marketplace. As more
experience was gained with hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s on a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y c o a l s ,
t h e popular notion of universal s i z i n g f a c t o r s began t o erode. In t h e e a r l y -
t o mid-19701s, h o t - s i d e migration v e l o c i t i e s dropped t o approximately 6 cm/sec
f o r western c o a l s . During t h i s t i m e , some s u p p l i e r s maintained t h a t cold-side
p r e c i p i t a t o r s could be designed and o p e r a t e d on t h e s e same western c o a l s ;
however, t h e c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s s t i l l tended t o be s l i g h t l y l a r g e r and
more expensive than comparable h o t - s i d e u n i t s . As t h e economic advantages of
hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s had diminished, both hot-and c o l 6 s i d e u n i t s were
a p p l i e d t o l o w s u l f u r coal u n i t s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s .
During the 1977 American Power Conference, Mr. A . B. Walker presented a paper
entitled "Operating Experience With Hot Precipitators on Western tow-Sul fur
Coals". This paper described poor performance problems associated with
hot-side precipitators on western low-sulfur coals. The poor performance
problems were influenced by discharge electrode buildups, fly ash chemistry
and back ionization. The most effective solution to the problems seemed to be
to condition the fly ash with sodium based compounds. Research began as more
and more poorly performing hot-side precipitators were reported. It was found
that at elevated temperatures, the resistivity of western coal f l y ashes was
sensitive to chemical composition and the effects of time, leading to
significant variations in precipitator performance.

In addition to the performance problems experienced by some hot-side

precipitator insta?lations, several of the larger precipitators have also
exhibited signs of structural distress. Structural distress can be revealed
by:

Deformation of structural members

- Bowed beams

- Cracked columns

- Bent columns

Cracked or torn end connections of structural members

Torn platework welds

Cracked platework

Up1 ifted support col umvc

Non-functional or destroyed sliding bearings

The cause o f . such d i s t r e s s c a n be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o s i t u a t i o n s where t h e b a s i s
of c r i t i c a l design assumpt ions were n o t f u l l y analyzed o r a p p r e c i a t e d . These
design assumptions i n c l u d e

Temperature s t r a t i f i c a t i o n under s t a r t - u p and low load c o n d i t i o n s

D i f f e r e n t i a l response times t o h e a t i n g of s t r u c t u r a l members

Asymmetrical expansion of c a s i n g

V e r t i c a l expansion of c a s i n g and ductwork

E f f e c t i v e n e s s of thermal i n s u l a t i o n

Therma7 g r a d i e n t e f f e c t s of f l y a s h buildup i n ductwork and on

s t r u c t u r a l members

Thermal c r e e p

Load t r a n s f e r e n c e within supporting s t r u c t u r e s

Rotational f o r c e s on supporting columns.

The degree of s t r u c t u r a l d i s t r e s s s u f f e r e d by hot-side p r e c i p t a t o r s can vary

from minor t o major; i n one extreme c a s e , t h e hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r w i l l be
abandoned i n f a v o r of an a l t e r n a t e c o n t r o l technology. However, in most
c a s e s , s t r u c t u r a l d i s t r e s s w i l l be r e c t i f i e d by t h e redesign and replacement
of c r i t i c a l s t r u c t u r a l members o r by conversion t o cold-side operation w i t h
t h e use of f l u e gas conditioning a g e n t s (155).

In t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s have a l l but passed from f u r t h e r

c o n s i d e r a t i o n due t o :
 Significant variability in performance without the use of sodium
conditioning on many western l o w sul fur coals

Higher-than-anticipated flue gas temperature drops coupled with

higher fuel costs

* Deterioration in the structural integrity of precipitator casings

and ductwork along with their associated supporting systems

Performance problems may occur with eastern low-sulfur coals

High performance levels of modern cold-side precipitators

It must be noted that some utilities have had excellent experience with
hot-side precipitators and may wish to use them on new units. Considering the
current state-of-the-art of predicting hot-side precipitator performance,
utilities must use prudent judgement in seTection. If a particular coal has
worked well in the past and the utility can plan on having that same fuel
consistently available over the service life of the new unit, the performance
risk is substantially lowered. This seems to be the only practical criterion
that can be used today in deciding whether or not to consider a hot-side
precipitator.

SIZE REDUCTION WITH GAS CONDITIONING

Flue gas conditioning with sulfur trioxide (SO3) is routinely and
successfully used on many cold-side utility fly ash precipitators to improve
t h e cotlection of high-resistivity fly ash. A t flue gas temperatures below
350°F, the electrical resistivity of the collected fly ash may be
substantially reduced by SO3 i n the flue gas. SO3 is a natural
conditioning agent in the flue gas produced by firing medium- to high-sulfur
eastern bituminous coals ( 2 ) .The result is a substantial increase in the
useful electrical power consumption of the precipitator. The connection
between fly ash resistivity and useful electrical power consumption was
discussed earlier. The theory, practice, and economics of flue gas
conditioning with SO3 are described in detail in an EPRI report entitled "A
Manual for the Use o f Flue Gas Conditioning for Reduction of Fly Ash
Resistivity" (3).
Two commercial p r o c e s s e s f o r f l u e g a s c o n d i t i o n i n g g e n e r a t e SO3 e x t e r n a l l y
and i n j e c t t h e a c i d vapor i n t o t h e f l u e g a s j u s t b e f o r e p r e c i p i t a t o r . They
a r e t h e combustion of molten s u l f u r and t h e v a p o r i z a t i o n of l i q u i d SO2, both
followed by c a t a l y t i c o x i d a t i o n of SO2 t o SO3. The o v e r a l ? economic
e v a l u a t i o n of t h e s e t w o processes by t h e revenue requirement method f a v o r s t h e
s u l f u r burner by a margin of 10 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t depending on t h e r e q u i r e d SO3
injection rate. A number of l i q u i d SO s y s t e m s , however, have been
2
i n s t a l l e d because t h e i r c a p i t a l c o s t i s lower by roughly 10 p e r c e n t .
Furthermore, t h e l i q u i d SO2 systems a r e s i m p l e r t o o p e r a t e and maintain than
s u l f u r burners but about t h r e e times more c o s t ? y t o o p e r a t e .

The h i g h l y a l k a l i n e f l y ash from western subbituminous c o a l s i s very

s u s c e p t i b l e t o r e s i s t i v i t y moderation by SO c o n d i t i o n i n g . The n e c e s s a r y
3
i n j e c t i o n r a t e of SO3 i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t , however, because t h e f l y ash
can adsorb a s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t y of SO3 b e f o r e t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e
c o l l e c t e d f l y ash l a y e r begins t o be a f f e c t e d . The e f f e c t of SO3 on f l y a s h
r e s i s t i v i t y i s p r e d i c t e d on t h e b a s i s of l a b o r a t o r y measurements i n which f l y
ash absorbed a s much SO3 a s p o s s i b l e and a measurable e q u i l i b r i u m
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f SO3 (13) remained in the gas. I f s u f f i c i e n t SO3 i s
i n j e c t e d i n t o f l u e g a s t o a c h i e v e a r e s i d u a l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a
few ppm, t h e l a b o r a t o r y d a t a show t h a t t h e r e s i s t i v i t y i s more s t r o n g Y
moderated f o r f l y a s h e s of high a l k a l i n i t y .

A t l e a s t a s important a s t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e of SO3 i s a uniform d i s t r b u t i on

of SO 3 (and f l u e gas temperature) over t h e f a c e of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .
Seemingly small v a r i a t i o n s in f l u e g a s t e m p e r a t u r e and SO 3 c o n c e n t r a t i o n can
r e s u l t i n order-of-magnitude v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of f l y a s h
c o l l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s of an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d . The p r e c i p i t a t i o n
p r o c e s s i n t h e e n t i r e f i e l d e n e r g i z e d by one T-R s e t w i l l be l i m i t e d by t h a t
p o r t i o n of t h e f i e l d having t h e h i g h e s t r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e c o l l e c t e d f l y a s h
layer. T h e r e f o r e , t h e uniform mixing of i n j e c t e d SO and t h e a v a i l a b l e time
3
of r e a c t i o n with f l y ash a r e very i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of a d e s i g n f o r f l u e g a s
conditioning.
T a b l e 3 - 1 shows a p r e d i c t e d e f f e c t o f f l u e gas c o n d i t i o n i n g on t h e f l y ash
from t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l w e s t e r n s u b b i t u m i n o u s c o a l t h a t was used a s an example.
Table 3-1 g i v e s an e s t i m a t e of 2.3 ppm SO3 i n t h e f l u e gas. However, i n t h e
example d e s i g n o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r t o c o l l e c t t h i s f l y a s h , i t was assumed t h a t
t h i s s m a l l amount o f SD3 w o u l d be c o m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d b y t h e h i g h l y a l k a l i n e
f l y ash w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g t h e f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y . Now, as an example o f f l u e
gas c o n d i t i o n i n g , assume t h a t SO i s i n j e c t e d ( w i t h adequate r a t e , m i x i n g ,
3
and r e s i d e n c e t i m e ) such t h a t a t t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t t h e r e remains 2.3 ppm
SO3 i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e f l y ash. The p r e d i c t e d f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y ,
RHD(VSh), a t 29D°F i s 7 . 6 ~ 1 0 ~ohm-cm.
' T h i s i s a d r a m a t i c decrease f r o m t h e
p r e d i c t e d n a t u r a l r e s i s t i v i t y l e v e l o f 2.0x1012 ohm-cm. A dramatic increase
i n t h e u s e f u l e l e c t r i c a l power consumption o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r r e s u l t s .

New e s t i m a t e s o f u s e f u l secondary e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s can be o b t a i n e d

from t h e a v e r a g e d a t a c o r r e l a t i o n s i n T a b l e 3-3.

Section Voltage Current Density Current

Number kV nA/cm2 mA/f t Z mA

I n the i n l e t e i e c t r i c a l section, f o r example, t h e new e s t i m a t e o f t h e

e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i n g p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d s t o 15 t i m e s a s much u s e f u l e l e c t r i c a l
power c o n s u m p t i o n as t h e e a r l i e r e s t i m a t e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a f l y ash
r e s i s t i v i t y o f 2 . 0 ~ 1 0 ' ohm-cm.
~

The e f f e c t o f f l u e gas c o n d i t i o n i n g on p r e c i p i t a t o r c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y ,
computed b y t h e ESP MODEL, i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-10. F o r 99.7 p e r c e n t
c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , t h e d e s i g n s i z e ( w i t h o u t s a f e t y m a r g i n s ) d r o p s from
about 550 f t 2 / k a c f m t o a b o u t 300 f t z / k a c f m . A reasonable s a f e t y margin i s
t o add one more s e c t i o n w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l 100 f t 2 / k a c f m i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
gas f l o w . A c o m p a r i s o n o f F i g u r e s 3-7 and 3-10 shows t h a t 400 i t 2 /kacfm
w i t h f l u e gas c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o v i d e s t h e same m a r g i n o f s a f e t y as
700 ft2/kacfm without flue gas conditioning. With 400 ft2/kacfm, the
calculated plume opacity i s 4 percent.

Flue gas conditioning with SO3 has been employed mostly in retrofit
applications to cold-side utility fly ash precipitators. Utilities have
viewed flue gas conditioning as a fall-back position; however, the above
example illustrates the advantage o f considering flue g a s conditioning in t h e
original design of a precipitator to collect high-resistivity fly ash. A
large saving in the size and capital cost of the precipitator possible.
 3 Fields 1 4 Fields 1 5 Fields 1

Figure 3-10. ESP MODEL Simulations o f the Example Precipitator Designed

to Collect Fly ash from a Western Subbituminous Coa1,wit.h Flue Gas
Conditioning.
4 SPECfFlCATiON OF MECHANICAL
FEATURES
 Section 4
SPECIFICATION OF MECHANICAL FEATURES

PHYSICAL DESIGN

Number of Precipitators
The number of independent precipitator casings for each steam generator
varies from one to four as an industry practice; most installations have two
precipitators for each steam generator. Although sometimes influenced by
available site space, the decision to specify multiple precipitators is
usually considered on the basis of boiler load regimen, precipitator
reliability, limitations in size or width o f a casing, degree of redundacy,
and a desire to perform on-line maintenance.

The added expense of installing multiple precipitators over what would be

considered normal ( i . e . two) can be significant. Additional foundations,
support columns, insulation, accessways and platforms for the additional
sidewalls, as well as increased sectionalization of roof and hopper
enclosures, the control system, and safety systems, can increase the
precipitator cost by approximately one to two percent. However, should
isolation dampers and crossover ducts also be required, a cost increase on the
order of five to eight percent over a more conventional arrangement may be
expected.

T h e added expense of additional precipitator casings may be justified under

the following circumstances:
Precipitators with tumbling hammer rappers should be designed so
t h a t the collecting plate area serviced by each rapper drive motor
does not exceed the redundant collecting plate area provided by the
designer in the event of transformer-rectifier set failures. This
philosophy of sectionalization protects the precipitator against an
opacity excursion in the event of rapper drive failures. Multiple
precipitator casings are often necessary when increasing the number
of rapper drives because they are mounted on sidewalls.
If the steam generating unit is to be operated at partial load
for extended periods, it may be economicalTy advantageous to provide
multiple precipitator casings, isolation dampers and crossover ducts
so that one or more precipitators may be taken off-line and
deenergized, as necessary.
 For d i f f i c u l t a p p l i c a t i o n s such t h a t f r e q u e n t water washing and/
o r weighted wire e l e c t r o d e breakage i s a n t i c i p a t e d , i t may be
economically advantageous t o provide m u l t i p l e p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g s ,
man-safe i s o l a t i o n dampers, and p r e c i p i t a t o r crossover d u c t s s o t h a t
one o r more p r e c i p i t a t o r s may undergo on-line maintenance.

I f a d d i t i o n a l p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g s cannot be t e c h n i c a l l y o r economically
j u s t i f i e d , then one p r e c i p i t a t o r per steam g e n e r a t o r should be s p e c i f i e d f o r
small u n i t s , say l e s s than 300 MW, and two casing f o r u n i t s g r e a t e r t h a n 300
MW .

Number of Chambers

The d e s i r a b i l i t y of d i v i d i n g a p r e c i p i t a t o r casing i n t o two o r more g a s - t i g h t

chambers shauld be a point of j o i n t agreement between p r e c i p i t a t o r
manufacturer and u t i l i t y . O r i g i n a l l y , g a s - t i g h t d i v i s i o n w a l l s were used t o
c o n t r o l g a s flow d i s t r i b u t i o n within t h e c o l l e c t i n g chamber and termed an
i n t e g r a l p a r t of the s t r u c t u r a l system. In t h e p a s t , some c o n s i d e r a t i o n was
given t o using t h i s d i v i s i o n wall t o permit s h u t t i n g down half the
p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g f o r purposes of on-line maintenance and/or reduced u n i t
load c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . This use of g a s - t i g h t d i v i s i o n w a l l s engenders design
concern r e l a t i n g t o thermal g r a d i e n t s and d i s t o r t i o n s within the s t r u c t u r e
along with personnel s a f e t y . As such, p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s have
evolved toward an open, truss-work type o f s t r u c t u r e w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t t o gas
flow d i s t r i b u t i o n within t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r casings. Current u t i l i t y p r a c t i c e
does not s p e c i f y t h e number of chambers and does not employ t h e concept of a
gas-tight wall.

Number of Gas Passages

A gas passage i s formed by two a d j a c e n t c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s . The

t o t a l number of gas passages per steam generator i s a c a l c u l a t e d parameter
which i s dependent upon p r e c i p i t a t o r gas v e l o c i t y , c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e spacing
and h e i g h t . C o l l e c t i n g p l a t e h e i g h t , in t u r n , i s a c a l c u l a t e d parameter which
depends on i n s t a l l e d c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a , p r e c i p i t a t o r a s p e c t r a t i o , and t h e
s p e c i f i e d maximum allowable h e i g h t of t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s . A precipitator
s p e c i f i c a t i o n w i l l normally s e t l i m i t s on t h e s e parameters a s follows:
Minimum c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a

Minimum a s p e c t r a t i o

Maximum p r e c i p i t a t o r gas v e l o c i t y

Maximum height of c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e
 Minimum/maxirnum c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s p a c i n g

Minimum number o f f i e l d s

G i v e n t h e above, i t i s m e a n i n g l e s s t o l i m i t t h e number o f gas passages.

T y p i c a l l y , t h e r e i s o n l y a s m a l l v a r i a t i o n i n t h i s p a r a m e t e r f r o m one
manufacturer's design t o t h e next. T h i s v a r i a t i o n a r i s e s because some
m a n u f a c t u r e r s may p r e f e r t o s e l e c t a d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t r a t i o o r a l o w e r gas
v e l o c i t y f r o m t h e maximum l i m i t s s p e c i f i e d .

C o i l e c t i n g P l a t e Spacing

C o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s p a c i n g i s t h e c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r d i s t a n c e between
any t w o a d j a c e n t rows o f c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s w h i c h f o r m a gas passage.
H i s t o r i c a l l y , a d i s t a n c e between 8 and 1 2 i n . h a s been used f o r f l y ash
precipitators. P r e c i p i t a t o r s which u t i l i z e weighted w i r e s f o r e m i t t i n g
e l e c t r o d e s most o f t e n use a 9 i n . p l a t e s p a c i n g , w h i l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f r i g i d
e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e s t y p i c a l l y use 10 t o 12 i n . s p a c i n g ; 1 2 i n . s p a c i n g i s most
p r e v e l a n t t o d a y e s p e c i a l l y w i t h c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e h e i g h t s g r e a t e r t h a n 40 f t .
Some m a n u f a c t u r e r s and EPRI a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g p l a t e s p a c i n g s i n excess o f
12 i n .

As t h e s p a c i n g between c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s i s i n c r e a s e d , c o r o n a v o l t a g e must b e
increased. I n c r e a s e d c o r o n a v o l t a g e enhances p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e ;
however, i t i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l t o m a i n t a i n a d e q u a t e e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e
between h i g h v o l t a g e p a r t s and grounded p a r t s . When c o r o n a v o l t a g e i s r a i s e d
t o t h e l e v e l t h a t s p a r k o v e r o c c u r s , a good p r e c i p i t a t o r w i l l s p a r k between t h e
e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e and t h e c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e . Sparking a t any o t h e r
l o c a t i o n i n d i c a t e s e i t h e r poor design o r a c o n s t r u c t i o n d e f i c i e n c y . When
r i g i d e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e s a r e used, p l a t e s p a c i n g must be i n c r e a s e d t o
compensate f o r t h e p h y s i c a l t h i c k n e s s and t o l e r a n c e o f t h e e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e
assembly. I n s e l e c t i n g a standard p l a t e spacing, each m a n u f a c t u r e r c o n s i d e r s
t h e f a b r i c a t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n t o l e r a n c e s o f i t ' s p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n . Nearly
a l l m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f r i g i d e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e s have s t a n d a r d i z e d on a
c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s p a c i n g between 11-1/2 i n . and 1 2 i n .

Collecting Plate Height

A c o n s e r v a t i v e p u r c h a s e r w i l l want t o s p e c i f y a maximum a l l o w a b l e c o l l e c t i n g
h e i g h t no h i g h e r and p r e f e r a b l y l o w e r t h a n t h e maximum c u r r e n t l y i n s e r v i c e .
A f e w p r e c i p i t a t o r s o p e r a t e w i t h c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s h i g h e r t h a n 48 f t . A
number of precipitators in the United States are satisfactorily operating with
a 46 ft. nominal plate height, and many more with plate heights of 40 ft. and
below (34). It should be noted that weighted wire designs are limited to a
maximum plate height of 36 ft. due to wire dynamics.

The cost of a large precipitator will decrease as plate height is increased.

However, for a given size (i.e., collecting plate area) precipitator, as
collecting plate height increases, the aspect ratio decreases, and this has
the net effect of deteriorating precipitator performance. Hence,
specifications of maximum plate height and precipitator aspect ratio must
always be considered together.

When specifying a maximum allowable collecting plate height, the operating

experience of all qualified bidders must be taken into consideration.
Table 4-1 represents the experience of nine major precipitator manufacturers
in the United States.

Ductwork/Precipitator Gas Velocities and Distribution

Precipitator gas velocity is caiculated by dividing the actual gas volume
flow rate, at design temperature and pressure, by the effective cross-
sectional area of the precipitator (%). The effective plate height i n feet
is multiplied by the gas passage width and the totai number of gas passages to
yield the effective cross-sectional area.

Excessive velocity in a precipitator will result i n scouring the collected

dust from collecting plates and excessive reentrainment of fly ash during
rapping periods.

Unlike most other precipitator design parameters, there is a widespread lack

of uniformity within the industry regarding optimum precipitator gas
velocity. In practice, it historically varies from 3 to 8 ft/s; and most
modern high- efficiency precipitators operate in the 3.5 to 6 ft/s range. The
lower end of the spectrum is usually reserved for precipitators designed for
99.7percent collection efficiency and above; however, some designers prefer
to maintain a 5 to 6 . 5 ft/s precipitator gas velocity together with high
aspect ratios for high-efficiency applications. In any event, these are
technical disagreements and not economic as there are very small cost
differenti a1 s associated with
 Table 4-1
Maximum Height of Collecting Plate for Nine Major Precipitator Manufacturers

Maximum Height Number of

o f Collecting Precipitator
Plate i n Manufacturers
Operation (ft)

-
1

9 Total

Maximum Height o f Collecting Plate in Operation

for Nine Major Precipitator Manufacturers in the
United States as of 1984 (82).
t h e t r a d e o f f between p r e c i p i t a t o r gas v e l o c i t y and a s p e c t r a t i o ( w i t h o u t
c o n s i d e r i n g t h e extremes). F o r t h e a s p e c t r a t i o s l i s t e d on page 4-10, a
p r e c i p i t a t o r gas v e l o c i t y o f between 3.75 and 4.5 f t / s e c i s most a p p r o p r i a t e

N o n u n i f o r m gas f l o w w i t h i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t s p e r f o r m a n c e b y
p r o m o t i n g uneven t r e a t m e n t t i m e s , i n c r e a s e d c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s c o u r i n g and
rapping reentrainment i n localized regions o f high v e l o c i t y flow. Suppression
o f hopper sweepage f l o w s and p r e v e n t i o n o f sneakage o f u n t r e a t e d gas a r o u n d
p r e c i p i t a t o r c o l l e c t i o n zones a r e a l s o c r i t i c a l d e s i g n a s p e c t s o f a h i g h
efficiency precipitator. I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o c o n d u c t a g e o m e t r i c a i r f l o w model
study before a p r e c i p i t a t o r i s b u i l t . The c o s t o f c o n d u c t i n g a model s t u d y
d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n s t a g e i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t compared t o t h e c o s t o f c o r r e c t i n g
problems a f t e r s t a r t u p . Hence, a g e o m e t r i c a i r f l o w model s t u d y s h o u l d a l w a y s
be s p e c i f i e d as a p a r t o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r ' s scope o f w o r k .

Ductwork gas v e 7 o c i t i e s s h o u l d a l w a y s be s e l e c t e d so as t o o p t i m i z e t h e
t r a d e o f f between t h e l o w - p r e s s u r e l o s s and good p r e c i p i t a t o r f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e associated w i t h lower d u c t v e l o c i t i e s (35 fps t o
45 f p s ) , s m a l l f l u e s i z e , and s u p e r i o r p a r t - l o a d ash t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f h i g h e r d u c t v e l o c i t i e s ( 6 5 f p s t o 75 f p s ) . Considering a base-loaded
pulverized-coal-fired u n i t h a v i n g a d e d i c a t e d c o a l source o f m o d e r a t e ash
c o n t e n t , optimum d u c t v e l o c i t y u s u a l l y ranges between 55 t o 60 f p s . Cycling
u n i t s a n d u n i t s f i r i n g h i g h ash c o n t e n t c o a l o r w i d e r a n g e ( v a r i a b l e ) c o a l
sources t y p i c a l l y r e q u i r e h i g h e r d u c t v e l o c i t i e s i n p r e c i p i t a t o r i n 7 e t d u c t
runs.

M e c h a n i c a l S e c t i o n a l i z a t i o n (Number o f F i e l d s )

A p r e c i p i t a t o r f i e l d i s a physical p o r t i o n o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r i n the d i r e c t i o n
o f gas f l o w t h a t i s e n e r g i z e d by one o r more power s u p p l i e s (37). Each
e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n w i t h i n a f i e l d i s , i n e f f e c t , an i n d e p e n d e n t p r e c i p i t a t o r
preceded and/or f o l l o w e d b y a n o t h e r p r e c i p i t a t o r . As such, i t h a n d l e s f l u e
gas o f t h e same q u a n t i t y , c o m p o s i t i o n , and t e m p e r a t u r e as p r e c e d i n g and
following fields. The f l y ash q u a n t i t y h a n d l e d b y each f i e l d , however, i s
p r o g r e s s i v e l y reduced from t h e f r o n t t o t h e r e a r o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r by t h e
amount c o l l e c t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g f i e l d s .

The l e n g t h o f a f i e l d i s d e t e r m i n e d b y a m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n and

may r a n g e f r o m 3 f e e t t o a b o u t 18 f e e t . The e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
each field are affected by the concentration of fly ash within that field.
Where ash concentration is high, as is the case with inlet fields, the
presence of charged particles in the inter-electrode space acts as a charged
grid and reduces the corona emission at a given voltage. This effect
decreases for subsequent fields, as the concentration of fly ash particles is
reduced by collection and removal from the flue gas. As a result, inlet
fields typically support higher corona voltages but lower current densities
than precipitator outlet fields.

Thus, since electrical characteristics vary from front to rear in a

precipitator, it is desirable to have a large number of independently
energized fields make up the total length of a precipitator. In this way,
electrical conditions can be optimized for the particulate concentration
present in each field.

I n practice, precipitators have from two to eight fields; however, most modern
precipitators are designed with a minimum of four fields. As a rule of thumb,
the following table applies (3).

Minimum Number Precipitator

O f F i e'ids Efficiency Range (%)

Electrical Sectional ization

Theory and practical experience confirm that precipitator performance is
enhanced by increasing the degree of electrical sectionalization, i.e., the
number of transformer-rectifier sets and bus sections. There are several
reasons:
More transformer-rectifier sets and bus sections mean that the
electrical properties of the gadfly ash combination will be more
uniform for a smaller electrode area than for a larger electrode
area. Hence, the amount of useful power delivered to the gas will
be at higher levels for smaller plate areas on a
transformer-rectifier set basis.
Electrode alignment and spacing are typically more accurate for
smaller bus sections (this tends to be a less significant factor for
rigid-frame precipitators with wide collecting electrode spacing
than for weighted-wire precipitators with nine-inch spaced
collecting electrodes).
 Smaller transformer-rectifier sets, when matched well with their
load, are inherently more stable under sparking conditions, and the
sparks which occur are less intense and hence less detrimental to
precipitator performance.
Outages of one- or two-bus sections due to wire failures have a
much smaller effect on precipitator performance when a relatively
high number of transformer-rectifier sets are utilized.
A high degree of electrical sectionalization can compensate
to some degree for the deleterious effects of high fly ash
concentration, gas temperature gradients, and fly ash concentration
gradients within the precipitator.

In practice, the degree of ~recipitatorelectrical sect?onalization varies

from about 0.4 to 4 bus secticns per 1W,000 arfm gas flow. Szsfd on doab'e
half-wave operation with t w o bus sections per transformer-rectifier set, the
size of an individual bus section varies from approximately 5,000 ft2 up to
about 20,000 ft2 of collecting electrode plate area. Modern rigid-frame
designs range from a minimum o f 10,000 ft2 up to 45,000 ft2 on an
individual transformer-rectif ier basis.

It is difficult to present design guidelines for dsterminin~ a necessary

degree of electrical sectionalization. One of the more widely published
criteria was set forth by R. Ramsdell in 1968; however, this re:ationship was
based on the performance of weighted-wire precipitators, which may have more
electrode misalignment and failure problems than present day rigid-frame type
precipitators. To date, authoritative design guidelines for rigid-frame
precipitator sectionalization have not been made public. The sectionalization
practices of al; qualified bidders should be considered when specify5ng a
minimum number of transformer-rectifier sets. Current practice is to limit
collection electrode surface area to approximately 25,000 ft2 per
transformer-rectifier.

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of an electrostatic precipitator is defined as its effective
height. As shown in Fig. 4-1, the aspect ratio (AR) is:
Figure 4-1. Components of Aspect Ratio
Note: Walkways and other unused spaces within the precipitator casing are not
included in this calculation.

Aspect ratio is an important parameter for high efficiency precipitation, as

it defines the time allotted for particles to fall into the hoppers ( 3 9 ) .
Particulate matter can be collected, rapped off, and re-collected several
times within a precipitator chamber prior to falling into a hopper. A
properly selected aspect ratio allows sufficient time for the particles to
fall into a hopper; whereas excessive reentrainment will occur if the aspect
ratio is too low.

In practice, aspect ratio varies from 0.5 to 2.0. As a rule of thumb, the
following table applies:

Precipitator
Aspect Ratio Efficiency Range (%)
Less than 98.0
98.0 to 99.0
99.1 to 99.4
99.5 to 99.7
99.8+

Treatment Time
Treatment time refers to the length of time a particle spends in the presence
of collecting electrodes, at design velocity, should it be allowed to traverse
the entire length of the precipitator in a horizontal path. Also, the
treatment length of the precipitator, upon which treatment time is based, is
the sum L1 + t2 + L3 as shown in Fig. 4-1.

A minimum treatment time may be calculated and specified; however,

specification of a minimum installed collecting plate area, a maximum
precipitator gas velocity, and a minimum aspect ratio will i n fact determine a
minimum treatment time for a precipitator.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

A preliminary general arrangement drawing provided to the bidders along with

specifications, indicates the arrangement of the precipitation equipment,
d u c t w o r k , and f l u e gas dampers as needed t o meet a l l system o p e r a t i n g
requirements. O p e r a t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s must be e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l y i n t h e p r o j e c t
i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e operating, upset, and s a f e t y requirements o f t h e
b o i l e r , a i r h e a t e r s , d r a f t f a n s , and i f a p p l i c a b l e , t h e f l u e gas
d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n system. OnTy a f t e r a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s have been f i r m l y
e s t a b l i s h e d can a p r e l i m i n a r y g e n e r a l arrangement be d e v e l o p e d .

P r e c i p i t a t o r Arrangement

M u l t i p l e p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g s may be a r r a n g e d e i t h e r s i d e b y s i d e o r
p i g g y b a c k (one p r e c i p i t a t o r above t h e o t h e r ) . The p i g g y b a c k arrangement
s h o u l d be used o n l y when severe space r e s t r i c t i o n s p r e v e n t u s e o f t h e
side-by-side arrangement, f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s :
The p i g g y b a c k arrangement r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l y more s t r u c t u r a l
s u p p o r t s t e e l , and l a r g e r , more e x t e n s i v e f o u n d a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s
and a c c e s s p r o v i s i o n s .

The s i d e - b y - s i d e arrangement i s more c o n d u c i v e t o a t t a i n i n g u n i f o r m

p r e c i p i t a t o r f l o w f i e l d s . Some p i g g y b a c k p r e c i p i t a t o r s have
problems w i t h gas f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n , v a r y i n g p a r t i c l e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n , and gas t e m p e r a t u r e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

R o u t i n e o p e r a t i n g and maintenance t a s k s can become more t i m e

consuming w i t h t h e p i g g y b a c k arrangement because o f p r e c i p i t a t o r
r o o f i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y , a l t h o u g h i n s t a l l a t i o n o f an a d e q u a t e number o f
e l e v a t o r s and s t a i r t o w e r s w i l l h e l p a l l e v i a t e t h i s p r o b l e m .

M a j o r o v e r h a u l s o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r ' s i n t e r n a f s become s i g n i f i c a n t l y
more c o s t l y and t i m e consuming, e s p e c i a l l y f o r a l o w e r p r e c i p i t a t o r ,
w h i c h has l i m i t e d overhead c l e a r a n c e .

* Water w a s h i n g a c t i v i t i e s become much more d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e

p i g g y b a c k arrangement, e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s o f wet f l y ash d i s p o s a l .

I t i s a d v i s a b l e when t h e p i g g y b a c k arrangement c a n n o t be a v o i d e d t h a t s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i o n be p a i d t o d u c t w o r k l a y o u t , p r e c i p i t a t o r access p r o v i s i o n s , and t h e
g e o m e t r i c a i r f l o w model s t u d y program.

The most d i f f i c u l t f l o w - c o n t r o l p r o b l e m i n a p r e c i p i t a t o r s y s t e m i s an even

e x p a n s i o n o f f l u e gas w i t h i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t d i f f u s e r s i n c e t h e
d i f f u s e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a expands r a p i d l y t o a b o u t t e n t i m e s t h e d i f f u s e r
i n l e t area i n a v e r y s h o r t d i s t a n c e (40). The t h r e e b a s i c d i f f u s e r
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g . 4-2. It i s e a s i e s t t o o b t a i n u n i f o r m
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s w i t h a truncated pyramid nozzle. Truncated pyramid nozzles
s h o u l d always be g i v e n f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n ; however, i f space r e s t r i c t i o n s
Distribution
Plates

TRUNCATED PYRAMID EXPANSION TURN

NOZZLE PLENUM

WEDGE

Figure 4-2. Basic Diffuser Configurations (-

59)
p r e v e n t t h e i r use, an e x p a n s i o n plenum o r wedge d i f f u s e r may be s u b s t i t u t e d .
I n g e n e r a l , p y r a m i d n o z z l e s r e q u i r e d i s t r i b u t i o n p l a t e s and sometimes i n l e t
s p l i t t e r vanes. Plenum and wedge d i f f u s e r s a l w a y s r e q u i r e b o t h vane
a s s e m b l i e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n p l a t e s . Ladder vanes i n t h e plenum and s p l i t t e r
vanes i n t h e wedge a r e used t o t u r n t h e gas, a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n p l a t e s c o m p l e t e
t h e s p r e a d i n g and smoothing o f t h e gas f l o w . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be
g i v e n t o t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a i r f l o w model s t u d y program when u s i n g
e i t h e r plenum o r wedge d i f f u s e r s . Many wedge d i f f u s e r s have gas f l o w
m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and e x c e s s i v e ash d r o p o u t p r o b l e m s . Some p o o r l y - d e s i g n e d
p y r a m i d n o z z l e and plenum d i f f u s e r s a l s o s u f f e r f r o m e x c e s s i v e f l y ash d r o p o u t
problems.

D u c t w o r k Arrangement

T r a n s p o r t d u c t w o r k s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t i v e s i n mind:
S i m p l i c i t y a n d symmetry o f d u c t geometry

Cost e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t arrangement

Low system p r e s s u r e l o s s

P r o p e r gas d i s t r i b u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e i n l e t t o t h e
precipitator's diffuser section

Adequate c r o s s o v e r and i s o l a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y as d i c t a t e d by system

operating requirements

Adequate p r o v i s i o n s f o r accommodating u n i t l o a d r e g i m e n t and u p s e t

conditions.

Once an a p p r o p r i a t e d u c t w o r k t r a n s p o r t gas v e l o c i t y has been s e i e c t e d , as

d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , t h e arrangement o f d u c t r u n s u s u a l l y becomes a s i m p l e m a t t e r
o f c o n n e c t i n g p o i n t s A and B i n t h e most d i r e c t and s y m m e t r i c a l manner
possible. S i m p l i c i t y , l o w system p r e s s u r e l o s s , and p r o p e r gas d i s t r i b u t i o n
t y p i c a l l y go hand i n hand.

A w e l l - a r r a n g e d d u c t system, h a v i n g l o w p r e s s u r e l o s s , can sometimes be

r e d e s i g n e d f o r s l i g h t l y l o w e r p r e s s u r e l o s s and i n c r e a s e d gas u n i f o r m i t y by:
P l a c i n g a r a d i u s on t h e i n s i d e c o r n e r o f each d u c t bend

R e p l a c i n g each 90' bend w i t h t w o 45O bends ( i f space p e r m i t s )

E x t e n d i n g t h e l e n g t h o f d u c t e x p a n s i o n s e c t i o n s ( i f space p e r m i t s ) .

O p e r a t i n g c o s t b e n e f i t s o f t h e above p r a c t i c e s , however, r a r e l y overcome t h e

i n c r e a s e d c o s t of d u c t f a b r i c a t i o n .
Perhaps the only area i n t h e transport ductwork system where gas flow
uniformity is the primary design consideration is at the duct section located
immediately upstream of the precipitator inlet diffuser. A maldistributed
flow field i n this region wi17 make it difficult if not impossible for the
diffuser to deliver a uniformly distributed flow field at the entrance of the
precipitation chamber. Ideally, the duct section upstream of the diffuser
should be a three-hydraulic-diameter long straight duct run, preceded by a
well-vaned bend (or transition) section. As a minimum, this duct section can
be one-hydraulic-diameter long; however, it is good practice to radius the
inner corner of an upstream bend whenever this duct run is less than
two-hydraulic-diameters long.

The arrangement of precipitator outlet ductwork is less critical to

precipitator flow uniformity. A single distribution plate at the exit of the
precipitation chamber can overcome any back-pressure gradient caused by outlet
ductwork; however, outlet ductwork must be capable of delivering an even flow
split and uniform flow fields to the ID fans. This is usually accomplished by:
Use of a symmetrical outlet duct arrangement
Long, straight duct runs immediately upstream of the ID fans
A crossover duct, for flow split equalization between two or more
parallel ID fans, situated between the precipitators and ID fans.

When the capability to isolate individual precipitator casings is desired, an

inlet crossover duct allows for any combination of operating air heaters and
precipitators. A damper is sometimes installed in this inlet crossover duct
to prevent excessive ash dropout in dead-flow zones during the one flow train
operati ng mode.

Flue Gas Dampers

Flue gas dampers can serve one of three functions i n a precipitator system:
Isolation of a precipitator during unit part-load operation
Gas flow biasing between operating precipitators
Prevention of excessive ash dropout i n a precipitator inlet
crossover duct.

Each function requires a slightly different type o f damper.

P r e c i p i t a t o r i s o l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y achieved with g u i l l o t i n e o r double
louver-type dampers. I s o l a t i o n dampers a r e s i t u a t e d a t b o t h t h e i n l e t and
o u t l e t of a p r e c i p i t a t o r . When t h e s e dainpers a r e p r o p e r l y d e s i g ~ e dw i t h an
a i r s e a l f o r z e r o - l e a k a g e , p e r s o n n e l may s a f e l y e n t e r t h e o u t - o f - s e r v i c e
p r e c i p i t a t o r during part-load operations.

Gas f l o w b i a s i n g dampers a r e n o r r a l l y of t h e s i n g l e - l o u v e r t y p e , which i s n o t

a gas-tight daaper. Sometimes one l o u v e r of a d o u b l e - l o u v e r i s o l a t i o n damper
can a l s o f u n c t i o n a s a g a s f l o w b i a s i n g damper. Flow b i a s i n g d a n p e r s a r e
u s u a l l y p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r o u t l e t d u c t , where f l o w r n a l a i s t r i b u t i o n
.. - -
downs;ream o f t h e ~ a r ~ i c l cl lyo s e d c a n p c r K; ! l n z t C T ~ C Z ; r e c i p i t z t o r r . c w
m.

.y. - -
. ?

FIcw b i a s : ~ : dzn;[;srs c n be ti5.d tc:

Compensate f o r an unsymmetrica? d u c t c o n f i g u r a t i o n , which i f l e f t
u n c o r r e c t e d would o v e r l o a d one p r e c i p i t a t o r w i t h more t h a n i t s
a l l o t t e d g a s flow.

e a l a n c e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g a s f l o w t o each p r e c i p i t a t o r , a s i s
u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d d u r i n g m u l t i p l e p r e c i p i t a t o r o p e r a t i o n w i t h an
o f f - l i n e ID f a n .

Change t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of g a s f l o w t o e a c h p r e c i p i t a t o r from i t s
d e s i g n d i s t r i b u t i o n ( i . e . , e q u a l p e r c e n t a g e ) t o c o v p e n s ~ t ef o r c u t
o f s e r v i c e bus s e c t i o n s o r ma: f u n c t i o n i n g r a p p i n g components.

R e s t r i c t t o low g a s f l o w r a t e s t h e f l o w t o an o u t - o f - s e r v i c e
p r e c i p i t a t o r f o r t h e p u r p o s e of p u r g i n g and warm up of t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r during i t s startup.

For p r e v e n t i o n o f e x c e s s i v e a s h d r o p o u t i n an i n l e t c r o s s o v e r d u c t , a
s i n g l e - l o u v e r damper i s u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t . During normal c n i t o p e r a t i o n ,
thTs damper i s i n i t s f u l l y open p o s i t i o n . During s i n g l e p r e c i p i t a t o r
o p e r a t i o n , t h e damper i s c l o s e d .
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS

General

With regard t o equipment l o n g e v i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y , t h e s t r u c t u r a l design

parameters of a p r e c i p i t a t o r a r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e performance
requirements. G e n e r a l l y , s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s a r e n o t valued a s highly a s t h e
performance requirements during proposal e v a l u a t i o n s . Design p r e s s u r e s and
t e m p e r a t u r e s , c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , and c a s i n g t h i c k n e s s e s a r e u s u a l l y t h e
o n l y items c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g a proposal review. Other i t e m s t h a t should be
investigated a r e the manufacturer's design philosophy, standard f a b r i c a t i o n
and e r e c t i o n t o l e r a n c e s , and an i n s p e c t i o n and q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l program.

Due t o v a r i o u s f o r c e s imposed on t h e s t r u c t u r e , e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s
may be complicated t o a n a l y z e . An e x p e r i e n c e d s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r should be
employed t o review manufacturers' p r o p o s a l s b e f o r e s e l e c t i n g a s u p p l i e r .

Seismic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s

S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l framework and s u p p o r t s should be designed t o s a f e l y

w i t h s t a n d t h e s e i s m i c f o r c e s determined from Amer ican National Standards
I n s t i t u t e , ANSI, Standard A58.1 f o r t h e r i s k zone developed f o r a s p e c i f i c
plant s i t e . S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l t h a t must be d e s i g n ed f o r s e i s m i c f o r c e s
comprises main g i r d e r s and a s s o c i a t e d h o r i z o n t a l b r a c i n g , a l l s t r u c t u r a l
support s t e e l (columns, b r a c i n g , p l a t f o r m s , p l a t f o r m s u p p o r t s , s t a i r s , e t c . ) ,
buckstay c o r n e r t i e s , l a t e r a l t i e s t o s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l t o p g r i d s t e e l , and g a s
ducts.

Live loads a r e not considered i n c a l c u l a t i n g l a t e r a l s e i s m i c f o r c e s . Also,

windloads a r e not u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with seismic
forces. Equipment s u p p o r t s should be designed t o w i t h s t a n d s p e c i f i e d
( s i t e - s p e c i f i c ) seismic a c c e l e r a t i o n s ; t h i s f o r c e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o a c t on t h e
base of equipment s u p p o r t . Supports s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o p r e v e n t
displacement o f t h e equipment, assuming t h a t f r i c t i o n does n o t e x i s t , and t o
maintain t h e primary s t r e s s e s induced by t h e s e i s m i c l o a d s w i t h i n t h e e l a s t i c
l i m i t s of t h e support m a t e r i a l . The e f f e c t of s e i s m i c c o n d i t i o n s when
s e l e c t i n g anchor b o l t m a t e r i a l , b o l t d i a m e t e r , and number of b o l t s should a l s o
be c o n s i d e r e d .

Seismic l o a d s a r e c a l c u l a t e d based on t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r load p l u s 25 p e r c e n t of

t h e l i v e load a c t i n g on t h e s t r u c t u r e . One a r e a of c o n t r o v e r s y i s t h e
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s t o r e d f l y ash and whether i t s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as a
s o l i d o r f l u i d d u r i n g a seismic event. I f the loading i s not specified,
m a n u f a c t u r e r s w i l l d e s i g n t h e s t r u c t u r e and equipment i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r
own s t a n d a r d s .

E x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t p r e c i p i t a t o r w i n d l o a d s a r e u s u a l l y p r e d o m i n a n t o v e r
s e i s m i c l o a d s on a s t r u c t u r e ' s d e s i g n . However, s e i s m i c c o n d i t i o n s must
always govern f o u n d a t i o n design.

Wind, I c e and Snow t o a d s

A p r e c i p i t a t o r and f o u n d a t f o n a r e d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d w i n d l o a d s a s
s p e c i f i e d i n t h e U n i f o r m B u i l d i n g Code (UBC) and/or any s t a t e o r l o c a l code
w h i c h may a p p l y . I c e and snow l o a d s s h o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d a s r e q u i r e d by l o c a l
climate conditions.

Common D i v i s i o n W a l l s

Common d i v i s i o n w a l l s a r e p l a c e d between i n t e r n a l p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p o r t columns

t o c o n t a i n t h e f l u e g a s w i t h i n t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e chambers. Division walls
r e d u c e t h e q u a n t i t y o f gas b y p a s s i n g t h e c o l l e c t i n g f i e l d a n d e x i t i n g t h e
precipitator untreated. The w a l l s a r e n e i t h e r gas t i g h t n o r i n s u l a t e d .

D i v i s i o n w a l l s have been i n s t a l l e d t h a t a r e gas t i g h t . T h i s a l l o w s one

s e c t i o n o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r t o be removed f r o m s e r v i c e f o r m a i n t e n a n c e w h i l e
another s e c t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o operate. There a r e m a j o r p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h g a s - t i g h t w a l l s s u c h as d e s i g n i n g f o r p r e s s u r e and t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s and
personnel s a f e t y . W i t h one s e c t i o n o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r o u t o f s e r v i c e , a
d i v i s i o n w a l l m u s t w i t h s t a n d t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l between t h e two
chambers, and i t must a l s o be c a p a b l e o f a c c e p t i n g t h e t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s
between t h e two chambers. On s e v e r a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s , d i v i s i o n w a l l s have
e x p e r i e n c e d weldment and s t r e s s f a i l u r e s due t o t h e extreme t e m p e r a t u r e
d i f f e r e n t i a l b e t w e e n a h o t and a c o l d chamber.

The g a s - t i g h t w a l l c o n c e p t c r e a t e s some s p e c i a l problems f o r p e r s o n n e l w o r k i n g

i n t h e c o l d chamber o f an o p e r a t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r ; and t h e r e f o r e , a l l s a f e t y
p r e c a u t i o n s must be o b s e r v e d . A l l e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s i n t h e chamber must b e
deenergized. The chamber t o be e n t e r e d must be shutdown w e l l i n advance o f
p e r s o n n e l e n t r y so t h a t i t i s a l l o w e d t o c o o l t o an a c c e p t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e .
The chamber i s t h e n p u r g e d w i t h o u t s i d e a i r b y u s e o f t e m p o r a r y v e n t i l a t i n g
fans.
A more p r a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t e t o u s i n g g a s - t i g h t w a l l s i s d i v i d i n g a l a r g e
p r e c i p i t a t o r i n t o m u l t i p l e p r e c i p i t a t o r casings. T h i s c o n c e p t has s e v e r a l
advantages r e l a t i v e t o g a s - t i g h t w a l l s . I t reduces s a f e t y problems and
e l i m i n a t e s t h e d e s i g n p r o b l e m s o f o p e r a t i n g one chamber w h i l e s e r v i c i n g t h e
other. I n a d d i t i o n , s m a l l e r p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g s a r e e a s i e r t o e r e c t , and i t
i s e a s i e r t o maintain dimensional t o l e r a n c e s d u r i n g t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n . The
m u l t i p l e p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t , however, r e q u i r e s more space t h a n a
s i n g l e u n i t , and t h e r e i s a d d i t i o n a l c o s t i n v o l v e d f o r e x t r a w a l l s ,
i n s u l a t i o n , access p l a t f o r m s , and s t a i r w a y s . However, t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t i s
s m a l l when compared t o d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s a s s c c i a t e d w i t h
maintaining a gas-tight d i v i s i o n wall.

Ductwork

Ductwork i s s u b j e c t e d t o and must be d e s i g n e d f o r :

Wind and s e i s m i c l o a d s

I n t e r n a l gas p r e s s u r e ( o r vacuum)

F l y ash a c c u m u l a t i o n

Insulationandlagging

Snow and i c e l o a d s .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , ductwork i s subjected t o t h e e l e v a t e d temperature o f t h e f l u e

gas; t h e r e f o r e , i t s d e s i g n must p r o v i d e f o r o v e r a l l e x p a n s i o n . Ductwork
s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e smooth, s t a b l e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h a r e u n i f o r m
w i t h i n t h e requirements o f t h e process.

Ductwork r o o f i n g s h o u l d have a d r a i n a g e s y s t e m t o p r e v e n t w a t e r f r o m c a s c a d i n g
t o t h e ground. It s h o u l d c o n s i s t o f s h e e t m e t a l g u t t e r s and c a s t i n g s o i l p i p e
downspouts p i p e d t o w i t h i n 12 i n . o f t h e f i n i s h e d g r o u n d l e v e l f o r c o n n e c t i o n
t o an underground d r a i n a g e system.

Ductwork f r o m t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e a i r h e a t e r s h o u l d r i s e e i t h e r v e r t i c a l l y
o r a t a minimum a n g l e o f 45 d e g r e e s t o i t s t r a n s i t i o n w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l
ductwork l e a d i n g t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t nozzles. A drop-out hopper should
be p r o v i d e d f r o m t r a n s i t i o n d u c t w o r k .

D u s t Loads. D e s i g n i n g d u c t w o r k f o r f l y a s h d u s t l o a d s s h o u l d be c o n s e r v a t i v e .
The d i s p e r s i o n o f ash i n t h e f l u e gas and i t s b e h a v i o r as gas f l ~ o w s t h r o u g h
t h e ductwork cannot be p r e d i c t e d . The ductwork should be designed f o r ash
l o a d i n g s up t o 20 p e r c e n t of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area. Care should be taken
t o minimize t h e number of p r o j e c t i o n s , l e d g e s , e t c . , i n t h e ductwork t h a t can
cause ash b u i l d u p s .

I n t e r n a l vs. External Bracing. A f l u e gas d u c t r e q u i r e s s u p p o r t b r a c i n g t o

w i t h s t a n d t h e gas p r e s s u r e o r vacuum, p u l s a t i o n s , and d u c t v i b r a t i o n s . There
a r e two methods of b r a c i n g t h e ductwork: internally or externally. Internal
b r a c i n g i s t h e l e a s t c o s t ? y way of s u p p o r t i n g a d u c t ; however, i t has s e v e r a l
disadvantages. Bracing c a u s e s high p r e s s u r e d r o p s within a d u c t and i s
s u b j e c t e d t o t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s which can cause a member t o buckle. The
b r a c i n g i s a l s o s u b j e c t t o e r o s i o n due t o f l y ash impingement on exposed
surfaces. I n t e r n a l b r a c i n g can c r e a t e gas flow d i s t u r b a n c e s , a s w e l l .

External b r a c i n g has a higher i n i t i a l c a p i t a l c o s t , and i t can c r e a t e problems

when ductwork, i n s u l a t i o n , and l a g g i n g a r e i n s t a l l e d . S t a n d o f f s , however, may
be secured t o o u t s i d e s t i f f e n e r s t h u s p r o v i d i n g even s u r f a c e s on which t o
i n s t a l l prefab panels.

Maintenance c o s t s should be reviewed i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e t y p e of b r a c i n g

t o use. I n t e r n a l b r a c i n g r e q u i r e s an annual i n s p e c t i o n and p o s s i b l e r e p a i r
and/or minor replacement due t o i t s o p e r a t i n g environment. I n s p e c t i o n of
e x t e r n a l bracing i s l i m i t e d due t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f i n s u l a t i o n and l a g g i n g
panels. On b a l a n c e , t h e i n d u s t r y t r e n d i s toward t h e use of e x t e r n a l b r a c i n g .

Hoppers - Dust and Ash Handling Equipment Loads

P r e c i p i t a t o r hoppers a r e temporary s t o r a g e b i n s used t o s t o r e c o l l e c t e d f l y

ash. G e n e r a l l y , m u l t i p l e rows of pyramid-shaped hoppers a r e mounted d i r e c t l y
off p r e c i p i t a t o r support s t e e l . Each hopper should have a minimum s t o r a g e
c a p a c i t y o f 12 hours a t f u l l load o p e r a t i o n based on a s p e c i f i e d maximum i n l e t
dust loading. Capacity should be c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e ash l e v e l
i s 1 2 i n c h e s below t h e l o w e s t p r o t r u s i o n of t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e assembly.

Antisneakage b a f f l e s on the l e a d i n g and t r a i l i n g hopper edges should be

provided t o prevent u n t r e a t e d gas from bypassing t h e c o l l e c t i n g s u r f a c e
through t h e hoppers. Where two mechanical f i e l d s a r e spanned by t h e same
hopper in the direction o f g a s flow, antisneakage baffles should be provided
between the fields to prevent sneak-by and rapping reentrainment.

3
Hopper design should be based on a fly ash density of 100 lb/ft for
structural purposes and 50 lb/ft 3 for capacity determination purposes. This
range in fly ash densities provides for a conservative design. The hopper
design load should allow for four mounted electromagnetic vibrators or rappers
on two sides.

Consideration must be given to the load imposed by ash handling equipment

mounted on each hopper outlet. Ash handling systems for fly ash removal are
generally pneumatic conveying systems with piping and control valves. Each
hopper should be designed to accommodate horizontal expansion loads and a
plugged pipe condition from the ash handling system.

Mechanical systems such as drag chains, screw conveyors, etc., have been used
for ash removal. This type of equipment requires close tolerances on multiple
hopper connections. Field-adjustable hopper flange connections should be
specified to simp1 ify equipment erection. When mechanical removal systems are
employed, each hopper should be designed to accept the equipment load plus the
material load based on a plugged condition. Expected ash loading can be found
from the expression:

where:
La = ash load (tons)
3
Vm = Carrying volume of equipment (ft )

D = Density of ash (lb/ft 3,

Sl ide Bearings
Flue gas temperatures result in a thermally induced expansion of the
precipitator casing and movement of the casing on its supporting structure.
These movements must be accommodated at the connection points between the
structural steel and precipitator column base. Generally, a fixed point is
established at or near the geometric center of the precipitator. With the
exception of the fixed middle column, all other support points are allowed to
grow outward
l o n g i t u d i n a l l y and t r a n s v e r s e l y , The c e n t e r column i s t h e o n l y column f i x e d
i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s ; t h e o t h e r columns have g u i d e b a r d t o a l l o w f o r d i r e c t e d
e x p a n s i o n i n o r d e r t o keep t h e c a s i n g a s square a s p o s s i b l e .

To p r o v i d e f r e e e x p a n s i o n and reduce f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e , s l i d e b e a r i n g s
( g e n e r a l l y made o f t e f l o n ) a r e p o s i t i o n e d between t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l and
p r e c i p i t a t o r column base. These b e a r i n g s a r e s e l e c t e d based on a l l o w a b l e
b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s and d i m e n s i o n a l d e t a i l s i n t h e c o l d and h o t o p e r a t i n g
positions. A l s o , c o n s i d e r a t i o n must be g i v e n t o speed o f movement a n d t o
t e m p e r a t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e b e a r ngs d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n

The manner i n w h i c h t h e b e a r i n g s a r e i n s t a l l e d i s c r i t i c a l t o t h e i r
operation. S l i d i n g s u r f a c e s must be p a r a l l e l , must m a i n t a i n a t i g h t
h o r i z o n t a l t o l e r a n c e , and v e r t i c a l a d j u s t m e n t p r o v i s i o n s , such as j a c k i n g
s c r e w s , s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d t o a l l o w f i n e l e v e l i n g a f t e r t h e s t e e l i s
erected. A f t e r f i n a l l e v e l i n g i s accomplished, s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s h i m packs
need n o t be used t o h o l d t h e v e r t i c a l a d j u s t m e n t i n p o s i t i o n i f a d j u s t a b l e
h e i g h t b e a r i n g s a r e used.

Shear b a r s and s t o p s s h o u l d be added a t t h e s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e p r e c i p i t a t o r

column base c o n n e c t i o n t o c o n t r o l t h e o v e r a l l movement o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r .
These b a r s a l s o c o n t r o l t h e l a t e r a l s h e a r a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n p o i n t f r o m s e i s m i c
a n d / o r w i n d l o a d s t h a t c o u l d be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e f r i c t i o n a l l o a d s . These b a r s
a r e p l a c e d a f t e r a p r e c i p i t a t o r ' s f i n a l a l i g n m e n t has been checked b y a
q u a l i f i e d inspector.

D u r i n g b o i l e r s t a r t - u p and l o a d changes, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n a p r e c i p i t a t o r
w i l l v a r y , w h i c h causes t h e s t r u c t u r e t o expand a t v a r y i n g r a t e s . During low
l o a d s , t h e upper beams w i ' i l expand f a s t e r t h a n l o w e r beams due t o h e a t i n g b y
t h e f l u e gas f l o w , and t h i s causes t h e c a s i n g t o t a k e t h e f o r m o f an i n v e r t e d
t r a p e z o i d and i n d u c e s a b e n d i n g moment ( r o t a t i o n ) a t t h e s l i d e b e a r i n g .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e p a r a l l e l i s m between s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s i s l o s t , w h i c h causes
s t r e s s l e v e l s t o b u i l d w h i c h may damage t h e b e a r i n g . Spherical s l i d e bearings
a r e commonly used t o overcome t h i s s i t u a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e d e s i g n o f
h o t - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s and c y c l i c l o a d u n i t s .
Expansion Joints
The importance of precipitator and ductwork expansion joints cannot be
overstressed. Improper selection and application of joints can create
failures and affect system reliability. Expansion joints are placed in
ductwork to accommodate thermal movement due to temperature gradients. Any
single joint may be subjected to compression, lateral offset, elongation,
torsional/angular deflection, or any combination of these movements.
Additionally, expansion joints must compensate for fabrication and erection
tolerances. An ideal expansion joint material would be noncorroding, elastic,
and heat resistant.

There are two types of expansion joints available for flue gas service:
metallic and non-metallic (fabric). Both have merit, but the non-metallic
joint has gained strong acceptance within the industry in the last several
years.

A non-metallic joint has operating and economic advantages over metallic

joints. A non-metallic joint can adjust to movement in all directions (axial,
lateral, angular, and torsional), while metal joints can move in only one
plane. Non-metallic joints are less expensive to install and will compensate
for erection errors and thereby reduce the total fnstalled cost of the
ductwork. They also resist corrosion and reduce noise more effectively than
metal joints.

Since they can absorb multiple movement, fewer non-metallic than metallic
joints are required i n ducting arrangements. Toggles (spool piece) and
supporting structures required for meta7 joint arrangements are not needed
when employing non-metallic joints, which reduces the overaTl cost o f the
ductwork arrangement.

Non-metallic joints require less space than metallic joints. In a high

temperature application where a 6 in. expansion may be expected, a metallic
joint requires a 48 in. width. In contrast, a non-metallic joint requires but
an 18 in. width for the same application.

Due to the current trend toward use of non-metallic joints, the discussion
will focus on the types available and their applications.
The two a r e a s i n a f l u e gas system t h a t r e q u i r e expansion j o i n t s a r e between
t h e steam g e n e r a t o r and a i r p r e h e a t e r ( h o t s i d e ) and from t h e a i r p r e h e a t e r t o
t h e chimney ( c o l d s i d e ) . Hot-side ductwork t r a n s p o r t s f l u e gas in t h e 650 t o
900°F range, and t h e cold-side ductwork t r a n s p o r t s f l u e gas of up t o 350°F.

A hot-side a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l r e q u i r e t h e use of a composite-type, belt joint.

T h i s j o i n t i s a layered product t h a t c o n s i s t s of v a r i o u s p l i e s of m a t e r i a l s
l a i d one over another and u s u a l l y v u l c a n i z e d , bonded, sewn, o r mechanically
f a s t e n e d t o g e t h e r in t h e clamp o r f l a n g e a r e a . T h i s method of c o n s t r u c t i o n
allows each m a t e r i a l l a y e r t o f u n c t i o n independently of t h e o t h e r s . Baffles
a r e used t o p r o t e c t t h e b e l t from f l y ash impingement and a b r a s i o n .

A cold-side a p p l i c a t i o n u s e s an e l a s t o m e r i c molded-type f l a n g e design j o i n t .

The molded j o i n t has a wire o r f a b r i c s t r e n g t h member. The wire member i s a
monel o r inconel reinforcement t h a t can w i t h s t a n d temperatures up t o 1200°F
and r e s i s t c o r r o s i o n . Fabric s t r e n g t h members have a tendency t o d e t e r i o r a t e
causincj embri t t l e m e n t of t h e e l a s t o m e r .

A g r e a t many f a c t o r s must be considered when s p e c i f y i n g non-metallic expansion

j o i n t s . Engineers should s p e c i f y t h e expected a p p l i c a t i o n and design
c o n s t r a i n t s . Careful a t t e n t i o n must be paid t o t h e d e t a i l s of j o i n t
c o n s t r u c t i o n and, where p o s s i b l e , t h e u t i l i t y should s p e c i f y t h e e x a c t j o i n t
which i s t o be provided. Such a s p e c i f i c a t i o n should ensure t h a t long-term
r e l i a b i l i t y and t h e u t i l i t y ' s p a s t experiences a r e considered.

M a t e r i a l s of Construction and Thicknesses

P r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e operated a t high t e m p e r a t u r e s , high d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e s ,
and i n a c o r r o s i v e atmosphere, and t h e m a t e r i a l s used i n p r e c i p i t a t o r
c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t be s e l e c t e d based on withstanding t h i s type of s e r v i c e .

The s e l e c t i o n of material v a r i e s with t h e t y p e of p r e c i p i t a t o r used ( i . e . , hot

o r cold). A hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r o p e r a t e s i n a range from 600 t o 90U°F.
S t r u c t u r a l c r e e p i s a major concern a t t h i s temperature range although
c o r r o s i o n r a t e s a r e r e t a r d e d due t o t h e high temperature. Thermal c r e e p must
be accounted f o r in t h e chamber d e s i g n . I f d i f f e r e n t r a t e s of expansion a r e
n o t absorbed by t h e d e s i g n , misalignment of t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s w i l l occur.
The m a t e r i a l s e l e c t e d f o r hot-side o p e r a t i o n should be reviewed
i n t e r m s o f t h e r m a l c r e e p and c r e e p r u p t u r e a t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s . A t high
t e m p e r a t u r e s , A-36 s t e e l p l a t e has a r e d u c t i o n i n a l l o w a b l e d e s i g n s t r e s s
l e v e l s and w i l l r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l s t i f f e n e r s and, p e r h a p s , t h i c k e r p l a t e w o r k
w h i c h means i n c r e a s e d c o s t s . H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s t e n d t o use s t e e l
p l a t e m a t e r i a l l i k e A-242 ( C o r t e n ) w i h A-36 s t i f f e n e r s .

C o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s o p e r a t e below 35C°F and a r e n o t s u b j e c t e d t o t h e r m a l

creep. The m a j o r concern f o r m a t e r i a selection i n a cold-side application i s
t h e c o r r o s i v e atmosphere c r e a t e d when t h e g a s t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s b e l o w t h e a c i d
dewpoint. T h i s t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l change based on t h e amount o f s u l f u r
contained i n the f u e l . M i x i n g w i t h oxygen a t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , sulfur i s
o x i d i z e d t o s u l f u r d i o x i d e (SOp) w h i c h i s f u r t h e r o x i d i z e d t o s u l f u r
t r i o x i d e (SO3). SO3 h y d r a t e s w i t h w a t e r t o produce s u l f u r i c a c i d
(H2S04) w h i c h i s v e r y c o r r o s i v e t o s t e e l . A r e a s where a c i d a t t a c k s t h e s t e e l
a r e h e a t s i n k s such a s hoppers, u n i n s u l a t e d s t e e l , e t c .

G e n e r a l l y , c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m A-36 p l a t e s t e e l . The
s t e e l s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d as a minimum o f 1 / 4 - i n c h t h i c k , w h i c h a l l o w s
1/16 i n . f o r c o r r o s i o n . Design c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d be based
on 3 / 1 6 - i n . t h i c k platework. Fly-ash hoppers should be s p e c i f i e d as 3/8-in.
t h i c k p l a t e w h i c h i n c l u d e s a c o r r o s i o n a l l o w a n c e o f 3/16 i n .

Temperature Excursions

E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d so as t o w i t h s t a n d e x p e c t e d
temperature excursions. One example o f a t e m p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n i s a f a i l u r e
o f t h e a i r p r e h e a t e r r o t o r d r i v e , w h i c h w i l l cause f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e s t o
r i s e because no h e a t i s b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o t h e p r i m a r y a i r system.

P a s t e x p e r i e n c e h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t a c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r may e x p e r i e n c e a
t e m p e r a t u r e swing f r o m 35C°F normal t o 650-750°F due t o an a i r p r e h e a t e r
failure. A t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e e x p a n s i o n movement o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
can cause members t o bow, c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s t o become m i s a l i g n e d , a n d
e l e c t r o d e w i r e s t o become e l o n g a t e d . A l s o , i f e x p a n s i o n movement i s n o t
a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t h e s l i d e b e a r i n g c o n n e c t i o n , t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r may move and
drop from i t s support structure. To m i n i m i z e a i r p r e h e a t e r stoppage, s e v e r a l
u t i l i t i e s s p e c i f y an a l t e r n a t e r o t o r d r i v e such as an a i r m o t o r t o r e d u c e t h e
chance o f a t e m p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n .
Boiler manufacturers should be consulted to determine maximum flue gas
temperatures that may be experienced. Also, the time required to trip the
boiler and cool the unit should be estimated. This information should be
stated in design parameters for temperature excursions in precipitator
specifications. Precipitator suppliers should be requested to explain in
detail in their proposals thosespecific design measures to be implemented if
the precipitator design is to withstand high temperature excursions. Care
must be taken not to make a cold side ESP into a hot side ESP.

Differential Pressure Loads

The design of a precipitator structure must take into account differential
pressure swings. Pressures will vary during an upset condition because of
increased flue gas fiow. Possible upset conditions can be caused by fan
failure, leakage, damper movement, etc.

A precipitator casing design should be specified as a minimum to handle

-130 in. H20 for precipitator systems and up to 1 50 in. H20 for
precipitator-wet scrubber system pressure swings as required by NFPA Codes.
Flue gas systems should be reviewed relative pressure changes within teh
preciptator due to opening and closing dampers.

ELECTRODE SYSTEMS
Collecting Electrode Design
In parallel-plate precipitators, collection-electrode plates are suspended
from the top of the precipitator and hang parallel to and in proper alignment
with the discharge electrodes. Collection-plate design must ensure that
(33,34):
The contour of a plate be free of points or sharp edges that may
cause sparking and a reduction in operating voltage.
- A plate has sufficient rigidity in order to maintain proper
tolerance. Distorted or misaligned electrodes lead to reduced
operating voltages and loss of efficiency.
Rapping accelerations are properly transmitted to all parts of a
collection plate for effective removal of collected dust.
A plate's attachments are strong enough to support it and its
collected dust load and durable enough to withstand continuous
rapping impacts without fatigue failure.

Collecting electrode plates are usually made of light gage (16 to 20 gage)
metal sheets with structural stiffeners which are either roll-formed in the
4-25
s h e e t o r spot-welded t o i t . The p l a t e assembly i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
s t r u c t u r e a t i t s t o p end. I n most d e s i g n s , a p l a t e ' s s t r u c t u r a l s t i f f e n e r s
a r e contoured t o improve gas flow and provide a q u i e s c e n t zone i n t h e
c o l l e c t i n g space near t h e p l a t e s u r f a c e w h i l e imposing n e g l i g i b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e
to the interelectrode electric field (35).

The advantages and disadvantages of v a r i o u s p r o p r i e t a r y c o l l e c t i o n - e l e c t r o d e

p l a t e d e s i g n s a r e a t o p i c of d e b a t e w i t h i n t h e i n d u s t r y . There i s p r e s e n t l y
no consensus on an optimum p l a t e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o r on an optimum method f o r
p l a t e suspension. Consequently, i t ' i s meaningless t o impose c r i t e r i a on t h e s e
a s p e c t s of c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e d e s i g n . However, t h e following s p e c i f i c a t i o n s maif
be s t a t e d :
M a t e r i a l s of c o n s t r u c t i o n

Rapper d e s i g n / c o l ? e c t i o n p l a t e a c c e l e r a t i o n response.

M a t e r i a l s of Construction. I n practice, collection p l a t e material thickness

ranges from 16 t o 20 gauge; t h e majority o f i n s t a l l a t i o n s have 18 gauge
collection plates. C o l l e c t i o n p l a t e s a r e t y p i c a l l y f a b r i c a t e d from mild s t e e l
t h a t conform t o e i t h e r ASTM A-366 o r SAE 1010 o r 1008 Standards. They a r e
r a r e l y s u b j e c t e d t o o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s conducive t o m a t e r i a l c o r r o s i o n
because of t h e i r l o c a t i o n i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e hot gas stream. However,
s e v e r a l exceptional c o n d i t i o n s should be considered. They include:
Use of a high s u l f u r f u e l

Oilfiring
- Frequent b o i l e r s t a r t - u p s and shutdowns
Frequent water washing

Frequent low load o p e r a t i o n a t a c i d dewpoint c o n d i t i o n s .

In t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t premature c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e f a i l u r e due
t o c o r r o s i o n a t t a c k should be considered. Use of a l t e r n a t e m a t e r i a l s f o r
c o l l e c t i o n - p l a t e f a b r i c a t i o n i s , f o r t h e most p a r t , i m p r a c t i c a l although a few
manufacturers have u t i l i z e d ASTM A-242 (Corten) s t e e l i n t h e p a s t . However, a
u t i l i t y must be aware and cautioned t h a t t h e r e a r e no c l a i m s of enhanced
c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e by material s u p p l i e r s f o r Corten-type m a t e r i a l in a
p r e c i p i t a t o r environment. Specifying 16-gauge mild s t e e l m a t e r i a l f o r t h e s e
d i f f i c u l t a p p l i c a t i o n s may be t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e method of providing
corrosion protection. However, t h i c k e r than normal c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e s w i l l
affect rapping responsiveness on an individual supplier basis. Therefore,
this approach must be addressed with caution.

Rapper Design/Collecting Plate Acceleration. Perhaps the widest variation in

design among precipitator manufacturers occurs in the method of electrode
rapping and the energy imparted to electrodes.

There are several different types of collecting plate rappers in operation,

but most fall into one of two categories: tumbling hammer (mechanical)
rappers or falling slug (electromagnetic) rappers. Traditional rigid
electrode design precipitators normally use tumbling hammers that are fastened
to a motor-driven shaft, and impart a rapping blow to the leading or trailing
edge of the collecting plates. Nearly all manufacturers of weighted-wire
precipitators use a rapper design in which a slug weight is either
electromagnetically raised and gravity dropped or electromagnetically impelled
toward the anvil and spring-returned. These rappers provide impact forces to
the top of the collection-electrode plates. A few precipitator manufacturers
employ cam-lifted, gravity-impact slugs which also strike the top o f the
collection plates.

The rapping intensity of mechanical rappers is usually greater than that of

electromagnetic rappers, but the intensity depends upon the specific design
approach of a supplier. Electromagnetic rappers, however, are
intensity-adjustable and have the ability to produce multiple impacts within
seconds. Further, electromagnetic rappers offer greater flexibility in
selection of sequencing, even to individual rappers with modern control
packages. Since rapper design and philosophy are unique to each supplier, it
becomes impractical for a utility to specify rapper type. Therefore, it
becomes imperative that the utiTity exercise great care in selecting qualified
suppliers. It should be noted that there are many successful precipitator
installations of each type of rapper operating on a broad variety of coals.

Rapping systems must be highly reliable, adjustable (if practical), and

capable of maintaining uniform rapping effectiveness over long periods of time
without constant operator attention. To ensure these design goals are met, it
has been found necessary to specify:
A minimum acceptable rapping acceleration normal to the collecting
electrode surface anywhere on that surface.
 A rapping acceleration test procedure, in order to demonstrate the
acceptable rapping acceleration.
An accelerated life test procedure, a condensed time evaluation of
the expected life o f the rappers, rapper anvils, electrodes, and
electrode supports.

When a utility specifies a minimum rapping acceleration for the collecting

electrodes, it must be understood that each supplier has produced a specific
and unique relationship among the plate shape, size, thickness and stiffners,
cleaning effectiveness and rapping impact forces. The question i s how does
the rapper/plate assembly respond and can it be kept in a clean condition
during actual operation. In examining plate structures of various suppiiers,
plates will exhibit widely varying degrees of flexibility. Some plates may be
considered as floppy and others extremely stiff, and there are variations
between the two extremes. Accordingly, the material vibration frequency will
vary from less than 3,000 Hz to greater than 20,000 Hz. Cleaning
effectiveness will be dependent upon the degree of useful energy imparted to
the collected layer of fly ash. It must be recognized that most current
suppliers have demonstrated the ability to maintain plate cleanliness and high
collection efficiencies while collecting with high resistivity fly ashes. Ten
to fifteen years ago, the practice of specifying minimum normal-to-plate
rapping accelerations was developed because many of the suppliers had
difficulty dealing with high resistivity fly ash(z). At that time, a minimum
acceleration of 509 was used as a guideline although it was recognized
that some suppliers produced a 200g acceleration. It should be noted that
rapping accelerations normal to the collecting plate may not be the most
efficient vibrations in the rapping process. However, as previously stated,
minimum normal accelerations have traditionally been used in specifications.
Research is ongoing to determine the most effective plate motions in the
rapping process.

In terms of current experience and practices, a utility must exercise care in

establishing minimum acceleration levels in order not to preclude a qualified
supplier from bidding or requiring a supplier to offer a non-proven design.
With this i n mind, the bidder qualification process should address in depth
the features, successes, and failures of each supplier's rapping system.
Should a utility desire to specify a minimum acceleration parameter, it is
suggested that the starting point be a minimum of 50g, normal to the plate in
a frequency range between 2000 and 3000 Hertz. Suppliers may then provide
specific acceleration data and clarify their position in the proposal s.
Afterward, the bid evaluation process can and should modify acceleration
requirements on an individual supplier basis.

Discharge El ectrode Design

The heart of an electrostatic precipitator is the discharge electrode
system. It must produce a strong, uniform corona while maintaining the
correct distance and alignment with respect to the collecting electrodes to
prevent imbalances in the electric field and to avoid unnecessary arcing
discharges (36).

Discharge electrode configuration varies from manufacturer to manufacturer,

but all fall into one of four categories:
Weighted-wire electrodes; wires (typically 0.1 in diameter, but
they can be up to 0.25 in diameter) are hung individually with a
tensioning weight at the bottom.
Rigid frame electrodes; electrode elements (various shapes,
typically 0.125 in. to 0.25 in. thick) are mounted within a frame
fabricated from pipe or tube.
Rigid mast electrodes; the electrode elements are supported by a
single vertical member, or mast, having several horizontal spars to
facijitate mounting of individual electrode elements.
Rigid electrodes; each discharge electrode spans the full height of
the collection plate, and is a substantial member usually fabricated
from 2 inch diameter tube or roli-Formed sections of 16 gauge to 20
gauge steel.

In terms of today's application of terminology, any discharge electrode system

which is not a weighted-wire design is referred to as a rigid type electrode
design.

Most precipitator specifications written i n the last ten years do not permit
use of weighted-wire electrodes. Although there are many weighted-wire
precipitator installations which operate reliably, the collection of more
highly-resistive fly ashes and the perception of significant discharge
electrode breakage rates has lead to an increased use of rigid-type
electrodes. In EPRI Report 413-1 entitled "Corona Electrode Failure Study,"
weighted-wire units surveyed experience wire failure rates ranging from
essentially zero to 7.17 failures per month. One unit experienced 33.27
failures per month averaged over a 30 month period. Rigid-type discharge
electrode failures were not statistically significant over the testing
period. Depending upon t h e s p e c i f i c r i g i d type e l e c t r o d e des gn, few i f any
f a i l u r e s can be a n t i c i ~ a t e d ,

Similar t o c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e s , various proprietary designs f o r rigid-type

d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s have i n d i v i d u a l m e r i t s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s and t h e r e i s no
industry-wide consensus o n an optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n . Consequently, i t i s b e s t
t o r e l y on t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s e x p e r t i s e . Nonetheless, t h e
following c r i t e r i a should be e v a l u a t e d i n t h e b i d d e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n phase and
s p e c i f i e d where a p p r o p r i a t e :
M a t e r i a l t y p e and t h i c k n e s s

Suspension system ( i . e . number of p o i n t s ) and s u p p o r t i n s u l a t o r

material

Insulator a i r purge/heaters

Rapper d e s i g d d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e a c c e l e r a t i o n response

Anti-sway/positioning devices.

M a t e r i a l Type and Thickness. Unlike c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e s , t h e r e i s g r e a t e r

f l e x i b i l i t y i n t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of m a t e r i a l t y p e and t h i c k n e s s f o r
f a b r i c a t i o n of d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s . However, c a u t i o n must be e x e r c i s e d so
t h a t a s p e c i f i c p r e c i p i t a t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s proposal i s not n e e d l e s s l y made
non-competitive because of o v e r z e a l o u s s p e c i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . The
d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e elements used i n r i g i d frame and r i g i d mast t y p e
e l e c t r o d e s can u s u a l l y be f a b r i c a t e d t o any m a t e r i a l t h i c k n e s s , w h i l e
roll-formed r i g i d e l e c t r o d e s may be l i m i t e d t o a maximum t h i c k n e s s of 16
gauge. Use of high a l l o y m a t e r i a l s may n o t always be c o s t - e f f e c t i v e ,
e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e l a r g e r d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e a s s e m b l i e s which r e q u i r e more
m a t e r i a l and shop welding. I t i s good p r a c t i c e t o review t h e f a b r i c a t i o n
c a p a b i l i t i e s of a17 t h e q u a l i f i e d b i d d e r s p r i o r t o s p e c i f y i n g d i s c h a r g e
electrode material properties.

Suspension System and Support I n s u l a t o r M a t e r i a l . A group of d i s c h a r g e

e l e c t r o d e s , when t i e d t o g e t h e r by t o p frame and bottom frame a s s e m b l i e s and
hung a s a u n i t , i s known a s a bus s e c t i o n . A bus s e c t i o n ' s suspension system

-
requires that:
The bus s e c t i o n be e l e c t r i c a l l y i s o l a t e d from t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
c a s i n g by means of p o r c e l a i n o r alumina i n s u l a t o r s .

Dischargeelectrodesbe alignedwithcollecting electrodesto

within close tolerances.
 The e l e c t r o d e a s s e m b l i e s be a l l o w e d t o t h e r m a l l y expand and
c o n t r a c t d u r i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s t a r t u p and shutdown.

Rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n s be t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s i n
an e f f e c t i v e manner.

The suspension' system be s t r o n g enough t o s u p p o r t t h e w e i g h t o f t h e

e l e c t r o d e assembly and c o l l e c t e d d u s t l o a d , and a l s o be r e s i s t a n t t o
f a t i g u e f a i l u r e during rapping.

The c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a bus s e c t i o n suspension system v a r i e s f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r

t o m a n u f a c t u r e r , and t h e r e i s c u r r e n t l y no i n d u s t r y - w i d e concensus an optimum
configuration. N o n e t h e l e s s , two i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n system
w h i c h s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d a r e t h e number o f s u p p o r t p o i n t s and t h e t y p e o f
insulator material .

The number o f s u p p o r t p o i n t s may v a r y f r o m t w o t o f o u r . The more s u p p o r t

p o i n t s u t i l i z e d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e s t a b i l i t y , and t h e b e t t e r the p e r f o r m a n c e and
r e l i a b i l i t y o f a bus s e c t i o n . U n l e s s l i m i t e d by t h e s m a l l p h y s i c a l s i z e o f a
bus s e c t i o n , a f o u r - p o i n t suspension s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d .

Bus s e c t i o n s u p p o r t i n s u l a t o r s may be f a b r i c a t e d from e i t h e r p o r c e l a i n o r

fused alumina. The f u s e d a l u m i n a m a t e r i a l i s t y p i c a l l y 85 p e r c e n t aluminum
oxide, which i s a general-purpose alumina ceramic. A l t h o u g h more e x p e n s i v e ,
a l u m i n a r a t h e r t h a n p o r c e l a i n i s u s u a l l y s p e c i f i e d because i t p r o v i d e s :
H i g h e r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h (280,000 p s i v e r s u s p o r c e l a i n ' s
67,300 p s i , measured a t 68OF (20°C)).

S u p e r i o r e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ( 5 x 1 0 ~ ' ohm-cm volume

r e s i s t i v i t y v e r s u s p o r c e l a i n ' s 10' ohm-cm, measured a t 39Z°F
(20O0C)).

S u p e r i o r a b r a s i o n and chemical r e s i s t a n c e .

I n h o t - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s , alumina i s t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a l s u p p o r t i n s u l a t o r
m a t e r i a l because i t has a compressive s t r e n g t h e x c e e d i n g 175,000 p s i a t
e l e v a t e d operating temperatures. I n c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s , t h e added
expense o f a l u m i n a i s u s u a l l y a sound i n v e s t m e n t because i n t h e p a s t , s u p p o r t
i n s u l a t o r breakage has been a common p r e c i p i t a t o r maintenance p r o b l e m .

I n s u l a t o r A i r Purqe/Heaters. Support i n s u l a t o r s a r e t y p i c a l l y contained i n

i n d i v i d u a l o r grouped i n s u l a t o r compartments; a l t e r n a t i v e l y , a l l t h e s u p p o r t
i n s u l a t o r s may be housed i n a l a r g e t o p h o u s i n g o r penthouse. I n many cases,
t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r r e q u i r e s t h e i n s u l a t o r s t o be a i r p u r g e d and
perhaps heated a t c e r t a i n times during t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .
This i s done t o maintain t h e i n s u l a t o r s i n a c l e a n , d r y condition in o r d e r t o
reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e l e c t r i c a l t r a c k i n g a c r o s s t h e fouled s u r f a c e of an
insulator.

For p r e c i p i t a t o r s o p e r a t i n g with negative f l u e gas p r e s s u r e , t h e requirement

f o r and d e s i g n of t h e i n s u l a t o r a i r purge/heater system should be thoroughly
i n v e s t i g a t e d by a u t i l i t y . Most manufacturers w i l l i n c l u d e both i n s u l a t o r
purge a i r blowers and h e a t e r s i n t h e i r d e s i g n ; however, a few manufacturers
will d e l e t e t h e h e a t e r s o r both the h e a t e r s and blowers. A review of
manufacturers1 o p e r a t i n g experience a s well a s t h a t of a u t i l i t y i s usual Iy
necessary t o confirm t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y of d e s i g n s .

For p r e c i p i t a t o r s o p e r a t i n g w i t h p o s i t i v e f l u e g a s p r e s s u r e , support i n s u l a t o r
a i r purge with f i l t e r e d , heated a i r should always be s p e c i f i e d . Typical
design v a l u e s range form 25 t o 100 cfm of a i r per i n s u l a t o r , and from loOD t o
2000 w a t t s of e l e c t r i c a l h e a t i n g per i n s u l a t o r .

Rapper Design/Discharge E l e c t r o d e Acceleration Response. Accumulations of

d u s t on d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s can cause corona s u p p r e s s i o n and prevent
a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t i c l e charging i n t h e gas stream. Although not a s common a s
c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e f o u l i n g , minimum s t a n d a r d s f o r d i s c h a r g e e:ectrode
rapping shouid n e v e r t h e l e s s be s p e c i f i e d t o ensure r e l i a b l e p r e c i p i t a t o r
operation.

Tumbling hammer and f a l l i n g s l u g r a p p e r s a r e normally used t o clean d i s c h a r g e

electrodes. In t h e p a s t , e l e c t r i c v i b r a t o r s have been used with some s u c c e s s
t o clean weighted-wire e l e c t r o d e s . I t appears t h a t f o r weighted-wire
a p p l i c a t i o n s , f l y ash p r o p e r t i e s w i l l d i c t a t e whether a v i b r a t o r o r an impact
rapper i s most a p p r o p r i a t e . Modern, rigid-type e l e c t r o d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s use
e i t h e r mechanical o r e l e c t r o m a ~ n e t i cimpact type rapping systems.

Although t h e r e i s no consensus of opinion, 35 t o 509 rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n over

t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e of t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e assembly has been suggested a s
t h e level needed when d e a l i n g w i t h highly r e s i s t i v e f l y ash. Again, a u t i l i t y
must be c a u t i o n e d t h a t each s u p p l i e r has i t s own rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n
s t a n d a r d , and i f t h e s u p p l i e r can show t h a t i t can keep e l e c t r o d e s c l e a n when
f i r i n g coal s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t , t h e need f o r t h e u t i l i t y
t o s p e c i f y a minimum a c c e l e r a t i o n i s reduced. A p r e c i p i t a t o r manufacturer,
however, s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a c c e l e r a t i o n t e s t r e s u l t s .

Anti-Sway/Positioning Devices

Some w e i g h t e d - w i r e p r e c i p i t a t o r s (because o f t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e e l e c t r o d e
a s s e m b l i e s and p e r h a p s a l s o due t o t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f 2 - p o i n t suspension
systems) r e q u i r e a n t i - s w a y / p o s i t i o n i n g d e v i c e s a t t h e b o t t o m o f each bus
section. A n t i - s w a y i n s u l a t o r s may a l s o be used on r i g i d t y p e e l e c t r o d e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y when e x c e s s i v e l y n a r r o w bus s e c t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d b y
e i t h e r p h y s i c a l arrangement o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . These d e v i c e s
a t t a c h each bus s e c t i o n t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g a n d a r e u s u a l l y f a b r i c a t e d
o f a l u m i n a because of t h e need f o r e l e c t r i c a l i n s u l a t i o n . Thermal e x p a n s i o n
of t h e b u s s e c t i o n and exposure t o t h e h o t , d i r t y f l u e gas has caused many o f
these devices t o f a i l prematurely. A u t i l i t y s h o u l d c a r e f u l l y examine t h e
need f o r a n t i - s w a y i n s u l a t o r s r e l a t i v e t o each o f t h e q u a l i f i e d b i d d e r ' s
d e s i g n and o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e .

HOPPERS AND ACCESSORIES

Hopper D e s i g n

Hopper geometry i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e t y p e o f ash removal system s e l e c t e d f o r

hopper e v a c u a t i o n . A pyramid-shaped h o p p e r c o n v e r g i n g t o a s i n g l e d i s c h a r g e
p o i n t i s used when p n e u m a t i c - t y p e c o n v e y i n g systems o r s l u i c i n g systems a r e
s e l e c t e d f o r hopper e v a c u a t i o n . A pyramid hopper converging t o a t r o u g h
d i s c h a r g e i s used when a screw c o n v e y o r i s s e l e c t e d f o r hopper e v a c u a t i o n . A
f l a t b o t t o m box i s used when s t i c k y ash has a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y t o adhere t o
s l o p i n g s u r f a c e s ; t h e ash i s e v a c u a t e d by l a r g e d r a g - f l i g h t conveyors t h a t
cover t h e e n t i r e bottom o f the box.

The pyramid-shaped hopper, c o n v e r g i n g t o a s i n g l e r o u n d o r square d i s c h a r g e

p o i n t o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y one square f o o t i n area, i s t h e most f r e q u e n t l y used
hopper geometry i n t h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y . A c r i t i c a l aspect o f
pyramid-hopper d e s i g n i s t h e h o p p e r ' s v a l l e y a n g l e . V a l l e y angle i s d e f i n e d
as t h e a n g l e formed b y a c o r n e r o f t h e hopper and t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e . In
p r a c t i c e , hopper v a l l e y a n g l e r a n g e s from 50 t o 70'. M o s t f l y ash a p p l i c a t i o n s
r e q u i r e a 55' v a l l e y a n g l e ; however, a s t i c k y ash may r e q u i r e v a l l e y a n g l e s
between 60 and 70° f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f a s h b r i d g i n g d u r i n g hopper e v a c u a t i o n .
L a r g e r v a l l e y a n g l e s c o n s t i t u t e an economic p e n a l t y because t h e y r e q u i r e
b i g g e r , deeper h o p p e r s w h i c h i n t u r n make t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e
taller.
Use of s m a l l e r v a l l e y a n g l e s ( 5 5 t o 6O0) f o r d i f f i c u l t a p p l i c a t i o n s has been
considered when coupled with use of a t h i n , s t a i n l e s s s t e e l l i n e r f o r t h e
hopper. The use of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l l i n e r s f o r making ash flow e a s i e r i s not a
u n i v e r s a l l y accepted p r a c t i c e and should be approached w i t h c a u t i o n .
S t a i n l e s s s t e e l l i n e r s and use of t h i c k e r hopper m a t e r i a l a r e concepts used i n
an attempt t o deal with hopper c o r r o s i o n .

An ash hopper d i s c h a r g e nozzle (normally 1 2 inches in diameter) should be

designed t o ensure a free-flowing d i s c h a r g e from t h e hopper. I t should be a s
l a r g e a s p r a c t i c a l with i t s i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e f r e e of a l l p r o j e c t i o n s . Square
c o r n e r s should be r e p l a c e d with well-rounded f i l l e t s .

There a r e p r e s e n t l y no industry-wide accepted standard p r a c t i c e s f o r s e l e c t i o n

of number of t h e hoppers or f o r hopper c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . The following
g u i d e l i n e i s suggested, however, when s p e c i f y i n g pyramid-shaped hoppers f o r
high e f f i c i e n c y p r e c i p i t a t o r s : From an o p e r a t i n g and maintenance s t a n d p o i n t ,
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o ash removal system f a i l u r e s and bus s e c t i o n s
s h o r t i n g o u t , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o have one hopper per t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t .

I f a d i v i d e r p l a t e i s i n s t a l l e d in t h e hoppers a s an antisneakage b a f f l e , t h e
bottom edge of t h e p l a t e should t e r m i n a t e a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e above t h e
d i s c h a r g e nozzle so t h a t i t w i l l not impair t h e f r e e flow of t h e f l y ash.
When t h e p l a t e e x t e n d s t o o f a r i n t o a hopper, i t may cause bridging between
t h e b a f f l e and one o r both s i d e s of t h e hopper. Stopping t h e b a f f l e a minimum
of 2 f e e t c l e a r of t h e sloping hopper wall should avoid t h i s problem and
e f f e c t i v e l y prevent gas bypassing.

Hopper c a p a c i t y i s d e f i n e d a s t h e t o t a l volumetric c a p a c i t y of t h e hopper(s)

measured from a h o r i z o n t a l plane 12 i n . below t h e lowest p r o t r u s i o n of t h e
d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e assembly down t o t h e hopper o u t l e t f l a n g e . A precipitator
should have a minimum s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f 12 hours a t f u l l load o p e r a t i o n
based on maximum i n l e t d u s t loading. Such c a p a c i t y provides reasonable time
f o r minor maintenance of ash handling systems. As t h e bulk of t h e ash i s
c o l l e c t e d in t h e f i r s t f i e l d of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r ( t y p i c a l l y 80 t o 95 p e r c e n t
by w e i g h t ) , minimum s t o r a g e c r i t e r i o n sometimes r e q u i r e s e n l a r g i n g t h e
c a p a c i t y of t h e upstream-most row of hoppers. In a d d i t i o n , should t h e f i r s t
f i e l d be o u t of s e r v i c e , t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e d u s t load w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o
hoppers of t h e next downstream f i e l d ; hence, t h e second f i e l d hoppers should
a l s o be s i z e d t o provide adequate s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y during an upset condition.
In p r a c t i c e , r e g a r d l e s s of hopper p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o g a s , hoppers a r e
u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o one s p e c i f i c s i z e by t h e s u p p l i e r a s a function of o v e r a l l
d e s i g n , i n t e r c h a n g a b i l i t y , and having a l l d i s c h a r g e f l a n g e s a t t h e same
e l e v a t i o n f o r e a s e in designing t h e ash handling system.

Hopper Heaters

A hopper h e a t i n g system i s necessary t o e l i m i n a t e condensation on t h e hopper

w a l l s , thereby keeping t h e c o l l e c t e d ash d r y and free-flowing. Such e x t e r n a l
h e a t i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y useful during s t a r t - u p and low-load o p e r a t i o n .

Hopper h e a t i n g systems usually c o n s i s t of 480V modularized low w a t t density

h e a t i n g elements a t t a c h e d t o t h e o u t s i d e of t h e hopper p l a t e s . A hopper
h e a t i n g d e n s i t y of between 20 and 25 w a t t s / f t 2 i s uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d over
t h e lower 33 t o 75 percent of t h e hopper s u r f a c e a r e a . The hopper heating
system should be designed t o maintain a minimum s t e e l temperature of between
250 and 30D°F i n s i d e t h e hopper a t a l l b o i l e r l o a d s . A t y p i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n
2
f o r a low- t o medium-sulfur coal a p p l i c a t i o n may r e q u i r e 20 w a t t s / f t
d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e lower 60 percent of t h e hopper s u r f a c e with a minimum
hopper s u r f a c e temperature of 270°F maintained a t a l l times.

Heating elements a r e grouped t o g e t h e r t o form zones on each hopper. Each zone

i s c o n t r o l l e d by means of two t h e r m o s t a t s . There should be a minimum of two
zones, but p r e f e r a b l y more, f o r each hopper. With t h e system o p e r a t i n g , an
i n d i c a t e d temperature below t h e s e t p o i n t value on e i t h e r of t h e sensors will
e n e r g i z e t h e h e a t e r zone; t h e h e a t e r zone s h u t s o f f a u t o m a t i c a l l y when both
s e n s o r s reach t h e s e t p o i n t temperature. More expensive control systems
a c t i v a t e each hopper h e a t e r i n d i v i d u a l l y , and s o p h i s t i c a t e d , modulating h e a t e r
c o n t r o l s have a l s o been employed and i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n o v e r a l l power
management system f o r a p r e c i p i t a t o r .

A hopper heating system must be i n s e r v i c e a t a l l times except during extended

outages when maintenance o r i n s p e c t i o n s a r e t o be performed on a p r e c i p i t a t o r .
A f t e r an extended o u t a g e , h e a t e r s a r e u s u a l l y energized a t l e a s t e i g h t hours
before start-up.
Hopper V i b r a t o r s

Many u t i l i t i e s r e q u i r e t h a t each ash hopper be provided with an e l e c t r i c or

a i r d r i v e n v i b r a t o r , usually of t h e type with an i n t e r n a l v i b r a t i n g p l a t e
mechanism, t o a s s i s t evacuation of t h e hopper. Vibrators help i n prevent
b r i d g i n g and so-called r a t - h o l e s when t h e i r o p e r a t i o n i s p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d
(43). When automatic o p e r a t i o n i s d e s i r e d , v i b r a t o r s should be o p e r a t e d by
ash evacuation c o n t r o l s t o ensure t h a t hoppers v i b r a t e only when t h e ash
removal valve has a c t u a l l y opened (44). However, i f damp o r s t i c k y a s h i s
p r e s e n t , v i b r a t o r s should be operated only a f t e r t h e hopper has been
evacuated. I f used during e v a c u a t i o n , v i b r a t o r s may aggravate a b o r d e r l i n e
p u l l i n g s t u a t i o n by f u r t h e r compacting s t i c k y ash (5).

V i b r a t o r s should be capable of being manually operated on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s

which wil g r e a t l y a s s i s t maintenance personnel when manual e v a c u a t i o n o r
t e s t i n g and maintenance s i t u a t i o n s a r e encountered (43).

Should i t be decided, a f t e r a review o f t h e ash p r o p e r t i e s and hopper d e s i g n ,

t h a t v i b r a t o r s a r e not required or a r e perhaps n o t d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n a t hand, a s a minimum, t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n should r e q u e s t t h a t
v i b r a t o r mounting p r o v i s i o n s be included in t h e hopper d e s i g n . This will
f a c i l i t a t e t h e r e t r o f i t of v i b r a t o r s a t a f u t u r e d a t e should t h e i r u s e be
warranted.

Hopper A e r a t o r s

Hopper a e r a t o r s a r e ash f l u i d i z i n g d e v i c e s which can help hopper e v a c u a t i o n ,

provided t h a t they a r e well-maintained, continuously monitored, and s u p p l i e d
with d r y a i r preheated above t h e moisture dewpoint. I f t h e s e requirements a r e
not met, hopper a e r a t o r s can aggravate evacuation problem: by c a u s i n g t h e ash
t o cake and by providing a d d i t i o n a l s u r f a c e a r e a f o r accumulation and
bridging (46). An a e r a t o r i s a porous membrane ( u s u a l l y a f l u i d i z i n g s t o n e )
which a l l o w s p r e s s u r i z e d a i r f l o w through i t t o be uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d t o the
ash above. By f l u i d i z i n g t h e ash above i t , t h e a e r a t o r e s t a b l i s h e s an
e f f e c t i v e discharge diameter l a r g e enough t h a t r a t holing and ash b r i d g i n g
cannot o c c u r .

A e r a t o r s a r e u s u a l l y operated when t h e hopper i s being evacuated. Unlike

v i b r a t o r s , t h e i r continuous use w i l l n o t compact t h e a s h ; however, o n l y t h e
most severe o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s (high ash c o n t e n t and a s t i c k y a s h ) j u s t i f y
t h e continuous use of hopper a e r a t o r s .

A e r a t o r s should not be considered when t h e r e i s high p o t e n t i a l f o r f i r e and/or

explosion within t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

Hopper Pokeholes and Anvils

Each hopper should be provided with two capped pokeholes, and two pounding
a n v i l s near t h e hopper o u t l e t t o permit manual c l e a n i n g of blockages a t t h e
hopper d i s c h a r g e .

Hopper Level I n d i c a t o r s

Level i n d i c a t o r s a r e provided in each hopper t o a l e r t o p e r a t i n g personnel t o

i n e f f e c t i v e ash removal o r t o abnormal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Overfilling a
hopper can cause e l e c t r o d e s t o break, bus s e c t i o n s t o s h o r t o u t , and damage t o
e l e c t r o d e support systems.

The l o c a t i o n of l e v e l i n d i c a t o r s i s s e l e c t e d so t h a t t h e hopper ash l e v e l w i l l

remain below t h e i n d i c a t o r when t h e ash removal system i s o p e r a t i n g normally.
I f they a r e placed t o o high, they may be i n a c c e s s i b l e f o r p e r i o d i c t e s t i n g ,
i n s p e c t i o n and maintenance, and/or be s u b j e c t e d t o high temperatures which can
cause f a i l u r e o r decreased accuracy. I t i s most h e l p f u l t o p l a n t operating
personnel when l e v e l d e t e c t o r placement i s - c o o r d i n a t e d with t h e hopper access
platform system during t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of d e s i g n .

In t h e p a s t , many e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r u s e r s experienced u n r e l i a b l e ash

l e v e l i n d i c a t i o n s and sporadic f a l s e alarms which caused o p e r a t o r s t o m i s t r u s t
alarms, and l e v e l i n d i c a t o r systems f e l l i n t o d i s u s e . Noncontacting
nuclear-type l e v e l i n d i c a t o r s have solved some of t h e shortcomings of t h e
p r e v i o u s l y used electromechanical t y p e s and a r e now being s p e c i f i e d and used
more f r e q u e n t l y (43).

Each hopper should have a t l e a s t one nuclear-type level i n d i c a t o r mounted

directly to i t . I n d i c a t o r s should be designed f o r continuous o p e r a t i o n a t an
ambient temperature of 200°F. When a s i n g l e l e v e l i n d i c a t o r i s used, i t
should be so l o c a t e d a s t o provide a one- t o four-hour warning p r i o r t o
reaching a hopper overflow level which would s h o r t o u t an e l e c t r i c a l bus
s e c t i o n . When two l e v e l s of d e t e c t o r s a r e used on l a r g e c a p a c i t y hoppers, t h e
f i r s t l e v e ? alarm may provide 8 hours of warning time t o permit one f u l l
maintenance s h i f t f o r c l e a r i n g . The second alarm l e v e l would be s e t a t t h e
one hour l e v e l so t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t can be de-energized.
Normally, t h i s p e r i o d of time w i l l permit t h e p l a n t s t a f f t o e i t h e r c l e a r t h e
hopper o r de-energize t h e t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t . In a d d i t i o n , i n d i c a t o r s
should be so l o c a t e d t h a t f l y ash re-entrainment w i l l not occur p r i o r t o
maintenance. A remote source a c t u a t o r mechanism should be provided a d j a c e n t
t o t h e hopper a c c e s s door t o lock-out t h e n u c l e a r source heads in t h e "on" o r
"off" position. A n u c l e a r source head should a l s o be spring-loaded t o r e t u r n
t o i t s " o f f " p o s i t i o n should t h e remote a c t u a t o r c a b l e f a i l .

Hopper M a t e r i a l s of Construction

Corrosion of hopper s i d e w a l l s can be a problem when f i r i n g medium- t o

h i g h - s u l f u r c o a l , e s p e c i a l l y during b o i l e r c y c l i n g and low-load o p e r a t i o n .
The dead g a s region l o c a t e d toward t h e t o p of t h e hopper i s most s u s c e p t i b l e
t o premature c o r r o s i o n . There a r e several ways t o provide c o r r o s i o n
protection i n thi s area:
Provide a d d i t i o n a l thermal i n s u l a t i o n on t h e hopper s i d e w a l l s .

Provide a d d i t i o n a l hopper heating elements t o maintain higher

temperatures.

Design t h e hopper s i d e w a l l s with an a d d i t i o n a ? 1/8 i n . t h i c k n e s s

f o r c o r r o s i o n allowance; hence, i f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r casing i s
f a b r i c a t e d from 1/4 i n . s t e e l , hopper s i d e w a l l s would be 3/8 i n .
thick.

O c c a s i o n a l l y , u t i l i t i e s have used ASTM A-242 ( t o r t e n ) s t e e l f o r

a d d i t i o n a l c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e ; however, t h e s t e e l manufacturer
makes no claims of a d d i t i o n a l c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e in a p r e c i p i t a t o r
environment. T h e r e f o r e , t h i s concept may n o t provide t h e measure of
p r o t e c t i o n a n t i c i p a t e d and must be approached with c a u t i o n .

The proper use of hopper h e a t e r s p r i o r t o p r e c i p i t a t o r s t a r t u p s w i l l a l s o

a s s i s t i n t h e prevention of hopper sidewall c o r r o s i o n .

Hopper Access

For a c c e s s d u r i n g maintenance, a t l e a s t one e x t e r n a l a i r t i g h t ,

key-interlocked a c c e s s door must be provided f o r each ash hopper. Two doors
f o r each hopper a l l o w a c c e s s t o both s i d e s of t h e hopper must be provided i f
t h e hopper i s d i v i d e d by an antisneakage b a f f l e .
Hinge pins on hopper access doors should be vertical. Chain safety stops
should also be provided to prevent the door from fully opening upon its
initial unlatching. This arrangement somewhat reduces the risks to
maintenance personnel in the event that hot ash has filled the hopper and
could potentially spill out in large quantity.

The ash hoppers should have an expanded-surface maintenance deck situated

directly below them and permanent ladders and maintenance platforms for access
to all hopper appurtenances, doors, vibrators, aerators, pokeholes, pounding
anvils, and level indicators. On smaller precipitator installations,
consideration may be given to using a portable elevated work platform for
access to hopper appurtenances. This concept, however, tends to discourage
frequent, routine maintenance checks or walkdowns due to the inconvenience of
moving the platform. Therefore, this concept i s not recommended for use on
any unit.

Hopper Enclosure
Weather enclosures for the ash hopper areas are suggested to reduce heat loss
from the hoppers due to high winds and low temperatures and for protection of
hopper accessories and ash handling equipment. Enclosures also allow
inspection and maintenance of equipment under protected conditions (46). A
hopper enclosure should be ventilated by side wall fans, but it does not
require heating and air conditioning.

Ash Handling System and Precipitator Interface

All equipment located below the hopper outlet flange, including expansion
joints and emergency cut-off slide gates, is normally supplied by the ash
handling system manufacturer.

Occasionally, small diameter vents are required in hopper sidewalls to

facilitate the venting of hopper valves. Hopper level indicators, aerators,
and vibrators should have spare input/output contacts for use in the ash
handling controls system.

It is imperative that ash be removed from the hoppers as continuously as

possible so that the ash may remain hot and loose (9) . practice also
This
reduces the potential for hopper ash re-entrainment.
THERMAL INSULATION SYSTEM

Thermal I n s u l a t i o n

Thermal i n s u l a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d t o keep a l l i n t e r n a l m e t a l surfaces t h a t a r e

i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e f l u e gas s a f e l y above the a c i d dew p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e and
f o r personnel p r o t e c t i o n when e x t e r n a l o r i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s a r e p r e s e n t i n
work a r e a s .

I n s u l a t i o n s h o u l d be m i n e r a l wool b l o c k s , b a t t s , o r b l a n k e t s o f a p p r o p r i a t e
thickness. The temperatures o f s u r f a c e s l o c a t e d o u t d o o r s and a c c e s s i b l e t o
c o n t a c t by personnel should n o t exceed 140°F under expected outdoor ambient
conditions. I n c o n f i n e d areas, s u r f a c e s should n o t exceed 140°F when exposed
t o t h e maximum ambient temperature. A l l i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s should conform
t o t h e l a t e s t ASTM standards. Asbestos o r asbestos b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e n o t
acceptable. (See page 4-17)

Any i n s u l a t i o n which may be walked upon should be p r o t e c t e d by road mesh,

r a i s e d walkways, o r some o t h e r s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i o n .

In cases where l a g g i n g i s n o t a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y o v e r t h e i n s u l a t i o n , a
s u p p o r t i n g w i r e mesh shou7d be i n s t a l l e d a g a i n s t t h e c o l d face of t h e
i n s u l a t i o n and h e l d by a second speed c l i p . S u p p o r t i n g mesh can be e i t h e r
aluminum b e a r i n g metal l a t h o r expanded diamond mesh l a t h . A l l seams o f mesh
should be t i e d w i t h hog-ring c l i p s .

Access d o o r s should be p r o v i d e d w i t h i n s u l a t e d covers and/or a second door t o

p r e v e n t l o c a l i z e d c o o l i n g , condensation, o r c o r r o s i o n a t t h e door. Support
s t e e l s h o u l d n o t be enclosed i n i n s u l a t i o n .

Laqgi n q

Unless c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a weather e n c l o s u r e , thermal i n s u l a t i o n s h o u l d be

p r o t e c t e d by weatherproof l a g g i n g . The o u t e r l a g g i n g shoujd have a
weatherproof f i n i s h . A l l outdoor l a g g i n g should be capable o f w i t h s t a n d i n g
wind load, a p p l i c a b l e l i v e l o a d s , and snow load, and s h o u l d be sloped f o r
proper d r a i n a g e .
P r e c i p i t a t o r t e s t i n g i s usually conducted f o r one o r more of t h e following
reasons
To determine whether an equipment s u p p l i e r ' s performance guarantees
have been s a t i s f i e d .

To determine whether t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i s in compliance w i t h t h e

emissions l i m i t a t i o n s of a p p l i c a b l e a i r p o l l u t i o n codes.

To determine .whether t h e design of a s p e c i f i c component i s in

conformance with t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

To determine whether t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r has been properly f a b r i c a t e d

and i n s t a l l e d in accordance with t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

During t h e execution of a s i n g l e p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r a c t , hundreds of individual

t e s t s may be performed. They range from r o u t i n e shop t e s t s of m a t e r i a l s ,
welds, and e l e c t r i c a l components, t o e l a b o r a t e f i e l d t e s t programs f o r
measuring p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. The l a t t e r may i n c l u d e over t e n
simultaneously performed t e s t i n g and sampling procedures, c a r r i e d o u t under
controlled generating conditions. The t e s t program might extend f o r s e v e r a l
weeks.

All t e s t i n g deemed necessary by a u t i l i t y must be c l e a r l y s p e l l e d o u t in t h e

precipitator specification. I t i s suggested t h a t t h e following t e s t r e l a t e d
information be included:
T e s t procedures

Responsible t e s t i n g p a r t y and u t i l i t y i n t e r f a c e procedure

Required t e s t r e s u l t s f o r compliance with s p e c i f i c a t i o n s

Procedures f o r r e p o r t i n g t e s t r e s u l t s t o t h e purchaser

Testing t i m e t a b l e , including t e s t p r e r e q u i s i t e s and purchaser

w i t n e s s n o t i f i c a t i o n ( i f necessary)

Consequences of a t e s t f a i l u r e .

S p e c i f i c a t i o n of a t e s t procedure may be, in i t s s i m p l e s t f o r m a t , a r e f e r e n c e

t o a s t a n d a r d t e s t procedure. Standard t e s t procedures a r e published by t h e
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency ( E P A ) , t h e American S o c i e t y of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), t h e American Society f o r T e s t i n g and M a t e r i a l s (ASTM), t h e
I n d u s t r i a l Gas Cleaning I n s t i t u t e (IGCI) and o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
On t h e
o t h e r hand, i f t h e t e s t i s wholly non-standard, t h e complete procedure must be
l i s t e d in t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n . I f t h e d e s i r e d t e s t procedure i s a
v a r i a t i o n of a standard t e s t procedure, a l l necessary m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e
standard procedure should be d e s c r i b e d . I f t h e d e s i r e d t e s t procedure i s a
standard t e s t procedure which i n c o r p o r a t e s c e r t a i n o p t i o n a l s t e p s , t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n must d e s c r i b e which options a r e a p p l i c a b l e . In any
e v e n t , each t e s t s p e c i f i e d must be t r a c e a b l e t o an unambiguous, w r i t t e n
procedure.

Performance c r i t e r i a , i . e . t h e t e s t r e s u l t s required f o r compliance, should be

included i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n i f t h e s e a r e not a l r e a d y s p e c i f i e d
i n referenced standard t e s t procedures.

The consequences of a f a i l e d test should be c l e a r l y s p e l l e d o u t . Test

f a i l u r e s u s u a l l y r e s u l t i n commercial p e n a l t i e s and/or an extended t i m e t a b l e
f o r t h e purpose of implementing c o r r e c t i v e measures and r e t e s t i n g . The
t i m e t a b l e , p e r m i s s i b l e c o r r e c t i v e measures, and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e t e s t i n g
expenses should be s t a t e d i n a p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

T e s t s which a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s u c c e s s of a p r e c i p i t a t o r i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e :
Flowmodeling

Rapping t e s t s : a c c e l e r a t e d l i f e t e s t and rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n t e s t

F i e l d leakage t e s t

. Field velocity distribution t e s t

F i e l d performance t e s t s : p r e s s u r e drop, i n l e t and o u t l e t
p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , s t a c k v i s i b l e emissions, power
consumption and f l u e gas temperature drop.

Nearly a l l of t h e s e t e s t s have e i t h e r non-standard t e s t procedures o r a r e

m o d i f i c a t i o n s of s t a n d a r d t e s t procedures; hence, t h e i r proper s p e c i f i c a t i o n
is critical. There have been many i n s t a n c e s in t h e r e c e n t p a s t such t h a t
incomplete s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e tests has downgraded o r negated t h e i r value
from both a design v e r i f i c a t i o n s t a n d p o i n t and a c o n t r a c t u a l s t a n d p o i n t .

flow Modeling
Geometric model t e s t s of f l u i d flow systems a r e f r e q u e n t l y undertaken a s an
aid t o designers. Geometric a i r flow models, u s u a l l y 1/16th t o 1/8th s c a l e
p l e x i g l a s s models, have been used t o a s s i s t i n t h e d e s i g n o f e l e c t r o s t a t i c
p r e c i p i t a t o r systems s i n c e 1947.

The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f p r e c i p i t a t o r f l o w m o d e l i n g i s t o o b t a i n t h e maximum
p o s s i b l e c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y f r o m a p r e c i p i t a t o r b y p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l i n g gas
f l o w f i e l d s w i t h i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber. Gas s t r e a m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t
can be e v a l u a t e d i n a g e o m e t r i c a i r f l o w model a r e :
Gas f l o w ( i . e . , v e l o c i t y ) u n i f o r m i t y between c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e
p l a t e s w i t h i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r chamber.

Hopper f l y ash r e e n t r a i n m e n t p o t e n t i a l .

Gas t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( b y use o f s p e c i a l p r o c e d u r e s ) .

Secondary o b j e c t i v e s o f p r e c i p i t a t o r f l o w m o d e l i n g a r e t o p r e d i c t p r e s s u r e
l o s s e s t h r o u g h t h e modeled system and t o p r e v e n t a r e a s o f p o t e n t i a l d u s t
d r o p o u t on h o r i z o n t a l f l u e s u r f a c e s w i t h i n t h e modeled system.

I t i s now w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a model s t u d y i s e s s e n t i a l b e f o r e t h e
precipitator i s built. The c o s t o f c o n d u c t i n g a model s t u d y d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n
stage i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t when compared t o t h e expense o f f i n d i n g and c o r r e c t i n g
problems i n t h e f i e l d . I t has been d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c o r r e c t i n g an e x i s t i n g
i n s t a l l a t i o n can c o s t r o u g h l y t e n t o f i f t e e n t i m e s t h e c o s t o f p e r f o r m i n g a
d e s i g n s t a g e model s t u d y ( 2 ) .T h e r e a r e two o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e
d e c i s i o n t o c o n d u c t a d e s i g n s t a g e model s t u d y :
Gas f l o w u n i f o r m i t y becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r
p r e c i p i t a t o r o p e r a t i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s i n e x c e s s o f 99 p e r c e n t .
Because o f t h e t e n d e n c y f o r t h e f i n e r p a r t i c l e s t o more c l o s e l y
f o l l o w t h e gas f l o w s t r e a m l i n e s , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e d need f o r
a l m o s t t o t a l s u p p r e s s i o n o f gas b y p a s s i n g and h o p p e r sweepage.

System p r e s s u r e d r o p can be m i n i m i z e d b y u s i n g t h e model t o l o c a t e

a r e a s o f maximum dynamic l o s s e s . Today, t h i s has become a more
i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f m o d e l i n g because p r e s s u r e l o s s i s w o r t h i n
e x c e s s o f $:00,000 p e r 0.10 i n WC o v e r t h e l i f e o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t e c h n i q u e s used i n model s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d p r i o r t o t h e
m i d - s e v e n t i e s may have been d e f i c i e n t i n some a s p e c t ; a s a r e s u l t , t h e
p r e d i c t i v e value of these past studies suffered g r e a t l y . Since the
mid-seventies, g r e a t e r c a r e has been used t o e n s u r e t h a t dynamic s i m i l i t u d e
e x i s t s between t h e g e o m e t r i c model and t h e f u l l - s c a l e system. T h i s concern
has been due i n p a r t t o t h e now w i d e s p r e a d p r a c t i c e o f c o n d u c t i n g a c c u r a t e
f i e l d v e l o c i t y surveys of f u l l - s c a l e i n s t a l l a t i o n s in o r d e r t o v e r i f y t h e
f i n d i n g s of model s t u d i e s .

Appendix I c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n of model t h e o r y , flow c r i t e r i a s e l e c t i o n ,

and t e s t methods.

Rapping T e s t s

Electrode rapping i s an important s t e p i n t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n

process, and rappers must f u n c t i o n i n a highly e f f e c t i v e , p r e d i c t a b l e , and
r e l i a b l e manner. A u t i l i t y can p r o t e c t i t s e l f from d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h i s a r e a
by r e q u i r i n g a p p r o p r i a t e rapper t e s t i n g i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

Many f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and r e l i a b i l i t y of e l e c t r o d e
rapping. The design of discharge e l e c t r o d e frames and r a p p e r s along w i t h
c o l l e c t i o n e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s and rappers v a r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from s u p p l i e r t o
s u p p l i e r . As might be expected, c e r t a i n designs a r e i n h e r e n t l y more e f f e c t i v e
and/or r e l i a b l e than o t h e r s . The c o l l e c t i o n of high r e s i s t i v i t y f l y ash i s a
procedure t h a t many c o n s i d e r t o r e q u i r e high i n t e n s i t y rapping and rugged,
fatigue-resistant electrodes. Some c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o rapping
a c c e l e r a t i o n s of lOOg o r more, zero t o peak, measured normal t o t h e p l a t e .
C o l l e c t i o n of moderate t o ?ow r e s i s t i v i t y f l y ash consequently r e q u i r e s a
lower i n t e n s i t y rapping force. Another f a c t o r t h a t i n f l u e n c e s rapping i s t h e
i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t o d e s i z e over t h e p a s t ten y e a r s . Where 36 f t p l a t e s used t o
be t h e upper l i m i t , s u p p l i e r s now o f f e r 50 f t p l a t e s . These e n l a r g e d
e l e c t r o d e s can pose problems with rapping i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , c l e a n i n g
e f f e c t i v e n e s s , and p l a t e support f a t i g u e f a i l u r e s .

Two t e s t s e n a b l e an equipment s u p p l i e r t o demonstrate t h a t t h e i r proposed

rapping system i s adequate f o r i t s intended duty: rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n t e s t s
and a c c e l e r a t e d l i f e t e s t .

Unfortunately, t h e t e s t i n g requirements and procedures a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s e

t e s t s have n o t been e s t a b l i s h e d on an i n d u s t r y wide b a s i s . These t e s t s a r e
e x c l u s i v e l y conducted by s u p p l i e r s i n t e s t towers c o n t a i n i n g a l i m i t e d amount
of f u l l - s c a l e p r e c i p i t a t o r components, u s u a l l y c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e s ,
discharge e l e c t r o d e s , and rapping systems. S u p p l i e r ' s r e p o r t s on p r i o r
t e s t i n g of i d e n t i c a l a s s e m b l i e s , which i n d i c a t e t h a t a11 of t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n
r e q u i r e m e n t s have been met, i s u s u a l l y accepted by a u t i l i t y a s s a t i s f a c t o r y
f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e i n t e n t of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n . Rarely h a s a
u t i l i t y had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o w i t n e s s a t e s t o r t o comment on t e s t i n g
procedures.

Appendix I1 c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n of methods f o r rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n and

accelerated l i f e testing.

F i e l d Leakage T e s t

Leak t e s t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s and a s s o c i a t e d ductwork i s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e

f i e l d a s soon a s t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g and ductwork envelope a r e i n t a c t .
Leak t e s t i n g can be a l e n g t h y and demanding p r o c e s s , and a r e a s o n a b l e amount
of planning and expense i s r e q u i r e d t o ensure t i m e l y , c o n c l u s i v e t e s t
results. Sometimes, s p e c i f i e d l e a k t e s t i n g i s waived because a s i t u a t i o n i s
reviewed d u r i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r e r e c t i o n and i t i s determined t h a t p o t e n t i a l
b e n e f i t s a r e outweighed by c o s t . Under normal c i r c u m s t a n c e s , however, t h e
f i e l d l e a k a g e t e s t i s a c o s t e f f e c t i v e method f o r a v o i d i n g long term problems,
c o s t l y f i e l d r e p a i r s , and p o t e n t i a l f o r c e d o u t a g e s .

The procedure f o r f i e l d l e a k t e s t i n g has not been s t a n d a r d i z e d on an i n d u s t r y

wide b a s i s . Although t h e r e a r e numerous recognized t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , t y p i c a l
c o n c e p t s f o r a f i e l d leakage t e s t a r e a s f o l l o w s (2):

A l e a k t e s t s h a l l be performed p r i o r t o a p p l i c a t i o n of thermal
i n s u l a t i o n , a f t e r s l a g has been removed from t h e welds, and b e f o r e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a f f o l d i n g i s removed.

Temporary d u c t blanking p l a t e s , i f r e q u i r e d , a r e u s u a l l y s u p p l i e d
by t h e u t i l i t y . S u i t a b l e pipe plugs o r b l a n k i n g p l a t e s f o r t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r bushing a i r supply system a r e u s u a l l y provided by t h e
precipitator supplier.

The p r e c i p i t a t o r and ductwork a r e p r e s s u r i z e d t o a leakage t e s t

p r e s s u r e , t y p i c a i l y about 10 i n . WC. A f t e r t h e t e s t p r e s s u r e i s
s t a b i l i z e d , a p r e s s u r e decay r a t e i s measured. I f t h e decay r a t e
exceeds a s p e c i f i e d c r i t e r i a , u s u a l l y 10 p e r c e n t p r e s s u r e drop
w i t h i n 10 minutes, l e a k s must be l o c a t e d and r e p a i r e d u n t i l t h e
criteria i s satisfied.
There a r e s e v e r a l f i e l d t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h can be used t o l o c a t e l e a k s . One i s
t o r e p r e s s u r i z e t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r and d u c t w o r k and s e t o f f smoke bombs i n s i d e
t h e d u c t w h i l e t h e equipment i s u n d e r c o n s t a n t v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n . The use o f
v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n approaches, however, may n o t be p r a c t i c a l on l a r g e
installations. A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e i s t o u s e a vacuum b o x . This device
s u b j e c t s a s m a l l a r e a ( u s u a l l y a b o u t one s q u a r e f o o t ) t o a p a r t i a l vacuum.
Sometimes hundreds o f i n d i v i d u a l vacuum box t e s t s must be c o n d u c t e d b e f o r e a l l
leaks a r e i d e n t i f i e d .

A n o t h e r approach t o l e a k t e s t i n g i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e l o s s
e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e f l u e gas a s i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r system.
Temperature l o s s w o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d and g u a r a n t e e d by t h e s u p p l i e r and s e t
f o r t h i n t h e c o n t r a c t ; t h i s c o n c e p t t h e n d e f i n e s an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l o f a i r
infiltration.

It may be w o r t h w h i l e f o r a u t i l i t y t o use a c o m b i n a t i o n o f methods t o p r o v i d e

t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e and schedule-aware approach t o f i e l d l e a k t e s t i n g .
The p e r f o r m a n c e o f such t e s t s r e q u i r e c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n among t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
s u p p l i e r , t h e c o n t r a c t o r , and t h e u t i l i t y ; i t i s suggested t h a t t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n c l e a r l y s p e l l o u t each p a r t y ' s r e s p o n s i b i I i t i e s .

Field Velocity Distribution Test

S i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 1 s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r s have
i n c l u d e d f i e l d v e l o c i t y surveys o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i n p r e - s t a r t u p
procedures. The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e f i e l d t e s t s have been used t o v e r i f y t h e
a c c u r a c y o f f l o w m o d e l i n g and t o a s s i s t s t a r t u p e n g i n e e r s i n i d e n t i f y i n g
p o t e n t i a l problem areas should a p r e c i p i t a t o r performance problem a r i s e .

The p r i m a r y g o a l o f f i e l d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t i n g i s t o measure t h e
degree o f v e l o c i t y f l o w u n i f o r m i t y i n s i d e a p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber. This i s
u s u a l l y done by g u i d i n g s u i t a b l e v e l o c i t y measuring d e v i c e s u p and down t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r ' s e l e c t r o d e s a t p r e - s e l e c t e d t e s t l o c a t i o n s d u r i n g cold-flow fan
operation. V e l o c i t y probe p o s i t i o n i n g r i g s normally use d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s
o r c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s t o c e n t e r and a l i g n t h e flow sensing element. The
c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e s e p o s i t i o n i n g r i g s w i l l be a f u n c t i o n of e l e c t r o d e
design, i . e . , weighted wire o r r i g i d e l e c t r o d e . Secondary g o a l s of t h i s
t e s t i n g a r e t o measure t h e d e g r e e of u n i f o r m i t y of ductwork flow p a t t e r n s and
t h e degree of p r e c i p i t a t o r hopper flow a c t i v i t y .

Appendix 4C c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e methodology f o r f i e l d v e l o c i t y
distribution testing.

F i e l d Performance T e s t s

P r e c i p i t a t o r performance t e s t s a r e conducted f o r t h e purpose of proving t h a t

t h e performance g u a r a n t e e o r r e q u i r e m e n t s of a p p l i c a b l e a i r p o l l u t i o n
r e g u l a t i o n s a r e met. Performance t e s t i n g h i s t o r i c a l l y c e n t e r s on t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a p r e c i p i t a t o r ' s p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s ; however, t o d a y ' s
p r e c i p i t a t o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s a l s o r e q u i r e performance t e s t s f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s :
stack visual emissions

p r e s s u r e drop a c r o s s t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r / f l u e gas system

system power consumption

f l u e g a s temperature d r o p .

While p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s and s t a c k v i s u a l emissions t e s t i n g have

s t a n d a r d i z e d p r o c e d u r e s , t h e remainder of t h e above t e s t s a r e not f u l l y
s t a n d a r d i z e d on an industry-wide b a s i s . In view of the economic p e n a l t i e s
u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e f a i l u r e of a p r e c i p i t a t o r performance t e s t , i t i s
e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e procedures be unambiguously s p e c i f i e d i n p r e c i p i t a t o r
specifications.

Appendix 40 c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e performance t e s t procedures f o r

s t a c k v i s u a l e m i s s i o n s , p r e s s u r e d r o p , power consumption and f l u e gas
temperature drop.
 5 SPECIFICATION OF
ELECTRICAL/CONTROL FEATURES
 Section 5
SPECIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL/CONTROL FEATURES

This section presents information regarding the preparation and organization

of a technical specification for the instrumentation, controls and electrical
components associated with an electric utility electrostatic precipitator. It
is not the intent of this section to provide the actual wording to be used in
a prospective specification, but rather to be illustrative of technical
features and issues which should be addressed. Actual wording should be
developed by a utility's Instrumentation and Controls Engineering and
Electrical Engineering departments. With the involvement of utility engineers
in these design areas, a utility can be assured that its interests and
philosophy will be incorporated into the precipitator control system.

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
When specifying the electrical portion of a total ESP system, a utility's
general philosophy should be considered. Particularly on new plant
applications, compatibility with other major electrical systems should be
considered. Benefits of compatibility of an ESP's electrical components with
other plant equipment will become apparent during construction, training of
plant personnel, operation, maintenance and maintaining a spare parts
inventory. A?so, consistency in control equipment and philosophy can make
possible a p1 ant-wide information system capable of retrieving data from each
individual subsystem to be compiled for plant performance evaluation,
maintenance and troubleshooting programs, and historical record keeping.

Electrical Power Systems

The scope of equipment and services which are specified to be provided by the
ESP supplier in the area of electrical power systems varies among different
utilities. Some utilities choose to allow the ESP supplier to design,
procure, and install all electrical equipment associated with the
precipitator; others prefer to keep portions of this work in house i n varying
degrees. The purpose o f this section is not to recommend the specific scope
of supply for the ESP, but to enable a utility engineer to make intelligent
decisions regarding t h e specification of this type of equipment. It is
assumed that a utility's engineers are experienced in specifying general
electrical power equipment, and that they will be aware of the codes and
regulations that must be met for this equipment. The major emphasis of th
section, therefore, will be directed toward the specification of electrica
power equipment unique to an ESP.

The electrical power system for a utility's ESP installation typically

-
includes the following:
Powertransformers
- Power distribution centers
480 V power centers and associated transformers
480 V motor control centers
Transformer-rectifier sets and controls
Auxiliary electrical equipment and controIs
120/208 V lighting and power panels and a ssociated transformers
Grounding system
Lighting system
Cable, cable trays and conduit
Communication system
Interface terminal boxes.

In precipitator specifications, a utility engineer must carefully define the

scope of electrical supply to be provided by an ESP supplier. The
specifications should clearly state what is included as well as what i s nat
included in the ESP supplier's scope o f responsibility. Electrical interface
points between the supplier and the utility must also be clearly defined.

Electrical and control equipment design considerations will be discussed in

more detail later in this section; however, as a matter of design philosophy,
utility electrostatic precipitator specifications should require that
electrical systems be designed to be operational during plant startup, normal
operation, and shutdown. During all operating modes, an ESP electrical system
w i l l u s u a l l y r e c e i v e power from s e p a r a t e sources i n t h e main p l a n t ' s
e l e c t r i c a l a u x i l i a r y system. For t h i s reason, t h e ESP e l e c t r i c a l system m u s t
be capable of expected p l a n t o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e s . Usually, e l e c t r i c a l
components and c o n t r o l systems should be o p e r a b l e and p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g f o r
t y p i c a l power supply v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e following ranges:
AC Power - Range of (+) 10 p e r c e n t , ( - ) 10 percent long d u r a t i o n
and ( - ) 20 percent f o r a period not t o exceed 1 minute ( 6 . 6 kV b a s e )

DC Power - Range of ( + ) 1 2 percent and ( - ) 16 p e r c e n t .

Central versus Localized Control

The e v o l u t i o n of e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r o l systems over t h e y e a r s

l e d t o t h e development of two design philosophies which a r e i n use today. The
f i r s t , l o c a l i z e d c o n t r o l , has been t h e dominant philosophy throughout t h e
h i s t o r y of ESPs. Localized control of an ESP i n c o r p o r a t e s a s e p a r a t e l o c a l
c o n t r o l device f o r each t r a n s f o r r n e r - r e c t i f i e r and each a u x i l i a r y system
rapping system, hopper h e a t e r s , e t c . These c o n t r o i l e r s c o n t a i n a17 required
l o g i c t o perform t h e i r s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n s and can o p e r a t e completely
independent of o t h e r c o n t r o l l e r s . A f a i l u r e of any s i n g l e c o n t r o l l e r w i l l
t a k e o u t of s e r v i c e only t h a t p a r t of t h e system f o r which i t i s r e s p o n s i b l e ;
t h e remainder of an ESP system w i l l continue t o o p e r a t e normally.

Only in very r e c e n t t i m e s , due t o t h e advent of microprocessor technology, has

c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l become acceptable t o t h e u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y . This c o n t r o l
scheme, which w i l l be discussed i n f u r t h e r d e t a i l l a t e r , i n c o r p o r a t e s a
supervisory c o n t r o l l e r t o overview t h e o v e r a l l system o p e r a t i o n and c o o r d i n a t e
between local c o n t r o l l e r s , when necessary, t o optimize system e f f i c i e n c y .
From t h e c e n t r a l i z e d supervisory c o n t r o l c o n s o l e , which u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s of a
microcomputer, a keyboard, a CRT, and a p r i n t e r , t h e e n t i r e ESP system can be
placed i n s e r v i c e , taken out of s e r v i c e , o r placed in automatic s t a r t u p o r
shutdown mode. A17 f u n c t i o n s of t h e local c o n t r o l l e r s a r e normally a v a i l a b l e
a t t h e supervisory console. The supervisory c o n t r o l l e r a l s o provides f o r d a t a
a c q u i s i t i o n and s t o r a g e . J u s t a s with t h e l o c a l i z e d c o n t r o l philosophy, t h e
local c o n t r o l l e r s shoujd include in a c e n t r a l i z e d design c o n t r o l a l l t h e l o g i c
r e q u i r e d t o perform t h e i r s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n s , and they w i l l o p e r a t e
independently i n t h e event of a f a i l u r e of t h e supervisory c o n t r o l l e r .
Control Room Equipment Location
The location of the control room should take into account the amount of dirt
and dust to which it may be exposed, thermal radiation, and operator
- It must be provided with an air conditioning and
convenience (100).
ventilating system that will provide, clean positive air pressure. Positive
pressure air helps prevent dirt from entering the control room. Cabinets
within the control room are usually rated NEMA 1 (general purpose) or NEMA 12
(dusttight and driptight). They can be affected by large quantities of dirt
which may impede cooling capacity by preventing proper cabinet ventilation.
Generally, control ro8ms are not located on a ground floor due to problems
with dirt. A ground floor can become extremely dust laden when maintenance
workers are servicing the fly ash handling equipment.

Other locations for a control room may be i n the main plant building, on the
precipitator roof, or between precipitator casings. In each of these
locations, care must be given not to expose the control room to excessive
thermal radiation which may cause premature failure of control equipment. The
location of the control room on or near the precipitator offers the advantage
of operator convenience and minimizes cable runs since controlling equipment
is then located near the equipment being controlled.

The precipitator control roam should be designed with the intent that it will
not require a full time operator, since the automatic control systems
available today are capable of running the system during normal operation.
Operator assistance may be required during start-up, shutdown, or abnormal
conditions, depending upon the degree of sophistication of the control
system. Therefore, all the components required to operate the system locally,
including the first and second level controls, should be located in the
precipitator control room.

A typical physical configuration o f the control system is shown on Figure 5-1,

with the following major control components located in the Precipitator

-
Control Room:
Power distribution equipment
Transformer-recti fier set control cab?nets
Rapper control cabinets
 Hopper heating c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s

Other auxi 1 i a r y equipment c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s

P r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r o l room i n p u t / o u t p u t (I/O) equipment

Supervisory system equipment.

Remote monitoring and c o n t r o l equipment should be provided f o r t h e

p r e c i p i t a t o r in t h e main b o i l e r c o n t r o l room o r o t h e r c o n t r o l room which i s
manned f u l l time t o allow p l a n t personnel t o be a l e r t e d t o abnormal
conditions. Remote devices a r e b e s t placed i n an a i r q u a l i t y control system
(AQCS) c o n t r o l room, from which f l u e g a s emissions a r e monitored f o r
compliance r e p o r t i n g and from which t h e f l u e g a s d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n system i s
monitored and c o n t r o l l e d .

Alarm and Monitoring Features

The p r e c i p i t a t o r control system should be capable of monitoring and p r o v i d i n g

a d i s p l a y o f each of t h e following v a r i a b l e s :
T r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t primary v o l t a g e

T r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t secondary v o l t a g e

Transformer-recti f ier s e t primary c u r r e n t

Transformer-rectif i e r s e t secondary c u r r e n t

T r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r set sparking r a t e

Precipitator o u t l e t opacity

I n d i v i d u a l ash hopper l e v e l

I n d i v i d u a l ash hopper h e a t e r system

I n d i v i d u a l ash hopper temperature.

Rapper s t a t u s

P r e c i p i t a t o r o u t l e t g a s temperature

The f i r s t f i v e f u n c t i o n s a i d i n checking performance and should be d i s p l a y e d

on t h e l o c a l T/R s e t c o n t r o l c a b i n e t a s well a s on t h e supervisory c o n t r o l
console.
Where a p p l i c a b l e , t h e f o l l o w i n g m i s c e l l a n e o u s i n p u t s t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r y
c o n t r o l system c a n p r o v i d e t h e o p e r a t o r w i t h t h e o v e r a l l s t a t u s o f t h e
c o m p l e t e p r e c i p i t a t o r system:
S t a t u s o f 6.9 kV b r e a k e r s (open - closed)
- S t a t u s o f 480 V power c e n t e r b r e a k e r s (open - closed)

6 . 9 kv/480 V t r a n s f o r m e r a l a r m s

HVAC system s t a t u s

F i r e p r o t e c t i o n and d e t e c t i o n system s t a t u s

G u i l l o t i n e damper p o s i t i o n and s e a l a i r b l o w e r s t a t u s

C o n t r o l power s t a t u s ( b o t h 120 V AC and 125 V DC)

I n s u l a t o r compartment h e a t i n g and v e n t i l a t i o n system s t a t u s .

The P r e c i p i t a t o r C o n t r o l Board s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h an a n n u n c i a t o r f o r
a l a r m i n g abnormal c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g equipment and/or
systems:
6 . 9 kV - 480 kV t r a n s f o r m e r s and power d i s t r i b u t i o n system

I s o l a t i o n damper s e a l a i r system

I n s u l a t o r compartment h e a t i n g and v e n t i l a t i o n system

C o n t r o l room and e l e c t r i c a l equipment room HVAC system

F i r e p r o t e c t i o n system - The f i r e p r o t e c t i o n a n d d e t e c t i o n system

a l a r m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each p r e c i p i t a t o r must b e h a r d w i r e d t o i t s
r e s p e c t i v e f i r e p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r o l b o a r d . These s i g n a l s s h o u l d a l s o
be i n p u t e d t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system d a t a bus t o be made
a v a i l a b l e on t h e CRT i n t h e AQCS c o n t r o l room o r t h e main b o i l e r
room.

The p r e c i p i t a t o r a l a r m system s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o be i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e
m i c r o p r o c e s s o r - b a s e d s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system and s h o u l d i n c l u d e c r i t i c a l
a l a r m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
aforementioned alarms. T h i s w i l l p r o v i d e t h e o p e r a t o r w i t h t h e knowledge he
needs o f t h e system s t a t u s i n t h e e v e n t o f a f a i l u r e o f t h e c o n t r o l system.
F i r s t o u t i n d i c a t i o n s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d f o r a l a r m g r o u p s where a p p r o p r i a t e .

I n t e r f a c e s w i t h O t h e r P l a n t Systems

The ESP s u p p l i e r s h o u l d be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f i n t e r f a c e
r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h c o n t r o l s and systems f u r n i s h e d w i t h o t h e r
systems procured by a u t i l i t y . The ESP s u p p l i e r should cooperate with t h e
u t i l i t y and o t h e r equipment and systems manufacturers t o o b t a i n d e f i n i t i o n of
i n t e r f a c e s in s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t o r e s o l v e any p o i n t s o r d i f f e r e n c e . ESP
s u p p l i e r s should i d e n t i f y a l l p o i n t s o f i n t e r f a c e t o t h e Purchaser p r i o r t o a
c o n t r a c t being awarded. Such i d e n t i f i c a t i o n minimizes t h e chances f o r l a t e r
misunderstandings concerning i n t e r f a c e requirements.

The e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r o l system may i n t e r f a c e with the following p l a n t systems

o r components:
Fuel management system

Opacity monitoring system

Sootblower system

Ash handting system

F i r e p r o t e c t i o n system.

ELECTRICAL AND CONTROL EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Transformer-Recti f i e r S e t s

T r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s f o r modern ESPs normally c o n s i s t of a t r a n s f o r m e r ,

c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g r e a c t o r , r e c t i f i e r s and switches a l l contained i n a f l u i d
f i l l e d t a n k which i s completely s e a l e d and s u i t a b l y prepared f o r autdoor use.

The f u n c t i o n of t h e main transformer w i t h i n t h e T/R s e t i s t o i n c r e a s e low

v o l t a g e t o t h e high v o l t a g e required by an ESP. The windings of t h e
transformer should be e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y s h i e l d e d t o p r o t e c t i v e l y d i s t r i b u t e
any sudden v o l t a g e s u r g e s t h a t occur during p r e c i p i t a t o r o p e r a t i o n . The
s h i e l d i n g should a l s o prevent adverse c a p a c i t i v e coupling between t h e primary
and secondary windings.

A c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g r e a c t o r i s u s u a l l y included with each t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r

s e t t o provide p r o t e c t i o n from e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t l e v e l s due t o s p a r k i n g and
consequent s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r . In a d d i t i o n t o providing
p r o t e c t i o n f o r the T/R s e t and c o n t r o l s , t h e c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g r e a c t o r a l s o
improves waveform and form f a c t o r . The c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g r e a c t o r i s designed
s o t h a t the s h o r t c i r c u i t c u r r e n t i s l i m i t e d t o a v a l u e s p e c i f i e d by t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n e r , u s u a l l y a maximum of 1.8 times t h e r a t e d c u r r e n t . The
c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g r e a c t o r i s connected i n s e r i e s with t h e T/R s e t primary
and can be p h y s i c a l l y located e i t h e r within t h e T/R s e t t a n k o r o u t s i d e t h e
t a n k in a s e p a r a t e enclosure.

The r e c t i f i e r i s connected a c r o s s t h e transformer secondary and c o n v e r t s AC

i n p u t t o n e g a t i v e p o l a r i t y DC o u t p u t f o r use by an ESP. S i l i c o n diode
r e c t i f i e r c e l l s a r e recommended and should be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y r a t e d f o r high
voltage operation. S u i t a b l e low-loss impedance should be included a s r e q u i r e d
t o l i m i t c a p a c i t a n c e discharge c u r r e n t t o values within t h e r e c t i f i e r c e l l
rating. S i l i c o n type r e c t i f i e r s should e i t h e r be s e l f - p r o t e c t i n g avalanche
r e c t i f i e r s o r should be p a r a l l e l e d with s u i t a b l e c a p a c i t o r s o r c a p a c i t o r and
r e s i s t o r networks t o suppress low frequency t r a n s i e n t s and t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e
e f f e c t s of s t e e p voltage wave forms on long r e c t i f i e r s t r i n g s t h a t may be
impressed on t h e c i r c u i t during switching o r sparking. P r o t e c t i o n sbould be
a t l e a s t adequate t o permit each leg of t h e r e c t i f i e r t o withstand a standard
1-1/2 by 49 microsecond impulse v o l t a g e wave equal t o t h e peak i n v e r s e v o l t a g e
r a t i n g of each r e c t i f i e r c e l l times t h e number of c e l l s used in each l e g .
Avalanche-type r e c t i f i e r s may be used without surge suppression networks.
Avalanche c e l l s should be adequately r a t e d t o withstand expected momentary
power surges and t o operate in t h e avalanche region w i t h o u t damage.

An e x t e r n a l , heavy-duty, non-fused disconnect/grounding switch should be

provided f o r t h e purpose of d i s c o n n e c t i n g t h e T/R s e t from t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
and grounding t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r bus s e c t i o n . A v i s i b l e a i r gap i s recommended
f o r s a f e t y of maintenance personnel. The v i s i b l e gap may be obtained by use
of an exposed b l a d e d i s c o n n e c t . s w i t c h i n conjunction w i t h a viewing window i n
t h e enclosure.

Each t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r assembly should be mounted i n a heavy gauge welded

s t e e l tank designed f o r a minimum of 7 psig t e s t p r e s s u r e and f u l l vacuum.
The u n i t should be adequately s e a l e d t o prevent contamination of i n s u l a t i o n
and t h e coojing medium. Outdoor type c o n s t r u c t i o n should be used. Access
should be provided t o a l l i n t e r n a l 5 through w a t e r t i g h t c o v e r s f o r e a s e of
maintenance and r e p a i r . Each t a n k should be provided w i t h a plugged bottom
o i l d r a i n va1 ve and a sampling valve f o r t h e i n s u l a t i n g l i q u i d .

Each T/R s e t should be equipped with a low v o l t a g e j u n c t i o n box t o house a l l

low voltage i nput bushings a s well a s metering feedback bushings and
terminal s .
A s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y o f i n s u l a t i n g f l u i d s h o u l d be f u r n i s h e d t o f i l l t h e T/R
tanks t o t h e proper l e v e l r e q u i r e d f o r operation. The u t i l i t y s h o u l d s p e c i f y ,
according t o i t s preference, e i t h e r o x i d a t i o n r e s i s t a n t o i l o r s i l i c o n e
f7uid. R-Temp f l u i d i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n .

The T/R s e t s h o u l d b e e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l i t e m s :
High voltage bushings

L i q u i d l e v e l gauge

Temperature gauge

P r e s s u r e vacuum gauge

Voltage m u l t i p l i e r and surge a r r e s t o r

Top f i l l h o l e w i t h p r e s s u r e r e 1 i e f v a l v e .

The T/R s e t s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h s u i t a b l e means f o r l i f t i n g by e i t h e r a

hoist o r a fork lift.

I n c l u d e d i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e ESP s h o u l d b e a c o l l e c t i o n pan u n d e r each T/R

s e t o r g r o u p o f T/R s e t s w h i c h c o n t a i n s a l l l i q u i d r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e T/R t a n k
i n the event o f a rupture o r explosion. Each pan s h o u l d be e q u i p p e d w i t h a
d r a i n s i z e d t o h a n d l e 0.3 gpm p e r square f o o t o f s u r f a c e a r e a (3" minimum
d i arneter).

Hopper H e a t e r s

Each h o p p e r s h o u l d be e q u i p p e d w i t h m o d u l a r e l e c t r i c h e a t i n g e l e m e n t s
a t t a c h e d t o t h e o u t s i d e s u r f a c e between t h e h o p p e r and t h e t h e r m a l i n s u l a t i o n
t o p r e v e n t m o i s t u r e a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t f l y ash s o l i d i f i c a t i o n . Use
o f r o d , h a i r p i n , and/or M I c a b l e h e a t e r s s h o u l d b e p r o h i b i t e d s i n c e i m p r o p e r
l o c a t i o n c o u l d cause l o c a l h o t s p o t s w i t h i n t h e hopper. S u r f a c e s on t o w h i c h
h e a t i n g e l e m e n t s a r e t o b e mounted s h o u l d be f r e e o f w e l d i n g s p l a t t e r a n d / o r
beads and a n y o t h e r m a t e r i a l w h i c h w o u l d p r e v e n t f u 7 l f a c e c o n t a c t between t h e
h e a t i n g e l e m e n t and t h e h o p p e r s u r f a c e . Hopper h e a t i n g s h o u l d be u n i f o r m l y
2
d i s t r i b u t e d i n terms o f w a t t d f t o v e r t h e l o w e r 33 t o 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e
e n t i r e h o p p e r s u r f a c e a r e a , zoned i n t o t w o l e v e l s , and s h o u l d m a i n t a i n t h e
h e a t i n g d e n s i t i e s and h o p p e r t e m p e r a t u r e s d e v e l o p e d i n S e c t i o n 4. In
a d d i t i o n , a h e a t e r s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d a r o u n d t h e hopper t h r o a t and c o n t r o l l e d
b y t h e zone l o c a t e d a d j a c e n t t o i t .
Control Cabinets

In g e n e r a l , t h e l o c a l c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s f o r c o n t r o l of t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r
s e t s , rappers, hopper h e a t e r s , and o t h e r a u x i l i a r y may be t h e ESP s u p p l i e r ' s
s t a n d a r d d e s i g n , modified a s necessary t o achieve t h e c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s
d e s c r i b e d in the s p e c i f i c a t i o n . A c o n t r o l system should be designed and
i n s t a l l e d so t h a t normal c o n t r o l s f o r t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s , r a p p e r s , and
hopper h e a t e r s , and o t h e r a u x i l i a r y equipment w i l l f u n c t i o n independently i f
t h e microprocessor-based supervisory c o n t r o l system should f a i l .

The l o c a l control c a b i n e t s should be of NEMA 12 c o n s t r u c t i o n i f l o c a t e d i n a

c l e a n indoor environment o r NEMA 4 i f l o c a t e d outdoors, and should i n c l u d e t h e
necessary o p e r a t o r i n t e r f a c e d e v i c e s l o c a t e d so t h a t they may be operated
w i t h o u t opening t h e c a b i n e t . I n d i c a t o r l i g h t s , c o n t r o l s w i t c h e s , meters and
i n d i c a t o r s t o permit l o c a l o p e r a t i o n of t h e system o r subsystem on an o p e r a t o r
a s s i s t e d b a s i s must be located on t h e f a c e of t h e c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s . The local
c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s may be e i t h e r f r e e s t a n d i n g , s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g e n c l o s u r e s , o r
wall mounted u n i t s . S p e c i f i c requirements f o r t h e f a b r i c a t i o n and t e s t i n g of
t h e local control c a b i n e t s a r e normally d e s c r i b e d in an attachment
s p e c i f i c a t i o n which r e f l e c t s a u t i l i t y ' s s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e s .

The supervisory c o n t r o l system, o r power management system, which g e n e r a l l y

c o n s i s t s of a microcamputer, keyboard, CRT, p r i n t e r , and i n t e r f a c e
input/output equipment, may a l s o be of t h e ESP s u p p l i e r ' s standard design,
modified a s necessary t o achieve t h e c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n a
u t i l i t y ' s specification. This equipment should be of NEMA 1 c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Enclosures f o r a l l equipment should comply with ANSI Standard C194 -
I n d u s t r i a l Control Apparatus Enclosures.

Power D i s t r i b u t i o n Equipment

A s u i t a b l e power d i s t r i b u t i o n system must be provided t o t r a n s m i t power from

p l a n t s t a t i o n s e r v i c e t r a n s f o r m e r s t o each i n d i v i d u a l ESP c o n t r o l system. At
l e a s t two 480V, 3 phase, 60 c y c l e power f e e d s and a t l e a s t two 120V, 60 c y c l e
power feeds should be supplied t o t h e power d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t e r f o r each
precipitator casing. This power i s then d i s t r i b u t e d by t h e power d i s t r i b u t i o n
c e n t e r t o each of t h e T/R s e t c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s , rapper c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s , o t h e r
a u x i l i a r y equipment control c a b i n e t s , and t h e supervisory c o n t r o l system.

The power d i s t r i b u t i o n system should be designed so t h a t f a i l u r e of any s i n g l e

power f e e d w i l l t r i g g e r an alarm and a redundant supply w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y
assume t h e load without an i n t e r r u p t i o n in s e r v i c e . System o v e r c u r r e n t
p r o t e c t i o n should be designed s o t h a t a s i n g l e f u s e f a i l u r e w i l l n o t cause an
e n t i r e system t o f a i l . Each power consuming device should have o v e r c u r r e n t
protection.

The d e s i g n engineer should c o n s i d e r redundant f e a t u r e s when formulating t h e

system c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r power f e e d s t o :
Processors

I/O c a r d s
Field contacts

Final c o n t r o l d e v i c e s .

The proce s s o r s and I/O c a r d s should be de signed t o a c c e p t power feeds from

e i t h e r of two independent s o u r c e s . The l o s s of one source should n o t e f f e c t
t h e c o n t r o l system o p e r a t i o n . The i n t e r r o g a t i n g v o l t a g e t o t h e f i e l d c o n t a c t s
should be d e r i v e d from two independent s o u r c e s such t h a t t h e l o s s of one
source should not cause a system misoperation. Where a p p l i c a b l e , f i n a l
c o n t r o l d e v i c e s should be d i v i d e d i n t o "A" t r a i n and "B" t r a i n components w i t h
power t o t h e t r a i n s d e r i v e d from independent sources. This w i l l allow f o r
p a r t i a l o p e r a t i o n of t h e system i f t h e power t o one t r a i n f a i l s .

Enclosures f o r t h e power d i s t r i b u t i o n equipment should be of NEMA-1

c o n s t r u c t on. All e l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g , t e r m i n a l s , and terminal blocks should be
d e s c r i b e d i n an attachment s p e c i f i c a t i o n which r e f l e c t s t h e u t i l i t y ' s s t a n d a r d
practices

Instrumen

Each l o c a l T/R s e t c o n t r o l c a b i n e t should be equipped w i t h i n s t r u m e n t s t o

i n d i c a t e AAC i n p u t c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e , DC output c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e , and
spark r a t e , i f applicable. T h i s information should have +2 percent accuracy,
including voltage divider e r r o r .
M e t e r s should comply w i t h ANSI S t a n d a r d C39.1, "Requirements f o r E l e c t r i c a l
Analog I n d i c a t i n g Equipment." D i g i t a l panel m e t e r s should have an L . E . D .
d i s p l a y w i t h a minimum h e i g h t of 0 . 4 i n . The m e t e r s should be o f an
i n d u s t r i a l g r a d e and have a minimum of 100 hr o p e r a t i o n w i t h 100 p e r c e n t
testing. Over-range i n d i c a t i o n and o v e r l o a d p r o t e c t i o n should be p r o v i d e d .
Full scale meters a r e preferred t o d i g i t a l meters. P r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d be
i n c l u d e d f o r measuring ESP v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t waveforms w i t h an
oscilloscope.

PRECIPITATOR CONTROL SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY

The i n t e n t of t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s i s t o s u g g e s t one workable p h i l o s o p h y

f o r t h e d e s i r e d o p e r a t i o n , o p e r a t o r i n t e r f a c e , and f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
a modern ESP c o n t r o l system. The f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s should n o t be c o n s t r u e d
a s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a u n i v e r s a l p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r o l system f o r a l l u t i l i t y
applications.

Automatic Voltage C o n t r o l

The f u n c t i o n of a l o c a l a u t o m a t i c v o l t a g e c o n t r o l (AVC) i s t o p r o v i d e maximum

u s e f u l power t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t e f f i c i e n c y
p o s s i b l e a t v a r i o u s l o a d s and changing f u e l c o n d i t i o n s . I t accomplishes t h i s
g o a l by u s i n g f e e d b a c k s i g n a l s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e most optimum e n e r g i z a t i o n f o r
each individual transformer-rectifier s e t . The AVC m o n i t o r s primary v o l t a g e ,
p r i m a r y c u r r e n t , s e c o n d a r y v o l t a g e , secondary c u r r e n t , and s p a r k r a t e i n o r d e r
t o e v a l u a t e system c o n d i t i o n s and t a k e a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n . The c i r c u i t r y i n
t o d a y s m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l l e r s p r o v i d e s r a p i d a r c quenching, r a p i d power
r e c o v e r y a f t e r q u e n c h i n g , reduced power rapping ( f o r some a p p l i c a t i o n s ) , and
s e l f d i a g n o s t i c s t o a i d i n system t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g .

Each l o c a l AVC s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o p r o c e s s a l l p r e c i p i t a t o r s i g n a l s from an

e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n , p r o v i d e l o c a l d i s p l a y and a n n u n c i a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y , p r o v i d e
s w i t c h i n p u t s f o r o p e r a t i o n s and maintenance p e r s o n n e l , communicate w i t h a
s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l s y s t e m , and r e c e i v e and p r o c e s s commands from and
a u t o m a t i c a l l y p r o v i d e c o n t r o l s i g n a l s t o i t s a s s o c i a t e d T/R s e t .

An AVC s h o u l d be f u l l y a d j u s t a b l e t o p r o v i d e v a r i a b l e v o l t a g e r i s e t i m e s .
C o n t r o l s should respond t o s p a r k i n g w i t h i n one-half c y c l e and s h o u l d have t h e
c a p a b i l i t y of a d j u s t i n g t h e s p a r k r a t e from 2 t o 100 s p a r k s p e r minute and
from 20 t o 100 p e r c e n t of r a t e d T/R u n i t o u t p u t .
An AVC should be designed f o r an a d j u s t a b l e c u r r e n t ' l i m i t . Without s p a r k i n g ,
a c o n t r o l should be a b l e t o maintain maximum r a t e d DC average c u r r e n t
independent of t h e o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e . Manual c o n t r o l should be provided f o r
t e s t i n g and troubleshooting. The o u t p u t of analog s i g n a l s f o r primary and
secondary v o l t a g e , primary and secondary c u r r e n t , and spark r a t e should be
provided by an AVC.

AVC u n i t s should have a minimum of 100 hours of o p e r a t i o n with 100 p e r c e n t

testing.

Rapper Control

The rapper control system normally c o n s i s t s of an ESP s u p p l i e r ' s r a p p e r

c o n t r o l c a b i n e t f o r mechanical o r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c rapping systems.

I f t h e rapper system i s mechanical, t h e c o n t r o l system should perform t h e

following minimum functions:
Provide l o c a l c o n t r o l s w i t c h e s f o r rapper motor off/on and sequence
programming.

Provide o u t p u t of rapper s h a f t r o t a t i o n v e r i f i c a t i o n , sequence

complete, and c o n t r o l s w i t c h p o s i t i o n s i g n a l s l o c a l l y and t o t h e ESP
supervisory control system.

Provide input of r a p p e r motor off/on s i g n a l s t o t h e rapper d r i v e

motor from e i t h e r t h e l o c a l o r s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l l e r .

F a i l u r e of t h e ESP supervisory c o n t r o l system should a l l o w continuous

o p e r a t i o n of t h e rapper d r i v e motor when t h e l o c a l off/on switch i s i n t h e
11 on 11 p o s i t i o n .

I f a rapper system i s e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c , t h e c o n t r o l system should perform t h e

following minimum functions:
Provide control switches f o r on/off c o n t r o l , i n t e n s i t y , and
sequential programming.

= Provide i n p u t of rapper on/off and r a p p e r i n t e n s i t y s i g n a l s on an

Individual rapper b a s i s from t h e l o c a l o r s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l
system.

Provide o u t p u t of r a p p e r o p e r a t i o n v e r i f i c a t i o n s i g n a l on an
individual rapper b a s i s l o c a l l y and t o t h e supervisory c o n t r o l
system. F a i l u r e of t h e s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system should not
de-energize t h e 1 ocal r a p p e r c o n t r o l system.
I n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e , an ESP s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l
system may c o n t a i n a r a p p e r o p t i m i z a t i o n c o n t r o l c i r c u i t w h i c h has t h e
c a p a b i l i t y o f o v e r r i d i n g t h e l o c a l r a p p e r c o n t r o l system when n e c e s s a r y .

Hopper H e a t e r C o n t r o l

A hopper h e a t e r c o n t r o l system may c o n s i s t o f an ESP s u p p l i e r ' s s t a n d a r d

c o n t r o l c a b i n e t f o r two l e v e l s o f h e a t e r s on each p r e c i p i t a t o r hopper w i t h t h e
f o l l o w i n g minimum c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s :
P r o v i d e c o n t r o l s w i t c h e s f o r hopper h e a t e r o f f / o n f o r each h o p p e r .

Provide o u t p u t o f c o n t r oI s w i t c h s t a t u s l o c a l l y t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r y
c o n t r o l system.

M o n i t o r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n two l e v e l s o f each h o p p e r and m o d u l a t e t h e u p p e r

and l o w e r hopper h e a t e r s t o m a i n t a i n a s e t p o i n t u s i n g i n d i v i d u a l power
c o n t a c t o r s f o r t h e h e a t i n g e l e m e n t s i n each l e v e l .

F a i l u r e o f t h e ESP s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system s h o u l d e n e r g i z e a l l hopper

h e a t e r s whose c o n t r o l s w i t c h i s i n t h e "on" p o s i t i o n a t t h e l o c a l c o n t r o l
cabinet.

Vibrator Control

The v i b r a t o r c o n t r o l system may c o n s i s t o f an ESP s u p p l i e r ' s s t a n d a r d

v i b r a t o r c o n t r o l c a b i n e t which should p r o v i d e c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s as f o l l o w s :
L o c a l j o g p u s h b u t t o n s f o r each v i b r a t o r w h i c h w o u l d prompt t h e
o p e r a t o r t o v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t and c h e c k t h e hopper b e f o r e e n e r g i z i n g
a vibrator.

A u t o m a t i c i n t e r l o c k w i t h t h e ash h a n d l i n g system t o e n e r g i z e a
v i b r a t o r f o r a p r e d e t e r m i n e d t i m e when ash i s b e i n g conveyed f r o m an
i n d i v i d u a l hopper.

Remote manual c o n t r o l s h o u l d n o t be p r o v i d e d due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e ash may

be e a s i l y compacted i f t h e v i b r a t o r i s e n e r g i z e d when ash i s n o t b e i n g
d i s c h a r g e d due t o a p l u g g a g e , t h e f l y a s h b l o w e r s n o t r u n n i n g o r t h e b o t t o m
g a t e v a l v e n o t open.
I n t e g r a t i o n With Ash Handling

In g e n e r a l , i n t e g r a t i o n with t h e f l y a s h handling system would be through an

AQCS c o n t r o l room, i f a p p l i c a b l e , which provides f o r c o n t r o l of the e n t i r e
back end of t h e p l a n t . This i n c l u d e s t h e f l u e g a s d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n system,
p r e c i p i t a t o r , f l y ash handling system, wastewater t r e a t m e n t and t h e f l u e gas
emissions compliance monitoring system. I n t e r f a c e s with t h e ash handling
system should e s s e n t i a l l y be t h e hopper l e v e l alarms and t h e hopper v i b r a t o r
controls. Automatic v i b r a t o r c o n t r o l i s a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d .

Power Management System/Supervisory Control System

Modern c o n t r o l systems a r e not only c a p a b l e of a c h i e v i n g very hfgh removal

e f f i c i e n c i e s i n e ? e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s , but through microprocessor
t e c h n o l o g y , t h e y a r e a l s o a b l e t o reduce o v e r a l l power consumption t o a
minimum depending upon process c o n d i t i o n s . P r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e u s u a l l y designed
f o r a w o r s t c a s e c o n d i t i o n and a r e normally not o p e r a t i n g a t t h a t p o i n t . When
o n l y a s p a r k r a t e o r c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g c o n t r o l l e r i s used, t h e T/R s e t s w i l l be
consuming maximum power a l l t h e t i m e , r e g a r d l e s s of p r o c e s s c o n d i t i o n s . The
use of an o p a c i t y feedback loop i n t h e c o n t r o l c i r c u i t a l l o w s i n p u t power t o
be reduced when f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t and s t i l l maintain t h e g u a r a n t e e d
emission l e v e l a s determined by f l u e g a s o p a c i t y monitors. C o n d i t i o n s such a s
t h e b o i l e r running a t p a r t i a l l o a d o r t h e f u e ? being burned having a low a s h
c o n t e n t and/or a f a v o r a b l e r e s i s t i v i t y , do not r e q u i r e the T/R s e t s t o o p e r a t e
a t maximum l o a d .

The r e d u c t i o n of power i s normally performed on a T/R by T/R b a s i s ; each T/R

s e t i s reduced slowly t o provide t h e system time t o a d j u s t t o t h e new
conditions. The o r d e r i n which t h e power t o t h e f i e l d s i s reduced w i l l have
an e f f e c t on t h e frequency of o p a c i t y s p i k e s . I t has been t h e e x p e r i e n c e of
some m a n u f a c t u r e r s (98) t h a t by reducing power t o t h e f i r s t f i e l d o r t o
consequent f i e l d s , t h e occurrence of o p a c i t y s p i k e s due t o r e e n t r a i n m e n t of
f l y a s h i s reduced. Conversely, i f t h e power t o t h e l a s t f i e l d i s reduced,
t h e frequency of o p a c i t y s p i k e s w i l l be i n c r e a s e d due t o rapping r e e n t r a i n m e n t .
Some m a n u f a c t u r e r s have found t h a t t h e most e f f e c t i v e power d i s t r i b u t i o n i s
formed by reducing power t o a l l f i e l d s a t t h e same time (3).
Corona power
consumption i s g r e a t l y reduced with o n l y a s l i g h t l o s s i n e f f i c i e n c y . The
c o n t r o l system should be s p e c i f i e d w i t h t h e a b i l i t y i n t h e system s o f t w a r e t o
make changes t o t h e s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r o f f i e l d power r e d u c t i o n as n e c e s s a r y t o
t u n e t h e system.

Power management i s o n l y one o f many c a p a b i l i t i e s made p o s s i b l e i n s p e c i f y i n g

a t o t a l ESP s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system. As d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h e s u p e r v i s o r y
c o n t r o l system u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f a m i c r o c o m p u t e r , k e y b o a r d , CRT, p r i n t e r ,
d a t a s t o r a g e d e v i c e s , and r e q u i r e d i n p u t / o u t p u t i n t e r f a c e hardware. A
t e l e p h o n e modem i s a l s o sometimes i n c l u d e d . The a d d i t i o n o f a s u p e r v i s o r y
c o n t r o l l e r t o t h e ESP c o n t r o l system can b r i n g t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f l o c a l ESP
p a r a m e t e r s and o p e r a t i o n a l d a t a t o a c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n . Information concerning
t h e e n t i r e ESP s y s t e m may be c o n c i s e l y d i s p l a y e d , and f u l l c o n t r o l o f a l l
l o c a l u n i t s may be a v a i l a b l e a t a c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n . The s u p e r v i s o r y
c o n t r o l l e r may b e d e s i g n e d t o r e c o g n i z e and d i s p l a y abnormal o p e r a t i o n ,
t h e r e b y e n a b l i n g c o r r e c t i v e o r r e m e d i a l a c t i o n t o be q u i c k l y implemented.

I n a d d i t i o n t o ESP power management, t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e t y p i c a l f e a t u r e s o f a

p r o p e r l y s p e c i f i e d s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system:
I m p r o v e d T/R c o n t r o l and p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e

I m p r o v e d system r e 1 i a b i 1 it y

C o ~ v e n i e n tc e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l , m o n i t o r i n g and d a t a l o g g i n g

I n t e g r a t e d rapping system c o n t r o l

= Hopper a s h l e v e l m o n i t o r i n g

Hopper h e a t e r m o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l

System f a u l t d i a g n o s i s

Maintenance scheduling

Modem c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .

When a s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system i s s p e c i f i e d , t h e t o t a l ESP c o n t r o l s y s t e m

s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o be t o l e r a n t o f i n d i v i d u a l component f a i l u r e s . There
s h o u l d b e no c r i t i c a l component i n t h e system. Upon f a i l u r e o f t h e
s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system, t h e l o c a l c o n t r o l u n i t s must a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e v e r t
t o l o c a l , independent operation.
PRECIPITATOR CONTROL SYSTEM HARDWARE

She e v o l u t i o n o f p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r o l systems has seen e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n o l o g y

b r i n g l o w c o s t s , r e l i a b i l i t y , m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n and i m p r o v e d o p e r a t o r
interface. The c o n t i n u i n g r a p i d g r o w t h o f computer t e c h n o l o g y and d i g i t a l
e l e c t r o n i c s w i l l a s s u r e t h e g r e a t e r u s e o f d i g i t a l c o n t r o l systems as
p r e c i p i t a t o r manufacturers' standard equipment. More and more m a n u f a c t u r e r s
have changed f r o m a n a l o g systems, w h i c h moved t h e e l e c t r o n i c s p r o c e s s c o n t r o l
e v o l u t i o n away f r o m pneumatic p r o c e s s c o n t r o l t o s t a t e o f t h e a r t d i g i t a l
control. However, some a s p e c t s o f p r o c e s s c o n t r o l , such a s t h e i n i t i a l
measurement and c o n v e r s i o n o f a p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e , w i l l p r o b a b l y a l w a y s be
analog i n nature. The t w o t y p e s o f e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l a r e d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs.

Analog

Analog c o n t r o l systems a r e f a i r l y easy t o o p e r a t e and do n o t u s u a l l y r e q u i r e

o p e r a t o r s t o undergo s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g . A l l system components a r e h a r d
w i r e d , and a d e d i c a t e d p i e c e o f e q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m s each s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n .
Because o f t h i s , a n a l o g systems t e n d t o r e q u i r e a l o t o f space. Also, t h i s
hardware o r i e n t a t i o n makes any changes t o t h e system l o g i c more d i f f i c u l t t o
accommodate, u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s a r e q u i r i n g o f t h e c o n t r o l system.

Data g a t h e r i n g may be a c c o m p l i s h e d f a i r l y e a s i l y w i t h an a n a l o g system,

a l t h o u g h l a r g e amounts o f d a t a r e t r i e v a l and s t o r a g e may become cumbersome
s i n c e each p i e c e o f d a t a must be h a n d l e d t h r o u g h a d e d i c a t e d p i e c e o f
hardware. M u l t i p l e x i n g , w h i c h i s u s e f u l when h a n d l f n g l a r g e amounts o f
i n f o r m a t i o n , c a n n o t be used w i t h an a n a l o g system.

Some o f t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s have prompted t h e i n d u s t r y t o l o o k t o w a r d d i g i t a l

systems t o p r o v i d e u s e r s w i t h s t a t e o f t h e a r t p r e c i p i t z t o r c o n t r o l .

Digital

D i g i t a l c o n t r o l systems u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g f o r o p e r a t i o n s and
maintenance s i n c e t h e t e c h n o l o g y i s new and c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g . Technicians
must l e a r n a b o u t components w h i c h can p e r f o r m a v a r i e t y o f f u n c t i o n s w h i c h
t y p i c a l l y were p e r f o r m e d by s e v e r a l components i n t h e p a s t . This
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f equipment saves space i n t h e c o n t r o l room a n d e l e c t r o n i c s
equipment room. C R T ' s can d i s p l a y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o f many i n d i c a t o r s and a l s o
f u n c t i o n a s a manual/auto s t a t i o n f o r o p e r a t o r i n t e r f a c e .
D i g i t a l systems a r e e x t r e m e l y f l e x i b l e and system l o g i c can be e a s i l y changed
b y making s o f t w a r e m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

Data g a t h e r i n g w i t h a d i g i t a l system i s a c c o m p l i s h e d e a s i l y w i t h l a r g e amounts

o f d a t a b e i n g m u l t i p l e x e d , t h u s s a v i n g on hardware c o s t s . Interface with
p r i n t e r s , CRT's and computers s i m p l i f i e s t h e t a s k o f d a t a l o g g i n g and s t o r a g e .

The c o n t i n u e d development o f i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s t o improve '

r e l i a b i l i t y and backup methods t o a v o i d p r o c e s s shutdowns due t o a
m i c r o p r o c e s s o r f a i l u r e has g i v e n d i g i t a l c o n t r o l systems c o n s i d e r a b l e f a v o r
among p r e c i p i t a t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

CRTs, Keyboards, P r i n t e r s

The ESP s u p p l i e r s h o u l d p r o v i d e CRTs w i t h k e y b o a r d s and p r i n t e r s f o r o p e r a t o r

i n t e r f a c e when an ESP s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l system i s s p e c i f i e d . CRTs may
e i t h e r be s u i t a b l e f o r panel m o u n t i n g o r may be d e s k t o p u n i t s depending on
system d e s i g n .

Some m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o v i d e CRTs w i t h t o u c h s c r e e n s , i n a d d i t i o n t o keyboards,

f o r the primary operator interface. T h i s makes t h e i n t e r f a c e a l i t t l e e a s i e r
f o r t h e o p e r a t o r , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e CRT i s p a n e l mounted. The CRTs may t h e n
be p r o v i d e d w i t h a preprogrammed s e t o f s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n t o u c h - s c r e e n
p u s h b u t t o n s t o e n a b l e t h e o p e r a t o r t o c a l l up s p e c i f i c g r a p h i c s and o t h e r
d e d i c a t e d d i s p l a y s b y means o f a m e n u - s e l e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e r a t h e r t h a n b y
i n p u t t i n g alpha-numeric codes t h r o u g h a keyboard.

Each CRT d i s p l a y u n i t s h o u l d have t h e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s :

A minimum o f a 1 9 - i n c h d i a g o n a l d i s p l a y a r e a a n d enough r e s o l u t i o n
t o d i s p l a y 3840 c h a r a c t e r s i n an 80 c h a r a c t e r b y 48 l i n e f o r m a t .

A l a r g e c h a r a c t e r mode f o r use w i t h a l a r m s a n d g r a p h i c t i t l i n g . The

screen s h o u l d have 80 c h a r a c t e r s b y 24 l i n e s i n t h i s mode.

An i n t e r a c t i v e keyboard f o r d a t a e n t r y , h a v i n g a t y p e w r i t e r f o r m a t
s e c t i o n f o r g e n e r a t i n g t h e 128 A S C I I c h a r a c t e r codes, a numeric
keypad s e c t i o n f o r g e n e r a t i n g t h e t e n n u m e r a l s and common s p e c i a l
symbols. An a d d i t i o n a l u t i l i t y p r e f e r e n c e may be t h e s p e c i a l
f u n c t i o n t o u c h s c r e e n key s e c t i o n f o r s e l e c t i n g s t a n d a r d s o f t w a r e
f u n c t i o n s and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i s p l a y .

An RS-232C p o r t c a p a b l e o f communicating, u s i n g a seven b i t A S C I I

c h a r a c t e r w i t h even p a r i t y i n an asynchronous f o r m a t u s i n s one s t a r t
b i t and one s t o p b i t a t speeds up t o 9600 b i t s p e r second.
 . Sufficient local memory to hold all the pixels of a graphic display
without dependence on an external processor or memory.

The ESP supplier should also provide printers to perform alarm functions and
also for system logging and reporting. Each printer should have the following
features :
Operate at a minimum of 180 characters per second and have a line
length of at least 132 characters.
Communicate through an RS232C port using seven bit ASCII characters
with even parity in an asynchronous format using one start bit and
one stop bie at speeds up to 1200 bits per second.
Printers should be capable o f handling forms with perforated edges
and s h o ~ l dnot. rely on frictioa only t? ~ o s 2t 5 e papcr.

System Architecture
The architecture of the control system hardware is affected by the system
functional design being either of centralized control or local ized control
philosophy. These two control philosophies were discussed ear lier in this
section. System architecture should be consistent with a util ity's overall
plant control philosophy.

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS
Three main areas of consideration must be addressed before a control system
is satisfactoriiy insta7led and operating. They are testing and inspection,
shipping and storage, and final installation.

Testinq and Inspection

A control system should be completely assembled and operationally tested for
wiring accuracy, hzrdware quality, software f m c t i o n , and failure m3do for a
period of time sufficient to demonstrate proper operation. The manufacturer
must provide simulated realistic inputs for the system during these tests.
The manufacturer must provide a sufficient number of simulated, realistic
inputs and outputs to accomplish convenient demonstration of the system
operating in its enxirety. All inputs must be live and manually
controllable. All outputs must be live and visually observable.

A ESP supplier should notify a utility at least two weeks in advance of all
significant stages of fabrication and shop testing. A supplier should furnish
or make certified copies of all factory test results available to a utility.
A l l equipment and m a t e r i a l s h o u l d be s u b j e c t t o f i n a l i n s p e c t i o n and s h o u l d
n o t be shipped w i t h o u t a n o t i f i c t i o n o f r e l e a s e from t h e u t i l i t y .

Shipping and Storage

The s u p p l i e r m u s t p r e p a r e equipment f o r s h i p m e n t t o p r o t e c t i t f r o m damage

d u r i n g s h i p m e n t a n d subsequent s t o r a g e . The equipment must be a d e q u a t e l y
p r o t e c t e d f r o m t h e e f f e c t s o f weather, shock and v i b r a t i o n . A l l openings m u s t
be a d e q u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d t o p r e v e n t c o r r o s i o n o r e n t r a n c e o f f o r e i g n m a t t e r
d u r i n g shipment a n d s t o r a g e .

Equipment m u s t be a d e q u a t e l y s u p p o r t e d f o r shipment. A l l l o o s e p a r t s must b e

c r a t e d o r boxed f o r shipment and a p p r o p r i a t e l y i d e n t i f i e d . The equipment, a s
s h i p p e d , must be s u i t a b l e f o r movement b y r o l l i n g and s k i d d i n g and c o n v e n i e n t
handling w i t h a crane.

The equipment s h o u l d be s t o r e d i n an e n v i r o n m e n t s i m i l a r t o t h e i n s t a l l e d
location, i.e., i n d o o r equipment must be s t o r e d i n d o o r s , and o u t d o o r equipment
may be s t o r e d o u t d o o r s . Where r e q u i r e d t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t c o n d e n s a t i o n and
h u m i d i t y , a d e s i c c a n t must be p r o v i d e d and i t s presence, w i t h t h e need o f
p e r i o d i c removal and d r y - o u t , must b e so marked. When e l e c t r i c space h e a t e r s
a r e p r o v i d e d f o r t h a t purpose, t h e y s h o u l d be w i r e d t o t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e
equipment such t h a t e n e r g i z a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y upon r e c e i p t i s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t
disassembly o f c r a t e s . T h i s a l s o r e q u i r e s t h a t no c o m b u s t i b l e m a t e r t a l be
l e f t i n s i d e o f t h e equipment.

The ESP s u p p l i e r must p r o v i d e s t o r a g e and h a n d l i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n and/or s t o r a g e maintenance t o a s s u r e t h a t
no d e t e r i o r a t i o n w i l l o c c u r d u r i n g s t o r a g e . One s e t o f t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s
s h o u l d be f a s t e n e d s e c u r e l y t o t h e o u t s i d e o f each s h i p p i n g u n i t .

A c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t nameplate w i t h c l e a r l y l e g i b l e l e t t e r i n g must be
p e r m a n e n t l y a t t a c h e d t o each assembled p i e c e o f equipment a t an e a s i l y v i s i b l e
place. The n a m e p l a t e must p r o v i d e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e
equipment, b u t a s a minimum, t h e f o l l o w i n g must be i n c l u d e d : Manufacturer's
name, t y p e o f equipment, s e r i a l number, shop o r d e r number, p r o j e c t
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number, and w e i g h t . Any s p e c i a l maintenance i n s t r u c t i o n s must
a l s o be shown a t t h i s o r o t h e r s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n s .
Installation

I n a f u r n i s h and e r e c t c o n t r a c t , t h e ESP s u p p l i e r must have c o m p l e t e system

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h r o u g h o u t f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n and p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
e l e c t r i c a l components and c o n t r o l system, subsystems. The ESP s u p p l i e r must
be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n , checkout, a n d p r e l i m i n a r y system o p e r a t i o n t o
t h e p o i n t o f acceptance o f t h e system b y t h e u t i l i t y .

I f t h e u t i l i t y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n , t h e s u p p l i e r must p r o v i d e t h e
s e r v i c e s o f two e n g i n e e r s , one f o r hardware a n d one f o r s o f t w a r e , on an
as-needed b a s i s , w h i l e t h e equipment i s b e i n g i n s t a l T e d , checked o u t , and p u t
i n t o t r i a l operation. The u t i l i t y s h o u l d s p e c i f y , i n t h e c o n t r a c t , t h e t o t a l
amount of i n s t a l l a t i o n a s s i s t a n c e t i m e a t t h e j o b s i t e f o r each u n i t . These
e n g i n e e r s must be t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r w i t h a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e s u p p l i e r ' s
e q u i p m e n t and must be c a p a b l e o f d i r e c t i n g a l l phases o f i n s t a l l a t i o n , check
o u t , a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e q u i pment.

SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION

An ESP s u p p l i e r must p r a v i d e a c o m p l e t e system d o c u m e n t a t i o n package f o r a

p r e c i p i t a t o r e l e c t r i c a l system. This w i l l enable a u t i l i t y t o f u l l y
u n d e r s t a n d system o p e r a t i o n s and w i l l a i d i n t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g and s y s t e m
maintenance. T h i s d o c u m e n t a t i o n package s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
Equipment I n t e r n a l W i r i n g Diagrams

C o n t r o l W i r i n g Diagrams

I n s t r u m e n t L o c a t i o n a n d Arrangement D r a w i n g s

I n s t r u m e n t I n s t a l l a t i o n and I n s t r u m e n t S u p p o r t D e t a i l s

L o g i c Diagrams

C o n t r o l System S o f t w a r e Documentation

C o n t r o l System C o n f i g u r a t i o n D r a w i n g s

I n s t r u m e n t Schematics

E x t e r n a l I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n Diagrams

I n s t r u m e n t D a t a Base I n f o r m a t i o n

These documents a r e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 7 o f t h i s manual.

6 SPECIFICATION FOR OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE RELATED SYSTEMS
 Section 6

SPECIFICATION FOR OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE RELATED SYSTEMS

KEY INTERLOCK SYSTEM

Safety Feature

The p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e ESP key i n t e r l o c k system i s t o p r o v i d e a

sequence o f e n e r g i z a t i o n o r deenergization/grounding o f t h e ESP e l e c t r i c a l
s y s t e m t o e n s u r e s a f e access t o a r e a s w h i c h c o n t a i n exposed c o n d u c t o r s o r
electrodes. The use o f a key i n t e r l o c k system i s a p r i m e e l e c t r i c a l s a f e t y
f e a t u r e o f ESP d e s i g n and, a l t h o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u i r e d b y e l e c t r i c a l o r
s a f e t y codes, has a l o n g h i s t o r y o f a p p l i c a t i o n and i s i n - n e a r l y t o t a l use i n
t h e U.S. e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y .

L o c k Components

The key i n t e r l o c k c o n s i s t s o f a number o f key o p e r a t e d m e c h a n i c a l l o c k i n g

d e v i c e s a r r a n g e d i n an o v e r a l l l o g i c a l sequence o f o p e r a t i o n . The d e s i g n o f a
s i n g l e l o c k d e v i c e depends on t h e t y p e o f a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t i t u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s
o f t h e f o l l o w i n g elements:
A h o u s i n g b l o c k w i t h r e t r a c t a b l e b o l t and one o r more l o c k s

keys

a mounting bracket o r p l a t e

b o l t s o r screws t o a t t a c h t h e h o u s i n g t o t h e mount

A c h a i n a t t a c h e d w e a t h e r / d u s t cap w h i c h f i t s o v e r a l o c k and key

A n a m e p l a t e w i t h number code

The d e v i c e i s s i m i l a r i n d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n t o a d e a d b o l t d o o r l o c k . A key

i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e l o c k and t u r n e d t o e x t e n d t h e b o l t . The e x t e n d e d b o l t
p r o t r u d e s t h r o u g h a m a t i n g h o l e i n a s w i t c h h a n d l e o r l e v e r and l o c k s i t i n
t h a t position.

The b o l t does n o t move a s w i t c h , b u t i t a l l o w s o r p r e v e n t s p e r s o n n e l f r o m

manually changing a switch p o s i t i o n . When mounted on an a c c e s s d o o r , t h e l o c k
b o l t extends through a mating l a t c h block mounted on t h e door frame and
thereby prevents the door from being opened. Although ' i n t e r l o c k s can be
designed s o t h a t t h e b o l t makes o r breaks c o n t a c t on a r e l a y o r l i m i t switch,
ESP i n t e r l o c k s a r e u s u a l l y purely mechanical with no e l e c t r i c a l o r c o n t r o l
c i r c u i t interfaces.

An a d d i t i o n a l fundamental design f e a t u r e of key i n t e r l o c k s hold t h e key

c a p t i v e i n one b o l t p o s i t i o n and f r e e s i t i n t h e o t h e r b o l t p o s i t i o n . The
i n t e r n a l lock f u n c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e t y p e of padlock from which t h e key
can be removed only a f t e r t h e shackle has been c l o s e d .

System Design

The use of key i n t e r l o c k s i n a complete system i s discussed f o r a

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e two-device system comprising a T/R c o n t r o l c a b i n e t power
primary (low v o l t a g e ) c i r c u i t breaker and a m u l t i - p o s i t i o n r o t a r y switch on
t h e T/R s e t . One p o s i t i o n on t h e r o t a r y switch i s a ground f o r t h e T/R s e t
secondary (high v o l t a g e ) and t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e i n t e r n a l t o t h e ESP.

The c o r r e c t two-step sequence required f o r grounding o r r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g power

in t h e c i r c u i t are:
For grounding:

1. open t h e primary ccircui t b r e a k e r

2. t u r n t h e T/R s e t switch t o the ground p o s i t i o n .

For re-energization:

1. t u r n t h e T/R s e t switch from ground t o one of t h e o p e r a t i n g

positions

2. c l o s e t h e primary breaker.

I f e i t h e r sequence i s not performed in c o r r e c t o r d e r t h e secondary i s grounded

while t h e primary breaker i s ciosed and t h e r e w i l l be a c u r r e n t s u r g e t o
ground u n t i l t h e automatic over-current p r o t e c t i v e d e v i c e s open t h e c i r c u i t .

The a p p r o p r i a t e key i n t e r l o c k scheme f o r t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s shown i n a flow of

keys o r l o g i c diagram ( s e e Fig. 6-1). An a r b i t r a r y lock and key numbering
system was assigned f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n . The w r i t t e n check l i s t procedure f o r
o p e r a t i o n would be:
 Key 3
I
I
I

I
I

1 T I R SET B
I
b
Key 2
I
1
1

Key Storage Cabinet

Figure 6-1. Key interlock System I l l u s t r a t i o n

 For grounding:

1. o b t a i n key 1 from a key s t o r a g e c a b i n e t and i n s e r t in lock A1

2. open c i r c u i t breaker CB-1 and lock in open position by

extending b o l t . Key 1 i s now c a p t i v e and key 3 i s now f r e e

3. remove key 2 from lock A2 and i n s e r t i n 1ock B1

4. move T/R switch t o ground p o s i t i o n and lock in t h e p o s i t i o n by

extending b o l t . Key 2 i s now c a p t i v e and key 3 i s f r e e .

For r e e n e r g i z a t i o n , r e v e r s e t h e above procedure.

In t h i s example, key 3 would be f u r t h e r used in a d d i t i o n a l s t e p s i n t h e

sequence such a s opening an a c c e s s door i n t h e penthouse roof. The s t e p s i n
t h e key i n t e r l o c k approach t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a r e i d e n t i c a l t o those i n a
s t r i c t l y manual approach e x c e p t t h a t t h e c a p t i v e key f e a t u r e of t h e i n t e r l o c k
design p r e v e n t s t h e o p e r a t o r from performing any s t e p s o u t of sequence. The
system i s t h u s i n h e r e n t l y s a f e a s i t mechanically f o r c e s the c o r r e c t sequence
of s t e p s and does n o t r e l y on t h e d i s c r e t i o n of o p e r a t o r s .

Appl i c a t i o n t o ESPs

When used on an ESP, t h e key i n t e r l o c k system u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s t h e following

d e v i c e s i n t h e locking l o g i c :
T/R c o n t r o l c a b i n e t c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s

T/R set f u n c t i o n and grounding s w i t c h e s

Penthouse o r e n c l o s u r e doors
Doors o r hatchways through t h e hot roof i n t o t h e ESP i n t e r i o r

ESP casing s i d e a c c e s s doors

Hopper doors

Hopper level d e t e c t o r s , i f n u c l e a r t y p e

I n l e t / o u t l e t nozzle (plenum) d o o r s , i f d e s i g n permits a c c e s s t o t h e

i n t e r i o r of t h e ESP

Ductwork d o o r s , bolt-on i n s p e c t i o n doors on bus d u c t s , duct damper i n t e r l o c k s ,

and manual grounding d e v i c e s f o r e l e c t r o d e s a r e g e n e r a l l y not p a r t of t h e ESP
key i n t e r l o c k system. I n s u l a t o r a i r f a n s , i f t h e y a l s o purge t h e penthouse,
are sometimes i n t e r l o c k e d with t h e penthouse a c c e s s d o o r s .
S i n c e t h e number o f k e y s i n an o v e r a l l system i s l a r g e , and t h e r e i s n o t
a l w a y s a one-to-one correspondence between s e q u e n t i a l d e v i c e s , a t y p i c a l
system c o n t a i n s key t r a n s f e r b l o c k s . T r a n s f e r b l o c k s a r e mu1t i p l e key p a n e l s
w i t h l o c k s w h i c h have t h e c a p t i v e / f r e e f e a t u r e , b u t no b o l t s a r e extended.
F o r example, when a penthouse d o o r has been opened ( s o t h a t t h e exposed bus
may be m a n u a l l y grounded) a key i s r e l e a s e d . When a l l such penthouse d o o r
k e y s have been i n s e r t e d i n t h e t r a n s f e r b l o c k , a l l o f t h e s i d e c a s i n g d o o r
keys are released. The t r a n s f e r b l o c k , t h e r e f o r e , a l l o w s b o t h s e r i e s and
p a r a l l e l o p e r a t i o n s t o be combined i n an o v e r a l l scheme.

F o r n u c l e a r t y p e l e v e l d e t e c t o r s mounted on t h e s i d e o f t h e hopper o r
suspended i n t h e c r o t c h between two hoppers, t h e source must be s h i e l d e d
b e f o r e t h e hopper a c c e s s d o o r i s opened. T h i s d e t e c t o r mechanism i s
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e o v e r a l l key i n t e r l o c k system and t h e d e t e c t o r keys must
a l s o be i n s e r t e d i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t r a n s f e r b l o c k b e f o r e any c a s i n g o r hopper
d o o r keys a r e r e l e a s e d .

Re1 i a b i l it y o f O p e r a t i o n

T h r e e p r i n c i p a l t y p e s o f f a i l u r e f o r key i n t e r l o c k components a r e :
Lock i n t e r n a l s have a c c u m u l a t e d f l y a s h due t o f a i l u r e t o r e p l a c e
t h e d u s t c a p . F o r c i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n can l e a d t o b e n t o r b r o k e n keys.

Poor a l i g n m e n t o f b o l t and j a t c h on d o o r s causes b i n d i n g o f t h e

b o l t . A g a i n , f o r c e d o p e r a t i o n can cause b r o k e n keys.

O v e r - t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e l o c k " a n n e a l s " t h e i n t e r n a l s p r i n g s , and

p i n s w i l l n o t go t o t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n when t h e key p o s i t i o n i s
correct.

F o r t h e f i r s t p r o b l e m , caps on a c a p t i v e c h a i n can be p r o v i d e d as p a r t o f t h e
d e s i g n , b u t p r o p e r use can o n l y be e n f o r c e d t h r o u g h an i n - p l a n t O&M t r a i n i n g
p r o g r a m and p r o p e r s u p e r v i s i o n o f p r o c e d u r e s .

The m i s a l i g n m e n t of l o c k b o l t and l a t c h i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e a r e

c l o s e d i m e n s i o n a l t o l e r a n c e i t e m s , y e t a c c e s s d o o r s and frames a r e n o t and can
s h i f t due t o s a g g i n g o r h i n g e p i n wear. T h i s t y p e o f p r o b l e m can be a v o i d e d
b y u s i n g t h e b o l t t o l o c k one end o f a c h a i n r a t h e r t h a n mate d i r e c t l y w i t h a
l a t c h h o l e on t h e o t h e r member. T h i s t y p e o f d e s i g n i s easy t o implement
s i n c e access d o o r s commonly employ a s a f e t y c h a i n f e a t u r e t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e
s p i l l a g e o f h o t f l y a s h i f i t has a c c u m u l a t e d above d o o r l e v e l . Over
t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e l o c k can o c c u r f o r d o o r l o c k s w h i c h a r e c o v e r e d w i t h a
separate insulating door when there is a high temperature excursion in the
ESP. High temperature locks (bronze blocks with stainless steel springs) can
be specified for appropriate physical locations.

Maintenance of locks consists of syringe washing with mineral spirits, air

blowing to dry, and lubrication with graphite. A typical recommended
maintenance interval would be 6 months although it should be noted that , due
to the captive key feature of the locks, all locks can be maintained only by
proceeding through the sequence of unlocking and key transfer. This will
generally limit the maintenance interval to one year - during the annual
outage.

Defeat of the System

The safety intent of the key interlock system can be defeated (accidentally

-
or deliberately) by any of the following:
Design
- Incorrect logic diagram - supposedly correct operat ion does not
in fact prevent exposure to a hazard
- Incorrect lock type - the captive/free feature reieases keys in
the wrong position.
Initial Instal lation
- Incorrect sequence - locks installed in the wrong location
- Incomplete installation - locks not installed on all required
devices.
Operation
- Master key misuse - poor control of master keys which open many
locks or extensive use of masters as replacements for lost keys
- Duplicate keys - keys found that were not destroyed after
replacements have been entered into the system
- Incorrect replacement - locks installed in wrong location or
not installed at all
- Lock removal - with tools or direct assault.

Those problems which could occur during design and installation can be
avoided, in principle, through proper design review and construction
supervision. Operational areas are more difficult. There are sufficient ways
to defeat the system that it will: work in practice only i f those who use it
w a n t i t t o work. The success o f t h e system, t h e r e f o r e , depends p r i m a r i l y on a
u t i l i t y ' s success i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s a f e p r a c t i c e a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r t h a n i n more
e l a b o r a t e d e s i g n approaches t o p r e v e n t d e f e a t .

Procurement A s p e c t s

An ESP s u p p l i e r d e s i g n s a l o g i c d i a g r a m f o r t h e system, s e l e c t s l o c k t y p e s ,
d e s i g n s and f a b r i c a t e s mounts, p r e p a r e s i n s t a l l a t i o n d r a w i n g s , and p r o c u r e s
t h e l o c k components f r o m a l o c k m a n u f a c t u r e r .

The l o c k m a n u f a c t u r e r p r o v i d e s l o c k s , keys, t r a n s f e r b l o c k s and c a b i n e t s i f

any o f t h e t r a n s f e r b l o c k s a r e t o be l o c a t e d i n an e n c l o s u r e . Three p r i n c i p a l
l o c k m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n t h e U.S. a r e :
Brown B o v a r i E l e c t r i c , I n c .

Superior I n t e r l o c k

The Brown B o v a r i equipment i s more commonly known b y i t s t r a d e m a r k name o f

KIRK ( o r K i r k I n t e r l o c k s o r I - T - E Kirk). Superior a l s o p r o v i d e s replacement
s e r v i c e f o r systems p r e v i o u s l y m a n u f a c t u r e d b y B e n d i x A v i a t i o n u n d e r t h e t r a d e
names Robinson, CORY-Robinson, o r Bendix-CORY. These m a n u f a c t u r e r s can
p r o v i d e c a t a l o g s o f l o c k equjprnent and v a r i o u s g e n e r i c s c h e m a t i c s f o r
d i f f e r e n t applications.

B o t h t h e l o c k m a n u f a c t u r e r and t h e ESP s u p p ? i e r l s spare p a r t s d i v i s i o n

m a i n t a i n permanent r e c o r d s , and spare p a r t s may be o r d e r e d f r o m e i t h e r .
Sometimes t h e ESP s u p p l i e r w i l l employ a l o c k t y p e c o d i n g system on d r a w i n g s
w h i c h does n o t c o r r e s p o n d d i r e c t l y t o t h e l o c k m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s model number
designations. I n such a case, a c o n v e r s i o n t a b l e s h o u l d be o b t a i n e d t o e n s u r e
t h a t t h e c o r r e c t l o c k t y p e i s f u r n i s h e d s h o u l d s p a r e s be o r d e r e d d i r e c t l y f r o m
a lock supplier.

L o c k i n g equipment and mounts a r e u s u a l l y f i e l d i n s t a l l e d b y t h e e r e c t o r u s i n g

t h e ESP s u p p l i e r ' s i n s t a l l a t i o n d r a w i n g s . These d r a w i n g s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n a
t a b u l a r f o r m a t o f code numbers t o i d s t r u c t t h e e r e c t o r on t h e c o r r e c t m a t c h i n g
o f l o c k s t o d o o r s and s w i t c h e s . U s u a l l y a l l l o c k i n g equipment i s f i e l d
i n s t a l l e d , and no l o c k s a r e f o r w a r d e d t o T/R s e t , l e v e l d e t e c t o r , o r access
door suppliers. However, sometimes access doors are shipped to fabricators
who install thermal insulation pans and locks/safety chairs prior to shipment
field.

Reviewing design drawings is the responsibility of the ESP supplier, the

purchasing utility and its engineer. A lock manufacturer may review logic
diagrams but does not necessarily have all of the drawings necessary for
determination of safe operation. The erector has access to master keys during
installation and does not necessarily have to establish correct operation of
the system. Confirmation of actual correct installation is performed by the
startup engineer assisted by the ESP supplier startup advisor. The minimum
information required to establish the startup procedure and confirmation of
correct operation is as follows:
logic (key "flown) diagrams
installation diagrams which relate to lock type and number code to
the device code
arrangement drawings which relate T/R sets to exposed buses and
penthouse safety mesh partitions.

GROUNDING - PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY, LIGHTNING

The purpose of the grounding system is to provide a low resistance electrical

connection to ground potential i n order to protect personnel and equipment and
to bleed the capacitance change to ground before entrance. General principles
and s p e c i f i c d e s i g n f e a t u r e s o f g r o u n d i n g systems a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e
N a t i o n a l E l e c t r i c Code (NFPA-70, A r t i c l e 50) and t h e N a t i o n a l E l e c t r i c S a f e t y
Code. These codes d e s c r i b e systems, c i r c u i t s and equipment t o be grounded,
and a l s o t h e methods, l o c a t i o n s , t y p e s and s i z e s o f g r o u n d i n g system
components.

General G r i d

Each p r i n c i p a l s t r u c t u r e o r b u i l d i n g w i t h i n t h e power p l a n t i s p r o v i d e d w i t h
a below grade ground g r i d . A t y p i c a l d e s i g n m i g h t be a b a r e No. 2 AWG c o p p e r
c o n d u c t o r b u r i e d a t a d e p t h o f a t l e a s t 2 1/2 f t a n d s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p e r i p h e r y
o f t h e ESP S t r u c t u r e i n a l o o p - t y p e d e s i g n . This conductor i s p e r i o d i c a l l y
attached t o v e r t i c a l pipe electrodes driven v e r t i c a l l y a t l e a s t 8 f e e t i n t o
the s o i l . A g r o u n d l o o p may c o n t a i n b r a n c h c o n d u c t o r s o r c o n n e c t i o n s from one
side o f the loop t o the other.

Ground c o n d u c t o r s and e i e c t r o d e s t h e r e f o r e f o r m an e f f e c t i v e underground

g r o u n d i n g g r i d i n good c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s o i l . Connection t o t h e g r i d i s by
s h o r t c o n d u c t o r s w h i c h a r e b r o u g h t up v e r t i c a l l y and a t t a c h e d t o g r o u n d i n g
l u g s on t h e ESP e q u i p m e n t . C o n v e n t i o n a l l y , t h e ESP s u p p l i e r does n o t have
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r u n d e r g r o u n d work, t h e ground g r i d and a t t a c h m e n t c o n d u c t o r s
t o g r o u n d l u g s l o c a t e d n e a r g r a d e w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y p r o v i d e d by t h e u t i l i t y .

Design Methods

A l l ESP e l e c t r i c a : equipment and components a r e g r o u n d e d b y a t l e a s t one, a n d

p o s s i b l y more, o f t h e f o l l o w i n g methods:
D i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e underground g r i d

C o n n e c t i o n t o a n o t h e r system o r component w h i c h has been grounded

t o t h e underground g r i d

- an above g r a d e c o n d u c t o r g r i d

- t h e m e t a l raceway ( c a b l e t r a y and c o n d u c t o r ) n e t w o r k s

- structural steel

- a n o t h e r e l e c t r i c a l component.

Some examples o f each method i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

D i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n s f r o m equipment t o t h e ground g r i d can be made f o r a1 1

s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l columns e x t e n d i n g t o grade, some g r a d e l e v e l c o n t r o 1 cab in e t s
o r power d i s t r i b u t i o n p a n e l s , and t h e ends of cable t r a y s o r c o n d u i t s which
o r i g i n a t e near grade. Depending on t h e ground g r i d l a y o u t r e l a t i v e t o t h e
equipment, some ground connections may run e l e v a t e d f o r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s b e f o r e
attachment t o a ground g r i d lug.

For equipment not near grade l e v e l , where an individual ground f o r each

component i s not p r a c t i c a l , t h e ESP s u p p l i e r t y p i c a l l y provides an above grade
dedicated ground g r i d . This g r i d normally c o n s i s t s of a c a b l e conductor
extending throughout t h e cable t r a y / c o n d u i t network f o r most of i t s r o u t i n g .
A loop-type design with m u l t i p l e connections t o t h e ground g r i d i s employed t o
ensure re1 i a b i l i t y . A second, s e p a r a t e , above-grade g r i d i s usual l y provided
f o r low energy e l e c t r o n i c and instrument equipment which may be prone t o
i n t e r f e r e n c e from e l e c t r i c a l noise. This system i s a l s o connected d i r e c t l y t o
t h e ground g r i d .

Cable t r a y s and c o n d u i t s , which a r e t o be grounded, r e q u i r e e l e c t r i c a l

c o n t i n u i t y which i s achieved by proper f i t t i n g s and bonding jumpers a t
physical connections between s e c t i o n s . Grounding i s accomplished by
connecting t h e t r a y s and conduit t o t h e above- o r below-grade ground g r i d a t
various l o c a t i o n s and a l s o through hanger supports t o s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l . When
a d d i t i o n a l NFPA 70 requirements a r e met (such a s minimum c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a
of metal i n a t r a y ) , t r a y s and c o n d u i t s may a l s o function a s equipment
grounds. For l a r g e equipment ( e . g . r a t e d g r e a t e r than 100 K U A ) , two a l t e r n a t e
ground paths may be s p e c i f i e d f o r s a f e t y r e l i a b i l i t y : t h e primary ground i s a
d i r e c t connection t o t h e above- o r below-grade ground g r i d , and t h e secondary
ground i s t h e metal raceway system t h a t i s u l t i m a t e l y connected t o t h e ground
grid. For small equipment, t h e metal raceway may s e r v e a s t h e primary ground.

Connections t o s t r u c t u r a l steel may be u t i l i z e d as a secondary ground f o r

small equipment s i n c e a l l s t r u c t u r a l columns a r e a l s o connected t o t h e ground
g r i d a t grade l e v e l .

Grounding by connection t o o t h e r equipment i s common f o r c o n t r o l c a b i n e t

modules which a r e b o l t e d t o g e t h e r t o form a complete panel. Individual
c a b i n e t s a r e connected t o each o t h e r by i n t e r n a l bonding jumpers, and only t h e
f i r s t and l a s t c a b i n e t i n the s e r i e s a r e connected t o t h e ground g r i d .
The d e s i g n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e g r o u n d i n g m e t h o d s i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be
c o n v e n t i o n a l power p l a n t technology. These m e t h o d s a r e r o u t i n e l y u t i l i z e d f o r
ESP d e s i g n a n d , i n t h i s s e n s e , e f f e c t i v e g r o u n d i n g o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f ESP
e q u i p m e n t js c o n s i d e r e d t o b e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . H o w e v e r , some g e n e r a l a r e a s
require special consideration.

Special Consideration

The ESP d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e a n d c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e d e s i g n f u n c t i o n s a s a
capacitor t h a t stores e l e c t r i c a l energy. As t h e e l e c t r o d e s y s t e m i s c h a r g e d
by c c n n e c t i o n t c a s o u r c s o f p o w e r , a d e f i n i t e v o l t a g e (15-25 KV) i s r e a c h e d
S s f o r e gas i o n i z a t i o n occurs 2nd c u r r e n t f l o w s between t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r c d e
and t h e p l a t e . L i k e w i s e , as t h e e l e c t r o d e s a r e d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m t h e p o w e r
source, v o l t a g e and s t o r e d energy dec:ine due t o c u r r e n t f l o w b e t w e e n t h e
e l e c t r o d e s u n t i l t h e corona s t a r t i n g v o l t a g e i s reached. At this point, the
charge and v o l t a g e on t h e e l e c t r o d e s remains c o n s t a n t because t h e
i n t e r e l e c t r o d e c u r r e n t f l o w h a s s t o p p e d ; t h e r e c t i f i e r c o m p o n e n t s i n the
c i r c u i t a c t as check v a l v e s and p r e v e n t c h a r g e f r o m f l o w i n g back i n t o t h e
power s o u r c e . A l t h o u g h t h e e l e c t r o d e c h a r g e may d e c l i n e o v e r t h e l o n g t e r m
dce t o t r a c k i n g across i n s u l a t o r d u s t l a y - r s , t h e ESP h i g h v o l t a g e s e c o n d a r y
n u s t be c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a c h a r g e d s y s t e m u n t i l p o s i t i v e l y g r o u n d e d .

The T/R s e t i s normally equipped w i t h a m u l t i p o s i t i o n f u n c t i o n s w i t c h a t i e a s t

cne p o s i t i o n o f w h i c h i s t h e s e c o n d a r y ( h i g h v o l t a g e ) g r o u n d . The d e s i g n o f
t h e s w i t c h d e p e n d s on t h e number o f b u s h i n g s on t h e T/R s e r and w h e t h e r t h e
s e t has b o t h h a l f - w a v e 2 n d f u l l - w a v e c a p a b i l i t y .

One t y p e o f g r o u n d s w i t c h d e s i g n p r e v i o u s l y u s e d was a k n i f e - t y p e a i r s w i t c h
m o u n t e d i n an e n c l o s u r e o n t h e t o p o r s i d e o f t h e T/R set. A s m a l l w i n d o w may
b e i n c i u d e d i n t h i s e n c l o s u r e so t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r c a n v i s u a l l y c o n f i r m t h a t
t h e g r o u n d s w i t c h c z v t a c t s a r e c l o s e d when t h e e x t e r n a l s w i t c h h a n d l e p o s i t i o n
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be c l o s e d . M o s t modern T/R s e t s e m p l o y an
o i l - s w i t c h d e s i g n s u c h t h a t t h e c o n t a c t s on t h e p o s i t i o n s w i t c h a r e i m m e r s e d
i n t h e o i l t a n k which, s u r r o u n d s t h e t r a r s f o r m e r . The use s f o i l s w i t c h e s
e n a b l e s a m o r e c c m p a c t T/R s e t d e s i g n w h i c h i s a b o u t $1000 p e r b u s h i n g l o w e r
i n c o s t t h a n t h a t o f a T/R s e t u s i n g a n a i r s w i t c h d e s i g n . However, s p i t
a r c i n g i n an i m p e r f e c t l y sealed s w i t c h e v e n t u a l l y carbonizes t h e o i l , l e a d i n g
t o pos:,ible transforner failure. C a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n when c l o s i n g t h e s w i t c h .
I n a d d i t i o n t o T/R s w i t c h e s , a normal d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e i s t o mount a permanent
s a f e t y s w i t c h w i t h a hook o r clamp n e a r t h e penthouse r o o f h a t c h . T h i s ground
c o n n e c t i o n i s t i e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e above-grade ground g r i d . The o p e r a t o r
a t t a c h e s t h e c l a m p t o t h e exposed h i g h v o l t a g e bus a f t e r t h e h a t c h has been
opened. T h i s p r o v i d e s a second g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n ( i n case t h e T/R g r o u n d
s w i t c h has f a i l e d t o o p e r a t e p r o p e r l y ) and g i v e s t h e o p e r a t o r v i s u a l
c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t t h e bus has been grounded. Due t o t h e n a t u r e o f a s a f e t y
s t i c k g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n , t h e o p e r a t i o n c a n n o t be r e a s o n a b l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o
t h e key i n t e r l o c k system. I n some e x i s t i n g ESP d e s i g n s , t h e s a f e t y s t i c k i s
mounted i n a c a b i n e t w i t h t h e c a b i n e t d o o r k e y i n t e r l o c k e d . This, a t least,
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c a b i n e t d o o r be opened t o expose t h e s a f e t y s t i c k b e f o r e t h e
penthouse h a t c h i s opened; however, a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e g r o u n d clamp t o t h e h i g h
v o l t a g e bus i s s t i l l a t t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e operator.

Some ESP d e s i g n s employ a permanent s a f e t y s t i c k mounted i n a c a b i n e t a t each

access d o o r t o t h e ESP i n t e r i o r . I n t h e s e instances, t h e ground w i r e
c o n n e c t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y a t t a c h e d t o ESP c a s i n g s o r s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l r a t h e r
t h a n t o e l e c t r i c a l ground g r i d s . The c a b i n e t d o o r s may o r may n o t be i n c l u d e d
i n t h e k e y - i n t e r l o c k sequence.

F o r l a r g e r ESPs i n w h i c h each i n t e r i o r e l e c t r i c a l bus s e c t i o n i s n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y a d j a c e n t t o an a c c e s s d o o r , p o r t a b l e s a f e t y s t i c k s w i t h s h o r t
c a b l e s may be c a r r i e d i n t o t h e ESP t o g r o u n d d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s t o t h e
collecting plates or structure.

F o r a71 o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g m a n u a l l y g r o u n d i n g exposed buses on e l e c t r o d e s ,

g r o u n d i n g may a l s o be c o n f i r m e d b y a p o r t a b l e v o l t m e t e r . One l e a d o f t h e
v o l t m e t e r i s a t t a c h e d t o g r o u n d ( u s u a l l y t h e c a s i n g o r s t r u c t u r e ) and t h e
o t h e r t o t h e bus. Both leads a r e i n s u l a t e d f o r p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e operator.
Tags may be a t t a c h e d t o access d o o r s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t ma,iual g r o u n d
c o n n e c t i o n s have been made and g r o u n d i n g t e s t e d . Tagging s t r a t e g y i s n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y u n i f o r m f o r a l l u t i l i t i e s d u e t o t h e number o f o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h
may be p e r f o r m e d when ESP a c c e s s d o o r s a r e opened such a s e l e c t r i c a l
g r o u n d i n g , v e n t i l a t i o n , and a i r s a m p l i n g f o r oxygen, c o m b u s t i b l e s , and
p o s s i b l y ozone.

An a d d i t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n when g r o u n d i n g ESPs i s t h e use o f main column

s l i d e bearings. For designs u s i n g s i n t e r e d bronze p l a t e s impregnated w i t h
g r a p h i t e , e l e c t r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y of t h e column i s e f f e c t i v e l y a s s u r e d .
S t r u c t u r e grounding by attachment t o t h e ground g r i d a t t h e column base i s
considered adequate. Newer design b e a r i n g s may use a t e f l o n s l i d e p l a t e which
i s n o t a good e l e c t r i c a l conductor. In t h i s c a s e , e l e c t r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y of
t h e column can be achieved by v e r t i c a l l y spanning t h e b e a r i n g w i t h a bonding
jumper a t t a c h e d t o ground l u g s above and below t h e b e a r i n g p l a n e . The jumper
must be f l e x i b l e and of s u f f i c i e n t l e n g t h t o accommodate t h e expansion
movement a t t h e b e a r i n g .

S p e c i f i c a t i o n Requirements

As n o t e d , most ESP-related equipment can be s a f e l y grounded by s p e c i f y i n g

conventional power p l a n t design i n accordance with National E l e c t r i c Code
principles. C e r t a i n s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y t o the high-voltage
secondary s i d e of t h e T/R s e t . The following a r e c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e f o r
specification:
- The high v o l t a g e secondary i s t o be c a p a b l e of grounding through a t
l e a s t two p a r a l l e l p a t h s

- A t l e a s t one of t h e grounds should be switch o p e r a t e d and p a r t of

t h e key i n t e r l o c k sequence, and a t l e a s t one ground i s t o be v i s i b l y
confirmed

- I f t h e u t i l i t y e l e c t s t o use a t h i r d ground with s a f e t y s t i c k s a t

a c c e s s d o o r s , t h e s a f e t y s t i c k s may a l s o be s p e c i f i e d a s permanently
i n s t a l l e d i n c a b i n e t s next t o t h e d o o r s

- S a f e grounding p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s should be a d d r e s s e d i n t h e

ESP s u p p l i e r ' s t r a i n i n g program and o p e r a t i n g manual.

The p r e f e r e n c e of a i r - s w i t c h o r o i l - s w i t c h d e s i g n f o r t h e T/R ground switch i s

n o t clear-cut. There i s no a p p r e c i a b l e f i e l d d a t a which would c l e a r l y
i n d i c a t e d t h a t one design t y p e i s s u p e r i o r . However, one element necessary in
any s a f e t y program i s developing s a f e t y minded a t t i t u d e s among o p e r a t i o n s and
maintenance p e r s o n n e l . To t h i s e x t e n t , t h e a i r - s w i t c h d e s i g n w i t h r o b u s t ,
v i s i b l e c o n t a c t s may provide t h e u t i l i t y w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e which
promotes worker acceptance of t h e system. I f a u t i l i t y can r e a s o n a b l y expect
t h e s e b e n e f i t s , then t h e a d d i t i o n a l expense of t h e a i r switch d e s i g n can be
justified.
ENCLOSURES

The p r i n c i p l e f u n c t i o n o f e n c l o s u r e s i s t o ease o p e r a t i o n and maintenance by

p r o v i d i n g w e a t h e r p r o t e c t i o n f o r e q u i p m e n t and i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t a r e a s .
O t h e r a d v a n t a g e s t o be r e a l i z e d depend upon t h e a r e a b e i n g e n c l o s e d .

Two m a j o r a r e a s o f an ESP where e n c l o s u r e s a r e o p t i o n a l a r e t h e r o o f a n d

hopper a r e a s .

ESP Roof

An ESP r o o f may be encTosed p a r t i a l l y o r c o m p l e t e l y depending on t h e

arrangement o f s e t s . E n c l o s u r e s a r e n o r m a l l y o f s t e e l frame c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h
weld-attached, g a l v a n i z e d s t e e l , o r aluminum r o o f - d e c k i n g - p a n e l s and
galvanized steel sidewall panels fastened t o g i r t s . Specific design o f panels
and d e c k i n g depends on t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r i n s u l a t i o n , t h e t y p e o f i n s u l a t i o n ,
and d e s i r e d f i r e r a t i n g . Roof e n c l o s u r e s a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y semi-independent o f
t h e ESP a n d penthouse w i t h s l i d i n g t y p e column base p l a t e s f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l
expansion.

Roof e n c l o s u r e s possess a number o f advantages:

* Personnel S a f e t y - T h e r e i s l e s s r i s k o f f a l l i n g from t h e ESP ( w i t h
e n c l o s u r e s i d e w a l l s ) o r s l i p p i n g on w e t o r i c y s u r f a c e s .

N o i s e A t t e n u a t i o n - The E n c l o s u r e ( r e g a r d l e s s o f s p e c i f i c
c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s ) r e d u c e s e x t e r n a l n o i s e t r a n s m i s s i o n s f r o m T/R
s e t s , e x t e r n a l M I G I - t y p e r a p p e r s , and PA s p e a k e r s . A l t h o u g h t h e s e
a r e n o t m a j o r s o u r c e s o f n o i s e , t h e r e i s some b e n e f i t t o a program
o f noise reduction a t marginal locations.

D u s t D e p o s i t i o n - Less wind-blow d u s t s e t t l e s on t h e T/R

s e t s due t o t h e more c i r c u i t o u s r o u t e a m b i e n t c o o l i n g a i r m u s t
f o l l o w t o r e a c h T/R s e t s . T h i s b e n e f i t i s a l s o r e a l i z e d i n t h e
penthouse i f t h e s o u r c e o f i n s u l a t o r p u r g e a i r i s w i t h i n t h e
e n c l o s u r e . F o r a r e a s o f heavy d u s t l o a d , an e n c l o s u r e w i t h powered
v e n t i l a t i o n also o f f e r s the design option o f v e n t i l a t i o n f i l t e r s .

P a i n t Protection - Paint coatings w i l l usually l a s t longer w i t h

r e d u c e d exposure t o s u n l i g h t a n d w e a t h e r e l e m e n t s . However, ESP
r o o f equipment (T/R s e t s , c a b i n e t s , e t r . ) i s n o r m a l l y o f o u t d o o r
d e s i g n even when e n c l o s e d .

Snow - E n c l o s u r e e l i m i n a t e s t h e need f o r manual removal o f deep

snow w h i c h c o u l d i n t e r f e r e w i t h c o n v e c t i v e c o o l i n g o f T/R s e t s .

Aesthetics - A e s t h e t i c s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be improved b y t h e
a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y o f a r o o f e n c l o s u r e w i t h an ESP.
 Operability - Operator convenience while examining equipment and
recording data is improved in an enclosure.
La.yout - An enclosed structure provides convenient attachment and
hanger support points for lighting, electrical cable, fire
protection piping, and other utilities providing a "cleaner" floor
1 ayout.
Maintainability - The ease of equipment maintenance and
maintenance scheduling is enhanced in a weather protected
environment.

There are three major disadvantages:

Accessibility - Cranes are precluded from removing equipment from
the roof.
Fire Protection - Fire protection cannot be accomplished with
grade level hoses from yard hydrants.
Ventilation - A ventilation system is required to remove heat load
(primarily T/R set losses) from the area to achieve reasonable
temperatures for a work environment.

In a warm or temperate climate, an alternate enclosure design might be a roof

without side walls, which provides most of the advantages of a full enclosure
and a simpler design.

ESP Hopper Areas

An ESP hopper area may be enclosed by extending sidewalls from the ESP casing
to grade. This requires additional framing and girts, side wail panels, and
personnel and equipment removal doors. Many of the advantages of roof
enclosures (improved operability, maintainability, noise attenuation and
aesthetics) also apply to hopper areas.

~ d d ti
i onai advantages include:
Dust Contaminant - Dry fly ash emissions from manual cleaning of
hoppers and ash handling equipment are prevented from entering the
plant area.
Hopper Heating - Convective heat loses from heated/insulated
hoppers due to wind are eliminated, with a corresponding reduction
i n electrical requirements. Reduced heat loss is also a benefit for
ash handling equipment.
The p r i n c i p a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s t o an e n c l o s e d hopper a r e a a r e r e d u c e d
a c c e s s i b i l i t y and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r v e n t i l a t i o n t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e
temperatures. S i n c e t h e r e i s a need t o b a l a n c e h e a t i n g a n d c o o l i n g
r e q u i r e m e n t s , adequate v e n t i l a t i o n i s b e s t s a t i s f i e d b y a powerseal system
w i t h thermostatic control.

C o n s i d e r i n g p e r s o n n e l s a f e t y , f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , snow l o a d i n g , and equipment

l a y o u t , t h e r e i s t y p i c a l l y no s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t on h o p p e r e n c l o s u r e s .

Other Areas

I n a d d i t i o n t o r o o f and hoppers areas, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l o t h e r a r e a s w h i c h

may be c o n s i d e r e d f o r e n c l o s u r e s .

I t i s t y p i c a l i n bag f i l t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s t o i n c l u d e a c a n t i l e v e r e d r o o f o v e r
t h e walkway a c c e s s t o t h e s i d e c a s i n g d o o r s . This i s p r i n c i p a l l y t o prevent
w i n d b l o w w a t e r c o n t a c t on t h e bags, b u t i t a. I s 0 i m p r o v e s m a i n t a i n a b i l i t y .
A l t h o u g h uncommon f o r ESPs because i n t e r n a l s a r e n o t w a t e r s e n s i t i v e , t h e
c o n c e p t has c e r t a i n advantages w h i c h i n c l u d e :
- I n s u l a t i o n Doors - Water c o n t a c t on i n s u l a t i o n d o o r j o i n t s ( w h i c h
may be i l l - f i t t e d ) i s m i n i m i z e d and p r e c l u d e s wet t h e r m a l
i n s u l a t i o n . Weather p r o t e c t i o n i s p r o v i d e d f o r equipment w h i c h may
b e l o c a t e d a t access d o o r s w h i c h c o u l d i n c l u d e key i n t e r l o c k e d
g r o u n d s t i c k c a b i n e t s , communication p l u g s i n j a c k o u t l e t s , a n d
e l e c t r i c a l convenience o u t l e t s f o r p o r t a b l e 1 i g h t i ng.

- S t e e l Framing - The s t e e l f r a m i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c a n t i l e v e r e d
r o o f p r o v i d e s more a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s f o r t e m p o r a r y c h a i n h o i s t s o r
f o r w e a t h e r t a r p s t h a t may b e d e s i r e d f o r m a i n t e n a n c e .

Permanent e n c l o s u r e s o v e r manual s a m p l i n g p o r t s a r e n o t u s u a l l y employed on

ESPs because o f i n f r e q u e n t use and a l s o access r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g
l o n g sample p r o b e s . Temporary p r o t e c t i o n can be p r o v i d e d i n e x t r e m e c l i m a t e s
b y use o f a canvas t e n t s t r e t c h e d o v e r a t e m p o r a r y p i p e f r a m e s u p p o r t .

E n c l o s e d s t a i r w e l l access t o t h e ESP r o o f area i s n o r m a l l y considered i n areas

having harsh winters.
Specification Requirements

Based upon t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , d e c i s i o n s a r e made on t h e

degree o f enclosure desired. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f e x i s t i n g
i n s t a l l a t i o n s do n o t have e n c l o s u r e p r o v i s i o n s . Those t h a t do a r e p r i m a r i l y
l o c a t e d i n t h e a c o l d weather e n v i r o n m e n t .

E n c l o s u r e s a r e t y p i c a l l y p r o v i d e d by t h e ESP s u p p l i e r . T h i s approach i s n o t
mandatory, b u t i s more c o n v e n i e n t i n v i e w o f d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s due t o
d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p a n s i o n between t h e r o o f e n c l o s u r e and t h e ESP. Specification
requirements are e x t r a c t e d from t h e conventional s e t o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l /
s t r u c t u r a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r an e n t i r e p r o j e c t . These i n c l u d e s t r u c t u r a l
s t e e l , r o o f d e c k i n g , d o o r s , frames, s a d d l e s , hardware, a n d s i d i n g ( m e t a l , foam
o r f i r e wall). Design l o a d i n g s f o r s e i s m i c e v e n t s , w i n d , f i r e , a n d snow a r e
t h e same a s f o r t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e ESP i n s t a l l a t i o n . I f a certain type o r
model o f s i d i n g has been s e l e c t e d f o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e
p l a n t , t h a n i t must be s p e c i f i e d i n d e t a i l . Supplier data submittals include
shop d e t a i l and i n s t a l l a t i o n d r a w i n g s and c o m p u t a t i o n s . Representative
p h y s i c a l samples o f a l l m a t e r i a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y s u b m i t t e d i n a d d i t i o n t o
w r i t t e n descriptions.

HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC)

The f u n c t i o n o f HVAC systems i s t o p r o v i d e a p r o p e r o p e r a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t f o r

equipment a n d p e r s o n n e l t h r o u g h h e a t i n g , c o o l i n g , h u m i d i f i c a t i o n , f i l t r a t i o n ,
and p r e s s u r i z a t i o n o f a i r w i t h i n e n c l o s u r e s . However, n o t a l l s u c h f u n c t i o n s
are r e q u i r e d a t a l l l o c a t i o n s . The p r i n c i p a l a r e a s f o r HVAC a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e
t h e T/R s e t c o n t r o l room and t h e r o o f / h o p p e r e n c l o s u r e s i f such e n c l o s u r e s a r e
i n c l u d e d i n t h e design. Some c a b i n e t mounted s w i t c h g e a r and c o n t r o l equipment
may p o s s e s s s e l f - c o n t a i n e d v e n t i l a t i o n and h e a t i n g .

ESP C o n t r o l Room

The c o n t r o l room HVAC a p p a r a t u s i s u s u a l l y c o m p r i s e d o f a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d ,

r o o f - m o u n t e d u n i t p r o v i d e d by s u p p l i e r s such as C a r r i e r , Trane, o r Y o r k .

SAMPLE PORTS

P a r t i c u l a t e Sampl i n q

Two b a s i c methods w h i c h a r e w i d e l y used t o d a y f o r o b t a i n i n g p a r t i c u l a t e

samples f r o m p r e c i p i t a t o r s . EPA Method No. 5 draws a sample t h r o u g h a n o z z l e
and l o n g p r o b e i n t h e gas stream and t h r o u g h a f i l t e r p l a c e d i n a
h e a t e d box o u t s i d e t h e f l u e o r s t a c k . The i n - s t a c k t e s t , f o r y e a r s r e f e r r e d
t o as t h e ASME method, u t i l i z e s a n o z z l e and f i l t e r h o l d e r w i t h i n t h e gas
stream. I n b o t h cases, t h e q u a n t i t y o f gas drawn t h r o u g h t h e n o z z l e i s a t t h e
same v e l o c i t y as t h e l o c a l f l u e gas s t r e a m , and t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s known as
i s o k i n e t i c sampling (101).

Opacity Meters

R e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t an o p a c i t y m o n i t o r be i n s t a l l e d on a l l new c o a l and
o i l - f i r e d steam g e n e r a t o r s w i t h a c a p a c i t y g r e a t e r t h a n 73 megawatts. The
r e g u l a t i o n s c o v e r i n g o p a c i t y p r i m a r i l y p r o v i d e t h e p l a n t o p e r a t o r w i t h a means
o f c h e c k i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l equipment. Opacity
m o n i t o r s on e x i s t i n g s o u r c e s may be u s e d f o r c o m p l i a n c e p u r p o s e s , d e p e n d i n g
upon s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e o p a c i t y m o n i t o r can s e r v e as a p r o c e s s c o n t r o l i n s t r u m e n t b y
o p t i m i z i n g combustion c o n d i t i o n s o r c o n t r o l device e f f i c i e n c y (102).

Temperature

The s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e measurement o f f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e has caused as many

problems as any o t h e r measurement. S i n g l e p o i n t measurements can be f a r f r o m
t h e average, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y a r e o b t a i n e d n e a r t h e s i d e o r t o p s u r f a c e s o f
the flue. It i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t r e a d i n g s be t a k e n no 7ess t h a n 12 i n . f r o m an
outer f l u e wall. The t h e r m o c o u p l e a n d e i t h e r a d i r e c t r e a d i n g d e v i c e o r a
p o t e n t i o m e t e r s h o u l d n o t be r e l i e d on i n t h e f i e l d w i t h o u t f r e q u e n t checks
a g a i n s t an a c c u r a t e g l a s s t h e r m o m e t e r o r b i m e t a l l i c d i a l thermometer t h a t has
been p r e v i o u s l y c a l i b r a t e d (101).

ACCESS DOORS, PLATFDRMING, STAIRWAYS, INTER-FIELD WALKWAYS

The f u n c t i o n o f a c c e s s f a c i l i t i e s a r e t o p r o v i d e f o r a s a f e , a d e q u a t e
approach t o t h e ESP components f o r o p e r a t o r s , maintenance p e r s o n n e l , and
equipment.

Types o f F a c i l i t i e s

ESP access f a c i l i t i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e d t o i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f
components:
P l a t f o r m i n g - u s u a l l y g r a t e - t y p e i s used i n t h e h o p p e r a r e a and as
l a n d i n g s f o r s t a i r w a y s and p e r s o n n e l h o i s t s .
 Walkways - u s u a l l y g r a t e - t y p e i s used i n t e r n a l l y between f i e l d s ,
e x t e r n a l l y on c a s i n g s a l o n g s i d e access d o o r s , as access c o n n e c t i o n s
between t h e ESP and darnper/sampling p o r t a r e a s , between ESPs a t r o o f
l e v e l i n m u l t i p l e ESP arrangement.

Stairways -
c o n v e n t i o n 1 g r a t e - t y p e s t a i r w a y s a r e used from grade t o
t h e ESP r o o f a r e a , and o c c a s i o n a l l y f r o m g r a d e t o a d u c t sample p o r t
location.

Ladders - the vertical caged d e s i g n i s used t o supplement s t a i r w a y s .

H a n d r a i 1 s / K i c k p l a t e s - p i p e h a n d r a i l s and i r o n f i a t k i c k p l a t e i s
a p p l i e d t o a c c e s s f a c i i t i e s i n accordance w i t h OSHA d e s i g n
requirements.

Access Doors - h i n g e d d o o r s w i t h dog-type o r handwheel r e s t r a i n t s

a r e u t i l i z e d . I n some m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' d e s i g n s , t h e s e may be d o u b l e
d o o r s . Under some e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y o p e r a t i n g l a b o r p r a c t i c e s ,
access d o o r s a r e d e f i n e d a s t h o s e equipment d o o r s w h i c h a r e hand
o p e r a t e d (do n o t r e q u i r e t o o l s f o r o p e n i n g and c : o s i n g ) .

Hatchways - b o l t - o n c o v e r s f o r access o p e n i n g s a r e used i n

penthouses a n d h o t r o o f s a l t h o u g h t h e s e a p p l i c a t i o n s may a l s o
u t i l i z e a h i n g e and d o g - l o c k d e s i g n .

S p e c i a l Walk S u r f a c e s - g e n e r a l l y c h e c k e r - p l a t e e l e m e n t s a r e l a i d
a t o p ESP h o t - r o o f i n s u l a t i n g b l o c k s i n t h e p e n t h o u s e .

S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l - a c c e s s p l a t f o r m i n g and walkways may be

c a n t i l e v e r e d o f f t h e ESP/ductwork s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , o r t h e y may be
designed w i t h dedicated s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l . Dedicated s t r u c t u r a l
s t e e l i s u s u a l l y d e f i n e d t o be p a r t o f t h e a c c e s s equipment.

Approach

Because t h e d e s i g n d e t a i l s and g e n e r a l arrangement o f each ESP a p p l i c a t i o n

( i n c l u d i n g d u c t w o r k ) a r e d i f f e r e n t , c o m p l e t e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r access equipment
t o be s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e ESP c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d a t t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t a g e .
The u s u a l a p p r o a c h i s t o e s t a b l i s h g e n e r i c o r minimum r e q u i r e m e n t s , r e v i e w and
e v a l u a t e s u p p l i e r p r o p o s a l d r a w i n g s , and upgrade t h e d e s i g n a s necessary
t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h s u p p l i e r s f o l l o w e d by p r o p o s a l supplements. Although
t h i s i s n o t t h e o n l y a p p r o a c h w h i c h can be used, i t i s common p r a c t i c e .

The sca7e used on most s u p p l i e r p r o p o s a l g e n e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t , p l a n , and

e l e v a t i o n d r a w i n g s ( I i n c h = 20 f t . o r 1 i n c h = 16 f t . ) i s u s u a l l y adequate t o
d e s c r i b e t h e p r i n c i p l e e x t e r i o r access f a c i l i t i e s . T h i s s c a l e , however, i s
n o t s u i t a b l e f o r s m a l l a r e a s i n v o l v i n g c o m p l i c a t e d geometry such a s p l a t f o r m s
around dampers, e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s , sample p o r t s , r a p p e r d r i v e m o t o r s , and
hopper t h r o a t s . These a r e a s must be accompanied b y d r a w i n g s w h i c h have a more
appropriate scale.
The types of access facilities provided with the ESP are to be listed in
tabular form and supplemented with descriptions on the locations of the
equipment. Quantities are to be listed as numbers of components for
repetitive items, such as access doors, and listed in convenient units for
other items, such as linear feet of walkway or tons of support steel.
Qualitative descriptions such as "one lot" are considered unacceptable for
evaluation and contractual arrangements. Since the supplier has developed
quantities for proposal pricing, these quantities can be easily included i n
the proposal.

Specification Requirements
Representative requirements for various components of an ESP include the
following:
Internal Walkways - Internal walkways or catwalks should be provided
between each physical field near the bottom of the plates. An
access door should be in the ESP casing side at each end. In
designs employing short fields (six foot depth), one walkway for
every two fields is usually provided.
For designs employing plate edge rapping at multiple levels, a
walkway is required at each rapper level. Additional access for
ease of maintenance may be obtained by specifying a second level of
interfield walkways near the top of the plates. This is especially
useful for top access to the plates in those designs where overhead
clearance between the top of the plates and the ESP hot roof is
insufficient to allow a man to stand erect on a plank layed across
the top of the plates.
This second level walkway may be complete with side access doors or
alternatively with access from a lower walkway via internal caged
ladders. This latter design is less common and may not be viable
for some ESP internal structural designs, but it does avoid the
potential sealing problems associated with access doors.
Internal walkways before the first field and after the last field
are uncommon in most existing ESPs but would be considered
advantageous for inspection and maintenance. If this feature is
specified, the difficulty of coordinating the catwalk design with
inlet/outlet distribution plates and internal support members may
represent new problems for many suppliers, and proposa7 offerings
should be thoroughly reviewed for feasibility.
Dimensions - Many top rapped ESP designs utilize 18 in. internal
walkways as a standard design. This narrow width i s generally
considered inadequate by those utilities that have had to perform
extensive internal maintenance beyond routine inspections. A
minimum shoulder-to-shoulder interfield spacing of 30 to 36 i n . is
reasonable.
For bottom-rapped designs, p l a t f o r m w i d t h i s g e n e r a l l y d i c t a t e d by
t h e d e s i g n o f r a p p e r components. As t h i s v a r i e s among s u p p l i e r s ,
each s u p p l i e r ' s d e s i g n s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s .

E x t e r n a l Walkways - As a minimum, walkways a r e r e q u i r e d a l o n g t h e

c a s i n g s i d e t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e i n t e r f i e l d access d o o r s . A d d i t i o n a l
i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g walkways may r e s u l t f r o m t h e s p e c i f i c g e n e r a l
arrangement f o r a p r o j e c t . O t h e r a r e a s t h a t must b e a c c e s s i b l e a r e :

- Sample p o r t s on d u c t w o r k

- I n s t r u m e n t c o n n e c t i o n s on d u c t w o r k

- D u c t and n o z z l e access d o o r s

- Nozzle d i s t r i b u t i o n p l a t e rappers

- Dampers ( d r i v e mechanisms, b e a r i n g s , s t u f f i n g boxes,

inspection ports, cleanout ports, etc.)

- Expansion j o i n t s

There a r e a number o f f e a s i b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r a c c e s s t o t h e s e
components. F o r example, a d u c t access d o o r may b e r e a c h e d b y a
s t a i r w a y f r o m grade, b y a t o p o f d u c t walkway f r o m t h e ESP r o o f , o r
by an i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g walkway f r o m a n o t h e r ESP component.
A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e approaches depends on t h e s p e c i f i c
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e ESP equipment t o t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e p l a n t
equipment a s w e l l as o t h e r g r a d e l e v e l g e n e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t
c o n s t r a i n t s such as roadways.

C o n v e n t i o n a l minimum d i m e n s i o n s f o r e x t e r n a l walkways a r e 36 i n c h e s
w i d e w i t h a 7 f o o t c l e a r a n c e t o overhead s t e e l . Minimum p l a t f o r m
w i d t h a t l a n d i n g s and equipment l o c a t i o n s s h o u l d be adequate f o r a l ?
access, r e m o v a l and laydown f u n c t i o n s t o be p e r f o r m e d . T h i s minimum
depends on t h e s p e c i f i c arrangement b u t g e n e r a l l y does n o t exceed 6
feet.

Hopper P l a t f o r m i n q - G r a t e - t y p e p l a t f o r m i n g s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d a t
t h e hopper t h r o a t l e v e l f o r access t o hopper a c c e s s o r i e s - heaters,
poke h o l e s , a n v i l s , v i b r a t o r s , a e r a t o r s , and t h e h o p p e r access
door. I n conventional designs, t h e p l a t f o r m s u p p o r t i n g s t e e l i s
a t t a c h e d t o t h e ESP base s u p p o r t columns r a t h e r t h a n b y v e r t i c a l
p l a t f o r m c o l u m n s t o grade l e v e l f o o t i n g s . T h i s approach r e t a i n s
maximum a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o ash h a n d l i n g equipment. F o r vacuum-type
ash h a n d l i n g systems, t h e hopper e x i t f l a n g e i s t y p i c a l l y 5 f e e t
above t h e g r a d e l e v e l mat. The minimum p l a t f o r m e l e v a t i o n s h o u l d be
s e l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e a minimum 7 f o o t c l e a r a n c e f r o m t h e mat t o t h e
b o t t o m o f t h e p l a t f o r m s u p p o r t s t e e l . I n t h i s case, t h e ash v a l v e
and p o s s i b l y t h e poke p i p e s a r e a c c e s s i b l e from g r a d e a n d t h e
platform/access door l e v e l s a r e s e l e c t e d t o a l l o w e n t r y from t h e
p l a t f o r m w i t h o u t t h e use o f p o r t a b l e l a d d e r s .

F o r p r e s s u r e - t y p e ash h a n d l i n g systems, t h e hopper e x i t f l a n g e i s

t y p i c a l l y 11 t o 14 f t above t h e g r a d e l e v e l mat. I n t h i s case, i t
i s more c o n v e n i e n t i f t h e ash h a n d l i n g t o p v a l v e a n d poke p i p e s a r e
 accessible from t h e hopper p l a t f o r r n i n g . Since t h i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s
a ' l o w e r p l a t f o r m , r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o p p e r e x i t f l a n g e , permanent
s h o r t s t a i r w a y s w i t h l a n d i n g s may be r e q u i r e d .

Because o f s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n s o f f e a s i b l e h o p p e r p l a t f o r m
l a y o u t s , t h i s a r e a i s b e s t e v a l u a t e d by review o f p r o p o s a l d r a w i n g s .
The ESP s p e c i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d r e q u i r e t h e s u b m i s s i o n o f a t y p i c a l
hopper d r a w i n g w h i c h shows t h e a c c e s s t o t h e hopper d o o r , h e a t e r
c o n t r o l s , ash h a n d l i n g v a l v e s , poke p i p e s , and o t h e r h o p p e r
components. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s a
p r e l i m i n a r y s k e t c h o f t h e ash p i p i n g a n d v a l v e s so t h a t t h e ESP
s u p p l i e r can c o o r d i n a t e i t s d e s i g n w i t h t h e ash h a n d l i n g s y s t e m
suppl i e r ' s d e s i g n .

MONORAILS/EQUIPMENT HOISTS

A m o n o r a i l system i s employed on t e h r o o f o f an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r t o
p r o v i d e t h e p l a n t s t a f f w i t h an easy way t o l i f t and remove T/R s e t s f o r
maintenance work. T h e r e a r e two o p t i o n s f o r a u t i l i t y when i t chooses t o
i n s t a l 1 a m o n o r a i l system: 1 i m i t e d and e x t e n s i v e s y s t e m

L i m i t e d System

T h i s o p t i o n uses one o r t w o m o n o r a i l s a n d employs t h e use o f a mule. The

mule may b e used t o s l i d e a T/R s e t c l o s e t o a m o n o r a i l where t h e T/R s e t may
t h e n be l i f t e d and removed t o g r a d e e l e v a t i o n . T h i s method e l i m i n a t e s t h e
need f o r a crane, w h i c h may n o t b e a v a i l a b l e when t h e p l a n t w i s h e s t o u s e i t .

E x t e n s i v e System

M o n o r a i l s a r e p l a c e d o v e r e a c h T/R s e t . When needed, a h o i s t i s moved t o t h e

T/R s e t where i t i s l o w e r e d a n d t h e T/R s e t l i f t e d o u t .

Access Problems

There a r e s e v e r a l access p r o b l e m s t h a t a u t i l i t y must c o n s i d e r when s e l e c t i n g

a m o n o r a i l system. I f t h e weather e n c l o s u r e has a s l o p i n g r o o f , e x i s t i n g
c l e a r a n c e s must be examined t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e T/R s e t can be l i f t e d
without interference. A l s o , c r o s s b r a c i n g m u s t b e d e s i g n e d so t h a t t h e r e i s no
i n t e r f e r e n c e when equipment i s l i f t e d . C a b l e t r a y s may a ? s o pose an
i n t e r f e r e n c e problem, and m i n u t e a t t e n t i o n t o d e t a i l i s r e q u i r e d i n p l a n n i n g
them.

I t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r a u t i l i t y t o m e r e l y s p e c i f y a m o n o r a i l system. A
u t i l i t y must review t h e drawings t h a t t h e equipment s u p p l i e r f u r n i s h e s .
VACUUM CLEANING SYSTEMS

Vacuum c l e a n i n g systems a r e used p r i m a r i l y i n t h e hopper a r e a . Their

f u n c t i o n i s t o p i c k up ash w h i c h may have s p i l l e d d u r i n g m a i n t e n a n c e
a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e hoppers and ash h a n d l i n g system. One example
o f such ash i s t h a t w h i c h s p i l l s t o t h e g r o u n d when a p l u g g e d hopper i s
opened.

An advantage o f a vacuum system i s t h a t i t m i n i m i z e s ash i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o t h e

p l a n t d r a i n a g e system.

Sizing

I n terms o f s i z i n g c r i t e r i a , a u t i l i t y must d e c i d e how much ash t h e y w i s h t o

be a b l e t o h a n d l e . A b e g i n n i n g e s t i m a t e i s t h e amount o f ash t o be c o l l e c t e d
i n one f u l l hopper i n a two o r t h r e e - h o u r p e r i o d .

PERSONNEL H O I S T

P r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y p r o v i d e d w i t h personnel h o i s t s . The reason

f o r t h i s i s t h e d i s t a n c e from grade t o t h e t o p o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i s u s u a l l y
l i m i t e d t o a b o u t 100 f e e t . However, a d o u b l e decked p r e c i p i t a t o r , w h i c h i s
a b o u t 200 f e e t h i g h , may r e q u i r e a p e r s o n n e l h o i s t .

Access t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i s o f t e n g a i n e d v i a p l a t f o r m i n g w h i c h t i e s i n t o t h e
boiler building. T h i s a l l o w s f o r t h e use o f t h e p l a n t e l e v a t o r t o p r o v i d e
access v e r y c l o s e t o t h e t o p o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

Depending on t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n , some p l a n t s may have p l a t f o r m i n g

on t o p o f d u c t w o r k l e a d i n g t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

WATER WASHING CONSIDERATIONS

A u t i l i t y e n g i n e e r s h o u l d be aware t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r b e i n g
s p e c i f i e d i s supposed t o r e m a i n r e l a t i v e l y c l e a n t h r o u g h t h e use o f r a p p e r s ,
many u t i l i t i e s have f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o c l e a n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r a t r e g u l a r
i n t e r v a l s , t y p i c a l l y r a n g i n g f r o m two o r t h r e e months t o two y e a r s . The more
frequent cleaning cycles are associated w i t h hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r s operating
on l o w sodium w e s t e r n c o a l s . i n o r d e r t h a t t h e s e h o t - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s have
a c c e p t a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s , t h e f u e l i s t r e a t e d w i t h sodium based
compounds. A d d i t i o n a l sodium, a l t h o u g h l o w e r i n g f l y ash
resistivities, can produce a fly ash that tends to be sticky. Sticky fly ash
makes it difficult to remove the ash from the precipitator. The effectiveness
of rapping is reduced and this results i n a growing deposit of fly ash on the
wires. This soon results in the inability to get power to the box, and at
this point, the unit should be taken out of service for cleaning.

Types of Cleaning
Several methods may be used to clean an electrostatic precipitator. They
include mechanical cleaning, sandblasting, and water washing. Mechanical
cleaning involves beating the precipitator internals with hammers and pipes to
shake the dust loose. Sandblasting usually requires an outside contractor and
has the advantage of leaving the ash handling system intact. Water washing
involves spraying the precipitator with high pressure water, and it possesses
the disadvantage of creating wet ash. In terms of the latter two methods, ESP
cleaning costs can range from $50,000 to $200,000 for a large ESP installation.

ACOUSTICAL TREATMENT
The sound level criteria that is established for a plant also applies to a
precipitator. The sound level should not exceed 90 dba at a distance of five
feet. Within the gas stream, where noise that is generated comes from rappers
and vibrators, sound level is not a problem because the insulation on the
precipitator casing effectively muffles the sound. However, rappers which are
installed outside the gas stream may require enclosures to contain noise.

Air
-
Many plants utilize air-driven equipment such as wrenches. If a particular
design requires air driven equipment, air hookups should be located at the
point of use, which will require the installation of an air header system.

Normally, water is not required in the precipitator area. An exception is

water washing. For water washing, an outlet is needed near every entrance way
into the precipitator.
Electrical

Every e n t r a n c e way i n t o t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r such a s h a t c h e s , hoppers, and hot

r o o f d o o r s , should be provided with 320 v e l e c t r i c a l power t o provide power
f o r l i g h t s and t o o l s . 120 v o l t power i s a l s o needed a t t e s t i n g c o n n e c t i o n s
l o c a t e d on p r e c i p i t a t o r ductwork. For water washing, 12 o r 24 v l i g h t i n g
s y s t e m s should be used t o reduce e l e c t r i c a l shock hazards.

Welding C i r c u i t s

There i s l i t t l e welding performed once a u n i t i s i n o p e r a t i o n . However, a

u t i l i t y may want t o provide one or two 480 v welding o u t l e t s a t each end of a
precipitator. A l s o , i n s i d e t h e weather e n c l o s u r e , a welding o u t l e t may be
spaced every 40 o r 50 f e e t .

SPECIAL TOOLS
A s p e c i a l t o o l i s any t o o l t h a t a p l a n t does n o t normally s t o c k . The
requirement f o r s p e c i a l t o o l s i s determined by s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n which an
equipment s u p p l i e r s p e c i f i e s r e q u i r e d t o o l s ; he a l s o makes p r o v i s i o n s t o
f u r n i s h them. A s u p p l i e r should a l s o provide s e v e r a l s e t s of t o o l s in e v e n t
of l o s s and breakage.

Types of s p e c i a l t o o l s a r e t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h maintaining t h e alignment o f

p l a t e s , r e p a i r i n g r a p p e r s , removal of d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s , and t h o s e used f o r
s t r a i g h t e n i n g bowed p l a t e s . Other t o o l s may i n c l u d e multi-purpose d i a g n o s t i c
a p p a r a t u s f o r t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g microprocessor based AVCs.

MAINTAINABILITY REVIEW OF DRAWINGS

A requirement should be included in a p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h a t

drawings and procedures s p e c i f y i n g maintenance procedures be submitted e a r l y
i n t h e engineering p r o c e s s so t h a t a u t i l i t y may review t h e s e requirements and
d e t e r m i n e how they b e s t f i t with t h e e n t i r e p r o j e c t . Examples a r e
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p u l l s p a c e , equipment a c c e s s i b i l i t y , and work a r e a s .
LIGHTING

The l i g h t i n g system u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f two s e p a r a t e subsystems:

The Normal L i g h t i n g System

The Normal/Emergency L i g h t i n g System.

A l l a r e a s t o w h i c h p l a n t p e r s o n n e l have a c c e s s s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n t h e
1 i g h t i n g system.

The Normal L i g h t i n q System

T y p i c a l minimum m a i n t a i n e d a v e r a g e i l l u m i n a t i o n l e v e l s f o r a p r e c i p i t a t o r and
i t s r e l a t e d areas a r e :

Location Minimum F o o t c a n d l e s

General I n d o o r Area 15

MCC a n d S w i t c h g e a r Area 30

Platforms:
Indoor
Outdoor

Stairways:
Indoor
Outdoor

C o n t r o l Panel 75

Norrnal/Emergency L i g h t i n g System

The Normal/Emergency l i g h t i n g system i s n o r m a l l y e n e r g i z e d and c o n t r i b u t e s t o

t h e normal i l l u m i n a t i o n o f t h e a r e a s . The l i g h t s f o r t h i s system a r e u s u a l l y
f l u o r e s c e n t and a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n t r o l a r e a , n e a r p o i n t s o f e g r e s s , and
n e a r e s s e n t i a1 equipment.

ISOLATION DAMPERS

Many u t i l i t i e s may want t o i s o l a t e a s i n g l e p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g d u r i n g p l a n t

o p e r a t i o n i n order t o perform maintenance. Such m a i n t e n a n c e c a n n o t b e
c o n s i d e r e d as r o u t i n e and o c c u r s o n l y i f a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f
transformer-rectifier s e t s a r e o u t o f s e r v i c e t h e r e b y p r o d u c i n g excess
emissions. W i t h a m u l t i p l e c a s i n g d e s i g n , an i s o l a t i o n p r o v i s i o n w i l l a l l o w a
u n i t t o be m a i n t a i n e d between 50 p e r c e n t and 85 p e r c e n t l o a d . The i s o l a t i o n
a b i l i t y r e q u i r e s a small f r o n t end i n v e s t m e n t t h a t can r e s u l t i n l a r g e s a v i n g s
l a t e r by r e d u c i n g f o r c e d o u t a g e s .

I s o l a t i o n dampers s h o u l d be o f z e r o l e a k a g e , man-safe d e s i g n . Isolation

dampers s h o u l d be v e r t i c a l and p o s s e s s an a i r p u r g e system, frame, b l a d e ,
m o t o r o p e r a t o r , and a l l n e c e s s a r y s e a l s and c o n t r o l s .

I t i s suggested t h a t t h a t t h e u t i l i t y e n g i n e e r r e f e r t o E P R i P r o j e c t 2250-1,
e n t i t l e d "Study o f O p e r a t i o n and D e s i g n o f Dampers i n FGD Systems," i n order
t o o b t a i n s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i n g case h i s t o r i e s o f dampers. They w i l l p r o v e most
h e l p f u l i n p r e p a r i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r i s o l a t i o n dampers.

MAINTENANCE DRAWINGS AND CHECK SHEETS

A s p e c i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t an equipment s u p p l i e r p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d
maintenance d r a w i n g s o f a l l equipment i n h i s s t a r t - u p and maintenance manual.
I n addition, routine check-off s h e e t s s h o u l d be f u r n i s h e d .

Manual I1 o f t h i s document p r o v i d e s d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g c h e c k - o f f
sheets.
7 SPEClFICATION PREPARATION INQUIRY
PRQPQSAL EVALUATIONAND CONTRACT
ACIMIN ISTRATION
 Section 7

SPECIFICATION PREPARATION, INQUIRY, PROPOSAL

EVALUATION AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION

T h i s s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e procurement c y c l e f o r and
contract administration o f electrostatic precipitators. More s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
t h i s s e c t i o n addresses t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , commercial
r e q u i r e m e n t s , b i d d e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i a , i s s u a n c e o f i n q u i r y packages,
p r o p o s a l e v a l u a t i o n , p r e p a r a t i o n o f c o n t r a c t u a l documents and c o n t r a c t
administration. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s r e p r e s e n t
a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f a modern power p l a n t and, as such, c o n s t i t u t e a m a j o r
c a p i t a l expense. F u r t h e r , when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a f f e c t o f n o n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h
e m i s s i o n s r e g u l a t i o n s on p l a n t o p e r a t i o n , i t behooves a u t i l i t y t o p u r c h a s e
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s t h a t can c o n s i s t e n t l y a c h i e v e h i g h l e v e l s o f
performance w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h o p e r a t i o n a l a v a i l a b i l i t y . Extreme c a r e and
sound judgement i s r e q u i r e d f o r s u c c e s s f u l p r e c i p i t a t o r i n s t a l l a t i o n and
operation.

PURCHASING PROCESS

The p u r c h a s i n g p r o c e s s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e v e n t s :
A l t e r n a t i v e equipment s t u d y ( c o n s i d e r i n g h o t - s i d e a n d c o l d - s i d e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s , and f a b r i c f i l t e r s a n d w e t s c r u b b e r s )

P r e p a r a t i o n o f d r a f t t e c h n i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and d r a w i n g s

P r e p a r a t i o n o f commercia? t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s

Qualification o f potential p r e c i p i t a t o r suppliers

Q u a l i f i e d s u p p l i e r r e v i e w o f d r a f t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a n d t e r m s and
conditions
 Preparation of final "request for proposal" (RFP) package
Supplier proposa7 preparation
Proposal evaluation
Contract award
- Contract admini stration.

Sequence of Activities
Once a decision is made regarding the level of particulate matter emission
control required for a plant or project, overall schedules and cost estimates
must be developed. In terms of the foregoing sequence, the following generic
schedule requirements are presented:
Alternate equipment study - three to six months, depending upon the
depth of the study.
Draft technical specification preparation - up to three months.
Draft commercial terms and conditions - up to two months and should
be coincident with specification preparation.
-
Qualification of potential suppliers up to two months and should
be performed either prior to or coincident with specification
preparation.
Qualified supplier review of draft specifications - four to s i x
weeks.
Preparation and issuance of RFP - one to four weeks depending upon
the nature of qualified supplier comments.
Proposal preparation - two to three months, depending upon scope of
supply and proposal activity level o f the qualified suppliers.
Proposal evaluation - three to six months depending upon the number
of proposals and the quantity of technical and commercial exceptions.
Contract award including evaluation review - one to two months.
Contract administration through initial performance testing - twenty
to forty months, depending upon scope of supply, magnitude of the
work, and project schedule requirements.
PERFORMANCE ORIENTED VERSUS DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Over the years, two distinct approaches to precipitator specification have

been used. The first, commonly referred to as a performance specification,
sets forth only a desired result and scope of supply. The precipitator
supplier is then charged with the responsibility to use its own standards,
procedures, and judgement in designing the precipitator. Under this concept,
the utility would accept those design features and margins that the supplier
deems necessary. The supplier selects sub-suppliers with the utility having
minimal review and approval priviledges.

A performance specification normally consists of the following:

Design removal efficiency
Fuel characteristics
Scope of supply
Performance warranty statement(s), covering the precipitator system
and major sub-systems provided by th precipitator supplier.

The supplier then includes a basic, although limited, description of the

equipment to be provided in its proposal. Major portions of the supplier's
proposal are usually incorporated into the purchase order to provide a
description of the equipment to be furni shed.

The other approach to precipitator specification is termed design or detail

specification. This approach requires a utility to develop a specification
which incorporates all elements of the performance specification but also sets
forth detailed design standards. Detailed design standards include such
features as the minimum number of transformer-rectifier sets, hoppers,
rappers, and most importantly, specific collecting area. This approach
ensures that all proposals are similar in equipment characteristics and meet
minimum design criteria. Proposal evaluation is simplified, and the
probability that the resulting equipment will meet the performance warranties
is greatly enhanced. Utility preferences for sub-suppliers are also addressed
in design specifications. Moreover, the supplier's proposal is usually not
incorporated into a
p u r c h a s e o r d e r , t h u s a v o i d i n g o r m i n i m i z i n g any m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s r e l a t i n g t o
what s h a l l be f u r n i s h e d b y t h e s u p p l i e r .

I n c o m p a r i n g performance and d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , t h e d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n
o f f e r s a u t i l i t y a g r e a t e r degree o f l a t i t u d e i n i n c o r p o r a t i n g i t s own
e x p e r i e n c e and t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r s i n t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n . Design
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s p r o v i d e b o t h t h e u t i l i t y and equipment s u p p l i e r w i t h a c l e a r
understanding o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and d u t i e s o f each p a r t y i n o r d e r t o
comply w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e c o n t r a c t ; t h i s l e a d s t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y f e w e r
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and c o n f l i c t s d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f t h e c o n t r a c t .
Accordingly, t h i s manual i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n approach.

MATERIAL ONLY VERSUS DELIVER AND ERECT CONTRACTS

A u t i l i t y has a c h o i c e a s t o w h e t h e r a p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r s h a l l p r o v i d e
o n l y m a t e r i a l o r t o p r o v i d e b o t h m a t e r i a l and e r e c t i o n . I n terms o f a
material only contract, a supplier's material warranty i s l i m i t e d t o providing
o n l y f o r t h e r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t o f a d e f e c t i v e p a r t o r system. The u t i l i t y
i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e removal and r e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a f f e c t e d equipment.
Based on y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e , t h e c o s t o f r e m o v a l a n d r e i n s t a l l a t i o n may be
anywhere f r o m one t o t e n t i m e s t h e c o s t o f t h e d e f e c t i v e m a t e r i a l . Therefore,
s i g n i f i c a n t and u n a n t i c i p a t e d sums o f money may be s p e n t b y a u t i l i t y f o r
w a r r a n t y r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t work.

M a t e r i a l o n l y c o n t r a c t s s h o u l d always r e q u i r e t h a t a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
s u p p l i e r t o be o n - s i t e d u r i n g a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d t h e
precipitator. T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o as an e r e c t i o n
consultant o r advisor. I t must be n o t e d t h a t an e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t has no
o n - s i t e e r e c t i o n s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d may o n l y a d v i s e t h e u t i l i t y ' s
erection contractor. An e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t ' s p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n i s t o p r o t e c t
t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s u p p l i e r ; f o r example, he i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e c o r d i n g
d e v i a t i o n s from t h e s u p p l i e r ' s e r e c t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n s and t o l e r a n c e s .
T h e r e f o r e , a u t i l i t y must e x e r c i s e e x t r e m e c a r e a n d d i l i g e n c e i n a s s u r i n g t h a t
an e r e c t i o n
c o n s u l t a n t i s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h t h e s u p p l i e r ' s equipment and t h a t he e x e r c i s e s
p r u d e n t judgement. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t works t h e
same h o u r s a s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c r e w , even i f i t means o v e r t i m e o r t h e need f o r
two e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t s , one f o r each s h i f t i f t h e w o r k i s t o be p e r f o r m e d on
a multiple s h i f t basis. Futhermore, an e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t must be g i v e n
every opportunity t o a l e r t a u t i l i t y t o potential deficiencies i n erection.
T h i s a l e r t i n g f u n c t i o n s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d t h r o u g h r e g u l a r m e e t i n g s w i t h a
c o n s t r u c t o r ' s s u p e r v i s o r y p e r s o n n e l and a u t i l i t y ' s o n - s i t e r e p r e s e n t a t . i v e s .
I n a d d i t i o n , an e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t s h o u l d p r o v i d e a w e e k l y r e p o r t t o b o t h t h e
u t i l i t y and p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r a c t o r . The s u p p l i e r s h o u l d a l s o p r o v i d e a
" c r i t i c a l item sign-off" sheet, w h i c h w o u l d be u s e d i n t h e f i e l d , w i t h i t s
proposal. The e r e c t i o n c o n s u l t a n t must s i g n - o f f a n d a c c e p t each c r i t i c a l i t e m
o r n o t i f y t h e u t i l i t y ' s management o f u n a c c e p t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s so t h a t
c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n may be t a k e n . T h i s p o i n t can n o t be overemphasized s i n c e a
s u p p l i e r may o f t e n c l a i m t h a t f a i l u r e t o a t t a i n p e r f o r m a n c e and/or f u l f i l l
m a t e r i a l w a r r a n t i e s i s due s o l e l y t o c o n s t r u c t i o n d e f i c i e n c i e s o v e r w h i c h t h e
s u p p l i e r had no c o n t r o l .

On t h e o t h e r hand, a c o n t r a c t w h i c h r e q u i r e s a p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r t o e r e c t
t h e m a t e r i a l i t f u r n i s h e s , commonly r e f e r r e d t o as a d e l i v e r - a n d - e r e c t
contract, provides f o r u n i f i e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . This unified responsibility
concept prevents a s u p p l i e r from c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e u t i l i t y d i d n o t p r o p e r l y
e r e c t t h e equipment s h o u l d t h e r e be a w a r r a n t y p r o b l e m . In terms o f t h e
m a t e r i a l warranty, i t would b e on a f u r n i s h a n d i n s t a l l b a s i s , sometimes
r e f e r r e d t o as an i n - p l a c e w a r r a n t y u n d e r t h e c o n c e p t o f w a r r a n t y i n k i n d . An
i n - p l a c e w a r r a n t y o f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t f i n a n c i a l b e n e f i t s t o a u t i l i t y and
minimizes expenditures o f u n a n t i c i p a t e d maintenance funds d u r i n g t h e w a r r a n t y
p e r i o d , w h i c h i s t y p i c a l l y f o r one y e a r b u t may be a s l o n g as t h r e e y e a r s
a f t e r a u n i t ' s t r i a l operation. It must be n o t e d t h a t a s u p p l i e r w i l l markup
t h e c o s t o f t h e e r e c t i o n b y a s m a l l amount t o a c c o u n t f o r overhead, p r o f i t a n d
warranty reserve.

I n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e above, d e l i v e r - a n d - e r e c t contracts offering unified

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a r e p r e f e r a b l e because t h e y 1 i m i t a u t i l i t y ' s r i s k .
When e s t a b l i s h i n g a f u e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e design and purchase of
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s , a u t i l i t y should always plan f o r u n c e r t a i n t i e s .
These u n c e r t a n t i e s i n c l u d e environmental r e g u l a t i o n changes, v a r i a b i l i t y of
f u e l p r o p e r t i e s , domestic economic c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e e f f e c t o f worldwide
p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t on foreign energy sources. Therefore, when planning new
g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y o r upgrading t h e performance of e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s , t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between f u e l and e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r performance must be
examined over a wide range of f u e l q u a l i t y . (See Parameter S e l e c t i o n
d i s c u s s i o n , Section 3 ) .

U t i l i t i e s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y used t h r e e concepts in developing design f u e l

characteristics f o r precipitator specifications. They a r e (1) performance
f u e l , (2) narrow range c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and ( 3 ) wide range c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The performance f u e l concept i s sim l a r t o t h a t employed i n steam g e n e r a t o r
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . A s p e c i f i c f u e l i s i d e n t i f i e d , and t h e performance warranty
i s dependent upon t h i s s i n g l e f u e l . T h i s idea r e q u i r e s t h a t a u t i l i t y be
a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s s p e c i f c f u e l i s not only a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g t h e
performance t e s t s but t h a t t h i s Cue o r one s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r w i l l be
a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g t h e l i f e of t h e u n i t . T h i s concept i s a p p l i c a b l e only t o
c a p t i v e mining o p e r a t i o n s with e x t e n s i v e a n a l y s e s of known r e s e r v e s . The
second concept, narrow range c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , involves i d e n t i f y i n g a s p e c i f i c
geographic region of t h e country from which t h e u t i l i t y p l a n s t o purchase
f u e l . A range of f u e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s then developed which i s based on a
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number of mines. The t h i r d c o n c e p t , wide range
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n v o l v e s s e l e c t i n g such a broad range of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s
t o f u n c t i o n a l l y i n c l u d e a l l c o a l s w i t h i n a very l a r g e geographic a r e a , f o r
example a l l United S t a t e s coal r e s e r v e s e a s t of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i River.

I n view of c u r r e n t f u e l market c o n d i t i o n s and based upon p a s t experience, t h e

performance f u e l concept i s not p r a c t i c a l due t o t h e p o t e n t i a l u n a v a i l a b i l i t y
of a s p e c i f i c f u e l some t h r e e t o f o u r y e a r s a f t e r t h e purchase of a
precipitator. A complicating f a c t o r may be a d e s i r e by a u t i l i t y ' s fuel
purchasing group t o o b t a i n t h e lowest p o s s i b l e f u e l c o s t regardTess of a
f u e l ' s e f f e c t on p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. This s i t u a t i o n might be
a m e l i o r a t e d by a c l o s e working r e l a t i o n s h i p between a u t i l i t y ' s engineering
f u e l and purchasing groups.
When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e b e n e f i t s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f d e s i g n i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s f o r
e i t h e r a n a r r o w o r w i d e range o f f u e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p l a n t economics must be
considered. Such an e v a l u a t i o n s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e e f f e c t s on t h e steam
g e n e r a t o r , t h e c o a l and ash h a n d l i n g systems, FO and I D f a n s and t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r a n d f l u e gas d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n system. C a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s and
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n t h i s e v a l u a t i o n .

I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , a u t i l i t y s h o u l d s e l e c t and e s t a b l i s h t h e range o f f u e l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r p r e c i p i t a t o r s i n such a manner a s t o p r o v i d e i t s e l f w i t h
t h e g r e a t e s t l a t i t u d e i n r e s p o n d i n g t o a c h a n g i n g fue; m a r k e t i n a
c o s t - e f f e c t i v e manner.

PREPARATION OF TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

T h i s s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s key c o n c e p t s as w e l l as an example o f t e c h n i c a l
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d i n a r e q u e s t f o r p r o p o s a l and subsequent c o n t r a c t .
T h e r e i s no i n t e n t t o p r o v i d e a c t u a l w o r d i n g f o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r t o
p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t g u i d e l i n e s so t h a t w e l l w r i t t e n and c o m p l e t e s p e c i f i c a t i o n
may be d e v e l o p e d b y a u t i l i t y .

Orqanization

T e c h n i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s s h o u l d a l w a y s be p r e p a r e d and o r g a n i z e d c a r e f u l l y i n
a c l e a r and c o n c i s e manner so t h a t b o t h t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r and t h e
u t i l i t y know e x a c t l y what i s t o be p r o v i d e d and by whom. The e f f o r t e x t e n d e d
b y a u t i l i t y i n p r e p a r i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w i l l be i n v e r s e l y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e
number o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and c o n f l i c t s w h i c h may a r i s e d u r i n g t h e
administration o f a contract. The need f o r c a r e f u l and c o m p l e t e s p e c i f i c a t i o n
p r e p a r a t i o n c a n n o t be overemphasized.

The f o l l o w i n g i s a l i s t o f t h o s e documents w h i c h s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n a
r e q u e s t f o r p r o p o s a l on a d e l i v e r - a n d - e r e c t b a s i s :
BIDDER INSTRUCTIONS

AGREEMENT

STANDARD TERMS AND CONDITIONS

SUPPLEMENTARY TERMS AND CONDITIONS

 SPECIAL CONDITIONS

PRECIPITATOR MECHANICAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

PRECIPITATOR ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR AND ACCESSORIES

DESIGN GUIDES

FIGURES

FORMS GOVERNING REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTRUCTION MANUALS, SELLER'S

DRAWINGS, ETC.

MOTOR CONTROL CENTERS FOR USE I N CONTROL POWER STATIONS

ELECTRIC CABLES FOR ELECTRIC GENERATING STATIONS

LIGHTING AND APPLIANCE BRANCH-CIRCUIT PANELBOARDS

MOTORS FOR STATION AUXILIARY SERVICE FURNISHED WITH DRIVE EQUIPMENT

RATED UP TO 460 VOLT AND 300 HP

METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR 6 0 0 VOLT CLASS DRAW-TYPE AND POWER CENTER

TRANSFORMERS

ANNUNCIATORS

THERMOCOUPLE, RTD ASSEMBLIES AND THERMDWELLS

ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTROL PANELS, BOARDS, AND CABINETS

ELECTRIC MOTOR OPERATORS FOR VALVES, DAMPERS, AND S L I D E GATES

CONTROL SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS

STRUCTURAL STEEL

METAL AND FOAM SIDING

GROUTING FDR EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURE SUPPORTS

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT AND DESIGN DRAWTNG

A contract should include all o f the foregoing documents except the bidder
instructions, which would no longer be a p p l icable.

More specifically, a precipitator specification may be organized along the

following guidelines:
 1.0 SCOPE
1.1 General
1.2 Scope o f Work t o b e P r o v i d e d b y S e l l e r
1.3 Scope o f Work t o be P r o v i d e d b y P u r c h a s e r

2.0 CODES AND STANDARDS

3.0 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Description o f Services
3.2 D e s i g n Requirements
3.3 S e i s m i c Requirements
3.4 Performance W a r r a n t i e s
3.5 D e s i g n and C o n s t r u c t i o n F e a t u r e s
3.6 M a t e r i a l s and W e l d i n g
3.7 O p e r a t i n g Environment
3.8 Sound C o n t r o l
3.9 Electrical
3.10 P r e c i p i t a t o r C o n t r o l System
3.11 Accessories
3.12 Spare P a r t s and S p e c i a l T o o l s
3.13 Cleanliness
3.14 S u r f a c e P r e p a r a t i o n and C o a t i n g
3.15 Packaging, S h i p p i n g and S t o r a g e
3.16 E q u i pment M a r k i n g
3.17 Q u a l i t y Assurance R e q u i r e m e n t s
3.18 F i r e P r o t e c t i o n Requirements
3.19 Water Wash System R e q u i r e m e n t s

4.0 INSTALLATION

5.0 TESTS
5.1 General
5.2 Material Tests
5.3 Shop T e s t s
5.4 Field Tests

6.0 SELLER'S SERVICES AND SCHEDULES

6.1 Scope o f Services
6.2 Types o f Documentation
6.3 Sel l e r ' s Data Submission Schedule

7.0 TECHNICAL DATA

7.1 Scope o f Supply
7.2 T e c h n i c a l Data by P u r c h a s e r
7.3 T e c h n i c a l Data b y S e l l e r
7.4 T e c h n i c a l Data f o r A l t e r n a t e C o n t r o l Sy.stem by S e l l e r
7.5 T e c h n i c a l Data f o r C o n t r o l System S i m u l a t o r by S e l l e r

APPENDICES

A - P u r c h a s e r ' s S t a n d a r d Documents and D e s i g n Guides

B - Purchaser's Design Drawings
C - Control System Diagnostics
D- Control System Programming
E - Seller's General Arrangement and Design Drawings
Scope of Supply
It is most important that both a precipitator supplier (Seller) and a utility
(Purchaser) have a clear understanding of the work to be performed. In terms
of the precipitator specification, this statement of work is covered in
paragraph 1.0 (Scope) in a general manner and more specifically in paragraph
7.1 (Scope of Supply Statement). An example of a scope of supply statement
section is provided i n Appendix 7A and is for illustration only.

Data Requirements
In order to have a comprehensive proposal prepared by a precipitator
supplier, a utility must provide certain information. The following
subsections delineate the type of data required of both a purchaser and seller

Purchaser Provided Technical Data. An example of the quantity and quality of

general design information provided by a purchaser to a seller is illustrated
in Appendix 7B.

Seller Provided Technical Data. An example of t h e type of information

provided by a seller to a purchaser, which describes the equipment to be
furnished and the evaluation thereof, is illustrated in Appendix 7C.

Document Requirements
In addition to the requirement to provide and install the material and
equipment, a seller is also required to provide additional services to ensure
that a technically complete system will be successfully integrated into the
balance of the power plant i n a timely manner. These services normally
include, as a minimum, the following:
 Engineering

Design

Procurement

Fabrication

Q u a l i t y c o m p l i a n c e i n s p e c t i o n and t e s t i n g

T r a i n i n g programs

S h i p p i n g , e x p e d i t i n g and f i e l d s e r v i c e s

S e l l e r ' s data s u b m i t t a l schedule

Erection

Start-up operations

As an o u t g r o w t h o f t h e s e s e r v i c e s , a s e l l e r w i l l p r o d u c e v a r i o u s documents
r e p r e s e n t i n g an i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r t o a p u r c h a s e r . This information
t r a n s f e r must be i n accordance w i t h t h e p u r c h a s e r ' s l i m i t a t i o n s as t o t y p e ,
number, f o r m a t , i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t , sequence, s c h e d u l e and r e l e a s e . The
f o l l o w i n g i s a l i s t o f t h e documents w h i c h s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d by a s e l l e r o r ,
i n c e r t a i n c a s e s , t y p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o be s u p p l i e d b y a s e l l e r f o r
i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o comparable documents p r e p a r e d b y a p u r c h a s e r :

Management Documents. The f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f management documents s h o u l d be

p r o v i d e d by a s e l l e r i n accordance w i t h t h e S e l l e r ' s D a t a Submission S c h e d u l e
n o t e d above:
P r o c e d u r e s Manual

Organizational Charts

Document L i s t s

Schedules

Progress Reports

P r o c e d u r e s Manual. A s e l l e r s h o u l d p r e p a r e a p r o c e d u r e s manual c o v e r i n g
i n t e r f a c e areas w i t h the purchaser i n c l u d i n g , b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o :
D e f i n i t i o n s and t e r m i n o l o g y
 J o b d e s c r i p t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f documents

P r o c e d u r e f o r changes i n scope o f s u p p l y o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n

A u t h o r i t y f o r commitment t o v a r i o u s t y p e s o f changes

P r o c e d u r e s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a n d r e p o r t i n g p h y s i c a l accompl ishment

- P r o c e d u r e s f o r maintenance o f i n f o r m a t i o n exchange r e c o r d s

T h i s document s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d and m a i n t a i n e d b y a s e l l e r , w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e
i n p u t f r o m a p u r c h a s e r , and s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e i n d u p l i c a t e t o t h e
purchaser. I t must be emphasized t h a t t h e i n t e n t i s t o c o v e r s e l l e r / p u r c h a s e r
i n t e r f a c e s w i t h o n l y minimal i n f o r m a t i o n o r i n t e r f a c e s which a r e s t r i c t l y
internal t o a s e l l e r ' s organization.

Document L i s t s . A s e l l e r s h o u l d p r e p a r e and m a i n t a i n l i s t s o f a l l documents

t o be p r e p a r e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p r o j e c t i n c l u d i n g t h e t y p e o f
i n t e r f a c e w i t h t h e purchaser; i . e . , t r a n s m i t t a l , r e v i e w a n d comment, a p p r o v a l
required f o r release, etc.

Schedules. A s e l l e r must p r e p a r e and m a i n t a i n a l l n e c e s s a r y schedules and t h e

s t a t u s of d r a w i n g s , s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and o t h e r d o c u m e n t a t i o n , equipment
p r o c u r e m e n t , and equipment d e l i v e r y . F a b r i c a t i o n sequences must be d e v e l o p e d
i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t o d e t e r m i n e c h e c k p o i n t s f o r i n s p e c t i o n and/or t e s t i n g
by a p u r c h a s e r .

Progress Reports. A s e l l e r must p r e p a r e and s u b m i t p e r i o d i c p r o g r e s s r e p o r t s

on p h y s i c a l accomplishments, maintenance o f schedules, a n d f o r e c a s t s o f
component l e a d t i m e s and m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b i l i t y i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t o e n a b l e
a purchaser t o a p p r o p r i a t e l y monitor t h e progress o f t h e p r o j e c t .

T e c h n i c a l Documents. The f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f t e c h n i c a l documents s h o u l d be

p r o v i d e d b y a s e l l e r i n accordance w i t h t h e S e l l e r ' s Data Submission
Schedule :
 D r a w i n g s and Diagrams

B i l l s o f M a t e r i a l and L i s t s

D a t a Sheets

C a l c u l a t i o n Sheets

Written Descriptions.

D r a w i n g s and Diagrams. A s e l l e r must s u b m i t d r a w i n g s and diagrams f o r t h e

p u r c h a s e r ' s i n f o r m a t i o n and/or r e v i e w and comment. They s h o u l d i n c l u d e
a s - b u i l t d r a w i n g s f o r a 1 d r a w i n g s l i s t e d i n t h e S e l l e r ' s Data Submission
Schedule. C o p i e s o f a1 f i n a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n s h o u l d be s u b m i t t e d f o r t h e
purchaser's record. As a r u l e , t h e use o f a s i n g l e d r a w i n g (one t i t l e and one
number) t o s a t i s f y a g e n e r a l t y p e d e s gn p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r equipment w i t h
s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n s w o u l d n o t be g e n e r a 1y a c c e p t a b l e . Every p a r t i c u l a r
equipment d r a w i n g s h o u l d have i t s own t i t l e and number. I n a d d i t i o n , each
d r a w i n g must have a p u r c h a s e r ' s o r d e r number and i t e m number f o r easy
identification. It i s recognized tha d u p l i c a t i o n may be p o s s i b l e ; however, a
s e l l e r s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d t o meet t h e i n t e n t o f t h i s p a r a g r a p h , and i t i s
suggested t h a t p r u d e n t use o f t r a c i n g t y p e r e p r o d u c i b l e s be employed.

A p u r c h a s e r must r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t t o r e v i e w a71 documents s u b m i t t e d b y t h e

s e l l e r t o e n s u r e conformance w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n ' s .

A p u r c h a s e r must a l s o r e s e r v e t h e o p t i o n t o a u d i t s e l l e r ' s e n g i n e e r i n g and

d e s i g n a c t i v i t i e s a t t h e s e l l e r ' s d e s i g n f a c i l i t y on a p e r i o d i c b a s i s t o
ensure compliance w i t h s p e c i f i c a t i o n requirements.

G e n e r a l Arrangement Drawings. General Arrangement d r a w i n g s must show a l l

equipment, i t s l o c a t i o n , d i m e n s i o n s , e l e v a t i o n s , p l a t f o r m s e c t i o n c u t s , column
d e s i g n a t i o n s , and a n o r t h a r r o w . S e c t i o n and D e t a i l d r a w i n g s must a l s o be
i n c l u d e d i n t h e g e n e r a l arrangement d r a w i n g package and must show t h e
same i n f o r m a t i o n as t h e g e n e r a l arrangements. Dimensions s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e
f i n i s h e d f a c e ( s u c h as, b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o , i n s u l a t i o n and l a g g i n g ) o f t h e
equipment, a n d t h e y s h o u l d a l s o n o t e t h e degree o f t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n .
F o u n d a t i o n Design I n t e r f a c e Drawings. A s e l l e r must p r o v i d e o u t l i n e d r a w i n g s
f o r a l l equipment and s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h r e q u i r e f o u n d a t i o n s t h a t a r e t o be
p r o v i d e d by t h e p u r c h a s e r . These d r a w i n g s t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n w e i g h t s ,
d i m e n s i o n s , and f o u n d a t i o n l o a d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t o p e r m i t
t h e p u r c h a s e r t o proceed w i t h f o u n d a t i o n d e s i g n . A s e l l e r ' s foundation
l o a d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n must i n c l u d e a l l dead, s e i s m i c , l i v e , h o r i z o n t a l , v e r t i c a l
and w i n d l o a d s .

E r e c t i o n Drawings. A s e l l e r must p r o v i d e d r a w i n g s t h a t show t h e e x t e n t of

shop p r e f a b r i c a t i o n t o be u s e d f o r v a r i o u s components. These d r a w i n g s s h o u l d
i n d i c a t e t h e l o c a t i o n , t y p e , s i z e , and e x t e n t o f a l l f i e l d w e l d s , t h e number
and s i z e o f subcomponents a n d shop a t t a c h m e n t o f s e a l s , and t h e s u p p o r t s a n d
e n c l o s u r e s i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t o e n a b l e a p u r c h a s e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e degree
o f r e q u i r e d f i e l d e r e c t i o n s h o u l d t h e p u r c h a s e r e l e c t t o have t h e equipment
e r e c t i o n p e r f o r m e d b y someone o t h e r t h a n t h e s e l l e r .

Equipment and Components D r a w i n g s . A s e l l e r m u s t s u b m i t equipment and

component d r a w i n g s f o r a l l m a j o r p i e c e s o f m e c h a n i c a l , s t r u c t u r a l and
e l e c t r i c a l equipment. G e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e d r a w i n g s a r e as f o l l o w s :
Document i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b y t i t l e , number, c h a r a c t e r and d a t a

Component i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b y i t e m number

Dimensional d a t a - d i m e n s i o n e d o u t l i n e d r a w i n g i n c l u d i n g m o t o r
o u t l i n e and m o t o r nameplate i f a p p l i c a b l e

Envelope d i m e n s i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r c l e a r a n c e , access and d i s a s s e m b l y

Flange p r e p a r a t i o n d e t a i l s

L i f t i n g and p u l l i n g p r o v i s i o n s i n c l u d i n g equipment w e i g h t s

C o n n e c t i o n d i m e n s i o n a l d a t a a t i n t e r f a c e s w i t h the P u r c h a s e r
s u p p l i e d equipment

A l l o w a b l e c o n n e c t i o n r e a c t i o n s and moments

B a s e p l a t e and s u p p o r t d e t a i l s i n c l u d i n g f o u n d a t i o n l o a d i n g

L o c a t i o n and s i z i n g o f t e r m i n a l boxes a n d c a b ? e / c o n d u i t e n t r y
 Complete p e r f o r m a n c e / c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d a t a and c u r v e s

Any r e s t r i c t i o n s o r l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e S e l l e r
f u r n i s h e d equipment i n t h e P u r c h a s e r ' s scope o f s u p p l y

Transformer high v o l t a g e t e r m i n a t i o n d e t a i 1 s .

A s e l l e r m u s t a1 s o submit i n s t r u m e n t o u t l i n e d r a b n g s , and c o n t r o l board and

c a b i n e t drawings.

One-Li ne E l e c t r i c a 1 Diagrams. One-1 i ne e l e c t r i c a d i a g r a m s should show a l l

s e l l e r s u p p l i e d b u s e s from t h e t r a n s f o r m e r s down t h r o u g h ?20/208 wye v o l t
panels. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s e diagrams s h o u l d show d c b u s e s and p a n e l s .
G e n e r a l l y , o n e - l i n e diagrams show b u d p a n e l c o n t i n u o u s and s h o r t c i r c u i t
r a t i n g s , bus and equipment i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n end p r o t e c t i v e r e l a y i n g ; 6 . 9 kV t o
480v and 480 t o 120/208 wye v o l t t r a n s f o r m e r r a t i n g s ( i . e . , kVA and
impedance); c a b l e s i z e s of a l l motor; t r a n s f o r m e r and p a n e l f e e d e r s ; and
grounding r e s i s t o r r a t i n g s . These d i a g r a m s u s u a l l y r e f l e c t a twin b u s d e s i g n
such t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of e i t h e r bus w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n a t o t a l l o s s of power
t o the precipitator.

Communication and L i g h t i n g Drawings. Communication and l i g h t i n g drawings

s h o u l d show t h e p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n of r e s p e c t i v e equipment i n r e l a t i o n t o
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r system components. A d d i t i o n a l l y , a symbols l i s t
s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e components shown on d r a w i n g s . A
communication system i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n b l o c k diagram must a l s o be p r e p a r e d .

Tray and Conduit Drawings. Tray and c o n d u i t d r a w i n g s s h o u l d show t r a y and

c o n d u i t r o u t i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o system components a n d / o r s t r u c t u r e s . As a
minimum, t r a y s and c o n d u i t s should b e s e p a r a t e d and i d e n t i f i e d i n such a
manner t o e n s u r e t h a t 6 . 9 kV power, c o n t r o l , and low l e v e l c a b l e r o u t e s a r e
n o t mixed. Drawings should a l s o i d e n t i f y t h e d i a m e t e r and c o n s t r u c t i o n of
c o n d u i t s , t r a y s i z e s and whether t h e t r a y s a r e a l a d d e r t y p e o r a r e s o l i d w i t h
covers.

Tray and c o n d u i t p l a n drawings of a p a r t i c u l a r e l e v a t i o n s h o u l d show a l l

equipment on t h a t e l e v a t i o n i n c l u d i n g f l o o r embedments up t o t h e bottom of t h e
next floor elevation. Glass f l o o r drawings a r e u s u a l l y not d e s i r a b l e .
Cabling I n t e r f a c e Diagram. A cabling i n t e r f a c e diagram should must be prepared
t o show a s e l l e r ' s terminal block arrangement and t h e l o c a t i o n f o r i n t e r f a c e
with a p u r c h a s e r ' s power and c o n t r o l c a b l e s .

Grounding System I n t e r f a c e Diagram. A grounding system i n t e r f a c e diagram

should be prepared t o show a s e l l e r ' s i n t e r f a c e l o c a t i o n with a p u r c h a s e r ' s
grounding system. T h i s diagram should i d e n t i f y grounding c a b l e s i z e ,
q u a n t i t y , and l o c a t i o n dimensions.

Tray and Conduit System I n t e r f a c e Diagram. A t r a y and conduit system

i n t e r f a c e diagram should be prepared t o show a s e l l e r ' s i n t e r f a c e l o c a t i o n
with a p u r c h a s e r ' s t r a y and conduit system. This diagram should i d e n t i f y
c o n d u i t and t r a y s i z e , e l e v a t i o n , 'location dimensions, and q u a n t i t y .

Equipment I n t e r n a l Wiring Diagrams. Equipment i n t e r n a l wiring diagrams should

be prepared f o r a71 s w i t c h g e a r , t h e motor c o n t r o l c e n t e r , t h e control c a b i n e t ,
c o n t r o l b o a r d s , and s i m i l a r types of equipment. In g e n e r a l , t h e s e diagrams
show p o i n t - t o - p o i n t w i r i n g of e l e c t r i c a l d e v i c e s l o c a t e d i n o r on t h e
enclosures. S p e c i f i c requirements f o r t h e s e diagrams a r e u s u a l l y contained in
attachment s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

Control Wiring Diagrams. A s e l l e r should prepare and submit control wiring

diagrams f o r t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r o l system and i t s a s s o c i a t e d supporting
systems such a s e l e c t r i c power d i s t r i b u t i o n system, f i r e p r o t e c t i o n system,
and h e a t i n g , v e n t i l a t i n g , and a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g systems.

The f u n c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l wiring diagrams i s t o show both l o g i c f u n c t i o n s

f o r s p e c i f i c equipmeniddevice operation and p r o t e c t i o n , including personnel
s a f e t y f e a t u r e s , and complete wiring and c a b l i n g informa' LI ' on.

Two b a s i c t y p e s of c o n t r o l wiring diagrams (CWDs) can be prepared depending

upon t h e t y p e of hardware used t o implement c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s . One
type may be microprocessor or solid-state logic system CWDs and another type
may be relay system CWDs of the elementary schematic type. The primary
purpose of the CWDs is to provide t h e following:
Cable identification information
Cable termination information
MCC or breaker identification information
Control switch information
Microprocessor input/output point identification
Control cabinet identification information
Microprocessor patch panel o r programming information
Input/output device wiring information
Relay or solid state wiring information identification
Control loop operation information
Used and spare device contact information
Alarm information.

Instrument Location and Arrangement Drawings. A seller should prepare and

submit instrument location and arrangement drawings. They should be prepared
from general arrangement type drawings and should use the approved general
arrangement information as a background. The primary purpose of the
instrument location and arrangement drawings is to provide instrument tap
location information, instrument mounting location information, instrument air
piping header location, and diagrammatic routing information to the instrument
installer. A secondary function is to provide location information for local
electrical control stations and cabinets.

Instrument Installation and Instrument Support Details. A seller must prepare

specific instrument installation and support details for each instrument in
its scope of work. Detailed design drawings should be complete working
drawings of each installation, and should show a Bill of Materials, final
dimensions, and, where pertinent to the installation design, the correct
s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a l l components. The d e t a i l e d i n s t a l l a t i o n d e s i g n
d r a w i n g s s h o u l d a l s o s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y a l l p o r t s on i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ,
c o n t r o l v a l v e s , and a s s o c i a t e d d e v i c e s t o w h i c h a s e l l e r has made
connections. A l l p i p e and t u b e c o n n e c t i o n s p r o v i d e d b y an equipment
m a n u f a c t u r e r o r w i t h i n t h e scope o f a d i f f e r e n t i n s t a l l a t i o n c o n t r a c t s h o u l d
be n o t e d as " b y m a n u f a c t u r e r 1 ' o r " b y o t h e r s , " as a p p r o p r i a t e . Each
i n s t r u m e n t , c o n t r o l valve, o r associated d e v i c e t o which a drawing a p p l i e s
s h o u l d be s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d on each d r a w i n g u s i n g a p u r c h a s e r ' s
i n s t r u m e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number.

Key I n t e r l o c k System Drawings. A s e l l e r must p r e p a r e a s p e c i f i c k e y i n t e r l o c k

d r a w i n g t h a t d e t a i l s t h e l o g i c and o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e system.

L o g i c Diagrams. A s e l l e r must p r e p a r e and s u b m i t f u n c t i o n a l l o g i c d i a g r a m s

f o r each c o n t r o l system and/or subsystem d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r o l
system p o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n . C o n t r o l system l o g i c d i a g r a m s may be
d e v e l o p e d on a system b a s i s o r on an i n d i v i d u a l c i r c u i t o r equipment b a s i s .
The d r a w i n g s s h o u l d c o n s i s t o f t h r e e forms as a p p l i c a b l e :
I n t e r l o c k L o g i c Diagrams

Analog F u n c t i o n a l L o g i c Diagrams

Computer Flow C h a r t s .

I n t e r l o c k l o g i c diagrams s h o u l d show i n f o r m a t i o n e s s e n t i a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e process. These d r a w i n g s s h o u l d d e l i n e a t e between i n s t r u m e n t s and d e v i c e s
t h a t p e r t a i n t o t h e p r o c e s s and t h o s e t h a t a r e p r o v i d e d f o r o p e r a t o r u s e .
L o g i c d i a g r a m s s h o u l d c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y o f l o g i c symbols w i t h i n p u t and o u t p u t
s i g n a l l i n e s i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g t h e i n i t i a t i n g f u n c t i o n s and consequent a c t i o n s .
I n g e n e r a l , a l o g i c d i a g r a m s h o u l d be drawn showing t h e p r i m a r y i n i t i a t i n g
i n p u t c o n d i t i o n ( o r d e v i c e ) a t t h e l e f t hand s i d e , t h e consequent equipment
o p e r a t i on
( o r e n d c o n d i t i o n ) a t t h e r i g h t hand s i d e , and t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g l o g i c
symbols i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g space.

A n a l o g f u n c t i o n a l l o g i c d i a g r a m s s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d i n accordance w i t h SAMA
standards.
Computer F l o w C h a r t s s h o u l d d e t a i l t h e l o g i c o p e r a t i o n f o r each system,
d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e a c t u a l e l e c t r i c a l o r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n equipment. The
f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d as p a r t o f t h e c o m p u t e r f l o w c h a r t
d o c u m e n t a t i o n package:
Complete i n p u t l i s t f o r each system

Complete o u t p u t l i s t f o r each system

Complete f l a g l i s t f o r each system

A l i n e l i s t o f e v e r y program s t e p

C o n t r o l System S o f t w a r e Documentation. A s e l l e r must p r e p a r e a n d s u b m i t a

c o m p l e t e a n d comprehensive s o f t w a r e d o c u m e n t a t i o n package d e s c r i b i n g t h e
o p e r a t i o n and maintenance o f m i c r o p r o c e s s o r based c o n t r o l systems. This
c o n s i s t s o f a documentation c o n s i s t s o f step-by-step commented l i s t i n g s o f
each program on p r i n t e d copy and a l s o a m a g n e t i c t a p e copy s u i t a b l e f o r e n t r y
i n t o t h e m i c r o p r o c e s s o r system. The p r i m a r y purpose o f t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n i s
t o f u l l y d e s c r i b e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f each m i c r o p r o c e s s o r and i t s a s s o c i a t e d
i n p u t / o u t p u t hardware.

P r e c i p i t a t o r S i z e S e l e c t i o n Documentation. A s e l l e r should prepare the i n p u t

d a t a and s u b m i t t h e d a t a t o an i n d e p e n d e n t r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n so t h a t t h e
EPA computer p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z i n g program f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h a t s e l l e r ' s
p r e c i p i t a t o r size selection. A s e l l e r must t h e n s u b m i t a l l i n p u t d a t a and t h e
p r o g r a m o u t p u t t o a p u r c h a s e r so t h a t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n can b e i n t u r n
s u b m i t t e d t o t h e r e g i o n a l EPA o f f i c e t o supplement a p u r c h a s e r ' s P r e v e n t i o n o f
S i g n i f i c a n t D e t e r i o r a t i o n Permit.

C o n t r o l System C o n f i q u r a t i o n Drawings. A s e l l e r should prepare and submit

c o n t r o l system c o n f i g u r a t i o n d r a w i n g s showing t h e p h y s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n ,
c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s , f u n c t i o n a l hardware c o n f i g u r a t i o n , and power s u p p l y
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l system. The p u r p o s e o f t h e s e d r a w i n g s i s t o
c o n v e y t h e o v e r a l l l a y o u t and d e s i g n p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e c o n t r o l system t o a
purchaser.
I n s t r u m e n t Schematics. A s e l l e r s h o u l d p r e p a r e and s u b m i t i n s t r u m e n t
s c h e m a t i c s f o r a l l p r o c e s s s y s t e m s and subsystems i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e c o n t r a c t .
Schematics s h o u l d f o l l o w a p i p i n g and i n s t r u m e n t d i a g r a m (P&ID) format b u t
s h o u l d n o t r e p e a t m e c h a n i c a l system d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n n o r m a l l y f o u n d on t h e
system f l o w d i a g r a m s such a s l i n e number, l i n e s i z e s , e x t r a n e o u s p i p i n g ,
i n s t r u m e n t r o o t v a l v e s , a n d v a l v e numbers f o r m a n u a l l y o p e r a t e d v a l v e s w h i c h
are not involved w i t h e l e c t r i c a l control c i r c u i t s . The purpose o f t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s c h e m a t i c s h o u l d be t o p r o v i d e a p u r c h a s e r w i t h a document w h i c h
p r e s e n t s t h e c o n t r o l c i r c u i t o f t h e system, system i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r
m o n i t o r i n g a n d p r o c e s s a l a r m i n g , and t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e v a r i o u s c o n t r o l d e v i c e s w i t h i n t h e system and between systems.

I n s t r u m e n t s c h e m a t i c s s h o u l d show t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n :
M a i n p r o c e s s p r e s e n t e d on a system b a s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h system f l o w
d i a g r a m s as p r e p a r e d by t h e S e l l e r .

Secondary p r o c e s s e s o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t n e c e s s a r y t o d e s c r i b e t h e
i n t e n d e d p u r p o s e o f i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and c o n t r o l equipment f o r t h a t
system.

A l l p r o c e s s r e l a t e d v a l v e s and p i p i n g s p e c i a l t i e s w h i c h a r e
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r i m a r y and secondary p r o c e s s f l o w s shown on t h e
schematic.

F a i l u r e modes f o r a l l c o n t r o l v a l v e s , g a t e s , dampers, e t c

A p p r o p r i a t e number o f i n s t r u m e n t c o n n e c t i o n s on t a n k s , v e s s e l s ,
heater shells, etc.

M o t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h pumps, f a n s , v a l v e s , e t c .

A l l instruments and c o n t r o l devices d i r e c t l y associated w i t h t h e

process.

The f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be e x c l u d e d f r o m i n s t r u m e n t s c h e m a t i c s s i n c e
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s shown o n f l o w d i a g r a m s and i s n o t r e q u i r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and c o n t r o l d e v i c e s t o t h e system:
I n s t r u m e n t r o o t v a l v e s and l o c a l i s o l a t i o n v a l v e s

P i p i n g l i n e numbers
 E x t r a n e o u s secondary p r o c e s s f l o w l i n e s , and f e a t u r e s such as v e n t s
and d r a i n s w h i c h do n o t i m p a i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e system

P i p i n g r e d u c e r s and o t h e r e x t r a n e o u s p i p i n g i n f o r m a t i o n

E x t e r n a l I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n Diagrams. A s e l l e r must p r e p a r e and s u b m i t e x t e r n a l

i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n diagrams f o r a l l e l e c t r i c a l equipment supplied by a s e l l e r o r
i t s subvendors. The p r i m a r y purpose o f e x t e r n a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n d i a g r a m s i s
t o p r o v i d e c a b l e t e r m i n a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and maintenance.

T e r m i n a l b l o c k s s h o u l d be shown i n r e l a t i v e p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n w i t h t e r m i n a l
b l o c k number a n d t e r m i n a l p o i n t numbers shown.

Each e x t e r n a l c a b l e s h o u l d be shown t e r m i n a t e d on i t s a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m i n a l
blocks. C o l o r code, c a b l e number, spare c o n d u c t o r s , and d e s t i n a t i o n s h o u l d be
shown.

These d r a w i n g s s h o u l d a l s o i n c l u d e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d r a w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o
o t h e r w i r i n g d r a w i n g s , i n c l u d i n g i n t e r n a l c a b i n e t w i r i n g diagram's, so t h a t t h e
w i r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a c o m p l e t e c i r c u i t can be f o l l o w e d t h r o u g h t h e
d o c u m e n t a t i o n package.

B i l l s of M a t e r i a l and L i s t s . A s e l l e r s h o u l d p r o v i d e v a r i o u s l i s t s and b i l l s
o f m a t e r i a l as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs.

C a b l e and C o n d u i t L i s t (CCL). A Cable and C o n d u i t L i s t (CCL) must be p r e p a r e d

t o show a l l c a b l i n g w i t h i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r system e n v e l o p e . T h i s document
d e f i n e s c a b l e r o u t e s f r o m o r i g i n t o d e s t i n a t i o n , c a b l e t y p e , and l e n g t h o f
run. Cable t r a y s and c o n d u i t s on p h y s i c a l d r a w i n g s must be numbered and r o u t e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n must c o r r e l a t e t o t h e p h y s i c a l d r a w i n g s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t r a y and
c o n d u i t f i l l d a t a must be p r o v i d e d . The c a b l e a n d c o n d u i t 1 i s t s h o u l d :
I d e n t i f y equipment a t b o t h c a b l e t e r m i n a t i o n s .

I d e n t i f y t h e cable by reference t o i t s associated c o n t r o l c i r c u i t

number w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e .
 Identify cable routing including cab1 e tray numbers, conduit
numbers, manhole numbers and junction box numbers. These numbers
should appear on the electrical physical drawings.
Identify the type o f cable, length of each pull and the cumulative
total length for each type of cable for the entire contract.
A subsection of the CCL called the "conduit list" should list in
numerical order each conduit number, its s i z e and type, and the
identifying number of any cables routed through that conduit. It
should also list "from" and "to" for each conduit.
No more than one control circuit's associated cables should appear
on each CCL sheet.

Instrument Data Base Information. A seller must prepare and submit instrument
data base information covering all instruments and control devices within its
scope of work. The instrument data base will be used by a purchaser to store
and manage pertinent information about plant instrumentation. Each instrument
should have pertinent design, engineering, procurement, and computer
input/output and operating information stored in the data base. The
information related to each instrument should be grouped by type according to
the end user of the information.

The following is a list of instrument information that should be contained in

a data base arranged by information groups.

A - Design and Engineering Information

1 - Tag Number
2 - Service Description
3 - Flow Diagram Number
4 - Instrument Schematic Number
5 - Connection From
6 - Connection To
7 - Control Wiring Diagram Number
8 - Typical Installation Detail Number
 9 - Specific Installation Detail Number
10 - Instrument Location and Arrangement Drawing Number
I1 - Mounting Location
12 - Instrument Support Detail Number
13 - Primary Function
14 - Piping Diagram Number
B - Procurement Information
1 - Manufacturer
2 - Manufacturer's Model Number
3 - Procurement Contract Number
4 - Operating Range
5 - Vendor Tag Number
6 - Output Signal
7 - Foreign File Numbers for Certified Drawings
(Outline & Electrical)
C - Computer Input/Output Information
1 - Computer Point I D
2 - Point Type
3 - lower Reasonable Limit
4 - Upper Reasonable Limit
5 - Input/Output Terminal Numbers
D - Operating Information
1 - Set Point
2 - Dead Band
3 - Operation
Not all of the listed information will be applicable to each instrument. When
a specific piece of information is not applicable for a particular instrument,
"NA" should be entered in the appropriate data field.

Bill of Material. Bills of material should correlate components to outline

drawings and diagrams. Components may be identified by the original
manufacturer's name and catalog numbers. If the catalog reference does not
contain all operating characteristics, such as in an auxiliary relay, for
example, the following should be supplied:
Nominal voltage
- Operating vo1 tage range
Minimum pick-up voltage
Drop-out voltage
Pick-up time at minimum pick-up voltage
Inrush VA and pf if ac at minimum pick-up voltage
Continuous VA ac, coil resistance - dc
Number and kind of contacts
Contact ratings: making, continuous, interrupting AC/DC

Since all parameters for all devices cannot be listed in a specification, the
foregoing should be considered as illustrating the data required to enable a
purchaser to analyze circuits under various conditions. Billing material
should include all electrical equipment including wire types (no lengths)
mounted on the board, and it should state whether the purchaser or seller will
furnish that equipment. Bills of material should identify each item by name,
with its associated quantity on order, manufacturer's name, and catalog number.

A seller should submit data sheets for motors and instruments in accordance
with the requirements set forth in referenced specifications that are included
as attachments to the precipitator specification.
C a l c u l a t i o n Sheets. A s e l l e r must u s u a l l y p e r f o r m t h e s t u d i e s and
c a l c u l a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs and s h o u l d s u b m i t c o p i e s o f
t h e s t u d i e s and c a l c u l a t i o n s h e e t s t o a p u r c h a s e r f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d / o r
review.

E l e c t r i c a l Load S t u d i e s . Load s t u d i e s s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d f o r each

swi t c h g e a r , 1 i g h t i n g , power, hopper h e a t i n g , and dc p a n e l . A preliminary load
s t u d y , p r o v i d e d w i t h a p r o p o s a l , s h o u l d i d e n t i f y t h e t o t a l maximum power
r e q u i r e m e n t w h i c h w i l l n o t be exceeded.

Short C i r c u i t Calculations. S h o r t c i r c u i t c a l c u l a t i o n s must be p e r f o r m e d and

s u b m i t t e d t o v e r i f y t h a t equipment s h o r t c i r c u i t r a t i n g s w i l l n o t be exceeded
f o r any bus a n d / o r p a n e l w h i c h were s e l e c t e d on an impedance b a s i s . Voltage
d r o p c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d t o ensure t h a t m o t o r s a r e p u r c h a s e d w i t h
proper voltage t o l e r a n c e . R e g u l a t i o n s t u d i e s s h o u l d a l s o be p e r f o r m e d t o
v e r i f y t h a t v o l t a g e f l u c t u a t i o n s ( i . e . , no l o a d v o l t a g e t o s t a r t i n g l a r g e s t
m o t o r w i t h bus f u l l y l o a d e d m i n u s s t a r t i n g m o t o r ) w o u l d n o t r e s u l t i n damage
t o equipment due t o o v e r v o l t a g e o r d r o p o u t o f c o n t r o l s due t o v o l t a g e d r o p
based on t r a n s f o r m e r impedances a n d a v a i l a b l e t a p s .

Written Descriptions. W i t h i t s p r o p o s a l , a s e l l e r s h o u l d p r o v i d e and m a i n t a i n

throughout t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t a thorough w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
system i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s :
System C r i t e r i a

- Operating requirements

- Design requirements and parameters

System D e s c r i p t i o n

- O v e r a l l system d e s c r i p t i o n

- Component d e s c r i p t i o n

System C o n t r o l

- C o n t r o l o f m a j o r components (sequencing, protective

- c i r c u i t s , etc.)
 - Process c o n t r o l ( a n a l o g c o n t r o l l o o p s , e t c . )

- System m o n i t o r i n g and a l a r m s

System O p e r a t i o n

- Normal o p e r a t i o n

- Abnormal o p e r a t i o n , ( l o a d changes, s t a r t u p - s h u t d o w n )

- Emergency o p e r a t i o n (emergency shutdown p r o c e d u r e s )

System Maintenance

- Maintenance a p p r o v a l and p r o v i s i o n s

- Preventative maintenance

- C o r r e c t i v e maintenance

- Maintenance s c h e d u l e .

The i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n i s u s u a l l y q u i t e s i m i l a r
t o t h a t i n an i n s t r u c t i o n manual, a n d i t i s l i s t e d h e r e a s a s e p a r a t e document
i n o r d e r t o emphasize t h a t i t i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d a s one o f t h e e a r l i e s t
documents produced b y a s e l l e r on a p r o j e c t .

A s e l l e r should a l s o p r o v i d e a w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n f o r a i l h e a t i n g ,
v e n t i l a t i n g , a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g , f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , e l e c t r i c a l power d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
a n d s e a l a i r systems c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f o r e g o i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s .

S e l l e r ' s D a t a Submission Schedule, I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d by

the f i l l - i n s h e e t s , a s e l l e r s h o u l d s u b m i t t h e f o l l o w i n g d r a w i n g s and d a t a
with a p r o p o s a l . These d r a w i n g s must show t h e t e r m i n a l p o i n t s o f a s e l l e r ' s
scope o f s u p p l y .

D a t a Submission Schedule. T y p i c a l d a t a and d r a w i n g schedule r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e :

 Submittal Submittal
Item Description Requirements Purpose
1 Fill-in Data Sheets With Proposal For Eval uation
2 Detailed Project Schedule 3 0 Days After
which includes engineering, Award
fabrication, tests, sequence
of shipment, technician
training and all key dates
3 Drawing submittal 20 Days After Review/Comment
schedule Award
4 Instruction Manuals 90 Days Before Review/Comment
Completion of
Material
Shipment

5 Recommended spare parts With Proposal For Eval uati on

and special tools 1 ist
6 Storage and preservation 120 Days Information
procedure applicable to Prior to
site storage any shipment
7 Electrostatic precipitator With Proposal Review/Comment/
and associated ductwork Evaluation
outline, plan and sectional
views
8 Certified electrostatic 6 0 days after Review/Comment/
precipitator support award Eval uation
steel plan
9 Electrostatic precipitator 90 Days After
support steel detai 1 s Award
10 Certified electrostatic 60 days after Review/Comment/
precipitator and award Eval uation
associated ductwork
foundation loading and
anchor bolt location
drawing
11 Inlet ductwork 60 Days After
Award
12 Interconnecting ductwork 60 Days After
Award
 Subrni t t a l Submittal
Item D e s c r i p t i o n Requi remen t s Purpose

O u t l e t ductwork 60 Days A f t e r
Award

I n s t a l l a t i o n drawings, 60 Days A f t e r Rev

d e t a i l s and p r o c e d u r e s Award

P l a t f o r m s and s t a i r w a y s With Proposal Rev ew/Comment/

Plan Eva u a t i o n

P l a t f o r m s and s t a i r w a y s W i t h Proposal Rev ew/Cornment/

sections Eva u a t i o n

Collecting electrodes W i t h Proposal Rev ew/Comment/

s u p p o r t s and g u i d e s Eva u a t i o n

D i scharge e l e c t r o d e W i t h Proposal Rev ew/Comrnent/

s u p p o r t s and g u i d e s Eva u a t i o n

H i g h v o l t a g e bus, W i t h Proposal Review/Comment/

s u p p o r t s and e n c l o s u r e Eva1 u a t i o n

Thermal i n s u l a t i o n 150 Days P r i o r

details t o Fabrication

Transformer r e c t i f i e r s e t 90 Days A f t e r
o u t 1 ine Award

Transformer r e c t i f i e r s e t 90 Days A f t e r
c o n t r o l cabinet o u t l i n e Award

Rapper c o n t r o l c a b i n e t 90 Days A f t e r
o u t l ine Award

Rapper c o n t r o l c a b i n e t 120 Days A f t e r

internal wiring Award

Hopper c o n t r o l c a b i n e t 90 Days A f t e r
o u t l i ne Award

Hopper c o n t r o l c a b i n e t 120 Rays A f t e r

internal wiring Award

Key i n t e r l o c k system 120 Days A f t e r

d i a g r a m and o p e r a t i n g Award
description

E l e c t r i c a l one 1 i n e d i a g r a m s With Proposal

Communication and L i g h t i n g 120 Days A f t e r

drawings Award
 Submittal Submittal
Item Description Requirements Purpose

30 C o n t r o l W i r i n g Diagrams 300 Days A f t e r Revi ew/Comrnent

Award

31 T r a y and C o n d u i t Drawings 120 Days A f t e r Information

Award

32 I n s t r u m e n t D a t a Sheets Preliminary Review/Comment

w i t h Proposal ,
F i n a l 30 Days
A f t e r Award

O u t l i n e drawings o f a l l 90 Days A f t e r
components and a c c e s s o r i e s Award
including but not limited
t o f a n s , dampers, m o t o r s ,
s w i t c h g e a r , MCC's, e t c .

M o t o r Data Sheets 120 Days A f t e r Information

Award

O t h e r Drawings as may be As n e c e s s a r y A s Necessary

r e q u i r e d t o c o v e r t h e com-
p l e t e equipment i n s t a l l a t i o n

C o r r e c t i o n F a c t o r v s Gas W i t h Proposal
Volume Curve

C o r r e c t i o n Factor vs I n l e t W i t h Proposal
G r a i n Loading Curve

C o r r e c t i o n F a c t o r vs Gas W i t h Proposal Review/Comment/Evaluat i o n

Temperature Curve

C o r r e c t i o n Factor vs W i t h Proposal R e v i ew/Comment/Eval u a t i o n

S u l f u r C o n t e n t i n Fuel
Curve

C o r r e c t i o n F a c t o r v s Bus- With P r o ~ o s a l
Section De-energization
Curve

Power Consumption W i t h Proposal For E v a l u a t i o n

Corrective Factor

G r o u n d i n g System W i t h Proposal Review/Cornment

I n t e r f a c e Diagram
 Submittal Submittal
Item Description Requirements Purpose

43 Cab1 i n g I n t e r f a c e W i t h Proposal
Diagram

44 T r a y and C o n d u i t System With P r o ~ o s a l

I n t e r f a c e Diagram

45 E l e c t r i c a l Load Study 60 Days A f t e r R e v i ew/Comment

Award

46 Written Descriptions W i t h Proposal Review/Comment

47 Short C i r c u i t Study 60 Days A f t e r Information

Award

48 Instrument I n s t a l l a t i o n 120 Days A f t e r

and I n s t r u m e n t S u p p o r t Award
D e t a i 1s

49 I n s t r u m e n t L o c a t i o n and 90 Days A f t e r Revi ew/Comment

Arrangement D r a w i n g s Award

50 Cable and C o n d u i t L i s t 240 Days A f t e r Information

Award

51 I n s t r u m e n t D a t a Base 90 Days A f t e r
information Award

52 B i l l s o f Material As n e c e s s a r y As n e c e s s a r y

53 P r o c e d u r e s Manual 60 Days A f t e r Review/Comment

Award

54 Document L i s t s 60 Days A f t e r R e v i ew/Comrnent

Award

55 L o g i c Diagrams 60 Days A f t e r
Award

56 C o n t r o l System 240 Days A f t e r

Software Documentation Award

57 Precipitator Size 90 Days A f t e r

S e l e c t i o n Documentation Award

58 C o n t r o l System 120 Days A f t e r R e v i ew/Comrnent

C o n f i g u r a t i o n Drawings Award
 Submittal Submi t t a l
Item Description Requirements Purpose

59 I n s t r u m e n t Schematics 90 Davs A f t e r Review/Comment

60 External Interconnection 120 Day After Review/Comment

Award

Performance W a r r a n t y

I f a17 p r e c i p i t a t o r s met d e s i g n e m i s s i o n l e v e s, t h e r e w o u l d be no need

f o r a s u p p l i e r t o o f f e r p e r f o r m a n c e assurances, and u t i l i t i e s would have
absolute confidence i n meeting emission standards. However, i n f a c i n g t h e
r e a l i t i e s o f t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r o c e s s , i t i s a p p a r e n t and
n e c e s s a r y t h a t a s u p p l i e r make s p e c i f i c a s s e r t i o n s as t o t h e performance o f
i t s equipment. T h i s a s s e r t i o n i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o as a performance
warranty. A performance w a r r a n t y r e f l e c t s t h e d e g r e e o f c o n f i d e n c e a
s u p p l i e r has i n i t s t e c h n o l o g y and a l e v e l o f commercial r i s k t h a t i t i s
w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t o o b t a i n an o r d e r .

U s u a l l y , a p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y w i l l c o v e r p a r a m e t e r s such as c o l l e c t i o n
e f f i c i e n c y , o u t l e t emission, o p a c i t y , f l u e gas p r e s s u r e d r o p , power
consumption, and u n i t a v a i l a b i l i t y . A p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y must be c l e a r l y
s t a t e d and p r o v i d e a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and r e a s o n a b l e mechanism f o r i t s
administration.

G u a r a n t y C o r r e c t i o n Curves. P r e c i p i t a t o r s are designed t o achieve a

s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y a t a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f process c o n d i t i o n s ,
sometimes r e f e r r e d t o as a d e s i g n p o i n t . A design p o i n t usually (but not
always) r e p r e s e n t s t h e worst-case combination o f parameters. Worst-case
p a r a m e t e r s c o n s i s t o f maximum f l u e gas f l o w , maximum f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e ,
maximum f u e l a s h c o n t e n t , minimum f u e l s u l f u r c o n t e n t , and minimum f u e l
heating value. A worst-case d e s i g n p o i n t i s f r e q u e n t l y a f a b r i c a t e d
c o n d i t i o n w h i c h , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , . m a y never be e x p e r i e n c e d . Further, it
w o u l d be a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o d u c e a w o r s t - c a s e d e s i g n p o i n t d u r i n g
performance t e s t s . Consequently, s u p p l i e r s a r e requested t o p r o v i d e
p r o j e c t i o n s o f p r e c i p i t a t o r performance f o r a range o f c o n d i t i o n s .
P r o j e c t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n g r a p h i c f o r m a n d a r e r e f e r r e d t o as
guaranteed
performance c o r r e c t i o n curves whose purpose i s t o i n s p i r e confidence in t h e
equipment by p r e d i c t i n g improved performance l e v e l s f o r o t h e r than design
point conditions. For example, i f an emission level a t 80 p e r c e n t of design
flow c o i n c i d e s with t h e emission level p r e d i c t e d by t h e c o r r e c t i o n c u r v e ,
then i t would be presumed t h a t should t h e maximum gas flow be encountered,
the designed emission l e v e l would be met.

A b a s i c problem w i t h performance curves i s t h a t although t h e y may be based on

t e c h n i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , t h e curves a r e r e a l l y commercial in n a t u r e and must be
t r e a t e d a s such. These curves r e p r e s e n t a c e r t a i n perceived r i s k l e v e l t h a t
a s u p p l i e r i s w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p r o j e c t , and they can vary
d r a m a t i c a l l y with each s u p p l i e r . This v a r i a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure
7-1, which r e l a t e s an emission c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r t o gas flow.

I f t h e s e curves r e p r e s e n t e d a purely t e c h n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between g a s flow

and performance, t h e y would c o i n c i d e . However, Figure 7-1 r e v e a l s t h a t
s u p p l i e r ' A ' i s engendering t h e l e a s t r i s k while s u p p l i e r ' E l i s assuming t h e
most r i s k . From a u t i l i t y ' s s t a n d p o i n t , s u p p l i e r ' E ' i s o f f e r i n g t h e most
a t t r a c t i v e performance curve because i t s t a t e s t h a t a t lower g a s flows, t h e r e
i s c o n s i d e r a b l e margin in t h e design. The added design margin reduces a
u t i l i t y ' s r i s k in meeting design emission l e v e l s and/or i t s a b i l i t y t o
achieve a c c e p t a b l e emission l e v e l s under adverse o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

U t i l i t i e s should a l s o be aware of t h e e f f e c t of an o u t l e t s t o p p e r and how i t

r e l a t e s t o t h e performance warranty curves. An o u t l e t s t o p p e r s t a t e s t h a t
when a c e r t a i n emission level i s achieved, t h e warranty i s deemed t o have
been s a t i s f i e d in f u l l although t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i s not producing t h e
c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y s t a t e d in t h e c o n t r a c t o r a s a d j u s t e d by t h e c o r r e c t i o n
curves. The o r i g i n a l reason given f o r t h e o u t l e t s t o p p e r concept was t h a t
one could not r e l i a b l y measure emissions l e s s than 0 . 1 pounds/miliion BTU.
Many p r e c i p i t a t o r s i n t h e 1960s t o e a r l y 1970s e r a passed performance t e s t s
by meeting t h e o u t l e t s t o p p e r . The drawback t o t h i s concept i s revealed when
performance curves a r e compared t o the o u t l e t s t o p p e r . A u t i l i t y may be l e d
t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s o b t a i n i n g a u n i t with a c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y of 99.8
p e r c e n t o r higher a t non-design p o i n t c o n d i t i o n s , but an outlet s t o p p e r
 - SUPPLIER "E"

--
C

-
--

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
PERCENT OF DESIGN GAS FLOW

Figure 7-1. Guarantee Performance Curve-Gas F l o w vs. Emission Correction F a c t o r

may be s a t i s f i e d with e f f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e low 99 percent range. Hence, t h e
performance curves become w o r t h l e s s and may border on m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
Therefore, i f an o u t l e t s t o p p e r i s t o be accepted by a u t i l i t y , i t must be
s e t a t a level t h a t i s low enough t o i n s p i r e confidence t h a t t h e u n i t could
meet performance requirements a t t h e design p o i n t . Should a s u p p l i e r f e e l
t h a t an o u t l e t s t o p p e r i s needed f o r p r o t e c t i o n , then an o u t l e t s t o p p e r may
be incorporated i n t o t h e performance c u r v e , a s s u p p l i e r ' A ' has done in
Figure 7-1. A u t i l i t y must be c a r e f u l i n determining t h e e x a c t n a t u r e of
the performance warranty.

The a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e performance c o r r e c t i o n curves t o f i e l d t e s t

c o n d i t i o n s must be s e t f o r t h within t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n in o r d e r t o avoid
confusion a t a l a t e r d a t e . Normally, c o r r e c t i o n curves a r e provided f o r
such parameters a s g a s flow, gas t e m p e r a t u r e , i n l e t d u s t loading and fuel
sulfur content. The d a t a p o i n t s d e r i v e d from t h e s e curves a r e t h e n used t o
modify t e s t r e s u l t s ( i . e . , o u t l e t d u s t loading) which a r e then compared t o
t h e performance warranty value. In o r d e r t o accomplish t h i s malfunction of
t e s t s r e s u l t s , v a r i o u s forms of t h e following equation have been used:

where:

= corrected o u t l e t dust loading

LC
La = measured o u t l e t d u s t loading
Cfl = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r a t measured g a s temperature
CF = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r a t measured g a s temperature
2
CF = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r measured i n l e t d u s t loading
3
CF = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r measured f u e l s u l f u r c o q t e n t
4
CFu= various o t h e r c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s a s needed

Of c o u r s e , t h e number of c o r r e c t ion
~ c u r v e s can vary according t o s p e c i f i c
d e s i g n requirements, such a s t h e i n c l u s i o n of a curve r e l a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s
of sodium l e v e l s in t h e f l y ash. For t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s where a steam
g e n e r a t o r has two o r more p r e c i p i t a t o r s arranged i n p a r a l l e l and emission
t e s t i n g i s c o n d u c t e d on each c a s i n g , t h e n t h e c o m p o s i t e o u t l e t d u s t l o a d i n g
can be determed by t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :

where:

LC t o t a l = c o r r e c t e d composite o u t l e t d u s t l o a d i n g

LC,, Lcb
= c o r r e c t e d o u t l e t l o a d i n g s f o r p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g s "aii
and "b" a s i n d i v i d u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y e q u a t i o n 7-1

Fa' Fb
= f l u e gas v o l u m e t r i c f l o w s f o r each p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g .

I n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f p e r f o r m a n c e c o r r e c t i o n c u r v e s , t h e u t i l i t y may w i s h t o
c o n s i d e r a s s i g n i n g a l i m i t e d m o n e t a r y v a l u e t o improved p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s
f o r e v a l u a t i o n purposes. S h o u l d t h a t a s s i g n m e n t be made, t h e u t i l i t y
s h o u l d communicate t h i s e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r t o t h e b i d d e r s p r i o r t o p r o p o s a l
submi s s i o n .

Nhen e v a l u a t i n g performance c o r r e c t i o n c u r v e s f o r e m i s s i o n w a r r a n t y
p u r p o s e s , c a r e must a l s o be e x e r c i s e d i n e v a l u a t i n g power consumption
w a r r a n t i e s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between them. I t has been f o u n d t h a t
sometimes when t h e s u p p l i e r p r e p a r e s i t s e m i s s i o n c o r r e c t i o n c u r v e s , t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r power i n p u t t h r o u g h t h e T-R s e t s may be c o n s i d e r e d a t a
maximum l e v e l o v e r t h e r a n g e o f t h e c u r v e s . However, w i t h t h e use o f
energy management c o n c e p t s , t h e s e h i g h power l e v e l s may n o t be e x p e r i e n c e d
d u r i n g t e s t i n g , t h u s a f f e c t i n g measured e m i s s i o n s . As such, t h e u t i l i t y
and s u p p l i e r may be f a c e d w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n o f m e e t i n g e i t h e r one o f t h e
warranties b u t n o t both. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r o p o s a l e v a l u a t i o n s must n o t o n l y
f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e c o r r e c t i o n c u r v e s and
w a r r a n t y s t a t e m e n t s b u t a l s o examine t h e assumptions upon w h i c h t h e y a r e
based.
Power Consumption Warranty. The consideration and evaluation of power
consumption warranties requires that utilities exercise the utmost care.
Care is required because to date, there is yet to be developed a reliable,
publicly available method for correlating power consumption with fuel
properties, collection efficiency, and internal precipitator
configuration. For the most part, the data developed by a supplier tends
to be discrete and limited in its scope and applicability. Predicting
power consumption becomes more difficult when dealing with specific fuels
for which a supplier has no data. Therefore, a utility must investigate
the basis and logic of supplier claims and warranties.

Power consumption warranties have been a major evaluation factor in

determining which supplier receives a contract award. Each supplier
calculates its power consumption in a particular manner with certain
assumptions. The methodology and assumptions can create situations where
power consumption levels vary by a factor o f five. Yet it is apparent that
such great differences cannot really exist. Therefore, extensive
discussions with each supplier must be undertaken to determine the bases of
the consumption levels. When modern specifications establish minimum
precipitator sizing and other feature related criteria, bids will be
extremely close in physical configuration, and power consumption levels
should not dramatically vary.

Precipitator electrical loads may be broken down into those associated with
(1) transformer-rectifier sets, (2) hopper heating, (3) insulator purge and
heating, (4) control room heating and air conditioning, and (5) 7ighting.
Principal loads are associated with the transformer-rectifier sets and
hopper heating. Other loads, in a practical sense, are minor. When a
specification establishes the minimum number of hoppers and their
capacities, all bids should have essentially the same power requirements.
The only remaining variable load is that of the transformer-rectifier
sets. Considering that power consumption will be a function of discharge
electrode geometry, gas and particle electrical properties, automatic
v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e r s , and e l e c t r o d e c l e a n l i n e s s , a t t e n t i o n must be d i r e c t e d
t o p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n equipment t o s u b s t a n t i a t e power c o n s u m p t i o n
levels.

S h o u l d one c o n s i d e r v a r i o u s b i d s , and presume, due t o advances i n e q u i p m e n t

d e s i g n , t h a t d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i l l be t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
f a c t o r i n power consumption, t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t power c o n s u m p t i o n
l e v e l s s h o u l d n o t v a r y b y more t h a n 25 p e r c e n t f o r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s . Of
c o u r s e , a l l o f t h e f o r e g o i n g w o u l d n o t s u p p o r t v a r i ,a t i o n s i n power
consumption o f up t o 500 p e r c e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , a u t i l i t y can t a k e one o f t h e
f o l l o w i n g approaches: (1) i g n o r e power consumption w a r r a n t i e s , ( 2 )
e s t a b l i s h a minimum consumption l e v e l u n d e r w h i c h t h e b i d d e r w o u l d r e c e i v e
no c r e d i t , o r ( 3 ) p r o r a t e t h e consumption l e v e l s o f a11 b i d d e r s so t h a t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between h i g h and l o w i s on t h e o r d e r o f 25 t o 50 p e r c e n t .

I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , a u t i l i t y must e x e r c i s e p r u d e n t judgment i n
e v a l u a t i n g power c o n s u m p t i o n w a r r a n t i e s i n l i g h t o f t h e l a c k o f a c o h e s i v e
and r e l i a b l e d a t a b a s e . A u t i l i t y must a l s o t a k e care n o t t o p l a c e
s u p p l i e r s i n a p o s i t i o n such t h a t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r u n w a r r a n t e d r i s k i s
encouraged.

Performance T e s t s . C u r r e n t l y , a t w o - t e s t concept i s u t i l i z e d t o determine

w h e t h e r a p r e c i p i t a t o r can f u l f i l l i t s p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y . The f i r s t
test, 'A', i s n o r m a l l y conducted w i t h i n t h r e e months o f a u n i t ' s
commercial date. A t t h i s time, v a r i o u s t e s t s a r e performed t o determine
compliance w i t h c o n t r a c t c o l : e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , o u t l e t emission, o p a c i t y ,
power consumption, a n d f l u e gas p r e s s u r e d r o p w a r r a n t i e s . This t e s t
c h a r a c t e r i z e s p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e i n an as-new c o n d i t i o n . The second
t e s t , ' 5 ' . u s u a l l y i s c o n d u c t e d 12 t o 24 months a f t e r a p r e c i p i t a t o r has
passed t e s t ' A 1 . T e s t ' 8 ' addresses o n l y c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , o u t l e t
e m i s s i o n , and o p a c i t y . I n order t h a t t e s t 'B' be enforceable i n terms o f
t h e performance warranty, i t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l w a r r a n t y
extend through t e s t ' B ' .

A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f a performance w a r r a n t y i s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a s u p p l i e r
p r o m p t l y and d i l i g e n t l y p u r s u e c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n s r e q u i r e d u n d e r t h e
m a t e r i a l and p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t i e s . The c o n c e p t r e q u i r e s t h a t a
cumulative period of time; e.g., 550 elapsed calendar days, be established
i n which a supplier can complete any and all warranty repairs. The elapsed
time for each event is computed from the time the supplier is notified in
writing that a condition exists which requires corrective action and until
such time as corrections are effected and the utility so notified in
writing. Delays in making equipment avai-lable to a supplier would be
excluded from the time accounting. Should a supplier fail to complete
corrections in the allotted time, the supplier would forfeit a sum of
money. Forfeiture of money would not relieve a supplier from its
responsibilities under the contract but rather acts to encourage responsive
action from the supplier.

Qualified Suppliers Review and Comment of Draft Specifications

Developing a precipitator specification is a significant undertaking.

Moreover, proposal preparation may require a supplier to expend upwards of
$250,DDO for a major project. Consequently, it behooves both utility and
supplier to ensure that a specification accurately reflects the utility's
needs, desires, and requirements, which will then reduce the incidence of
alternate equipment quotations or re-bidding with the preparation of
entirely new proposals

In order that specifications reflect a utility's requirements, it is

suggested that qualified precipitator suppliers be given an opportunity to
review specifications prior to their release in a request for proposal.
This review by a qualified supplier should address t h e following as a
minimum:
Minimum specific collecting area (SCA)
Maximum collecting electrode height
Maximum gas velocity through the precipitator
Minimum aspect ratio
Minimum treatment time
Minimum number of mechanical fields
 Minimum number of electrical fields and bus sections
Number of precipitators and chambers
Precipitator general arrangement
Precipitator control system

Ideally, a qualified supplier would review all specifications, not only the
precipitator specification but also attachment specifications, should schedule
allow. Usually, due to time constraints, a utility must consider itself
fortunate to have only the precipitator specification reviewed. A supplier
may use two techniques i n reviewing a specification. The first involves an
in-depth analysis based upon the cost-effective benefit considerations of each
of the significant design requirements. This technique requires a significant
effort on the part of a supplier. The second technique involves reviewing the
specification from the standpoint of identifying those requirements which
would make the suppliers proposal uncompetitive i n terms of its standard or
normal design practices or scope of supply. These uncompetitive requirements
wou7d have to be individually studied and evaluated in terms of whether (1)
the requirement is a physical impossibility, (2) the requirement is not part
of the manufacturer's original equipment design concept, or (3) the
requirement has proved to be ineffectual on previous designs.

Qua1 if ied suppl iers' reviews of the specification may prove beneficial i n
identifying potentia 1 problems and resolving them prior to the issuance of a
request for proposal . This will benefit a supplier because it will have to
prepare only one proposal, and a utility by simplifying its evaluation. The
latter enables a utility to concentrate its efforts on the evaluation of the
real issues.

SUPPLIER QUALIFICATION

One of the most critical aspects in purchasing an electrostatic precipitator

is the selection of suppliers who will offer various proposals from which a
utility must choose. Although the supplier selection process is often seen as
nothing more than gathering the names of all the companies engaged in
manufacturing precipitators, the selection process has far reaching
implications regarding necessary fulfillment of performance warranties. Some
view the process as a way to ensure competitive pricing. The questions which
must be asked are "How many suppliers are needed to assure competitive
prices?" and "Which suppliers have demonstrated a clear cut track record of
reliable equipment, prudent sizing criteria, commercial commitment to
resolving problem jobs, and a continuing effort in developing precipitator
technology?" This section presents concepts which, when applied by a utility,
should provide realistic grounds on which to select a limited number of
qualified precipitator suppliers for a particular project.

Assembly of Vendor Experience

In order to obtain necessary information for implementing a rational
qualification procedure, a meeting should be held with each prospective
bidder. These meetings enable an exchange of information relative to a
project. Usually, utility personnel from both the engineering and purchasing
staffs w i l l describe the project in terms of its technical requirements such
as flyash removal efficiency and scope of supply, and commercial requirements
such as limitations on escalation or lump sum fixed pricing, extended material
and performance warranties, and liquidated da ages and schedule. A supplier
should usually be requested to provide the fo lowing information:
Review of equipment design features
Discussion of sizing philosophy and hi story
Presentation of current research an development projects
Installation 1 ist
Performance test reports on similar projects
Discussion of problem jobs
Quality assurance program
Staff qualifications
Schedule adherence analyses of previous projects
 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f manufacturing f a c i l i t i e s

Financial value o f recent contracts

Annual f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t

Bank r e f e r e n c e s

U t i 1 it y r e f e r e n c e s

L i s t i n g o f any p e n d i n g l i t i g a t i o n .

T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l s e r v e as t h e b a s i s f o r an e v a l u a t i o n conducted b y a team
o f u t i l i t y personnel, which normally c o n s i s t s o f personnel from t h e u t i l i t y ' s
e n g i n e e r i n g , p u r c h a s i n g , l e g a l , c o n s t r u c t i o n , and q u a l i t y assurance
departments. A team e f f o r t i s encouraged i n o r d e r t o b r i n g s p e c i a l i z e d
t a l e n t s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s t o b e a r and t o l i m i t t h e t i m e s p e n t i n t h e s e l e c t i o n
process.

Commercial E v a l u a t i o n

Each u t i l i t y n o r m a l l y has i t s own commercial c r i t e r i a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r a bidders l i s t . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o s t and r e g u l a t o r y
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r , i t i s p r u d e n t t o employ s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e s
t h a t t e n d t o c e n t e r a b o u t a s u p p l i e r s ' a b i l i t i e s t o assume a new l i a b i l i t y and
how t h e y have d i s c h a r g e d t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s on p r e v i o u s c o n t r a c t s .

A Dun and B r a d s t r e e t r a t i n g o f a s u p p l i e r i s o f t e n t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f an
evaluation. Depending upon a u t i l i t y ' s c o r p o r a t e p o l i c i e s and t h e p o t e n t i a l
v a l u e o f t h e p r o j e c t , a minimum o f an "AM r a t i n g may be r e q u i r e d as a f i r s t
screening l e v e l . T h i s t y p e o f s c r e e n i n g i s based on a "go/no go" c o n c e p t . A
second l e v e l o f s c r e e n i n g i s an a n a l y s i s o f p a s t annual r e p o r t s , b a n k
r e f e r e n c e s , and p o s s i b l y a c u r r e n t f i n a n c i a l s t a t e m e n t . Again, t h i s a n a l y s i s
w o u l d e s t a b l i s h a "go/no go" l e v e l w h i c h t h e s u p p l i e r must pass i n o r d e r t o b e
considered f u r t h e r . A t h i r d l e v e l o f screening i s t o determine whether a
s u p p l i e r has r e c e n t l y c o m p l e t e d a c o n t r a c t w i t h a v a l u e s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e
proposed p r o j e c t . A f o u r t h l e v e l o f s c r e e n i n g i n v o l v e s an assessment o f t h e
l i a b i l i t y o f a s u p p l i e r c o n c e r n i n g any o u t s t a n d i n g l i t i g a t i o n i n w h i c h i t i s
involved. A u t i l i t y ' s l e g a l s t a f f s h o u l d n o r m a l l y be i n c o n t a c t w i t h a
s u p p l i e r ' s c o u n s e l t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t n a t u r e and s t a t u s o f l i t i g a t i o n . A
d e t e r m i n a t i o n would have t o be made on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t s h o u l d a s u p p l i e r l o s e
a l l o r a major p o r t i o n o f l i t i g a t i o n , i t would n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t l y impaired
i n f u l f i l l i n g future contracts. A f i n a l s c r e e n i n g l e v e l , and p o s s i b l y one o f
t h e more i n f l u e n t i a l , i s the u t i l i t y ' s past history w i t h a particular supplier
i n t e r m s o f c o m p l y i n g w i t h s c h e d u l e r e q u i r e m e n t s , t r e a t m e n t o f m a t e r i a l and
performance warranties, c o n t r a c t e x t r a s , and t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f problem j o b s .

Supplementing t h e f o r e g o i n g , a u t i l i t y may w i s h t o i n v e s t i g a t e a s u p p l i e r ' s

m a n u f a c t u r i n g f a c i l i t i e s , s u b c o n t r a c t o r f a c i l i t i e s , and q u a l i t y assurance
programs. A u t i l i t y may a l s o h o l d d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h o t h e r u t i l i t y u s e r s o f t h e
s u p p l i e r ' s equipment and p o s s i b l y v i s i t o t h e r p l a n t s i t e s .

I t s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t commercial e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r s m u s t be j u d g e d
a g a i n s t t h e economic c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g a t a s p e c i f i c . t i m e a n d a r e s u b j e c t i v e
i n n a t u r e ; however, i t i s more a p p r o p r i a t e t o u s e s u b j e c t i v e s c r e e n i n g
p r o c e d u r e s i n t h e b i d d e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n phase r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e p r o p o s a l
e v a l u a t i o n stage. Proposal e v a l u a t i o n s r e q u i r e a d o l l a r e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r f o r
a l l substantial issues. Many o f t h e f o r e g o i n g c o n c e p t s a r e n o t r e a d i l y
arneanable t o such d o l l a r v a l u a t i o n w i t h o u t b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o c h a r g e s o f
f a v o r i t i s m o r a r b i t r a r y a c t i o n s , and i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e be
used t o e n s u r e t h a t a b i d d e r s l i s t c o n t a i n s o n l y t h o s e s u p p l i e r s f r o m whom t h e
u t i l i t y w o u l d be happy t o p u r c h a s e e q u i p m e n t .

C r i t e r i a f o r Vendor S e l e c t i o n

Once a commercial e v a l u a t i o n has been c o m p l e t e d and a t e n t a t i v e b i d d e r s l i s t

established, a t e c h n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n should be performed. This evaluation
concerns i t s i l f w i t h t e c h n i c a l f e a t u r e s o f p r e c i p i t a t o r s , s i z i n g t r a c k
r e c o r d s , number o f u n i t s i n s e r v i c e a n d / o r under c o n t r a c t , o p e r a t i o n a l
flexibility, and r e l i a b i l i t y . Each t e n t a t i v e b i d d e r i s e v a l u a t e d in t e r m s o f
p r e c i p i t a t o r e x p e r i e n c e and t e c h n i c a l m e r i t r e g a r d i n g s p e c i f i c d e s i g n f e a t u r e s .

The f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e s c r e e n i n g l e v e l o f t h e t e c h n i c a l e v a l u a t f o n must
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e p o t e n t i a l s u p p l i e r has an i n s t a l l a t i o n t h a t r e f l e c t s t h e
i n t e r n a l d e s i g n components w h i c h i t m i g h t p r o p o s e f o r a c u r r e n t p r o j e c t . The
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s t a t e m e n t m i g h t s t a t e t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l s u p p l i e r "have a r i g i d
discharge e l e c t r o d e designed p r e c i p i t a t o r i n operation w i t h a s p e c i f i c t y p e o f
f u e l on a Mw ( a s a minimum) d o m e s t i c e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y u n i t b y t h e end o f
t h e - q u a r t e r o f 19-." T h i s s c r e e n i n g l e v e l ensures t h a t a u t i l i t y w o u l d
n o t be p u r c h a s i n g an u n t e s t e d d e s i g n w i t h a l l o f t h e p r o d u c t development
problems t h a t would e n t a i l . P o t e n t i a l s u p p l i e r s who c o u l d n o t meet t h i s
c r i t e r i a would be e l i m i n a t e d from f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

The second l e v e l o f e x p e r i e n c e s c r e e n i n g e v a l u a t e s a s u p p l i e r ' s t o t a l

e x p e r i e n c e i n t e r m s o f a summation o f t h e megawatt r a t i n g s o f a l l c o l d - s i d e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s on d o m e s t i c c o a l - f i r e d p l a n t s i n o p e r a t i o n s i n c e 1970 a n d / o r
c u r r e n t l y on o r d e r . T h i s t i m e frame r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x p e r i e n c e i n t e r m s o f
r e c e n t e m i s s i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , s i z i n g p h i l o s o p h y , and f u e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Each s u p p l i e r ' s i n s t a l l a t i o n l i s t i s t h e n c r e d i t e d i n t e r m s o f megawatts i n
accordance w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :
I - R i g i d Discharge E l e c t r o d e Design

F u l l c r e d i t f o r t h o s e u n i t s w h i c h have passed g u a r a n t e e d p e r f o r m a n c e
levels.

H a l f c r e d i t f o r t h o s e u n i t s w h i c h a r e i n o p e r a t i o n b u t have n o t been
tested t o date.

O n e - t h i r d c r e d i t f o r t h o s e u n i t s w h i c h a r e i n o p e r a t i o n b u t have
f a i l e d t o pass p e r f o r m a n c e g u a r a n t e e s .

O n e - q u a r t e r c r e d i t f o r t h o s e u n i t s under c o n s t r u c t i o n .

O n e - e i g h t h c r e d i t f o r t h o s e u n i t s w h i c h a r e i n t h e e n g i n e e r i n g phase
b u t n o t y e t under c o n s t r u c t i o n .

I1 - Weighted W i r e Design
O n e - t h i r d c r e d i t f o r o n l y t h o s e u n i t s w h i c h have passed p e r f o r m a n c e
t e s t s w i t h a minimum c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f 98 p e r c e n t .

These c r i t e r i a a t t e m p t t o p u t t h e s u p p l i e r s e x p e r i e n c e i n t o a p r o p e r
p e r s p e c t i v e r e l a t i v e t o t h e t o t a l range o f a c t i v i t i e s from t h e e n g i n e e r i n g
phase t h r o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l phase. Each phase o f t h e w o r k d e m o n s t r a t e s a
c e r t a i n c a p a b i l i t y and i s accorded some c r e d i t , w i t h u n i t s h a v i n g passed t h e i r
performance g u a r a n t e e s g e t t i n g t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e c r e d i t . It must be
ncted t h a t weighted wire u n i t s a r e given some c r e d i t due t o t h e v a l u a b l e d a t a
t h e s u p p l i e r has obtained r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r p r e c i p i t a t o r a s p e c t s such a s gas
d i s t r i b u t i o n , automatic v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , e t c .
The c r i t e r i a f o r c r e d i t i n g megawatts can be modified t o r e f l e c t a u t i l i t y ' s
concern o r special requirements. Typical modifying f a c t o r s a r e :
* Consider only t h o s e p r e c i p i t a t o r s o p e r a t i n g on a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e
of f u e l .

Consider only t h e s e p r e c i p i t a t o r s w i t h a c e r t a i n minimum

collection efficiency.

Consider those p r e c i p i t a t o r s with t e s t e d o u t l e t emissions of a

c e r t a i n level o r l e s s .

Consider t h o s e p r e c i p i t a t o r s which have f a i l e d t h e i r performance

guarantees only i f t h e y r e p r e s e n t a small percentage of t h o s e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s which have passed t h e i r performance g u a r a n t e e s .

Consider only t h o s e p r e c i p i t a t o r s a p p l i e d t o a c e r t a i n megawatt

size or larger.
Apply a multiplying f a c t o r t o t h o s e p r e c i p i t a t o r s where t h e
s u p p l i e r had r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r both m a t e r i a l and e r e c t i o n a s
opposed t o m a t e r i a l only c o n t r a c t s .

This second experience s c r e e n i n g l e v e l w i l l r e s u l t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a c r e d i t e d

megawatt r a t i n g f o r each s u p p l i e r . The r a t i n g l e v e l s can range from a few
hundreds t o approximately 10,000 c r e d i t e d megawatts. A u t i l i t y w i l l have t o
decide what s p e c i f i c level of experience i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e proposed
project. On a p r a c t i c a l b a s i s , t h i s l e v e l could range from t h e 2,000 t o 5,000
c r e d i t e d megawatts. Only t h o s e p o t e n t i a l s u p p l i e r s who meet some s p e c i f i c
experience l e v e l should then be considered f o r f u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n .

A f i n a l screening i s a t e c h n i c a l one involving e v a l u a t i o n of t h e remaining

p o t e n t i a l s u p p l i e r s from t h e a s p e c t of t h e t e c h n i c a l m e r i t of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
designs in r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p r o j e c t requirements. A typical technical merit
e v a l u a t i o n format c o n s i s t s o f t h e following:
Maxi m u m
I - Discharge E l e c t r o d e s Ratings

Electrode c o n f i g u r a t i o n (round, s q u a r e , 3
needle, punched)
 Maxi mum
I - Discharge E l e c t r o d e s Ratings

Type of e l e c t r o d e mounting ( p i p e frame or A

mast)

Type of e l e c t r o d e s u p p o r t (two o r f o u r A
points)

P o t e n t i a l f o r e l e c t r o d e and s u p p o r t expansion A
or distortion

I n t e r n a l e l e c t r o d e assembly b r a c i n g A

Type of rapper ( m e c h a n i c a l , e l e c t r o - C
mechanical, pneumatic)

Rapper l o c a t i o n ( i n o r o u t of g a s stream) C

Adjustable rapper i n t e n s i t y B
Rapper r e p a i r w i t h o u t removing u n i t from '3
service

Off power rapping c a p a b i l i t y C

Rapper s e g r e g a t i o n and e n e r g i z a t ion on an 8

individual transformer-rectifier basis

Type of automatic v o l t a g e c o n t r o l l e r A

I1 - ColTecting E l e c t r o d e s

P l a t e t h i c k n e s s (18 o r 16 gauge) D
Upper p l a t e s u p p o r t ( s p r i n g , b o l t e d , tongue) C

Bottom p l a t e s p a c e r s and b r a c i n g C

P l a t e spacing e x p e r i e n c e ( 9 , 1 0 , o r 1 2 i n c h ) D

Type of r a p p e r (mechanical, e l e c t r o - C
mechanical, pneumatic)

Rapper l o c a t i o n ( i n o r o u t of g a s stream) C

Adjustable rapper i n t e n s i t y B

Rapper r e p a i r w i t h o u t removing u n i t from B

service

Off power rapping c a p a b i l i t y C

 I1 - Collecting Electrodes

Number o f p l a t e s r a p p e d b y any one r a p p e r

(one, two, t h r e e , o r f o u r )

Rapper s e g r e g a t i o n and e n e r g i z a t i o n on an
individual transformer-rectifier basis

I11 - S i z e S e l e c t i o n
Data base

Methodology A

Refuse f i r i n g e x p e r i e n c e C

O i l f i r i n g experience C

O f c o u r s e , p a r a m e t e r s can b e m o d i f i e d t o s u i t t h e u t i l i t y ' s needs; however,

t h e y s h o u l d r e f l e c t r e a l c o n c e r n s and t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l
p a r a m e t e r s i n t e r m s of enhanced p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. U s u a l l y , maximum
r a t i n g s a r e c o n v e r t e d t o a n u m e r i c a l system f o r ease i n e s t a b l i s h i n g an
overall rating. I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a minimum r a t i n g o f 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e
t o t a l t h e o r e t i c a l maximum r a t i n g w o u l d be r e q u i r e d f o r a suppl
q u a l i f i e d t o b i d on a p r o j e c t .

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h commercial and t e c h n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n c r t e r i a w i l l

p r o b a b l y r e s u l t i n a b i d d e r s f 1i s t c o n s i s t i n g o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e
suppliers. T h i s number o f s u p p l i e r s s h o u l d ensure c o m p e t i t i v e p r i c i n g y e t
recognize t h a t the period o f time permitted f o r evaluation i s usually l i m i t e d
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e number o f b i d d e r s . When t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n minimum p e r i o d
o f t i m e a n d e f f o r t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e v i e w i n g and p r o p e r l y e v a l u a t i n g each
p r o p o s a l , t h e need f o r a l i m i t e d number o f b i d d e r s i s mandatory, and c o u r t e s y
b i d s do n o t s e r v e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e u t i l i t y o r s u p p l i e r . The g u i d i n g r u l e
i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a b i d d e r s t l i s t i s t o s e l e c t o n l y those s u p p l i e r s from which a
u t i 1 i t y w o u l d c o n f i d e n t l y p u r c h a s e equipment.

PREPARATION OF COMMERCIAL TERMS AND CONDITIONS

T h i s s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f commercial t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s f o r
a r e q u e s t f o r p r o p o s a l (RFP) r e g a r d i n g t h e t y p e o f t e r m s t o be s p e c i f i e d f o r
d e l i v e r and e r e c t c o n t r a c t s .
Organization

Commercial t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d and o r g a n i z e d i n a manner

t h a t c l e a r l y and c a r e f u l l y d e l i n e a t e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o w h i c h t h e b i d d e r , as
a c o n t r a c t o r , must adhere f o r t h e d e s i g n , e n g i n e e r i n g , f a b r i c a t i o n , and
e r e c t i o n o f an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r . It i s not the i n t e n t o f t h i s
s e c t i o n t o p r o v i d e a c t u a l w o r d i n g t o be used i n an RFP, b u t t o be i l l u s t r a t i v e
o f t h o s e c o n c e p t s t h a t s h o u l d be addressed. A c t u a l w o r d i n g s h o u l d be
d e v e l o p e d b y a u t i l i t y ' s l e g a l c o u n s e l c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p r o j e c t commercial
t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s . I t must be n o t e d t h a t t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d be
constructed
i n such a manner a s t o p r o t e c t a u t i l i t y ' s r i g h t s and i n t e r e s t s w h i l e
p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e e q u i t a b l e r e s o l u t i o n o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s between a u t i l i t y
and p r e c i p i t a t o r manufacturer.

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t s a r e examples o f t y p i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f commercial t e r m s

and c o n d i t i o n s . T a b l e 7-1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s u p p l y
c o n t r a c t s , and T a b l e 7-2 d e a l s w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f e r e c t i o n c o n t r a c t s .
D e t a i l s o f t h e c o n t r a c t u r a l t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n Appendix 7D.

TREATMENT OF EXCEPTIONS AND NEGOTIATIONS

Once a p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r ' s p r o p o s a l s a r e r e c e i v e d , a u t i l i t y e n g i n e e r must

t h e n d e v e l o p a p l a n t o r e v i e w and e v a l u a t e t h e p r o p o s a l s . An e v a l u a t o r must
u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i t becomes d i f f i c u l t f o r a s u p p l i e r t o comply w i t h each
r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e b i d d i n g documents; t h e r e f o r e , p a r t o f t h e p l a n must be t o
establish c r i t e r i a f o r the disposition o f exceptions. I n a d d i t i o n , an
e v a l u a t i o n p l a n should c o n t a i n a p r e c i s e procedure f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
monetary e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r s .

P r o p o s a l Review

A p r o p o s a l r e v i e w c o n s i s t s o f comparing an o f f e r i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
t h e RFP and t h e n t o t h e o t h e r o f f e r i n g s . The comparison i s u s u a l l y
a c c o m p l i s h e d by t a b u l a t i n g t h e s u p p l i e r f i l l - i n d a t a p o r t i o n s o f t h e RFP,
w h i c h p r o v i d e s a q u i c k and easy way t o i d e n t i f y and h i g h l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s
among v a r i o u s o f f e r i n g s . Once d i f f e r e n c e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d , a u t i l i t y must
evaluate the significance o f the differences. I t e m s o f substance must be
d i s c u s s e d w i t h t h e b i d d e r s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e bases f o r d i f f e r i n g . Many
 Table 7 - 1

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Material Supply C o n t r a c t s

Definitions
C o n t r a c t Documents
Ubl i g a t i o n s o f C o n t r a c t o r
O b l i g a t i o n s o f Owner
D e i i v e r y , T i t l e and S t o r a g e
R i s k o f Loss
Taxes
Warranties
L i m i t a t i o n s o f L i a b i 1i t y
R e p o r t s and S c h e d u l i n g
Patents
T e r m i n a t i o n f o r Convenience
Termination f o r Default
Suspension o f Work
I n s p e c t i o n s and T e s t s
Force M a j e u r e
Liens
Compliance w i t h Codes, P e r m i t s , Laws and L i c e n s e s
A p p l i c a b l e S t a t e Law
Changes and E x t r a Work
Assignment and S u b c o n t r a c t s
Proprietary Information
Nonwaiver
N o t i c e s and Correspondence
Equal Employment O p p o r t u n i t y , and A f f i r m a t i v e A c t i o n
Occupationa7 S a f e t y and H e a l t h A c t
Role o f E n g i n e e r
C o n t r a c t o r ' s D r a w i n g s and I n s t r u c t i o n Manuals
P h y s i c a l Damage t o J o b s i t e
Price Policy
i n v o i c i n g and Payment Terms
Owner's P r e s c r i b e d Forms
Complete Agreement
E f f e c t o f S e c t i o n Headings
Indemnification
Subcontracts
Schedule
Unit Option
C o n t r a c t Bonds
Cancel l a t i o n Charges
 T a b l e 7-2

Organization o f Erection Contracts

Definitions
Obligations o f Contractor
Obl i g a t i o n s o f Owner
D e l i v e r y and S t o r a g e
C o n t r a c t o r R e s p o n s i b l e f o r Work U n t i l Accepted
Personal A t t e n t i o n o f C o n t r a c t o r
Contractor's Representations
I n s u r a n c e Requirements
P l a n n i n g , C o s t , S c h e d u l i n g and C o n t r o l
Independent C o n t r a c t o r and Key P e r s o n n e l
C o n t r a c t o r ' s Employees
T e s t s and I n s p e c t i o n s ; Access t o t h e Work
Turnover
C o n t r a c t o r ' s Records
Suspension o f Work
Force M a j e u r e
P a r t i a l U t i 1 i z a t i o n o f Work
Changes i n t h e Work
Subcontracts
Labor Requirements and F r i n g e B e n e f i t s - J o b s i t e
A c t i v i t i e s Only
Waiver o f C l a i m s
Temporary F a c i l i t i e s
P e r m i t s , Fees, N o t i c e s
H e a l t h and S a f e t y
P u b l i c a t i o n s , Photographs and Commercial A c t i v i t i e s
T i t l e o f M a t e r i a l s Found
Protection o f Property o f Others
P r o t e c t i o n o f Environment
C l e a n i n g Up
C o n t r a c t o r ' s P l a n t and Equipment
Emergency I n s t r u c t i o n s
L i n e s and Grades
Time and O r d e r o f C o m p l e t i o n and C o o p e r a t i o n
I n v o i c i n g and Payment Terms
C o n t r a c t Bonds
Bomb T h r e a t P r o c e d u r e
d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l be a f u n c t i o n o f s u p p l i e r s p e c i f i c d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;
o t h e r s may r e s u l t f r o m d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e RFP. A utility
e n g i n e e r , t h e r e f o r e , must have a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o r i g i n a l
s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n t e n t , t h e s u p p l i e r ' s d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i m i t a t i o n s , and
the specific features o f the offerings. O n l y t h e n can he e v a l u a t e t h e
n e c e s s i t y and/or r i s k associated w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r i t e m o f d i f f e r e n c e .

Some u t i l i t i e s have r e v i e w e d t h e p r o p o s a l s under a two phase approach. The

f i r s t phase i s an a b b r e v i a t e d economic e v a l u a t i o n w h i c h examines base p r i c e ,
e s c a l a t i o n , and performance g u a r a n t e e v a l u e s f o r p r e s s u r e d r o p and power
consumption. Depending upon t h e d e p t h o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n , b i d d e r e x c e p t i o n s
are n o t normally considered. The a b b r e v i a t e d economic e v a l u a t i o n r a n k s t h e
b i d d e r s i n monetary terms.

A t t h i s p o i n t , a u t i l i t y may d e c i d e t o l i m i t f u t u r e e v a l u a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s t o
t h e two o r t h r e e b i d d e r s w h i c h had t h e l o w e s t e v a l u a t e d b i d s . I t must be
p o i n t e d o u t t h a t an a b b r e v i a t e d e v a l u a t i o n may o v e r l o o k c r i t i c a l a r e a s i n
t e r m s o f b i d d e r s ' e x c e p t i o n s , w h i c h may t h e n have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on
pricing. A b i d d e r who had an a t t r a c t i v e o f f e r i n g i n t h e a b b r e v i a t e d
e v a l u a t i o n may n o t be v i a b l e once a l l o f t h e e x c e p t i o n s have been r e s o l v e d .
I n a d d i t i o n , a b i d d e r who f a i l e d t o p a s s t h e f i r s t phase, m i g h t i n f a c t , have
a v e r y a t t r a c t i v e o f f e r i n g i f he w e r e g i v e n an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e s o l v e i t s
exceptions. I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a u t i l i t y w i t h t h e b e s t chance t o o b t a i n t h e
most a t t r a c t i v e p i e c e o f equipment, c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o f u l l y
e v a l u a t i n g a l l p r o p o s a l s and r e f r a i n f r o m s h o r t c u t s .

U t i l i t i e s must m a i n t a i n t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l n a t u r e o f each b i d d e r s ' p r i c i n g

s t r u c t u r e i n o r d e r t o be f a i r t o a l l b i d d e r s . it i s suggested t h a t p r i c i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n be l i m i t e d t o p e r s o n n e l who d e m o n s t r a t e a need-to-know. Should a
u t i l i t y d e c i d e t o e v a l u a t e a l l p r o p o s a l s , p r i c i n g i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be s e a l e d
and k e p t b y t h e u t i l i t y ' s p u r c h a s i n g d e p a r t m e n t . Sealed p r i c e s s h o u l d t h e n be
opened o n l y a f t e r t h e e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e s s i s complete. Furthermore, t h e
u t i l i t y may w i s h t o r e c e i v e t h e p r o p o s a l i n two p a r t s : (1) t e c h n i c a l and
commercial and ( 2 ) p r i c i n g . T h i s p e r m i t s t e c h n i c a l and commercial e v a l u a t i o n s
t o b e g i n e a r l i e r t h a n normal w h i l e a f f o r d i n g a b i d d e r a g r e a t e r t h a n normal
period o f
t i m e t o o b t a i n t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e p r i c i n g from h i s subcontractors. In
a d d i t i o n , i t i s suggested t h a t a b i d d e r be g i v e n an o p p o r t u n i t y t o s u b m i t a
n e t p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s so t h a t f i n a l
n e g o t i a t e d p o s i t i o n s , b o t h t e c h n i c a l a n d commercial, can be f a c t o r e d i n t o a
proposal. The n e t p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t a l s o a l l o w s a b i d d e r t o base i t s p r i c e on
t h e l a t e s t and b e s t p r i c i n g from i t s subcontractors, w h i l e e l i m i n a t i n g t h e
need f o r a u t i l i t y t o t r a c k m y r i a d i n d i v i d u a l a d j u s t m e n t s and a l s o r e d u c e s t h e
r i s k o f miscalculation.

P r e p a r a t i o n o f E x c e p t i o n / N e g o t i a t i o n Book

As a u t i l i t y ' s p r o p o s a l e v a l u a t i o n team proceeds w i t h an e v a l u a t i o n , i t w i l l

become a p p a r e n t t h a t a t r a c k i n g method must be d e v e l o p e d t o h a n d l e b i d d e r s '
exceptions, n a t u r e o f t h e e x c e p t i o n and i t s r e s o l u t i o n . It i s suggested t h a t
an e x c e p t i o n / n e g o t i a t i o n book be p r e p a r e d t o p r o v i d e t h i s t r a c k i n g method.

An e x c e p t i o n / n e g o t i a t i o n book c o n s i s t s o f a number o f 11x17 i n . s i z e s h e e t s o f

p a p e r w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f a s p e c i f i c s e c t i o n o f t h e RFP on t h e l e f t s i d e
a n d b i d d e r s ' e x c e p t i o n s on t h e r i g h t s i d e . Ample room i s a f f o r d e d f o r
i n d i c a t i o n o f a u t i l i t y ' s i n i t i a l n e g o t i a t i n g p o s i t i o n and f i n a l r e s o l u t i o n o f
t h e comment. An example o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 7-2. All o f
t h e b i d d e r s e x c e p t i o n s a r e c o m p i l e d i n a book f o r m and a copy i s g i v e n t o a
bidder p r i o r t o negotiations. During negotiations, resolutions are recorded
i n b o t h u t i l i t y a n d b i d d e r books a n d s i g n e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e e x c e p t i o n / n e g o t i a t i o n book becomes t h e s o l e source o f a l l
agreements r e l a t i n g t o c o n t r a c t p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
o f misunderstandings.

C l a r i f i c a t i o n Meetings

A f t e r d a t a t a b u l a t i o n s h e e t s a n d e x c e p t i o n / n e g o t i a t i o n books a r e p r e p a r e d a n d
p r o p o s a l s r e a d , i t i s suggested t h a t m e e t i n g s be h e l d w i t h each b i d d e r . The
purpose o f t h e meetings i s t o d i s c u s s areas o f concern t o t h e proposal. Care
s h o u l d be t a k e n n o t t o n e g o t i a t e e x c e p t i o n s b u t t o e l i c i t i n f o r m a t i o n upon
w h i c h a u t i l i t y can f o r m an o p i n i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e
exception. I f a t a l l p o s s i b l e , u t i l i t y p e r s o n n e l s h o u l d have q u e s t i o n s
p r e p a r e d i n w r i t i n g p r i o r t o a m e e t i n g i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e b i d d e r s w i t h an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o prepare w r i t t e n responses.
Supplementary Terms 6 Conditions Project I d e n t i f i c a t i o n (PlIl-29) 27.0 Health L Safety
Ho.
27.3 Line 4: After word "OSHA" add
Revision "provided however the Contract Price
shall be adjusted for any increased costs
incurred by Seller as a r e s u l t o f changes
27.0 HEALTH M D SAFETY and/or additions thereto subsequent t o
Noumber 20. 1981"
The importance o f the safety of a l l personnel on the Project s h a l l be
recognized by Contractor, and accident prevention s h a l l be an i n t e g r a l
p a r t OF Contractor's operations. Contractor s h a l l take a l l precautions
necessary and shall bear sole r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the Safety o f the W r k W E R POSITION
and the safety and adequacy Of the methcds and mans i t enploys i s
performing the m r k . U ACCEPTABLE

Contractor shall take a l l precautions f o r the safety and health of, and 0 UNACCEPTABLE
shall provide a l l protection necessary t o prevent danage, i n j u r y o r loss to:
NEGOTIABLE
(a) A l l enployees an the Work and a l l other persons who may be affected
thereby;

(bl A11 Work and a l l materials and e q u i m n t t o be incorporated therein,

whether i s storage on o r o f f the Jobsite, under the cars, custody
o r control of Contractor o r Subcontractors.

Contractor shall carply w i t h a l l applicable federal, state and local laws.

ordinances, rules and regulations pertaining t o the health and safety o f Withdrawn by letter
persons o r property. including those pranulgated pursuant t o OSW. Contractor Of
shall erect and m i n t a i n as required by e x i s t i n g conditions and progress o f the
Work a l l safeguards for safety and protection including, without limitations.
pasting danger signs and other uarnjngs against hazards, enforcing applicable
safety and health and f i r e regulations and n o t i f y i n g owners and users o f
adjacent u t i l i t i e s .

Contractor s h a l l maintain a safety progran, including a weekly c r a f t safety

meeting, on the Jobsite. The purpose o f such safety progran s h a l l be t o maintain
a safe work place and t o ensure carpliance w i t h the safety regulations and
standards adopted pursuant t o OSHA together w i t h a l l other applicable rules
and regulations.

Contractor s h a l l cooperate with Owner, ~ n g i n e e rand a11 other contractors i n

t h e i r respective safety p r o g r m . Contractor's safety p r o g r m s h a l l c o n f o n t o
t o the Project safety p r o g r m and s h a l l be subject t o coordination and m n i t o r i n g
by Engineer. Contractor's representative shall attend the weekly Project Safety
C m i t t e e meetings.

Figure 7-2. Sample Sheet From Exception/Negotiation Book

N e g o t i a t i o n Meeti n s

N e g o t i a t i o n m e e t i n g s must be t h e mechanism by w h i c h i s s u e s a r e r e s o l v e d i n a
f o r m a l manner. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a u t i l i t y ' s e n g i n e e r i n g and p u r c h a s i n g
s t a f f s must a t t e n d t h e s e m e e t i n g s s i n c e many o f t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e b o t h
t e c h n i c a l and commercial a s p e c t s t h a t may be i n t e r r e l a t e d . A utility's
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s must have t h e a u t h o r i t y t o a c t on b e h a l f o f i t . A b i d d e r m u s t
a l s o have p e r s o n n e l p r e s e n t w i t h a u t h o r i t y t o a c t on t h e b i d d e r ' s b e h a l f .
L e g a l c o u n s e l i s n o t u s u a l l y p r e s e n t a t n e g o t i a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h each p a r t y may
sometimes d i s c u s s key i s s u e s w i t h c o u n s e l p r i o r t o t h e m e e t i n g . S h o u l d one o f
t h e p a r t i e s have o r r e q u e s t l e g a l c o u n s e l a t n e g o t i a t i o n s , i t would b e p r u d e n t
t h a t t h e o t h e r p a r t y a1 so be r e p r e s e n t e d b y c o u n s e l .

I n o r d e r t o p r o p e r l y manage t h e n e g o t i a t i o n p r o c e s s , each p a r t y s h o u l d
d e s i g n a t e a team l e a d e r who w o u l d p r e s e n t h i s p a r t y ' s i n t e r e s t s t o t h e o t h e r .
As d i s c u s s e d above, t h e e x c e p t i o n / n e g o t i a t i o n book p r o v i d e s a r o a d map f o r t h e
p r o c e s s and e s t a b l i s h e s a permanent, u n i f i e d r e c o r d o f t h e p r o c e e d i n g s .

INVESTMENT EVALUATION

D u r i n g an e v a l u a t i o n , a u t i l i t y must c o n s i d e r a l l o f t h e c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
each o f t h e o f f e r i n g s . Costs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b i d d e r ' s scope o f s u p p l y a r e
known t h r o u g h h i s p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e . P r o p o s a l s n o r m a l l y comply w i t h t h e scope
o f s u p p l y r e q u e s t e d i n t h e RFP. S h o u l d t h i s n o t be t h e case, a u t i l i t y may
e i t h e r request a b i d d e r t o i n c l u d e t h e m i s s i n g work i n i t s p r i c e , o r t h e
u t i l i t y may e s t i m a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e m i s s i n g work. It i s p r e f e r a b l e t h a t a
b i d d e r i n c l u d e a p r i c e f o r t h e m i s s i n g w o r k so t h a t a l l p r o p o s a l s can be
compared on an e q u a l b a s i s .

Current practices tend t o include n o t o n l y p r e c i p i t a t o r casings i n a b i d d e r ' s

scope of s u p p l y , b u t a l s o d u c t w o r k , s u p p o r t s t e e l , a c c e s s p l a t f o r m s ,
i n s u l a t i o n , and e l e c t r i c a l power s u p p l i e s . Commonly, f o u n d a t i o n s , f l y ash
h a n d l i n g equipment, a r e a p a v i n g , and power s u p p l y f e e d s a r e e s t i m a t e d b y a
u t i l i t y and i n c l u d e d i n an e v a l u a t i o n . Depending upon a b i d d e r ' s scope o f
s u p p l y , a u t i l i t y may f i n d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u t i l i t y
s u p p l i e d equipment o r f a c i l i t i e s w i l l have l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t on
m a j o r new p r o j e c t s whereas s m a l l o r r e t r o f i t p r o j e c t s a r e more s e n s i t i v e t o
these items. Therefore, i t i s necessary f o r t h e u t i l i t y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r s and be a b l e t o a p p l y them i n an e x p e d i t i o u s
manner.

PERFORMANCE WARRANTY EVALUATION

As p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y v a l u e s can have a s i g n i f i c a n t
i m p a c t on p r o p o s a l e v a l u a t i o n . The u t i l i t y m u s t d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s
p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y l e v e l s o f f e r e d by t h e b i d d e r s a r e r e a s o n a b l e (e.g.,
p r e s s u r e d r o p s w i t h 0 . 5 i n c h H20 d i f f e r e n t i a l between h i g h and l o w v a l u e s ,
power c o n s u m p t i o n l e v e l s w i t h a 25 t o 50 p e r c e n t s p r e a d between h i g h a n d
low). S h o u l d t h e l e v e l s n o t pass t h e t e s t o f r e a s o n a b l e n e s s , t h e u t i l i t y can
o p t t o d i s r e g a r d t h e v a l u e s and n o t p e r f o r m t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n , o r
request t h e bidders t o f u l l y explain the b a s i s o f the values o r prorate the
v a l u e s so t h e f a l l w i t h i n t h e r e a l m o f r e a s o n . i n a d d i t i o n , should t h e
u t i l i t y f i n d t h a t t h e s e economic f a c t o r s so i n f l u e n c e t h e e v a l u a t i o n i n an
u n r e a l i s t i c a l manner, t h e u t i l i t y may o p t t o d e - s e n s i t i z e t h e e v a l u a t i o n t o
these factors. T h i s can be a c c o m p l i s h e d b y p e r f o r m i n g d i s c r e t e e v a l u a t i o n s a t
p r o j e c t e d o p e r a t i n g p o i n t s a n d t h e n p r o r a t i n g them on t h e number o f o p e r a t i n g
hours per year. T h i s t e c h n i q u e can e f f e c t i v e l y r e d u c e t h e i m p a c t o f t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y e v a l u a t i o n by o n e - h a l f . It w o u l d be advantageous f o r t h e
u t i l i t y t o explain t h e application o f evaluation factors t o the bidder during
t h e p r o p o s a l p r e p a r a t i o n phase. This w i l l permit the bidder t o optimize t h e i r
o f f e r i n g s by f o c u s i n g t h e p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n on t h e e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r s .

TECHNICAL MERIT EVALUATIONS

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l economic e v a l u a t i o n approaches, u t i l i t i e s may

w i s h t o p e r f o r m a t e c h n i c a l m e r i t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e proposals. The c o n c e p t o f
t h i s evaluation technique i s t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c technical features o f the
p r o p o s a l s a n d r a t e t h o s e f e a t u r e s on a s u b j e c t i v e b a s i s . Typical features
w h i c h can be e v a l u a t e d a r e :
Discharge E l e c t r o d e s

Electrode configuration
Type of e l e c t r o d e mounting

Type of e l e c t r o d e support (two o r f o u r p o i n t s )

P o t e n t i a l f o r e l e c t r o d e and support expansion o r d i s t o r t i o n

I n t e r n a l e l e c t r o d e assembly b r a c i n g

Type of rapping system

Rapper l o c a t i o n ( i n o r o u t of gas stream)

Adjustable rapper i n t e n s i t y
Rapper maintenance f e a t u r e s

Rapper s e g r e g a t i o n and e n e r g i z a t i o n

Type of automatic voltage c o n t r o l l e r

Number of t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s

Number of f i e l d s

Number of bus s e c t i o n s
Col l e c t i n q E l e c t r o d e s

P l a t e t h i c k n e s s (18 or 16 gauge)

Upper p l a t e support

Bottom p l a t e spacers and b r a c i n g

P l a t e spacing experience (9,10, or 1 2 i n c h )

Type of rapping

Rapper l o c a t i o n ( i n o r o u t of gas stream)

A d j u s t a b l e rapper i n t e n s i t y

Rapper maintenance f e a t u r e s

O f f power rapping c a p a b i l i t y

Number of p l a t e s rapped by a apper (one, two, t h r e e , o r f o u r )

Rapper s e g r e g a t i o n and e n e r g i z a t i o n

P l a t e a r e a rapped a t any i n s t a n t of time

Plate height
 Size Selection

Specific collecting p l a t e area

Aspect r a t i o

C o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a per t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t

Collecting p l a t e a r e a per bus s e c t i o n

Corona power d e n s i t y (rated/expected)

P r e c i p i t a t o r gas v e l o c i t y

Number of t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s per hopper

Of c o u r s e , t h e s e parameters should be modified t o s u i t t h e u t i l i t y ' s

s p e c i f i c needs. However, t h e parameters should r e f l e c t r e a l i s t i c concerns
and t h e r e l a t i v e importance of i n d i v i d u a l parameters in terms of enhanced
p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. T y p i c a l l y , t h e r a t i n g s a r e converted t o a
numerical system f o r ease in e s t a b l i s h i n g an o v e r a l l r a t i n g f o r each
proposal. I t must be noted t h a t once t h e s e r a t i n g s a r e a p p l i e d , the
u t i l i t y w i l l probably be faced with a s i t u a t i o n where t h e lowest e v a l u a t e d
b i d d e r , on a monetary b a s i s , may not be highly r a t e d t e c h n i c a l l y . As such,
t h e u t i l i t y may wish t o explore t h e concept of a s s i g n i n g some monetary
value t o t h e technical m e r i t e v a l u a t i o n .
This monetary value could range
from very small values which would probably have very l i t t l e a f f e c t on t h e
e v a l u a t i o n , whereas l a r g e v a l u e s may r a d i c a l l y swing t h e outcome of t h e
evaluation. Therefore, t h e u t i l i t y may wish t o c o n s i d e r p r o r a t i n g t h e
d i f f e r e n c e i n evaluated p r i c e between high and low b i d d e r w i t h the
d i f f e r e n c e between high and low t e c h n i c a l merit r a t i n g s . In any e v e n t , t h e
u t i l i t y must approach t h e use of t e c h n i c a l m e r i t e v a l u a t i o n s w i t h g r e a t
c a r e i f t h e y a r e t o be of value.

COMMERCIAL EVALUATION

In a d d i t i o n t o a t e c h n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e p r o p o s a l s , a commercial
e v a l u a t i o n must a l s o be performed.Under the presumption t h a t t h e b i d d e r s
have s a t i s f i e d t h e minimum requirements o f t h e t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e
commercial evaluation becomes paramount.
Terms and Conditions

A t t h e conclusion of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e b i d d e r s ' e x c e p t i o n s
would have been resolved i n one of f o u r ways ( 1 ) exception withdrawn, ( 2 )
exception i s a c c e p t a b l e , (3) s a t i s f a c t o r y wording has been a c c e p t e d , o r ( 4 )
no r e s o l u t i o n can be reached. In terms of t h e commercial e v a l u a t i o n , t h e
f i r s t t h r e e methods of r e s o l u t i o n pose no problems and do not a f f e c t t h e
overall evaluation. However, in t h e s i t u a t i o n where no s a t i s f a c t o r y
r e s o l u t i o n can be reached, the u t i l i t y can t a k e one of two approaches ( 1 )
d e c l a r e t h e bidder non-responsive o r ( 2 ) a s s e s s a monetary p e n a l t y a g a i n s t
t h e bidder. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e s e two approaches may be h e l p f u l i n r e s o l v i n g
the issue. I t should be noted t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of e i t h e r of t h e
approaches may be d i f f i c u l t and should be used a s a l a s t r e s o r t .

Terms of Payment

The e v a l u a t i o n of terms of payment ( i . e . , cash flow requirements) can have

a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on t h e e v a l u a t i o n . As such, t h e u t i l i t y must be aware
t h a t t h e e s t i m a t e d cash flow could be misrepresented by a b i d d e r i n o r d e r
t o o b t a i n an evaluation advantage. Realistica:ly, should t h e m a t e r i a l
d e l i v e r y and e r e c t i o n schedules be e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f o r a l l b i d d e r s ,
then t h e r e would be very l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in p r o j e c t e d cash flow s i n c e a l l
b i d d e r s should execute t h e work in a s i m i l a r manner. Should t h e r e be a
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among p r o j e c t e d cash f l o w s , t h e u t i l i t y may o p t t o
e i t h e r d i s r e g a r d t h e cash flows a s an e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r or develop i t s own
cash flow schedule and e q u a l l y apply i t t o a l l bidders. These approaches
should be considered so a s t o not give an u n f a i r advantage t o a p a r t i c u l a r
b i d d e r who might be misrepresenting t h e s i t u a t i o n . I t should be noted t h a t
u s u a l l y p r o j e c t e d cash flows a r e not made p a r t of t h e c o n t r a c t , so a s not
t o l i m i t both t h e u t i l i t y and s u p p l i e r from a v a i l i n g themselves of t h e
b e n e f i t s of e a r l y d e l i v e r y o r e r e c t i o n .

Escalation

The terms f o r how e s c a l a t i o n i s t o be a p p l i e d i n t h e c o n t r a c t a r e s t a t e d

in t h e RFP. Usually, only minor c l a r i f i c a t i o n i s required by t h e b i d d e r s
but t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s remain i n t a c t . The r e a l q u e s t i o n s t h e u t i l i t y
must address i s how much e s c a l a t i o n w i l l occur over t h e l i f e of t h e
p r o j e c t and how much w i l l i t c o s t . The e v a l u a t i o n can then s e l e c t an
e s c a l a t i o n r a t e which i s a p p l i e d f o r e n t i r e p r o j e c t f i n a n c i n g , and a p p l y i t
t o a l l bidders. T h i s c o n c e p t , a l o n g w i t h t h a t o f a n a l y z i n g p r o j e c t e d cash
flows, would n o t f a v o r any p a r t i c u l a r b i d d e r s i n c e i t would t r a c k and be
based on t h e b i d d e r s base p r i c e . Hence, t h e r e l a t ve s t a n d i n g s o f t h e
b i d d e r s would n o t be r a d i c a l l y a f f e c t e d .

C a n c e l l a t i o n Charqes

I n t o d a y ' s c l i m a t e o f u n c e r t a j n t y r e l a t i v e t o r e q u r e d c a p a c i t y growth
r a t e s , t h e u t i l i t i e s must be prepared t o d e a l w i t h p r o j e c t c a n c e l l a t i o n .
I n t h e p a s t , c a n c e l l a t i o n charges were r a r e l y , i f e v e r , e v a l u a t e d .
However, shou7d a u t i l i t y w i s h t o e v a l u a t e c a n c e l l a t i o n charges, i t can
r e q u e s t t h a t each b i d d e r p r o v i d e a c u m u l a t i v e , n o t t o exceed c a n c e l l a t i o n
schedule. T h i s schedule would be based on t h e percentage o f t h e c o n t r a c t
p r i c e f o r each month of t h e p r o j e c t which would be p a i d t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
s u p p l i e r i n t h e event o f c a n c e l l a t i o n . The e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e schedule
would i n v o l v e u s i n g a s l i d i n g p r o b a b i l i t y s c a l e as a f u n c t i o n o f p r o j e c t
duration. I n o r d e r f o r t h i s e v a l u a t i o n t o be m e a n i n g f u l , i t i s necessary
t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t c o n t a i n t h e b i d d e r s schedule. T h i s would overcome t h e
problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " p r o j e c t e d cash f l o w s " .

L i m i t a t i o n o f L i a b i l i t y t o F i x Nonperforming Equipment

C o n s i d e r i n g t o d a y ' s l i t i g a t i o n prone environment, t h e q u e s t i o n o f how much

money w i l l t h e s u p p l i e r be r e q u i r e d t o spend i n o r d e r t o make t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r operate p r o p e r l y must be addressed. I n essence, c u r r e n t
p r a c t i c e i s t o l i m i t t h i s value t o t h e value o f t h e escalated contract.
The u t i l i t y and b i d d e r s h o u l d d i s c u s s what a r e t h e r i s k s and b e n e f i t s o f
h i g h e r and l o w e r l i a b i l i t y l i m i t s when upgrading t h e equipment t o meet t h e
r e q u i r e d emission l i m i t a t i o n s .

L i q u i d a t e d Damages

L i q u i d a t e d damages have been used t o compensate t h e u t i l i t y f o r d e l a y s i n

schedule and f a i l u r e t o meet c e r t a i n aspects o f t h e performance guarantee.
I n terms o f a p p l y i n g t h e l i q u i d a t e d damage concept t o scbedule t h e a c t u a l
assessment o f t h e damage and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h i c h p a r t y a c t u a l l y
caused of t h e d e l a y can become q u i t e d i f f i c u l t . As such, t h e b i d d e r s
w i l l perceive t h a t t h e i r r i s k s a r e h i g h e r i n terms o f meeting t h e schedule,
and c o n s e q u e n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e i r p r i c e a c c o r d i n g l y . The u t i l i t y may be b e t t e r
a d v i s e d t o a d o p t an i n c e n t i v e a p p r o a c h t o e a r l y c o m p l e t i o n o f c e r t a i n c r i t i c a
phases o f t h e p r o j e c t as a means o f m a i n t a i n i n g o r i m p r o v i n g p r o j e c t s c h e d u l e

System p r e s s u r e d r o p and e l e c t r i c a l power c o n s u m p t i o n a r e i t e m s where

assessment o f l i q u i d a t e d damages a r e most a p p r o p r i a t e . I n essence, t h e
u t i l i t y may be f a c e d w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n where e m i s s i o n s a r e i n accordance w i t h
t h e g u a r a n t e e b u t power consumption i s t o o h i g h . The s u p p l i e r and u t i l i t y a r e
t h e n f a c e d w i t h a dilemma, as m e e t i n g b o t h o f t h e g u a r a n t e e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
may be i m p o s s i b l e . Hence, a p p l y i n g a l i q u i d a t e d damage t o power consumption
becomes most a p p r o p r i a t e . The v a l u e o f t h e l i q u i d a t e d damage s h o u l d be t h e
same as t h a t o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r used i n t h e b i d e v a l u a t i o n . Further,
the i q u i d a t e d damages s h o u l d be e x c l u s i v e o f a l l o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s on
1 jab l i t i e s . One p o i n t o f c o n c e r n i s t h a t l i q u i d a t e d damages s h o u l d n o t be
used when t h e equipment f a i l s t o meet o u t l e t e m i s s i o n g u a r a n t e e l e v e l s ; t h e
SUPP i e r s h o u l d t h e n do whatever i s needed t o a c h i e v e t h e s p e c i f i e d l e v e l o f
performance.

Qua1it y Assurance

The e v a l u a t i o n o f b i d d e r q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e p r o c e d u r e s i s somewhat s u b j e c t i v e
and must be v i e w e d from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f w h e t h e r t h e program i s a c c e p t a b l e o r
n o t acceptable. A t t e m p t i n g t o r a t e o r g r a d e t h e a c c e p t a b l e programs w i l l i n
a l l p r o b a b i l i t y be f r u i t l e s s a n d have no r e a l i m p a c t on
the overall evaluation. F o r t h o s e programs w h i c h a r e j u d g e d u n a c c e p t a b l e , t h e
u t i j i t y should work w i t h the b i d d e r t o c o r r e c t t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s .

I n s u r a n c e and Bonds

I n s u r a n c e and bond r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e m a t t e r s o f u t i l i t y c o r p o r a t e p o l i c y a n d
a r e n o t u s u a l l y s u b j e c t t o change. T h e r e f o r e , t h e b i d d e r must meet t h e s e
minimum r e q u i r e m e n t s o r have i t s p r o p o s a l deemed n o n - r e s p o n s i v e . Of c o u r s e ,
proper b i d d e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n procedures w i l l u s u a l l y a v o i d t h i s issue. Hence,
i n s u r a n c e and bond r e q u i r e m e n t s w o u l d n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e commercial e v a l u a t i o n .
Retention

Usual u t i l i t y p r a c t i c e i s t o r e t a i n a small percentage (up t o ten p e r c e n t )

of each of t h e b i d d e r s i n v o i c e s t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e s u p p l i e r w i l l provide
proper a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r o j e c t during t h e warranty period. This small
percentage may r e s u l t i n t h e u t i l i t y withholding s e v e r a l m i l l i o n s of
d o l l a r s on a major p r o j e c t . This u t i l i t y r e t a i n e d c a p i t a l p r e s e n t s t h e
b i d d e r w i t h t h e problem of having t o b u i l d i n t o i t s p r i c e t h e c o s t of t h a t
c a p i t a l over t h e l i f e of the c o n t r a c t . I t has become a p r a c t i c e on t h e
p a r t of some b i d d e r s t o o f f e r performance bonds o r f e t t e r s of c r e d i t i n
l i e u o f r e t e n t i o n in o r d e r t o reduce t h e equipment purchase p r i c e . By and
l a r g e , t h e value of performance bonds and l e t t e r s of c r e d i t w i l l be based
upon t h e s p e c i f i c terms and c o n d i t i o n s contained t h e r e i n . Each u t i l i t y has
i t s own p o l i c y i n d e a l i n g with t h e r e t e n t i o n i s s u e and t h e award of a
p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r a c t would have t o be i n accordance with t h e s e p o l i c i e s .
I t should be noted t h a t t h e purpose of r e t e n t i o n i s t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e
u t i l i t y has t h e s u p p l i e r ' s a t t e n t i o n concerning warranty problems and t h a t
they a r e resolved i n an e x p e d i t i o u s manner.

C o n t r a c t Award

Once t h e e v a l u a t i o n has been completed and a d e c i s i o n made, t h e u t i l i t y

n o t i f i e s t h e successful bidder with a l e t t e r of i n t e n t . The c o n t r a c t u r a l
documents woutd then be prepared using t h e b i d d e r s ' f i l l - i n t e c h n i c a l d a t a
s h e e t s along with t h e e x c e p t i o n / n e g o t i a t i o n book. I t i s suggested t h a t t h e
b i d d e r ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s review a17 documents f o r accuracy. Once t h i s i s
done, then t h e f i n a l c o n t r a c t document can be s e n t f o r s i g n a t u r e .

C o n t r a c t Administration

Once t h e c o n t r a c t has been p l a c e d , u t i l i t y personnel a r e assigned t o

administer i t . Schedule adherence and drawing d e l i v e r y then become
paramount f o r execution of t h e p r o j e c t . T h i s i s where t h e i n c e n t i v e
approach t o schedule can provide g r e a t b e n e f i t s t o t h e p r o j e c t . An area of
concern i s change o r d e r s which open up t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of schedule d e l a y s
and e x c e s s i v e markuos on m a t e r i a l and t a b o r .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e o f c o n t r a c t admini s t r a t i o n i s " i f i t
works, d o n ' t change i t " . Even w i t h t h i s approach, changes w i l l o c c u r and
i t w o u l d be t o t h e u t i l i t y ' s advantage t o have a s e c t i o n i n t h e c o n t r a c t
w h i c h p l a c e s l i m i t a t i o n s on markups f o r such changes.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION

General

I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , once t h e adequacy o f t h e performance i s assured, a

comparison o f t h e o v e r a l l economics a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each o f t h e p r o p o s a l s i s
conducted.

A u t i l i t y e n g i n e e r who i s p e r f o r m i n g p r o p o s a l e v a l u a t i o n s w i l l have t o assess

c a p i t a l o u t l a y s a n d annual o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each p r o p o s a l , and
he s h o u l d u s e a u n i f o r m and e c o n o m i c a l l y sound ( i . e . , d e f e n d a b l e ) method t o
make comparisons. I n a l l cases, i t i s necessary t o e v a l u a t e t h e o v e r a l l
economic e f f e c t o f each p r o p o s a l . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n t s examples
o f s e v e r a l s y s t e m a t i c approaches t o t h e economic e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e s s . Many
u t i l i t i e s have e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r own s t a n d a r d c r i t e r i a f o r economic
e v a l u a t i o n s , as h a s E P R I i n i t s T e c h n i c a l Assessment Guide (EPRI P-2410-SR,
May 1982). S t a n d a r d s may be s i m i l a r , o r t h e y may d i f f e r s l i g h t l y . However,
i t i s most i m p o r t a n t t h a t e v a T u a t i o n s b e conducted i n a l o g i c a l , o r d e r l y
manner.

A l t e r n a t i v e Economic Comparison Methods

A number o f economic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t t h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y a p a r t
f r o m most o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s .

1. I t i s c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e ; f o r some u t i l i t i e s , o v e r h a l f of t h e
revenue f r o m t h e s a l e o f e l e c t r i c i t y i s a l l o c a t e d t o pay o b l i g a t i o n s
t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o c a ~ i t a li n v e s t m e n t .

2. I t s investment items u s u a l l y a r e long-lived, o f t e n f r o m 30 t o 50

years.

3. I t has a r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m f l o w o f annual revenue d o l l a r s

 4. I t i s required t o supply product demand, and usage i s determined by
t h e customers of i t s s e r v i c e t e r r i t o r y ; i t may n o t s e l e c t t h e
markets t h a t i t chooses t o e n t e r .

5. I t i s regulated by government agencies and i s mandated t o provide

r e l i a b l e , low-cost e l e c t r i c i t y in an environmentally a c c e p t a b l e
manner.

In t h e b u s i n e s s community, t h e r e a r e several methods f o r conducting economic

a n a l y s e s of a l t e r n a t e choices. Among t h e s e a r e :
S p e c i a l i z e d methodologies f o r p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y
i n d u s t r i e s with r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - l i v e d p l a n t items o r w i t h r a p i d
technological obsolescence

Oi scounted cash f 1ow

Return on investment

Cost/benefit r a t i o

Payback period

Revenue requirement.

Revenue requirement methodology i s g e n e r a l l y regarded a s most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r

t h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y industry. With t h i s approach, t h e revenue r e q u i r e d t o
s u s t a i n a given a l t e r n a t i v e i s determined and compared t o s i m i l a r l y d e r i v e d
revenue requirements of i t s a l t e r n a t i v e s . This method determines t h e revenue
r e q u i r e d from t h e r a t e p a y e r and, t h e r e f o r e , i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e
of ensuring e l e c t r i c i t y supplied a t t h e lowest p o s s i b l e p r i c e s i n c e i t enables
determining a lowest revenue required from r a t e p a y e r s (within r e g u l a t o r y
g u i d e l i n e s on adequate r2turn t o i n v e s t o r s ) r a t h e r than maximizing r e t u r n t o
investors.

Because revenue requirement i s t h e method u s u a l l y used in t h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y

i n d u s t r y f o r t h e economic comparison of a l t e r n a t i v e s and because t h e E l e c t r i c
Power Research I n s t i t u t e has adopted t h i s methodology t o e v a l u a t e
a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h e revenue requirement method has been s e l e c t e d f o r
p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h i s manual. Much o f t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n on economic
a n a l y s i s was t a k e n f r o m EPRI's T e c h n i c a l Assessment Guide ( E P R I P-2410-SR,May
1982) w h i c h s h o u l d be used as a r e f e r e n c e f o r a d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l s .

F i n a n c i a l Mathematics

N u m e r i c a l a n a l y s i s f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f equipment a l t e r n a t i v e s i n v o l v e s t h e
use o f s e v e r a l r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a s and symbols.
A b r i e f r e v i e w o f t h e f i n a n c i a l mathematics needed t o p e r f o r m such economic
comparisons i s p r e s e n t e d be1 ow.

P r e s e n t Value o f a S i n g l e Sum. The d i s c o u n t r a t e 1, i s the time value o f

money i n t h e t i m e p e r i o d n. The p r e s e n t v a l u e fi o f a s i n g l e amount 5 made 2
time periods i n the future a t a discount r a t e 2 p e r t i m e p e r i o d i s determined
by t h e formula

n
PV = xv
where
vn = 1
-
(l+i)n

The use o f t h i s f o r m u l a i s ill u s t r a t e d b y a t i m e diagram. Suppose t h a t x

o c c u r s 5 y e a r s i n t h e f u t u r e , and we a r e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e o f 5
a t the beginning o f the f i r s t year.

PV

0 1 2 3 4 5
Years
5
P V = xv (7-5)
The p r e s e n t v a l u e n years i n t h e f u t u r e o f a s i n g l e amount t o d a y i s d e t e r m i n e d
by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e d o l l a r s t o d a y by t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f yn.
Present Value of a Uniform S e r i e s . The present value - PV of a uniform s e r i e s 5
per time p e r i o d t h a t e x t e n d s 1 time periods i n t h e f u t u r e a t a r a t e of 1 per
time p e r i o d i s determined by t h e formula

where

or

or

or

The use i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a time diagram. Suppose t h a t t h e r e i s a uniform

s e r i e s c o n s i s t i n g of an amount x a t t h e end of each y e a r f o r 5 y e a r s and we
a r e t o determine t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e a s of t h e uniform s e r i e s a t t h e beginning
of t h e f i r s t y e a r .

0 1 2 3 4 5
Years

Note t h a t t h e present value of a uniform s e r i e s using t h e a n f a c t o r i s

always a t a p o i n t in time t h a t i s one time period p r i o r t o t h e f i r s t
transaction in the s e r i e s .

To c o n v e r t a s i n g l e sum a t one p o i n t i n t h e time s e r i e s , use the r e c i p r o c a l of

t h e a,, f a c t o r . In t h i s c a s e , t h e f i r s t term of t h e s e r i e s w i l l always occur
one time p e r i o d a f t e r t h e s i n g l e sum.
E s c a l a t i o n and I n f l a t i o n . The annual i n f l a t i o n r a t e ei i s the rate i n r i s e
i n p r i c e caused b y an i n c r e a s e i n a v a i l a b l e c u r r e n c y and c r e d i t w i t h o u t a
p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n c r e a s e i n a v a i l a b l e goods and s e r v i c e s o f equal v a l u e . The
real escalation r a t e e i s t h e annual r a t e o f i n c r e a s e o f an e x p e n d i t u r e
r
t h a t i s due t o f a c t o r s such as r e s o u r c e d e p l e t i o n , i n c r e a s e d demand, o r
improvements i n t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t ( n e g a t i v e r a t e ) . Real e s c a l a t i o n i s
i n d e p e n d e n t and e x c l u s i v e o f i n f l a t i o n .

The a p p a r e n t a n n u a l e s c a l a t i o n r a t e e i s t h e t o t a l annual r a t e o f i n c r e a s e
a
i n p r i c e l e v e l and i n c l u d e s t h e e f f e c t s o f b o t h i n f l a t i o n and r e a l
escalation. I t i s equal t o :

The use i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y a t i m e diagram. Suppose t h a t t h e r e i s an amount x

a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f i r s t y e a r , s u b j e c t t o an a p p a r e n t e s c a l a t i o n r a t e ,
a n d we d e t e r m i n e t h e p r i c e l e v e1 1at t h e end o f t h e f i f t h y e a r .

Y = x(

N o t e t h a t t o e x p r e s s a sum o f money s u b j e c t t o e s c a l a t i o n i n t e r m s o f d o l l a r s
a t another p o i n t i n t i m e t h e apparent e s c a l a t i o n r a t e e i s used. To
a
e x p r e s s a sum o f money i n a d i f f e r e n t r e f e r e n c e y e a r t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e 1is
used.

L e v e l i z a t i o n and E s c a l a t i o n . The l e v e l i z a t i o n f a c t o r in
determines t h e
equivalent levelized value a o f a series o f n payments t h a t i s u n i f o r m o v e r
t i m e except f o r a constant apparent e s c a l a t i o n r a t e . The p r i c e l e v e l o f t h e
s e r i e s a t t h e beginning o f the f i r s t year i s y.
 where

and
e a = a p p a r e n t annual e s c a l a t i o n r a t e
e r = r e a l annual e s c a l a t i o n r a t e
e 1. = annual i n f l a t i o n r a t e
i = annual d i s c o u n t r a t e
n = number of y e a r s .

The i n i t i a l monetary amount t h a t i s m u l t i p l i e d by t h e f a c t o r Ln i s s t a t e d

t h e beg i n n i n g o f f i r s t y e a r d o l l a r s , even though a l l t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e made
t h e end o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e y e a r s .

The use of t h i s formula i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a time diagram.

Investments and Expenses

An investment i s an expenditure which r e s u l t s in a u n i t of p l a n t t h a t i s of

long term use. I n a revenue requirement a n a l y s i s , t h e money t o pay f o r an
investment must come from o u t s i d e d e b t and e q u i t y f i n a n c i n g .

Investments include, but a r e not l i m i t e d t o , t h e physical p l a n t of a u t i l i t y ,

such a s g e n e r a t i n g u n i t s , and t h e transmission and d i s t r i b u t i o n systems.

Expenses a r e a l l of t h e expenditures t h a t a r e not c l a s s e d a s investment items

including o p e r a t i n g and maintenance charges and f u e l c o s t . Expenses a r e paid
d i r e c t l y from revenue. While investments a r e paid from new debt and e q u i t y
s e c u r i t i e s , t h e r e t u r n t h a t i s due t o d e b t and e q u i t y s e c u r i t y h o l d e r s , book
d e p r e c i a t i o n , income t a x e s , l o c a l p r o p e r t y t a x e s , and i n s u r a n c e a r e a l s o t a k e n
from revenue.

Revenue Requirements

The r e v e n u e r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h e amount o f revenue t h a t m u s t be c o l l e c t e d f r o m

c u s t o m e r s t o compensate a u t i l i t y f o r a l l e x p e n d i t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f an a l t e r n a t i v e d e c i s i o n i n v o l v i n g money. I n t h e long run,
r e v e n u e must pay f o r a l l o f t h e c o s t s o f d o i n g b u s i n e s s as d e f i n e d by
regulatory action.

Revenue r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c l u d e two components, c a r r y i n g c h a r g e s ( o f t e n r e f e r r e d

t o a s f i x e d c h a r g e s ) and expenses. Carrying charges a r e a general d e s i g n a t i o n
f o r charges t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o c a p i t a l investment. They c o n s t i t u t e t h e
o b l i g a t i o n i n h e r e n t i n an i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n and a r e i n c u r r e d r e g a r d l e s s o f
how much t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t m e n t i s used o r may be used. Expenses u s u a l l y
a r e made t o c o v e r t h e way i n w h i c h a f a c i l i t y i s o p e r a t e d o r m a i n t a i n e d and
i n c l u d e f u e l , o p e r a t i n g , and maintenance c o s t s .

Expenses a r e sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s o p e r a t i n g c o s t s and, i n accordance w i t h

e s t a b l i s h e d ratemaking p r a c t i c e s , a r e p a i d f o r d i r e c t l y from revenue. Thus, a
d o l l a r o f expense i s equal t o and r e q u i r e s a d o l l a r o f revenue. Expenses
u s u a l l y a r e made f o r goods and s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e u t i l i z e d i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f
t i m e , u s u a l l y one y e a r o r l e s s . N o r m a l l y a t l e a s t 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l
r e v e n u e c o l l e c t e d a n n u a l l y b y an e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y pays t h e expenses.

Remaining revenue pays t h e c a r r y i n g c h a r g e o b l i g a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an

i n v e s t m e n t ( a n i n v e s t m e n t i s sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s a c a p i t a 1 i t e m o r a
p l a n t item). The i n s t a l l e d c o s t o f an i n v e s t m e n t i s n o t t a k e n f r o m r e v e n u e
when i n c u r r e d because (1) t h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e p r e s e n t customers t o pay f o r
i t e m s t h a t w o u l d be used t o s u p p l y customers a s f a r as 60 y e a r s i n t h e f u t u r e
and (2) as a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , t h e r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m f l o w o f revenue d o l l a r s
w o u l d n o t be adequate f o r a pay-as-you-go c o n s t r u c t i o n program t h a t may have
w i d e l y v a r y i n g monetary requirements through time.

The money t o c o v e r t h e t o t a l c a p i t a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f an i n v e s t m e n t comes f r o m

new f i n a n c i n g t h r o u g h t h e s a l e o f bonds and d e b e n t u r e s r e f e r r e d t o a s " d e b t
financing," and f o r i n v e s t o r - o w n e d u t i l i t i e s f r o m t h e s a l e o f common and
p r e f e r r e d stock, r e f e r r e d t o as " e q u i t y financing.'' An a n a l y s i s o f t h e
r e l a t i v e amounts o f d e b t and e q u i t y money i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s manual,
b u t most i n v e s t o r - o w n e d u t i l i t i e s m a i n t a i n d e b t r a t i o s ( r a t i o o f d e b t
f i n a n c i n g t o t o t a l f i n a n c i n g ) i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d o f 50 p e r c e n t .

The r e t u r n , o r money t h a t t h e u t i l i t y must pay t o i n v e s t o r s f o r t h e use o f

b o t h d e b t a n d e q u i t y money, i s a component o f t h e r e v e n u e r e q u i r e m e n t and is
p a r t o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an i n v e s t m e n t . O t h e r components o f
c a r r y i n g c h a r g e s i n c l u d e book d e p r e c i a t i o n (annual c h a r g e t o r e p a y t h e
o r i g i n a l amount o b t a i n e d f r o m i n v e s t o r s ) and F e d e r a l a n d l o c a l income t a x e s .
L o c a l p r o p e r t y t a x e s and i n s u r a n c e a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d a s c a r r y i n g c h a r g e s .

As o u t l i n e d b e l o w , t h e breakdown o f revenue r e q u i r e m e n t s i s as f o l l o w s :
REVENUE REQUIREMENTS

C a r r y i n g Charges Expenses

Return on d e b t Fuel

R e t u r n on e q u i t y c 1 ' Operating

Book d e p r e c i a t i on Maintenance

Income Taxes

Local property taxes

Insurance

"' Dividend p a i d out

The revenue r e q u i r e m e n t t e c h n i q u e r e q u i r e s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a l l a p p l i c a b l e
annual c a r r y i n g c h a r g e s and expenses f o r each y e a r o v e r t h e l i f e o f t h e
plant.

A l s o o f c o n c e r n i s t h e "Minimum A c c e p t a b l e R e t u r n " , w h i c h i s e q u a l t o r e t u r n
on d e b t a n d r e t u r n on e q u i t y . T h i s i s t h e l o w e s t amount t h a t i n v e s t o r s w i l l
a c c e p t i n o r d e r t o make a v a i l a b l e t h e f u n d s needed b y t h e u t i l i t y f o r t h e
investment.
The revenue r e q u i r e m e n t o f an a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h e d i s c r e t e c h a r g e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e a n d i s used f o r comparing t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e w i t h o t h e r
alternatives.

Discount Rate f o r Present Value A n a l y s i s

The d i s c o u n t i n g r a t e i for p r e s e n t value c a l c u l a t i o n s i s t h e weighted c o s t o f

c a p i t a l and i s e q u a l t o t h e sum o f t h e r e t u r n on d e b t and t h e r e t u r n on
equity.

The E f f e c t o f I n f l a t i o n on t h e D i s c o u n t Rate

C o n t i n u i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f e s c a l a t i o n and i n f l a t i o n , t h e i n f l a t i o n r a t e has
a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p on t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e I. I f ei i s the i n f l a t i o n rate
and c i s t h e w e i g h t e d c o s t o f c a p i t a l i n t h e absence o f i n f l a t i o n , t h e n :

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t h i g h r a t e s o f i n f l a t i o n may change t h e v a l u e o f t h e
constant d o l l a r discount r a t e , c, s i n c e t h i s v a l u e i s based on a c e r t a i n l e v e l
of i n v e s t m e n t r i s k and h i g h i n f l a t i o n r a t e s may change t h e l e v e l o f r i s k .
However, f o r most economic a n a l y s e s i t may be assumed t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n t h e
i n f l a t i o n r a t e ei causes a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e i,
and t h e v a l u e o f c remains c o n s t a n t .

A p r e s e n t v a l u e a n a l y s i s may be p e r f o r m e d u s i n g c u r r e n t d o l l a r s i n w h i c h
i n v e s t m e n t s , b e f o r e t h e y a r e c a p i t a l i z e d , and expenses i n f l a t e a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e i n f l a t i o n r a t e ei. The c a r r y i n g charges do n o t i n f l a t e because t h e s e
charges a r e f i x e d once t h e i n v e s t m e n t i s c a p i t a l i z e d . A current d o l l a r
a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e s t h e use o f a d i s c o u n t r a t e e q u a l t o t h e c o s t o f money a t t h e
prevailing rate o f inflation.

On t h e o t h e r hand, i f c o s t s a r e k e p t i n c o n s t a n t d o l l a r s r a t h e r t h a n a l l o w e d
t o i n f l a t e , t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e m u s t be t h e w e i g h t e d c o s t o f c a p i t a ? i n t h e
absence o f i n f ?a t i on.
Occurrence of Payments

For convenience i n making economic s t u d i e s , i t may be assumed t h a t a l l

investments w i l l be made a t t h e beginning (January 1) of a y e a r based on c o s t
e s t i m a t e s referenced t o December 31 of t h e previous y e a r , and a l l c a r r y i n g
charges, and u n l e s s otherwise s t a t e d a l l expense item a r e made a t t h e end o f
the year.

Present Value of Revenue Requirements

The concepts of p r e s e n t value a r i t h m e t i c and revenue requirements t h a t have

been presented e a r l i e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e combined t o o b t a i n t h e p r e s e n t
value of revenue reauirements.

Book L i f e Analysis. The p r e s e n t value of c a r r y i n g charges V

i s t h e sum
m,n
of t h e p r e s e n t value of each of t h e annual c a r r y i n g charges over t h e book l i f e
of an investment:

where 2 i s t h e t a x recovery c l a s s and n i s t h e book l i f e . The p r e s e n t value

can be l e v e l i z e d by d i v i d i n g by t h e a n f a c t o r .
"m.n

Thus,

where P i s t h e l e v e l i z e d c a r r y i n g charges of a p l a n t item w i t h an m year

m,n
t a x recovery c l a s s and n y e a r book l i f e .

A book l i f e a n a l y s i s i s t h e p r e s e n t value of revenue requirements o r t h e

l e v e l i z e d revenue requirement over t h e book l i f e of an a l t e r n a t i v e ( c a r r y i n g
charges p l u s expenses).
F o r a t y p i c a l A l t e r n a t i v e A,

P r e s e n t V a l u e Revenue Requirement (PVRRA)

+ X(Expenses) (Ln)(an) (7-22)
PVRRA = ( I n v e s t m e n t ) ( V )
m,n

L e v e l i z e d Revenue Requirement ( LRRA)

LRRA = ( I n v e s t m e n t ) P + Z(Expenses)(Ln)
m, n

where:
Investment = Total c a p i t a l requirement
Expenses = A l l appropriate expenditures

"m,n
and P = A p p r o p r i a t e f a c t o r s f o r a p l a n t i t e m w i t h an
m, n
m y e a r t a x r e c o v e r y c l a s s and n y e a r book l i f e
-
= L e v e l i z i n g f a c t o r based on an a p p r o p r i a t e r e a l
Ln
escalation r a t e e and i n f l a t i o n r a t e ei f o r
r'
each expense
a = Present worth f a c t o r f o r a u n i f o r m s e r i e s .
n

An example o f t h i s t y p e a n a l y s i s f o r a t y p i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e i s p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 7-3 . Economic i n p u t d a t a f o r use i n t h e example is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e
7-4.

Year-by-Year Analysis. The mechanics o f t h e book l i f e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e

s e c t i o n above i s such t h a t a c t u a l revenue r e q u i r e m e n t s i n any p a r t i c u l a r y e a r
c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n revenue r e q u i r e m e n t s on a
year-by-year b a s i s t h a t m i g h t weigh h e a v i l y on t h e d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s a r e
n o t addressed. The y e a r - b y - y e a r a n a l y s i s , i n w h i c h a c t u a l revenue s t r e a m s a r e
compared on an annual b a s i s overcomes t h i s problem.

Generally, i t i s b e s t t o arrange a year-by-year a n a l y s i s i n c lumnar f o r m f o r

each a l t e r n a t i v e .

An example o f t h i s t y p e a n a l y s i s f o r a t y p i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e i s p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 7-5. Economic i n p u t d a t a f o r use i n t h e example i s i n c uded.
 Table 7-3

Economic Evaluation Data

Capital Costs (Per One Dollar of Direct Construction Cost)

Direct Material and Equipment
Direct Construction and Erection
Total Direct Construction Cost
Indirect Costs (Assumes 26% of Item 1.2)
Administrative Costs (Assumes 7% of Item 1.3)
Capital Cost at Contract Award Date Per One Dollar of
Direct Construction Cost
Escalation (Assumes 38 mos. from Contract Award to Construc-
tion Midpoint (C.M.) 8 8%): (({1.08)~'~~)~~-1)(1.174)=
Subtotal
Interest During Construction (Assumes 16 mos. from
C.M. to Commercial Operation Date (C.O.D.)
@18%)(((1.18)~/~~)~~-l)(l. 498) =
Subtotal
Contingency
Total Capital Cost at Commercial Operation Date Per
One Dollar of Direct Construction Cost at Contract Award
Date
Capital Costs at Commercial Operation Date
D i r e c t Material and Equipment 8 Contract Award
Date (C.A.D.)
Direct Construction and Erection @ C.A.D.
Subtotal
Total Capital Cost @ C.O.D. Multiplier (1.12)
Capital Cost
Capacity Charge (Assumes 2200 kW P $1000/kW)
Replacement Power Cost During Installation Outage
(Assumes Concurrent with Boiler Repairs; i.e.,
Not Chargeable)
Total Capital Cost at Commercial Operation Date
 T a b l e 7-3 ( C o n t i n u e d )

F i x e d Charge R a t e s
I n t e r e s t (Assumes 50% Debt 8 14%) 0.07000
A f t e r Tax R e t u r n on E q u i t y (Assume 50% E q u i t y
@ 14%) 0.07000
A m o r t i z a t i o n (Assumes 10 Year Economic L i f e )
( . S O ) ( .14)/(((1. 14)'~)-1) = 0.02586
D e p r e c i a t i o n o f E q u i t y (Assumes 1 0 Year Remaining Economic L i f e )
(.50)(.14)/(((1.14)10)-1) =
F e d e r a l and S t a t e Income Taxes (Assumes 52% o f B e f o r e Tax
R e t u r n on E q u i t y ) : (0.14)(0.50)(0.52)/(1.0-0.52) =
P r o p e r t y Taxes (Assumes 1.5%)
I n s u r a n c e (Assumes 1.5%)
C a p i t a l A c q u i s i t i o n s (Assume 0.2%)
F i x e d Charge Rate
Annual F i x e d Charges
(57262OOO)(O. 29955)
Annual O p e r a t i n g C o s t s a t Commercial O p e r a t i n g D a t e
O p e r a t i n g L a b o r (Assumes 1 O p e r a t o r / S h i f t , 5 Shifts,
$30,00O/yr. including fringes, supervision, etc.)
Maintenance L a b o r (Assumes 10,000 h o u r s d i r e c t
l a b o r p e r y e a r , $15/hr i n c l u d i n g f r i n g e s , overheads,
supervision, etc.)
Maintenance M a t e r i a l (Assumes 82% o f d i r e c t
maintenance l a b o r )
Power Consumption (Assumes 75% a v a i l a b i l i t y , 90%
6
l o a d f a c t o r , 1 0 , 0 0 0 B W k W h r , $2.00/10 B t u T o t a l )
a) P r e c i p i t a t o r Consumption (Assumes 90% o p e r a t i o n a l ,
1800 kW w i t h a l l o p e r a t i o n a l )
b ) Fan Consumption (Assumes 2 . 5 i n . WC d r o p on
6
1 . 8 ~ 1 0ACFM 8 100% l o a d , 70% avg. l o a d , e f f i c i e n c i e s :
68% f a n , and 92% m o t o r )
c ) A u x i l i a r i e s (Assumes 400 kW)
6
Heat Loss (Assumes 10°F d r o p , 5 . 2 0 0 x 10 l b / h r
6
f l u e gas, S2/10 B t u t o t a l , s p e c i f i c h e a t o f
0.24 B t u / l b )
T o t a l Annual O p e r a t i n g Cost a t C.O.D.
T o t a l Annual Owning and O p e r a t i n g C o s t a t C.O.D.
3,633,000 + 17,153,000 = 20,786,000
 Table 7-4
Present V a l u e A n a l y s i s

FIXED CAPITAL CHARGES ($1000)

ESCALATING ANNUAL COSTS ($1000)

Annual F i x e d Charges
Base F i x e d Charges
17,153

P r e s e n t Value F a c t o r (Annual S e r i e s ) = an
= (((1.0 + D i s c o u n t R a t e ) Year) - l.O)/(Di s c o u n t Rate(l.O + Discount
lIatelYear)
= (((1.0 + 0.14) lo) - 1.0)/(0.14 (1.0 + 0.14) lo) = 5.2161

P r e s e n t Value o f F i x e d Charges
17153 (5.2161) = 89,472

Annual O p e r a t i n g C o s t s
4.1 Base O p e r a t i n g C o s t s a t C.Q.
3633
4.2 E s c a l a t i o n Rate
0.08 o r 8%

E s c a l a t i n g P r e s e n t V a l u e F a c t o r (Annual S e r i e s ) = (L,)(an)

1.0 + E s c a l a t i o n R a t e
1.0 + D i s c o u n t Rate
+ E s c a l a t i o n Rate
+ D i s c o u n t Rate 1 "'1
0 - [1.0 + E s c a l a t i o n Rate
1.0 + D i s c o u n t R a t e
 Table 7-4 ( C o n t i n u e d )

PRESENT VALUE ANALYSIS

FIXED CAPITAL CHARGES ($1000)
ESCALATING ANNUAL COSTS ($1000)

6.0 P r e s e n t Worth o f Annual O p e r a t i n g C o s t s

3633 (7.5176) = 25,998

7.0 P r e s e n t V a l u e Revenue Requirement (PVRR)

89,472 + 25,998 + 115,470
 T a b l e 7-5

Commulat7ve Annual Cash F l o w A n a l y s i s

FIXED ANNUAL CAPITAL CHARGES ($1000)

ESCALATING ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS ($1000)

Years Annual Annual Total Present Present Present Total

from Capital Operate. Annual Value Value o f Value o f Present
COD Chgs.(l) Cst.(2,7) Costs F a c t o r (3) ACC (4) AOC (5) Value

0 17,153 3,633 20,786 0 0

1 17,153 3,924 21,077 0.8772 18,488
2 17,153 4,238 21,391 0.7695 16,460
3 17,153 4,577 21,730 0.6749 14,667
4 17,153 4,943 22,096 0.5921 13,082
5 17,153 5,338 22,491 0.5194 11,681
6 17,153 5,765 22,918 0.4556 10,441
7 17,153 6,226 23,379 0.3996 9,343
8 17,153 6,724 23,877 0.3506 8,370
9 17,153 7,262 24,415 0.3075 7,508
10 17,153 7,843 24.996 0.2697 6,742
Cumulative T o t a l s 5.2161 103,583

Notes:

1) Annual F i x e d Charges: Base: 17,153,000@ C . O . D .

2) Annual O p e r a t i n g C o s t s : Base: 3,633,0008 C . O . D . E s c a l a t i o n : 8% ( C o n s t a n t )

3) P r e s e n t Value Factor ( S i n g l e Year a t D i s c o u n t Rate o f 14%):

= l.O/((l.U + D i s c o u n t Rate)
Year)

4) P r e s e n t V a l u e o f Annual F i x e d Charges
= PVF Year X AFC

5) P r e s e n t V a l u e o f Annual O p e r a t i n g Cost
= PVF Year X AOC
 Table 7-5 (Continued)

6) T o t a l s may n o t agree due t o roundoff

7) Usually, d i f f e r e n t e s c a l a t i o n f a c t o r s a r e used f o r f u e l , l a b o r ,
m a t e r i a l s , e t c . and a s e p a r a t e column i s prepared f o r each c o s t . For
s i m p l i c i t y , one column was used f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n here.
Capita? Charges

General. For a major construction project, capital costs may be readily

subdivided as follows:
Direct Material and Equipment Cost, Including:
- Fill, piling and soil stabilization
- Concrete, rebar and forms
- Structure, siding, roofing and insulation
- Mechanical equipment auxiliaries, ancillaries, pumps, piping,
valves, fittings, flanges, supports and hangers
- Motors, transformers, control centers, switchgear, lighting,
distribution panels, power cable, control wiring, controls,
computers, instrumentation, etc.
Direct Construction Cost, Including:
- Force account labor and supervision
- Subcontractors
Indirect Construction Costs, Including:
- Cranes, dozers, pans, tools, etc.
- Temporary buildings
- Parking
Administrative Costs, Including:
- Envi ronmental/Regulatory
- Engineering, design, and procurement
- Construction management
- Start-LIP
 Capital Charges f o r Lost C a p a b i l i t y :

- Capacity charge f o r a u x i l i a r y power

- Charges f o r replacement power during outage ( u s u a l l y a p p l i e s t o

retrofits).

These individual c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e s u b j e c t t o c e r t a i n economic e f f e c t s ,

including:
Real e s c a l a t i o n

Inflation

I n t e r e s t during c o n s t r u c t i o n

The c a p i t a l c o s t s a s a d j u s t e d t o r e f l e c t economic e f f e c t s a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e
following "fixed charges" a s d i s c u s s e d in t h e s e c t i o n on revenue requirements:
Return on debt

Return on e q u i t y

Book d e p r e c i a t i o n

Income and property t a x e s

Insurance.

In developing t h e c a p i t a l charges a s s o c i a t e d with each p r o p o s a l , each o f t h e

above-listed parameters must be c o n s i d e r e d c a r e f u l l y . Pertinent
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e discussed below.

D i r e c t Material and Equipment. The c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e equipment and t h e

proposed scope of s e r v i c e s can both l e a d t o adjustments t o t h e c a p i t a ? c o s t s
i n t h e proposal.

I t should be made c l e a r t o a l l t h e p r o s p e c t i v e bidders t h a t

Any a d d i t i o n a l items which expand with t h e scope beyond t h a t
s p e c i f i e d in t h e r e q u e s t f o r proposal must be p r i c e d s e p a r a t e l y from
t h e "base" p r i c e .

All proposals must o f f e r , a s a minimum, t o f u r n i s h t h e e n t i r e scope

e x a c t l y a s s p e c i f i e d in t h e r e q u e s t f o r p r o p o s a l .

All proposals must c l e a r l y s p e c i f y t h e scope of s e r v i c e s which w i l l

be provided f o r t h e "base" p r i c e .
During the proposal evaluation, all proposals must be carefully reviewed to
assure that all of the above-listed requirements are met. If a noncomplying
proposal is offered, or a proposal takes exception to the specifications, it
may be resolved as follows:
Reject the noncomplying proposal.
Reject all proposals and request a rebid.
Request the bidder to offer a supplemental proposal to adjust the
scope to comply with the request for proposal. On sealed-bid
proposals, it may not be possible to do this if the bids have
already been opened publicly.
Estimate the cost adjustment associated with correcting the proposal
scope to that specified in the request for proposal.

When all the proposals to be evaluated are compliant, the proposed

configurations may be comparatively evaluated.

Both the proposal evaluation and the clear assignment of performance

responsibility can be made easier by specifying a "full servicet' scope in the
request for proposal, i . e . , one which covers both the major equipment item
and its associated foundations, electrical, auxiliaries, ancillary equipment,
-
etc. The decision to take this approach should be based on consideration of
both the impact on performance warranty enforcement and the impact on total
capital cost. If the decision is made to go "full service", it will be
helpful to clearly specify the configuration and location of all interfaces
between the major equipment item and all connecting equipment and supports.
If this approach is taken, the economic evaluation of configuration
differences is minimized, if not avoided. If not, the following areas should
all be investigated in greater detail:
Fill, Soil Stabilization, Piling, Concrete, Rebar and Forms
- If the fill, soil stabilization, piling and concrete
foundations are not in the bidder's scope of services, these
areas must be explored unless it i s clear that all the proposed
configurations are so similar that there would be no measurable
differences.
- Foundation loading due to equipment weight, thermal expansion,
and also due to overturning moments from wind loads should be
considered.
 S t r u c t u r e , S i d i n g , R o o f i n g , and I n s u l a t i o n

- I f t h e s e a r e a s a r e n o t e n t i r e l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e scope, t h e y
m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d , u n l e s s i t i s c l e a r t h a t a l l t h e p r o p o s e d
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e so s i m i l a r t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no m e a s u r a b l e
differences.

- U n i t p r i c e s p e r i n s t a l l e d square f o o t may be used i n most a r e a s

except s t r u c t u r a l steel.

- i f the supporting structural steel i s n o t included i n the major

equipment b i d d e r ' s p r o p o s a l , i t s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y e s t i m a t e d .
- S i d i n g and i n s u l a t i o n c o s t s may be c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r f o r
t h o s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s w h i c h a r e complex i n d e s i g n .

* M e c h a n i c a l Equipment, A u x i l i a r i e s , A n c i l l a r i e s , Etc.

- Any a s s o c i a t e d equipment n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r o p o s e d scope

s h o u l d be l i s t e d and p r i c e d u n l e s s i t i s c l e a r t h a t a l l t h e
p r o p o s e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e so s i m i l a r t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no
measurable d i f f e r e n c e s .

- Equipment i n t e r f a c e s may s e v e r e l y i m p a c t c o s t s , e.g., t h e

number o f p r e c i p i t a t o r hoppers can i m p a c t f l y ash h a n d l i n g
system c o s t s . I n t e r f a c e s w h i c h do n o t i n t e r f a c e can be c o s t l y ,
e . g . , c o n n e c t i n g d u c t w o r k and expansion j o i n t s between m a j o r
components.

E l e c t r i c a l Equipment, E t c

- I f t h e t r a n s f o r m e r s , s w i t c h g e a r , c o n t r o l c e n t e r s , power c a b l e ,
motors, d i s t r i b u t i o n panels, l i g h t i n g , c o n t r o l w i r i n g , e t c . a r e
n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e proposed scope, t h e y must be l i s t e d and
p r i c e d , u n l e s s a l l t h e proposed c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e so s i m i l a r
t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no measurable d i f f e r e n c e s .

- U n i t p r i c e s may be used f o r power c a b l e , f o r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n

and c o n t r o l w i r i n g m a t e r i a l s .

- I f the control instrumentation wiring i s multiplexed, a

c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n c o s t may be a n t i c i p a t e d . C o n v e r s e l y ,
h a r d - w i r i n g w o u l d be more c o s t l y .

Miscellaneous

I f t h e r e i s g r e a t e r u n c e r t a i n t y i n any o f t h e m a t e r i a l o r equipment c o s t
a d j u s t m e n t s , i t s c o n t i n g e n c y s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y .

D i r e c t C o n s t r u c t i o n and E r e c t i o n Cost. Again, b o t h t h e p r o p o s a l e v a l u a t i o n

and t h e c l e a r a s s i g n m e n t o f p e r f o r m a n c e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y can be made e a s i e r b y
s p e c i f y i n g a " f u l l s e r v i c e 1 ' scope i n t h e r e q u e s t f o r p r o p o s a l , i . e . , one w h i c h
c o v e r s b o t h t h e m a j o r e q u i p m e n t i t e m and a s s o c i a t e d equipment, and the
e r e c t i o n o f t h e equipment and t h e a s s o c i a t e d s u p p o r t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n . This
d e c i s i o n s h o u l d be based, a s d i s c u s s e d above, on a c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
alternatives. I f t h e d e c i s i o n i s made t o go " f u l l s e r v i c e " o r t o make t h e
bidder responsible f o r p a r t o f the construction o r erection, i t w i l l be
h e l p f u l t o d e v e l o p a precedence d i a g r a m , m a j o r t a s k d u r a t i o n s a n d a c r i t i c a l
e v e n t s c h e d u l e f o r t h o s e a r e a s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c h e d u l e w h i c h may be
i n v o l v e d i n t h e e r e c t i o n o f t h e major equipment i t e m and t h e s u p p o r t i n g
construction. T h i s s c h e d u l e s h o u l d be p a r t o f t h e f i n a l n e g o t i a t e d c o n t r a c t
w i t h the bidder. I f t h e " f u l l s e r v i c e " app r o a c h i s t a k e n , t h e economic
e v a l u a t i o n o f d i r e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n and e r e c t i o n c o s t d i f f e r e n c e s i s m i n i m i z e d ,
i f n o t avoided. I f n o t , a l l t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n
greater detail :
* D i r e c t M a t e r i a l a n d Equipment

- A l l of t h e a r e a s e x p l o r e d i n t h e above s e c t i o n on d i r e c t
m a t e r i a l and equipment s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r p o t e n t i a l
i m p a c t on d i r e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e r e c t i o n c o s t .

Module S i z e

- M a j o r equipment i t e m s a r e n o r m a l l y preassembled i n modules t o

maximize shop f a b r i c a t i o n and m i n i m i z e f i e l d c o n s t r u c t i o n and
t h e r e b y c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t . The r e q u e s t f o r p r o p o s a l s h o u l d
s p e c i f y t h a t t h e modules be as l a r g e a s p r a c t i c a l , w i t h i n t h e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e l a r g e s t c r a n e s and l i f t i n g g e a r a t t h e s i t e ,
and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e a v a i l a b l e means o f t r a n s p o r t . The
proposed module s i z e s s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t
i m p a c t , u n l e s s a l l t h e p r o p o s e d module s i z e s a r e so s i m i l a r
t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no measurable d i f f e r e n c e s .

- A l t h o u g h t h e l a r g e r modules a r e g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d , t h e
reduced f i e l d c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e s h o u l d be b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t any
a d d i t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s due t o o v e r s i z e d l o a d s , and
a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s f o r e x t r a l a r g e cranes and l i f t i n g gear.

Subcontractors

- Ift h e b i d d e r p l a n s t o use a s u b c o n t r a c t o r o r s u b c o n t r a c t o r s t o
e r e c t t h e m a j o r equipment i t e m o r any s u p p o r t i n g equipment, t h e
b i d d e r should i d e n t i f y these subcontractors.

- S u b c o n t r a c t o r s s h o u l d be s u b j e c t t o t h e same s c r u t i n y a s t h e
prime b i d d e r .

I f t h e r e i s g r e a t e r u n c e r t a i n t y i n any o f t h e d i r e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n o r e r e c t i o n
c o s t a d j u s t m e n t s , i t s c o n t i n g e n c y s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y .
Indirect Construction Costs. Indirect construction costs may be potentially
impacted in a number of ways. Two common areas are discussed below:
Special Handling Equipment
- As discussed above, special hand1 ing equipment may be required
if the major equipment item is furnished in oversized modules.
This must be balanced against savings which may be realized
from reduced direct construction cost.
Special Storage Requirements
- Certain instrumentation, controls, computers, etc., may require
protection from the elements and therefore may not be suitable
for outside laydown. Warehousing costs for this equipment may
be considerable.
- This and other equipment (particularly computers and other
electronics) may require special environmental controls on
humidity and airborne particulate.

If there is greater uncertainty in any of the indirect costs, its contingency

should be adjusted appropriately.

Administrative Costs. It is usual that Administrative costs are relatively

constant, regardless of the bidder selected, if a71 bidders have essentially
the same scope. If not, an allowance for additional administrative costs
should be comouted.

Capacity Charges for Lost Capability. The capacity charges for lost
capability fall into two categories: the incremental capita7 cost of
additional new installed capacity as needed to replace installed capacity lost
to service auxiliary power requirements, and the cost of replacement power
needed to meet generation requirements during the outage required to implement
the major equipment item or during an incremental delay in commercial
operation due to a schedule extension required to implement the major
equipment item. These are discussed below:

Incremental Charge for Lost Capability

- The incremental cost per kilowatt of lost capacity may be
defined as the slope of a curve expressing the installed
capital cost of similar power plants of varying sizes and the
same commercial operating date versus the net capacity in
kilowatts of these similar power plants operating at maximum
continuous rating. It is not the quotient of the estimated
 c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e p l a n t i n question d i v i d e d by i t s i n s t a l l e d
c a p a c i t y . F o r example, a l a r g e two u n i t c o a l - f i r e d power p l a n t
w i t h a commercial o p e r a t i n g d a t e i n 1986 w o u l d p r o b a b l y c o s t
a b o u t $ 1 8 0 D / k i l o w a t t , b o t t o m l i n e . The i n c r e m e n t a l c o s t o f one
a d d i t i o n a l k i l o w a t t however would be a b o u t $ 1 1 0 0 / k i l o w a t t .

- I n c r e m e n t a l a u x i l i a r y power r e q u i r e m e n t s f a l l i n t o t w o
c a t e g o r i e s : c o n s t a n t loads which a r e i n s e n s i t i v e t o p l a n t
o u t p u t , and p r o c e s s - r e l a t e d l o a d s w h i c h s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d a t
t h e u n i t maximum c o n t i n u o u s r a t i n g when d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o s t o f
l o s t capacity.
- When e v a l u a t i n g a u x i l i a r y horsepower f o r t h e c o s t o f l o s t
c a p a c i t y , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
horsepower r e q u i r e d , t h e m e c h a n i c a l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e d r i v e n
equipment, t h e m e c h a n i c a l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e r e d u c t i o n g e a r
and/or f l u i d c o u p l i n g , t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e l e c t r i c m o t o r ,
t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e v a r i a b l e speed e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r o l system,
and l o s s e s i n t h e power c a b l e , t r a n s f o r m e r s , and s w i t c h g e a r .

C o s t o f Replacement Power
- When e v a l u a t i n g t h e c o s t o f r e p l a c e m e n t power a s i t a p p l i e s t o
a p a r t i c u l a r m a j o r equipment i t e m p r o p o s a l , t h e a c t u a l
r e p l a c e m e n t power r e q u i r e m e n t must be p r o j e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f
t h e a n t i c i p a t e d l o a d f a c t o r o f t h e a f f e c t e d u n i t and t h e
a n t i c i p a t e d outage d u r a t i o n chargeabfe t o t h e s p e c i f i c major
equipment i t e m . I f t h e m a j o r equipment i t e m i s n o t on t h e
c r i t i c a l path, minor v a r i a t i o n s i n d u r a t i o n t h a t are a i l o c a b l e
t o t h e s p e c i f i c m a j o r equipment i t e m w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e
f l o a t i n t h e p r o j e c t s c h e d u i e w o u l d have l i t t l e measureable
impact. V a r i a t i o n s exceeding these l i m i t s would e i t h e r extend
t h e o u t a g e d u r a t i o n o r mandate a p r o j e c t schedule a c c e l e r a t i o n
w i t h a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s due t o premium p a y , e t c .

The p r o d u c t o f t h e l o a d f a c t o r , t h e a c t u a l c h a r g e a b l e i n c r e a s e
i n o u t a g e d u r a t i o n , and t h e n e t u n i t o u t p u t a t 100 p e r c e n t
r a t e d l o a d w o u l d a p p r o x i m a t e t h e power w h i c h must be r e p l a c e d ,
i f t h e d u r a t i o n i s extended. i n t e r e s t d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r
t h e e n t i r e p r o j e c t would a l s o increase.

The u n i t c o s t s o f t h e r e p l a c e m e n t power may be based on two

sources, purchase f r o m o t h e r u t i l i t i e s o r i n c r e a s e d o u t p u t f r o m
o t h e r u n i t s on t h e system. A l t h o u g h t h e e s t i m a t e d c o s t may b e
d e t e r m i n e d q u i t e q u i c k l y u s i n g l o a d f o r e c a s t i n g and c o s t i n g
programs, i f t h e s e a r e n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , a good
a p p r o x i m a t i o n may be d e v e l o p e d by assuming t h a t r e p l a c e m e n t
power a t l e v e l s above p i a n t r a t e d c a p a c i t y ( e . g . , VWOP) must be
o b t a i n e d by p u r c h a s e f r o m n e i g h b o r i n g u t i l i t i e s , and t h a t power
a t l e v e l s a t p l a n t r a t e d c a p a c i t y and b e l o w may be o b t a i n e d b y
" t u r n i n g up t h e w i c k " on t h e o t h e r u n i t s owned by t h e u t i l i t y .

- To summarize, p o t e n t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n t h e p r o j e c t schedule
d u r a t i o n t h a t a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a g i v e n m a j o r equipment
p r o p o s a l may be r e s o l v e d u s i n g one o r more o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :
 "Reducing t h e f l o a t
* A c c e l e r a t i n g t h e schedule w i t h (overtime, e t c . )
* S l i p p i n g t h e completion date

I f t h e completion date i s slipped, t h e c o s t impact would

include the f o l lowing:

*Purchased r e p l a c e m e n t power
*Replacement power f r o m o t h e r u n i t s
*Increased i n t e r e s t d u r i n g construction.

I n t e r e s t d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i s discussed below.

Economic E f f e c t s , I n c l u d i n g A p p a r e n t E s c a l a t i o n , and I n t e r e s t D u r i n g
Construction. These e f f e c t s may be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s :
Economic e f f e c t s d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a j o r equipment
proposal :

- A p p a r e n t e s c a l a t i o n o f c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each s c h e d u l e d
payment

- I n t e r e s t d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each s c h e d u l e d
payment.

Economic e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l c a p i t a l c o s t s o f
a f f e c t e d a u x i l i a r y and a n c i l l a r y equipment, and a s s o c i a t e d
c o n s t r u c t i o n and e r e c t i o n , e t c . :

- Apparent e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
midpoint

- I n t e r e s t during construction o f the additional costs from

c o n s t r u c t i o n m i d p o i n t t o t h e commercial o p e r a t i o n d a t e .

The d e t a i l s o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s e economic e f f e c t s a r e c o v e r e d b e l o w

E v a l u a t i o n o f Terms o f Payment and O t h e r C a p i t a l C o s t s o f M a j o r Equipment

Proposals. While e s c a l a t i o n and i n t e r e s t d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e o f t e n
evaluated i n terms o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m i d p o i n t , t h e c o s t s d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h each m a j o r equipment p r o p o s a l s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d more r i g o r o u s l y based
on t h e a c t u a l t e r m s o f payment proposed.

U s u a l l y t h e proposed t e r m s o f payment w i l l i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g i m p o r t a n t
data:
 A "firm' price

A date a t which t h e " f i r m " p r i c e begins t o escalate*

An e s c a l a t i o n t a b l e , s p e c i f y i n g :

- The Bureau o f L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s o r s i m i l a r e s c a l a t i o n i n d i c e s t o
be a p p l i e d t o each c o s t c a t e g o r y
- The f r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r m p r i c e ( o r a c t u a l d o l l a r amount) t o b e
a p p l i e d t o each c o s t c a t e g o r y

- The e s c a l a t i o n "cap" (maximum e s c a l a t i o n )

- I f e s c a l a t i o n will be p a i d p e r i o d i c a l l y o r w i t h t h e r e t a i n a g e
A payment schedule, s p e c i f y i n g :

- Alistofmajormilestoneswhichrnustbemetbeforeeach
payment is made*

- The d a t e f o r each m i l e s t o n e *
- The f r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r m p r i c e ( o r a c t u a l u n e s c a l a t e d d o l l a r
amount) t o be b i l l e d on each c o s t c a t e g o r y on each m i l e s t o n e
date

- The amount o f r e t a i n a g e *

- The b i l l i n g i n t e r v a l between t h e m i l e s t o n e d a t e and t h e

delinquent date

- The i n t e r e s t c h a r g e d on d e l i n q u e n t payments.

( I t e m s marked " may be s p e c i f i e d by t h e U t i l i t y . )

TO a c c u r a t e l y e v a l u a t e t h e t e r m s o f payment, t h e above l i s t e d d a t a must be

supplemented w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g U t i l i t y d a t a :
P r o j e c t e d a p p a r e n t e s c a l a t i o n r a t e s f o r each o f t h e i n d i c e s t o be
a p p l i e d t o each c o s t c a t e g o r y

Interest during construction

- P r o j e c t schedule f o r a l l work p o t e n t i a l l y i m p a c t i n g t h e
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e m a j o r equipment i t e m , i n c l u d i n g * " :

- Precedence d i a g r a m

- Durations.

(*"The s c h e d u l e must be r e v i e w e d t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e m i l e s t o n e s used i n t h e

payment schedule a r e "do-able," e.g., w i l l o t h e r p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s s u p p o r t
t h e implementation o f t h e major equipment item?)
An a b b r e v i a t e d example o f proposed t e r m s o f payment f o r a " f a b r i c a t e , d e l i v e r
and c h e c k - o u t " p r o p o s a l w i t h t h e t e r m s o f payment and t h e s u p p o r t i n g U t i l i t y
d a t a appears i n T a b l e 7-6 . The case shown assumes equipment e r e c t i o n b y
others.

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e terms o f payment i n T a b l e 7-6 i s t a b u l a t e d on T a b l e s 7-7

t h r o u g h -9. To s i m p l i f y t h e a n a l y s i s , t h e t e r m s i n c l u d e o n l y two c o s t
c a t e g o r i e s , " M a t e r i a l " and " L a b o r . " A c t u a l t e r m s may i n c l u d e many more
categories.

I n e v a l u a t i n g t e r m s o f payment, s p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n t o r e s o l v e t h e
following issues:
Since a p p l i c a b l e e s c a l a t i o n i n d i c e s a r e published a f t e r t h e f a c t ,
e s c a l a t i o n may n o t be a c c u r a t e l y c a l c u l a t e d a t t h e moment a p r o g r e s s
payment i s b i l l e d . To r e s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m , e s c a l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y
e s t i m a t e d and b i l l e d w i t h each p r o g r e s s payment, t h e n a d j u s t e d a f t e r
t h e i n d i c e s a r e p u b l i s h e d . E s c a l a t i o n may a l s o be b i l l e d a f t e r t h e
indices are published, o r b i l l e d w i t h the retainage a f t e r j o b
completion.

The method o f p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e d e f e r r e d b i l l i n g o f e s c a l a t i o n must

be c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . A l t h o u g h compound i n t e r e s t a t a s t i p u l a t e d r a t e
i s usually s p e c i f i e d , some c o n t r a c t s p r o v i d e f o r c o n t i n u o u s
escalation up t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e payment i s p a i d i n f u l l .

N e i t h e r e s c a l a t i o n n o r i n t e r e s t s h o u l d be p a i d i n p r o g r e s s payments
n o t made due t o f a i l u r e t o meet p r o g r e s s m i l e s t o n e s ( u n l e s s t h e
d e l a y i s n o t t h e f a u l t o f t h e equipment s u p p l i e r ) , n o r on r e t a i n a g e
h e l d due t o f a i l u r e t o meet performance.

M i l e s t o n e s f o r p r o g r e s s payments must be c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . "Engi-

n e e r i n g 15% Complete" i s u n c l e a r . " F o u n d a t i o n Loads and B o l t i n g
P l a n s Complete'' i s more c o n c i s e .

B i l l i n g a n d payment p r o c e d u r e s a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . For example, i f

t h e b i l l i s p r e s e n t e d 30 days a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e m i l e s t o n e , and p a i d
60 days a f t e r r e c e i p t o f t h e b i l l , a f u l l q u a r t e r o f i n t e r e s t i s
a p p a r e n t l y avoided b y t h e U t i l i t y . Conversely, i f t h e b i l l i s
p r e s e n t e d 30 days i n advance o f t h e a n t i c i p a t e d m i l e s t o n e , and p a i d
by e l e c t r o n i c f u n d s t r a n s f e r on t h e m i l e s t o n e d a t e ( g i v e n
 Table 7-6
Terms o f Payment Data
MILESTONES AND PAYMENTS TABLE

Elapsed Unescalated Unescal a t e d

Time From M a t e r i a l Cost L a b o r Cost
Line Firm Date Payment Payment Line
No. (Weeks ) Milestone Description (Fraction) (Fraction) No.
1 0 C o n t r a c t Award-Start Engineering - - 1
2 25 E n g i n e e r i n g 50% Complete - 0.025 2
3 50 E n g i n e e r i n g 100% Complete - 0.025 3
4 60 Release Fabrication-Purchase
Material 0.10 0.05 4
5 65 M a t e r i a l 50% Purchased 0.10 0.05 5
6 95 Equipment 50% F a b r i c a t e d and
Del i v e r e d 0.30 0.05 6
7 125 Equipment 50% E r e c t e d a n d
Checked O u t 0.10 0.05 7
8 155 M a t e r i a l 100% Purchased 0.10 0.05 8
9 185 Equipment 100% F a b r i c a t e d and
Del i v e r e d - 0.05 9
10 215 Equipment 100% E r e c t e d a n d
Checked O u t 0.025 0.05 10
11 220 S t a r t u p Complete (C.D.D.) 0.025 0.025 1I.
12 230 Performance T e s t S u c c e s s f u l l y -
- 0.025 12
Compi e t e d
TOTALS 0.55 0.45
 PROJECTED ESCALATION OF COST

Line Duration Labor E s c a l a t i o n Material Escalation

No.
- (Weeks) Rate ( F r a c t i o n ) Rate ( F r a c t i o n )

13 0-52 0.065 0.055

14 53-104 0.067 0.060
15 105-156 0.063 0.065
16 157-230 0.060 0.070

COST DATA

17 F i r m P r i c e on Purchase D a t e 14,922,400
18 A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Costs A l l o c a t i o n *1,044,570
19 T o t a l C o s t on F i r m D a t e 15,966,970
20 E s c a l a t i o n Cap (0.14) 14%
21 B i l l i n g Procedure
B i l l i n g Date: 30 d a y s p r i o r t o due d a t e
Payment Date: On o r b e f o r e due d a t e
Penalties: 18% p e r annurn compounded d a i l y i f l a t e
Escalation: E s t i m a t e d and b i l l e d w i t h each b i j l . Updated t o
r e f l e c t i n d i c e s when p u b l i s h e d .
*Assumes 7% p r o j e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o s t

PRECAUTION
These d a t a a r e f o r d e m o n s t r a t i o n purposes o n l y . A c t u a l payment schedules may
l i s t a s e r i e s o f 50 payments o r more.
 Table 7-7

Terms o f Payment A n a l y s i s
LABOR ESCALATION

Elapsed Labor Costs

Time From Unescal a t e d Project Escalation
Line. Firm Date Payment Rate Factor Escalation
(Fraction) (Fraction) (Multiplier) (C x e )
(c) (dl (el (f)
0.0
2 25 0.025
3 50 0.025
4 60 0.05
5 65 0.05
6 95 0.05
7 125 0.05
8 155 0.05
9 185 0.05
10 215 0.05
II 220 0.025
12 230 0.025
13 TOTAL 0.45

NOTES :

(a) Line Number

(b) Time from Contract Award t o Line Number
(c) Unescalated Payment from Table 7-6
(d) E s c a l a t i o n Rate from Table 7-6
(e) E s c a l a t i o n Factor:
EF = ( 1 . 0 + E s c a l a t i o n ~ a t e ) ~ - l
where N = (Number of weeks from c o n t r a c t award t o payment)/52 weeks per
year
(f) (c) x (el
 T a b l e 7-8

Terms o f Payment A n a l y s i s
MATEFlIAL ESCALATION

Elapsed M a t e r i a l Costs
Time From Unescal a t e d Project Escalation
Line F i r m Date Payment Rate Factor Escalation
No. (Weeks) (Fraction) (Fraction) (Multiplier) (C x e )
(a) (b) (c) (dl (e ) (f)
1 0 0.0
2 25 0.0
3 50 0.0
4 60 0.10
5 65 0.10
6 95 0.10
7 125 0.10
8 155 0.10
9 185 0.0
10 215 0.025
11 220 0.025
12 230 0.0
13 TOTAL 0.55

NOTES :

(a) L i n e Number
(b) Time from C o n t r a c t Award t o L i n e Number
(c) U n e s c a l a t e d Payment f r o m T a b l e 7-6
(d) E s c a l a t i o n R a t e f r o m T a b l e 7-6
(e) Escalation Factor:
N
EF + (1.0 + E s c a l a t i o n Rate) -1
where N = (Number o f weeks f r o m c o n t r a c t award t o payment)/52 weeks p e r
year
f (c) X (el
 Table 7-9
Terms o f Payment Analysis
INTEREST DURING CONSTRUCTION

TERMS OF PAYMENT:

Payments,
Elapsed Time Cumulative Total o f Escalation
Time From To Escalation Payments & IDC
Line F i r m Date C.O.D. (From Co7 F & Escalation t o C.O.D.
& (Weeks) (Weeks) ~ a b l e s7-7 & 7-8) (Fraction) (Fraction)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (el (f)
0 220
25 195 0.0008
50 170 0.0024
60 160 0.0127
65 155 0.0239
95 125 0.0408
125 95 0.0637
155 65 0.0930
185 35 0.1054
215 15 0.1271
220 0 0.14 ( l i m i t )
230 -10 0.14 ( l i m i t ) -

TOTALS : 0.1400
COSTS ($1000)" 2,235

"Ease = 15,966,970 f r o m T a b l e 7-6

NOTES :
-

(a) L i n e Number
(b) Time from C o n t r a c t A w a r d t o L i n e Number
(c) Time f r o m L i n e Number t o C.O.D.
(d) C u m u l a t i v e Sum o f E n t r i e s i n Column ( f ) f r o m T a b l e s 7-7 and 7-8
 T a b l e 7-9 ( C c n t i n u e d )

(e) T o t a l o f E n t r i e s i n Columns ( c ) and ( f ) f r o m T a b l e s 7-7 and 7-8

(f) E n t r y i n Column ( e ) , m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g I . D . C . Factor (IF):
IF = (1.0 + Discount ate)^ = 1.18 N
where N = (Number o f weeks f r o m payment t o C . O . D . ) / 5 2 weeks p e r
year
 confirmation that the mjlestone is met) then the Utility apparently
avoids no interest. It should be understood; however, that although
the interest is apparently paid by the Seller, i t is actually paid
by the Utility as part of the purchase price. If the SeTier's
short-term paper carries a higher discount rate than the Utility's
(usually the case) it may be in the best interest of the Utility to
agree to pay promptly. This may be evaluated by requesting
alternative payment plans.
Although a proposal with a "firm" price to completion appears to
avoid the payment of escalation and the evaluation of its economic
effects, the progress payment schedule, escalation factors, and
applicable indices must still be defined in the proposal so that
unavoidable delays (not the fault of the Supplier) can be handled
without renegotiation of the Contract.

Evaluation of Economic Effects on Associated Auxiliary and Ancillary Equipment

and Construction Costs. The economic effects associated with the escalation
of costs and the interest during construction can be accurately projected for
those costs covered in major equipment proposals based on the proposed
sequence of payments. This is covered i n the section above. There is usually
no readily available project cash flow tabulation applicable to the analysis
of these economic effects as they apply to cost of a major piece of
equipment's auxiliary and ancillary equipment and in the construction which is
usually associated with the implementation o f a major piece of equipment. F o r
these costs, a more simplistic approach may be taken to approximate the actual
cash flow, as follows:
Adjust the direct costs of material, equipment, construction and
erection for indirect and administrative costs.
Establish the date construction will begin at the site (usually
specified in the licensing and permitting documents) and the
Commercial Operation Date.
Assume that the economic centroid of the project cash flow occurs at
the mid-point (Construction Mid-Point) between the Initial
Construction Date and the Commercial Operation Date.
Escalate the adjusted additional costs of ancillary and auxiliary
equipment and construction from the date estimated to the
Construction Mid-Point using the projected, apparent escalation
rate.
Apply interest during construction to the additional costs from the
Construction Mid-Point to the Commercial Operation Date.
A simple example appears in Table 7-10
 T a b l e 7-10

A s s o c i a t e d A u x i l i a r y and A n c i l l a r y M a t e r i a l , Equipment,
C o n s t r u c t i o n and E r e c t i o n Costs, and Economic E f f e c t s

DIRECT COSTS:

Item Description o f Material & Construction

-No. Cost ($1000) Equipment & Erection

E r e c t i o n o f M a j o r Equipment I t e m - 6,193
I n s u l a t i o n and Lagging Not Covered
on P r o p o s a l 130 150
Foundations 1,200 1,400
B u i l d i n g s and E n c l o s u r e s 420 210
S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l N o t Covered i n
Proposal 238 218
E l e c t r i c a l Equipment and W i r i n g Not
Covered i n P r o p o s a l 508 1,040
A d d i t i o n a l Ductwork 190 115
S u b t o t a l : D i r e c t C o n s t r u c t i o n Cost 2,686 9,326

OTHER COSTS:

I tern Description Costs

No. o f Costs (%1000)

9 I n d i r e c t Costs (Assumes 26% o f I t e m 8 -

C o n s t r u c t i o n and E r e c t i o n )
10 A d m i n f s t r a t i v e C o s t s (Assumes 7% o f I t e m s 8 & 9)
11 C o n t i n g e n c y (Assumes 10% o f I t e m s 8, 9, & 10)
12 S u b t o t a l ( I t e m s 8 t h r o u g h 11)

Item Description Time From Time t o

No.
- o f Event Project Start C.O.D.

13 Start o f Project
14 M a j o r Equipment C o n t r a c t Award
 T a b l e 7-10 ( C o n t i n u e d )

Item Description Time From Time t o

No. o f Event Project Start C.O.D.

15 A s s o c i a t e d Equipment and
Construction Estimate
16 Start o f Construction
17 Construction Mid-Point
18 Commercial O p e r a t i o n

ECONOMIC EFFECTS:

Item Economic Cost

-
No. Effect $1000
19 E s c a l a t i o n (Assumes 9% E s c a l a t i o n f o r 38 rnos. f r o m
Construction Estimate t o Construction Mid-Point):
((1.09)~~/'~-1)(16993) 5,332
20 I n t e r e s t D u r i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n (Assumes 18% I.D.C.
f o r 16 rnos. f r o m C o n s t r u c t i o n M i d - P o i n t t o C.O.D.):
( (1. 18)16"2-1)(16993+5332) 5,513
21 E s c a l a t e d C o s t w i t h I . D . C . B C.O.D. 27,838
T o t a l ( I t e m s 12, 19, and 20)
Annual F i x e d Charge R a t e s . Once t h e t o t a l c a p i t a l c o s t a t Commercial
O p e r a t i o n Date i s e s t a b l i s h e d , i t m u s t be c o n v e r t e d i n t o an annual c o s t f o r
f u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n . The most c o n v e n i e n t means t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s i s t o
c o n v e r t a71 o f t h e c a p i t a l c h a r g e s i n t o an a n n u a l f i x e d c h a r g e r a t e . These
charges u s u a l l y c o n t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s :
D i s c o u n t r a t e on t h e l o n g - t e r m bonded d e b t

A m o r t i z a t i o n o f t h e l o n g - t e r m bonded d e b t o v e r t h e economic l i f e o f
t h e p l a n t . T h i s may be a c c o m p l i s h e d by means o f a s i n k i n g f u n d
s t r u c t u r e d t o r e t i r e t h e bonded d e b t a t m a t u r i t y .

A f t e r t a x r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t on t h e e q u i t y

S i n k i n g f u n d s f o r r e n e w a l and r e p l a c e m e n t

Payments i n l i e u o f t a x e s

Administrative costs

insurance

D e p r e c i a t i o n on t h e d e p r e c i a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e e q u i t y

S t a t e , f e d e r a l , and l o c a l income t a x e s

S t a t e and l o c a l p r o p e r t y t a x e s

Cost o f c a p i t a l a c q u i s i t i o n .

The e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e a b o v e - l i s t e d f a c t o r s r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a be
made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r :
= The c a p i t a l r e c o v e r y p e r i o d t o be used i n t h e a m o r t i z a t i o n o f t h e
d e b t , e t c . T h i s p e r i o d may be l e s s t h a n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l i f e o f t h e
equipment e v a l u a t e d ; p a r t i c u l a r l y if a r e t r o f i t t o an o l d e r p l a n t i s
involved.

= Administrative costs

The d i s c o u n t r a t e on t h e l o n g - t e r m d e b t

A n t i c i p a t e d s a l v a g e a1 l o w a n c e

- Ratio o f total interest during construction t o t o t a l capital cost a t

commercial o p e r a t i o n d a t e

F e d e r a l and s t a t e t a x p r o v i s i o n s
 Incentive tax credit and portion of investment to which it applies

State and local property tax rates

Insurance rates.

This detailed economic data can then be used to generate a fixed charge rate
that is appropriate.

The annual fixed chargerate must be determined for each project based on data
procedures obtained from the accounting department o f the utility.

Annual Operating Costs

General. Annual costs of operation may be readily subdivided into the

following categories:
Auxiliary Powercost
- Power consumption
*Precipitator transformer rectifier and sets
*Precipitator auxiliaries
"Induced draft fans
- Power cost
*Wholesale system busbar cost
"Energy cost based on unit heat rate and fuel cost.
Replacement Power Cost
- Plant economics
*Rated capacity
*toad factor
 - Equipment a v a i l a b i l i t y
- N e t power c o s t

* U n i t c o s t o f r e p l a c e m e n t power

"Energy c o s t b a s e d on u n i t h e a t r a t e and f u e l c o s t .

Heat Losses

- Heat l o s s e s

*Temperature d r o p

* F l u e Gas F l o w

*Infiltration

- Energy c o s t based on b o i l e r e f f i c i e n c y and f u e l c o s t .

O p e r a t i n g Labor C o s t

- S t a f f requirements

- U n i t cost, including f r i n g e s , benefits, supervision, etc.

M a i n t e n a n c e Labor

- S t a f f requirements

- U n i t cost.

Maintenance M a t e r i a l s a n d Spares.

A u x i l i a r y Power C o s t s . A c c u r a t e p r o j e c t i o n s o f a u x i l i a r y power c o s t s may b e

d e v e l o p e d based on t a b u l a t i o n s o f t o t a l u n i t h e a t r a t e and o f p l a n t a u x i l i a r y
l o a d s o v e r a r a n g e o f s i x n e t p l a n t l o a d s ; e.g., 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%, VWO
( v a l v e s w i d e open), and VWOP ( v a l v e s w i d e open o v e r p r e s s u r e ) .

Power Consumption. The m a j o r consumers o f e l e c t r i c power a r e l i s t e d as

follows:
Electrostatic Precipitators

E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r power may be p r o j e c t e d based on t h e

f o l l o w i n g parameters:
 - Constant power to supporting equipment
- Power proportional to flue gas volumetric flow
- Power proportional to flue gas temperature
- Power proportional to inlet ash loading
- Power proportional to fuel sulphu; content
- Power losses from busbar to precipitator

These may be analyzed based on the anticipated performance fuel to determine

the power consumption of the electrostatic precipitator and its supporting
equipment over the specified load range. These correlations must be
guaranteed by the manufacturer, and form part of its proposal. Precipitator
power must be determined at each of the six plant loads listed above.

Induced Draft Fans

Induced draft fan power is profoundly affected by electrostatic
precipitator pressure drop, air infiltration, and heat loss. I . D .
fan power must be determined over the specified range of operating
load, and is usually analyzed based on the anticipated performance
fuel. Design horsepower should not be used here, as it usually
includes large margins. I.D. fan power calculations should consider
design excess air, air infiltration (usually greater than
guaranteed), temperature drop across precipitator, and the flue gas
analysis.

When turning down the fans for lower outputs at reduced loads, the following
areas should be checked carefully:
Excess air requirements may increase at reduced loads to control
convection pass heat fluxes
Infiltration may vary, depending on duct pressures
Flue gas temperatures will vary
Temperature drop will change.

On the basis of the projected I.D. fan flow pressure drop, fan horsepower may
be estimated for each load.
A s t h e f a n power changes, t h e d r i v e changes, t o o . There a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s o f
I . D . f a n d r i v e c o n t r o l s i n common use: I n l e t vane c o n t r o l , v a r i a b l e speed
wound r o t o r m o t o r , d u m p / f i l l h y d r a u l i c c o u p l i n g , v a r i a b l e s p e e d / v a r i a b l e
f r e q u e n c y m o t o r and steam t u r b i n e d r i v e s . The f o l l o w i n g f a n d r i v e f a c t o r s
must be e v a l u a t e d a t t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i f i e d l o a d s :
D i r e c t f a n horsepower under each l o a d c o n d i t i o n

R e d u c t i o n gear l o s s e s

F l u i d coupling losses a t load

Motor losses

V a r i a b l e speed d r i v e l o s s e s a t l o a d

Power l o s s e s f r o m busbar t o f a n s .

I.D. f a n power l e v e l s must be computed a t each s p e c i f i e d l o a d , and c o r r e c t e d

t o r e f l e c t t h e f a c t o r s l i s t e d above.

U n i t A u x i l i a r y Power Cost. The u n i t a u x i l i a r y power c o s t may b e c a l c u l a t e d i n

a number o f ways, s u b j e c t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l u t i l i t y ' s s i t u a t i o n . These a r e as
follows:
U n i t - G e n e r a t e d Energy

Based on n e t u n i t h e a t r a t e a t each s p e c i f i e d power l e v e l , and

escalated fuel cost

System Wholesale Generated Energy Cost

Based on system r a t e f o r w h o l e s a l e power i n t h e u t i l i t y system

Combined U n i t & System G e n e r a t e d Enerqy Cost

Based on n e t u n i t h e a t r a t e and e s c a l a t e d f u e l c o s t a t each

s p e c i f i e d power l e v e l f r o m 25% t o VWD (normal p r e s s u r e ) , and on t h e
system w h o l e s a l e r a t e f o r power t r a n s f e r i n t h e s y s t e m f o r a u x i l i a r y
power used a t VWOP. ( N o t e : Some u t i l i t i e s a p p l y emergency
r e p l a c e m e n t power c o s t s t o l o s t c a p a c i t y a t VWOP.)

T o t a l A u x i l i a r y Power Costs. T o t a l a u x i l i a r y power l e v e l s may b e t a b u l a t e d a t

each l o a d , t h e n m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e u n i t c o s t a t e a c h l o a d . A
s i m p l e example appears on T a b l e 7-11.
 T a b l e 7-11
Auxi I i a r y Power Cost

Gross Heat Annual

I tern Output A u x i l i a r y Power (kW) Rate Duration Cost B C.O.D.
No. (MW) Precip. I.D. Fan T o t a l (Btu/kW-hr) (hrs/yr) ($/yr)*
1
2
3
4
5
6 660 2230 9062 11486
7 T o t a l Annual Cost B C.O.D.

* Sase p r i c e 92/10 6 B t u , 78 mos. e s c a l a t i o n @ 8%

Heat Loss Energy Cost

Heat Losses. Thermal energy l o s t from t h e f l u e g a s ductwork and t h e

e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r must be returned t o t h e a i r e n t e r i n g t h e c y c l e .
The minimum average cold end temperature maintained in t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e a i r
h e a t e r may not f a l l below t h e a c i d dewpoint. I f t h e thermal energy l o s t
through t h e i n s u l a t i o n and lagging causes t h e f l u e gas temperature t o drop
below the a c i d dewpoint, then a d d i t i o n a l c y c l e h e a t must be added t o t h e a i r
s i d e t o avoid s e v e r e c o r r o s i o n .

Cost of Heat Losses. The impact on t h e c y c l e of t h e e x t r a c t i o n steam used t o

b r i n g i n l e t a i r temperatures up t o an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l can be based on t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n s shown in Table 7-12. B a s i c a l l y , t h e approach compares two
s i m p l i f i e d h e a t b a l a n c e s , one with and one without t h e e x t r a c t i o n supply t o
the a i r p r e h e a t i n g system. The column showing "Average E x t r . 106 BTU/hrl'
i s based on normal meteorological c o n d i t i o n s .

Operating and Maintenance Labor

There a r e two t y p e s of Q&M personnel: permanently assigned operating and

roving, part-time operators. For a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e economics of
e a c h , s e e Table 7-13.

S i n c e power p l a n t s u s u a l l y schedule f i v e s h i f t s of o p e r a t i o n , maintaining an

o p e r a t i o n on a s t a t i o n a t a l l times r e q u i r e s r e t a i n i n g f l v e o p e r a t o r s f u l l
time. Cycling a roving o p e r a t o r through t h e major equipment item
p e r i o d i c a l l y i s more economical in t h a t only a p o r t i o n of a worker's time i s
chargeable each s h i f t . I t i s assumed t h a t t h e workers would have o t h e r
d u t i e s which would be charged a g a i n s t o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e accounts. I t i s
q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o develop approximations of t h e a c t u a l c o s t s incurred by
p a r t - t i m e l a b o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y when comparing between a l t e r n a t i v e s .
 T a b l e 7-13

O p e r a t i n g and Maintenance Labor C o s t s I n c l u d i n g Mark-ups

GENERAL:
I tern Description

1 Base Annual Wages

2 Salary Related Costs
3 T o t a l D i r e c t Costs
4 S u p e r v i s i o n , G&A, e t c .
5 T o t a l Annual Labor Cost
6 T o t a l Average Annual Charged Hours
7 U n i t Cost ( $ / h r )
8 U n i t C o s t D C.O.D. (78 mos. e s c a l a t i o n @ 8%) $24.69 B C.O.D.

CASE I :
10 Utilization: One r o v i n g o p e r a t o r , one w o r k h o u r / s h i f t , eight
h o u d s h i f t (one w o r k h o u r / s h i f t ) ( 2 0 0 0 h r d s h i f t yr)(eight total
hours/shi f t ) = 250 h r / y r
11 Annual C o s t (250)(24.69) = $6173 B C.O.D.
8 FUELS OTHER THAN COAL
 Section 8
FUELS OTHER THAN COAL

INTRODUCTION

Coal is he predcrninant fuel for electricity production in the United States;

it produced 53.4 percent of the total electricity generated in 1982 (Figure
8 ) . Another 40.1 percent came from nuclear power plants, hydro-electric
plants, and gas-fired boilers, applicarions vhich do n o t require use of
electrostatic precipitators. Included in the remaining 6.5 percent share of
the electricity generated that year were oil-fired boilers, which provided a
6.1 percent share of the electricity generated, and refuse derived fuel (RDF),
which has been co-fired with coal in the utility industry since 1972.

Electrostatic precipitators are the most comrnon7y used particulate control

devices on oil-fired b o i l e r s . In 1378, a taka1 of 43 stations were i ? e n t i f i e d
i n an EPRI study as having one or more oil-fired generating units equipped
with electrostatic precipitators (110).

Only two RDF installations, a 150 ton-per-day installation operated by an

Ames, Iowa municipal utility and a 200 ton-per-day installation at Madison Gas
& Electric in Madison, Wisconsin, were in commercial operation at the end o f
1982. Eoth instzllations have electrostatic precipitators in service far
particulate removal. Two other installations started up in 1983, and one
additional installation began operation in 1984.

I n recent years, interest h a s developed in the conversion of existing

oil-fired equipment to coal firing. Coal-oil mixture (COM) and coal-water
slurry (CWS) firing systems may make a significant contribution towards the
rapid, cost effective substitution of coal for oil.

Combustion testing at several sites has demonstrated tbat a 50 percent coal

and 50 percent No. 6 oil mixture could be fired in some utility boilers in
place of 100 percent No. 6 oil. I n 1981, Flcrida Power and Light complezed a
successful demonstration wich 53 percent CON at Sanford Stacion Unit 4, a 400
 NUCLEAR 9.5%-

COAL 43.0%

I
HYDRO 11.7% i i - r
CAPABlLiTY GENERATION
586,142 M W 2,216,821 GWh

*OTHER includes pumped storage capacity. The net negative generation

from pumped storage results in reducing generation OTHER to 0.4%.
""The difference between the sum of the parts and 100% represents the share
by sources not shown, including ner pumped.

Figure 8-1. Actual C a p a b i l i t y v e r s u s Generation i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r 1982' (109)
MW boiler designed to fire oil (113).For a permanent conversion to COM,
electrostatic precipitators are required for particulate removal. There is
great concern over the use of fabric filter collectors, because unburned
carbon soot i n the COM ash could blind fabric filter bags.

Early work sponsored by EPRI and DOE demonstrated that pumpable, relatively
stable slurries containing 60 to 70 percent pulverized coal in 30 to 40
percent water could be prepared. An EPRI study which began in 1979
determined that slurries containing 65 to 75 percent (dry weight) "clean"
coal i n water were transportable, storable, and fireable 1 ike No. 6 fuel
oil. Combustion tests, performed in 1982, further determined that CWS
burned stably without requiring supplementary fuel firing (114).

CWS feasibility studies and test burns continue, but to date there are no
utility boilers commercially firing CWS. Babcock and Wilcox estimates that
there are about 20,000 MW of utility boiler capacity, which were originally
designed for coal-firing and that could be modified to fire CWS quickly,
that now burn other fuels (G).After conversion to CSW these units will
require electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters for particulate
removal .

The purpose of this chapter is to build upon and modify the methodologies
developed for sizing and designing coal-fired boiler electrostatic
precipitators and extend these to the following applications:
Oil-fired boilers
Refuse derived fuel (RDF)
Coal-oil mixture (COM)
Coal-water slurry (CWS)
Topics covered include:
Estimation of process parameters such as flue gas flow rate, ash
concentration, ash particle size distribution, the electrical
resistivity of the ash, and stack cpacity.
Techniques for precipitator size selection
Specification of unique mechanical and electrical features which may
be needed to collect a n d process these ashes in an electrostatic
precipitator.
01 L-FIRED BOILERS

Electrostatic precipitators are the most commonly used particulate removal

devices on oil-fired boilers. This can be attributed partly to the fact that
many oil-fired utility boilers were at one time burning coal and have since
converted to fuel oil. In order that these preci2itators perform adeq~ately,
special equi merit modifications were made

El ectrostati c precipitators are capable of reducing oil-fired boiler

particulate emissions by about 50 to 99 percent and can eliminate visible
stack emissi o n s . Plhen oil firilg, the visible stack emissions reculation is
usually the ccntrolling factor. From a purely .?uantitatiue standpoint. to
meet a 0.13 lb/xExu emissions limita~ion,it is unlikely tnat a cci ;ection
efficiency higher than 60 percent wouid be needed, even ~ n d e rhigh fuel
additive rate and high oil ash content conditions. To meet a stack visible
emissions requirement of 20 percent opacity (particularly with higher sulfur
fuel oils which require additives to minimize fireside corrosion), a
precipitator efficiency of about 90 percent would be required. Use of high
efficiency precipitators also reduces stack visible emissions during
sootblowing ( 1-
20).

A reduction of oil-fired boiler particuiate emissions by over 90 percent may

be zchieved with correctly sized precipitators designed specifically for oil
ash collection, or by coal-fired boiler precipitators which have been
specially modified to c o l l e c t oil ash (118). Generally speaking, a new or
modified precipitator with the capability for 99 percent fiyash collection
efficiency wili collect oil ash with about 90 percent effic!ency (E).
Special modifications for oil ash collection include increased
transformer-rectifier set power, variable intensity rapping to n i n $ m i z e ash
re-entraiawnt, and ad2i:ional heatlns and thermal insulation to keep stjcky
oil ;sh from 5,~i:ding up on i?terior surfaces.

Calculation of Process Parameters

,'i i:jt+t zo2;, ++:: 5:... . . -
c~ fsS f2,- c2:cG~,c;~ii3 ,-..
;ycp~-- ! ? lor
oil-fired boilers is a representative fuel analysis. Fuel oil i s classified
into two m j 3 r types: residual and distillate. Fuel oils are further
classified by grades: grades No. 1 and No. 2 (disti:late); No. 5 and No. 6
(residual); and No. 4 (a bicnd). The p r i ~ a r ydiffsrerces between residval oil
and distillate 3il are the higher ash and sulfur content of residcal oil and
t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s more v i s c o u s and hence more d i f f i c u l t t o burn
p r o p e r l y (125). ASTM s t a n d a r d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r f u e l o i l s a r e l i s t e d i n
T a b l e 8 - 1 , and t y p i c a l r a n g e s o f a n a l y s e s f o r t h e No. 2 and No. 6 g r a d e s o f
fuel o i l a r e l i s t e d in Table 8-2. The most f r e q u e n t l y burned f u e l o i l i n
u t i l i t y b o i l e r s i s g r a d e N o . 6 ; much l o w e r q u a n t i t i e s o f N o . 5 , No. 4 and No.
2 a r e used. Very few u t i l i t y b o i l e r s burn c r u d e o i l r a t h e r t h a n t h e s e r e f i l e d
procucts (118).

Combustion d a t a f o r a t y p i c a l No. 6 f u e l o i l i s shown i n T a b l e 8 - 3 . The

g a s e o u s p r z d u c t s o f combustion a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e o r e t i c a l a i r and 20
;prcent e x c e s s a i r level:

A comparison o f a " c l e a n " No. 6 f u e l o i l v e r s u s a " d i r t y " No. 6 f u e l o i l i s

p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8-4. Included in t h i s Table a r e f u e l u l t i m a t e a n a l y s e s ,
f u e l h e a t i n g v a l u e s , and two p a r a m e t e r s which can be d e t e r m i n e d by u s e o f
combustion c h e m i s t r y c a l c u l a t i o n s : t h e t o t a l f l u e g a s produced p e r pound of
f u e l o i l , and i n o r g a n i c a s h e m i s s i o n s . The former c a n be used t o a c c u r a t e l y
d e t e r m i n e f l u e g a s flow r a t e ; however, i n o r g a n i c a s h i s o n l y one of s e v e r a l

3 t h ~ ri m p o r t a n t ~ o r c p c n e n t sa r e :
Carbon r e s i d u e , which i s s o o t y , o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , f r e q u e n t l y
c o n s i s t i n g of l a r g e unburned c a r b o n a c e o u s p a r t i c l e s t e n d i n g t o be
s t i c k y and h y g r o s c o p i c . The p a r t i c u ! a t e d i s c h a r g e from o i l - f i r e d
b o i l e r s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s between 30 p e r c e n t and 80 p e r c e n t c a r b o n
content.

* F i l t e r a b l e s u l f a t e s , formed by low t e r n p e r z t u r e a n d / o r high e x c e s s a i r

o p e r a t i o n and by :he u;e o f f u e l o i l and f i r o s i d s z d d i t i v e s .
Alumina, d o i o n i t e , magnesia and a m ~ o n i aa d d i t i v e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d
t o improve b o i l e r h e a t t r a n s f e r and t o r e d a c e c o r r o s i o n . When t h e s e
a d d i t i v e s a r e used w h i l e b u r n i n g high s u l f u r f u e l o i l , s u l f a t e s
c o n s t i t u t e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 35 t o 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e
e n i s s i o n s cz'ch.

Acid s m ~ t ,which i s 2 c c n b i n a t i o n of c o n d e n s e d a c i d ;cd c z r b o n tkia:

y i e l d s g r e a s y , c o r r o s i v e p a r t i c l e s . Acid smut i s c r e a t e d by t n e
f o r m a t i o n a n d / o r c o l l e c t i o n o f s u l f u r i c a c i d upon p a r t i c u l a t e
d e p o s i t s which l i e on f u r n a c e and d u c t s u r f a c e s . Although some a c i d
smut i s p e r i o d i c a l l y, - r e l e a s e d by aerodynamic r e e n t r a i n n e n t and d u c t
v j ~ r ~ : ~ g tnh ~s ,.-,,.-..
s, L ' - i:cT 2 ~ i SIC>;
l 2 : ; ; : S S ; ' O C S ? ~ 3 d ~ lS iSj P L ~ Y O Z . : ~ ~ S
d u r i n g s o o t blowing. Acid smut i s t h u s g e n e r a l l y r e l e a s e d a s l a r g e ,
flaky particies.
 Table 8-1

AZTii Standard Specifications for

Fuel O i 1 s (124)

Yo. I A d i ~ t i l l a t ea i l intended for vaporizing p ~ t - t y p eburners and other burners requiring this grade of fuel
Yo. 2 A d i s t i l l a t e o i l f o r general purpose W 1 t i c heating for use i n burners not r q u i r i n g Yo. 1 fuel o i l
M. 4 Pmheatiw not usually required f o r handling o r burning
Yo. 5 (Light) Preheating m y be r e q u i d depndinp on climate and equipnent
No. 5 (Heavy) Preheating nay be w u i r d for burning and, i n cold c l i m t e s . m y be required f o r handling (Bunker 8 )
Yo. 6 Preheating requlrCd for h r n i n g and M n d l i n g (8mnrer C)

Wter Carbon Distillation

Cnde Flash Pour and residue t-ratwes, K i n m t i c viscosity. mPper
of pint, point redimnt. on101 Ash *fIC) M W ) t viscosity, rec centistmkes Gravity strip
1 *F OF % by botta. %.by IET 90Z Universal a t Fvmt at I t IW'F At 122'F dep mr-
oil (Cl (dl vol- % ~ l a h t point point IWDF(3BC) 122'F ( 5 K I (38C) (9x1 RPI msion
Bin )Lb. Mx Pax *dl x llin b nin Par nm Tax nm Par r i n *ax ain nm
No. 1 1W or 0 trace 0.15 - 4 2 0 - 5 5 0 - - - 1.4 2.2 - - 35 Ilo. 3
legal (215) (2881
(381

Ilo. 2 lo0 o r mC 0.10 0.35 540' 640 (32.61' (37.94) - - 2.0e 3.6 - - 311
legal 1-71 (ZBZ(3381
(381

Ho. 4 l3D or 20 0.50 0.10 - - - 45 125 - - 15.81 (26.1) - -

legal (-71
1551

M. 5 130 or - l.W 0.10 - - -

light legal
1551

a. Rescgnizing the necerrTty for I n - s u l f u r o l l r used i n connection with hedt-trealmnt, nonfcrmur metal, glass, and c e r m i c furnaces and other
special uses. d sulfur reqvtrnrelrt may be specifled i n accordance w i t h the f o l l o v i n g table:

Grade of fuel o i l Sulfur. nax. I

No. 1 0.5
Ho. 2 0.7
No. 6 no l i m i t
Ho. 5 no l i m i t
M. h no l i m i t

b. It i s thc intent of there classifications that failure t o met any r w u i r m n t s of a given grade doel not a u t m t i c a l l y place an o i l i n the
next larcr grade unless i n fact i t m e t s a l l m q u i r m n t r o f the l p n r grade.

c. 1-r or higher pour polntr m y be specified Menever required by conditions of storage o r use.

d. The 10%d i s t i l l a t i o n tenpcratwe point may be r p e c i f i d a t W'F t226CI mrmm for use i n other than a t m i r i n g burners

f. Y i r e m i t y valuer i n parentheses are for infomation only and not necessarily l i m i t i n g

g. me m u n t of water by d ~ r t i l l a t i o npIur the sediment by extraction shall m t e i & 2 . a . The a r u n t of sediment by extraction shall
not exceed 0.m. A deduction i n quantity shall be mde f o r a l l r a t e r a d sediocnt in ezces~o f 1.m.
 T a b l e 8-2

Typical Ranges o f Analyses of No. 2 a n d

, (724))
No. 6 Grade Fuel O i 1s (Adapted from (118)

Grade of 'Fuel O i l No. 2 No. 6

Weight, Percent

Sulfur 0.004 - 1.0

Hydrogen 11.8 - 13.9
CarSon 86.1 - 88.2
h'lcrogen Nil - 0.1
Oxygen
Ash

G r a v i t y , OA?1

?our P o i n t , "F

V i s c o s i t y , Centistrokss @ 100°F

Uater & Sediment, Volume percent

Carbon R e s i d u e , Weight percenti*

Heating v a l u e , B t u / l b jgr@ss)**"

** CARBON RESIDUE OX 10% BOTTOXS FOR SO. 2 ALQ ON 100 PERCENT BOTTOMS
FOR KO. 6
*** CALCULATED VALL'ES
 T a b l e 8-3
Combustion Data Summary
f o r a Typical No. 6 Fuel Oil (127)

Analysis

Carponent X by weight

Carbon 88.3
Hydrogen 9.5
Sulfur 1.6
Water 0.05
Ash 0.10

Gross heating value

Catbustion a i r requirement (dry)

lb/lb
Theoretical -Ti3
10% excess 193.9 14.8
20% excess 211.6 16.1
100% excess 352.6 26.9

Products o f cmtwstion, per l b o f f u e l o i l

Assune a i r a t 40% RH, 60°F

Conponent At t h e o r e t i c a l a i r At 207, excess a i r

*2 27.9 s c f 3.24 I b 27.9 s c f 3.24 l b

Hzo 19.3 0.92 19.5 0.93
so2 0.2 0.03 0.2 0.03
u2 139.3 10.30 167.5 12.38
02 - -- 7.4 0.66

Total 1 186.7 1 14.49 1 222.5 1 17.22

 Table 8-4
Comparison o f a Clean No. 6 Fuel O i l
versus a Dirty No. 6 Fuel O i l

Parameter "Clean" N o . 6 Fuel O i l "Dirty" No. 6 Fuel 011

Carbon ( % ) 86.5 86.5

Hydrogen ( % ) 11.9 9.5

Oxygen ( % ) 0.4 0.8

Nitrogen ( % ) 0.2 0.4

Sulfur ( % ) 1 .o 2.45

Ash (%) 0.01 0.35

Heat Value (Btu/lb) 18,800 18,500

Tor 1 Flue Gas Produced

3
(ft g a s / l b fue1,wet b a s i s ) * 223.1

Inorganic ash e m i s s i o n s
(lb/mBtu) **

* A t 6 0 ' ~ and 30.0 i n Hg. Assumes 2.5% excess a i r and 10% a i r heater
i n leakage.

** Assumes 80% ash carryover from b o i l e r .

 Fuel o i l and f i r e s i d e a d d i t i v e s which have not r e a c t e d t o produce
s u l f a t e s . T h i s c a t a g o r y i n c l u d e s unreacted a d d i t i v e a s well a s
a d d i t i v e which has coupled with sodium-vanadium complexes.

Carbon s o o t , which i s e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n composition t o carbon

r e s i d u e but i s formed by vapor phase condensation. Soot p a r t i c ? s s
a r e very uniform i n s i z e , 0 . 0 1 t o 0 . 1 0 micrometer in d i a m e t e r , and
a r e t h u s d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from carbon r e s i d u e p a r t i c l e s wnich a r e 1 0
t o 100 microns i n diameter (=).

S u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t , which i s comprised of f i n e l y d i s p e r s e d l i q u i d
d r o p l e t s of H,SO,.

The mixture of p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r emissions components can be estimate^ but

not t h e o r e t i c a l l y determined. The t y p e s of p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r ercissions rnd
q u a l t i t i e s of each t y p e a r e dependent upcn many f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g :
* Condition and type of equipment

Boiler rating

F i r i n g c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y combustion e x c e s s a i r l e v e l

Use of f u e l o i l o r f i r e s i d e a d d i t i v e s

Percentage by weight o f i n o r g a n i c p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r , s u l f u r and

carbon r e s i d u e in t h e f u e l o i l .

The t y p e o f t h e combustion equipment and i t s c o n d i t i o n u s u a l l y p l a y a

secondary r o l e in t h e u t i l i t y s e c t o r but can, under extreme c o n d i t i o n s , have a
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s . P a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s may be
d e c r e a s e d by:
Longer combustion region r e s i d e n c e times

Proper c o n t r o l o f t h e degree of comhustion a i r s w i r l i n g in t h e

combustion region

Use of modern o i l b u r n e r s and c o n t r o l s t h a t a l l o w a f i n e r d e g r e e of

o i l a t o m i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n a t optimized combustion e x c e s s a i r
levels

F r e q u e n t l y c l e a n i n g t h e f i r e b o x , ductwork, and ash hoppers, and

continuous s e q u e n t i a l s o o t blowing of heat t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e s .
A l o n g e r combustion r e g i o n residence t i m e decreases p a r t i c u l a t e emissions b u t
i n c r e z s e s NO emissions. F i g u r e 8-2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f one
X
i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s f i n d i n g s on t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o f o p t i m i z i n g c o m b u s t i o n a i r
s w i r l ; however, Fncreasing combustion a i r s w i r l a l s o promotes a f i n e r
p a r t i c u l a t e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d i n c r e a s e d NOx e m i s s i o n s . Higher
p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s r e s u l t f r o m t o o f i n e o r t o o c o a r s e an o i l a t o m i z a t i o n ;
f i n e r a t o m i z a t i o n l e v e l s a l s o i n c r e a s e NO emissions. Combustion excess a i r
X
l e v e l , a s demonstrated i n F i g u r e 8-3, strongly influences particulate
emissions. M o d e r n o i l b u r n e f s and b u r n e r c o n t r o l s a l l o w s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n a t
below 5 p e r c e n t excess a i r l e v e l s o v e r a wide b o i l e r l o a d range. A 1975 s t u d y
o n p a r t i c u l a t e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y b y t h e B o s t o n E d i s o n Company c o n c l u d e d t h a t
r e d u c t i o n s o f u p t o 30 p e r c e n t c a n b e a c h i e v e d on l a r g e u t i l i t y b o i l e r s
t h r o u g h u s e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g o p e r a t i n g and m a i n t e n a n c e p r o c e d u r e s ( 1 3 1 , 1 1 8 ) :
Continuous sequential operation o f soot blowers.

R o u t i n e disassembly and c l e a n i n g o f f u e l o i l b u r n e r s , and renewal of

w o r n p a r t s a s soon a s w e a r i s d e t e c t e d .

A b o i l e r shutdown e v e r y t h r e e months t o p u r g e c l e a n t h e b u r n e r s a n d
t o c l e a n t h e f i r e s i d e s o f b o i l e r s , d u c t w o r k , and ash hoppers.

Complete overhaul o f a l l e q u i p c e n t d u r i n g each annual o u t a g e .

T h i s r e s u l t i s i n t e r e s t i n g because i t demonstrates t h a t w e l l - m a i n t a i n e d
e q u i p m e n t c a n b e even f u r t h e r o p t i m i z e d b y e x t r a o r d i n a r y m a i n t e n a n c e m e a s u r e s .

B o i l e r r a t i n g i n f l u e n c e s t h e amount o f p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s , a s shown i n
F i g u r e 8-4 ( f o r u n c o n t r o l l e d b o i l e r s w i t h no a d d i t i v e s e m p l o y e d ) a n d F i g u r e
8-5 ( f o r u n c o n t r o l l e d r e s i d u a l o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s , w i t h a n d w i t h o u t a d d i t i v e s
employed). As seen i n F i g u r e 8-4, a l a r g e degree o f d a t a s c a t t e r i s apparent
b e l o w t h e 150 MW b o i l e r r a t i n g , w h i l e f r o m 150 MW t o 600 MW u n c o n t r o l l e d
p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s range between a b o u t 0 . 0 3 and 0.06 lb/mBtu. This trend
e x i s t s i n p a r t because l a r g e u t i l i t y b o i l e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y w e l l m a i n t a i n e d and
o p e r a t e d and u s u a l l y employ s t a t e o f t h e a r t c o m b u s t i o n equipment.

F i r i n g c o n d i t i o n s nave a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t . Increasing fuel

.-.,
'~.7CPl.a',."
bu. L ,
Z.-'
, lL
"."' ? -
p , . - _ s l i r e , .r I ;me t e m p e r a - a r e , and s t a c k g a s t e m p e r a t u r e a l l
serve t o decrease t h e an3unt o f p a r t i c u l a t e emissions. P a r t i c u l a t e emissions
r i s e w i t h an i n c r e a s e d r a t e o f f l u e gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h i s p r a c t i c e
 0J t I f 9 I I I 1 f I
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

TANGENT OF SWIRL AIR ANGLE

Figure 8-2. T e s t R e s u l t s Showing the E f f e c t s o f Combustion A i r

Swirl on P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions from an Oil-Fired B o i l e r (--
l 2 9 ) , (110)
-
 OXYGEN IN BOILER FLUE GAS. %

Figure 8-3. Variation o f P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions from

O i l - F i r e d Boilers w i t h Oxygen Content i n Flue Gas (110,132)
 BOILER OPERATING CAPACITY, Mw

F i g u r e 8-4. Uncontrolled Electric U t i l i t y Oil-Fired Boiler Emissions

versus Boi 1er Operati nq Capacity (No Addi ti v i e s Employed) (fl, Q)
 0 CONTROLLED SYSTEMS
USrNG ADDITIVES

0 CONTROLLED SYSTEMS
NOT USING ADDITIVES

BOILER OPERATING CAPACITY, M w

Figure 8-5. Controlled E l e c t r i c U t i l i t y Residual Oil-Fired B o i l e r

Emissions ( A f t e r ESP) versus B o i l e r Operating Capacity (With and Without
MgO Additive Employed) (87) -
i s f a v o r e d f o r t h e c o n t r o l of NOx e m i s s i o n s . A typical variation in
p a r t i c u l a t e emissions w i t h oxygen c o n t e n t i n t h e b o i l e r f l u e g a s i s shown i n
Figure 8-3. This r e l a t i o n s h i p was developed f o r a d i r t y No. 6 f u e l o i l burned
i n a large boiler. Higher emission r a t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lower l e v e l s of
e x c e s s a i r a r e caused by i n c r e a s e d carbon l o s s , w h i l e t h e i n c r e a s e i n
e m i s s i o n s a t higher e x c e s s a i r l e v e l s i s caused by a c c e l e r a t e d conversion of
s u l f u r d i o x i d e t o s u l f u r t r i o x i d e which i n t u r n promotes a n i n c r e a s e i n
-
f i l t e r a b i e s u l f a t e s and s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t ( 1 32). Figure 8-6 p r e s e n t s
a d d i t i o n a l t e s t d a t a which adds i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s carbon/acid r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A t low e x c e s s a i r l e v e l s , most of t h e SO, produced i s absorbed by carbon
p a r t i c l e s ; an a n a l y s i s of t h e f i i t e r c a t c h showed 57 p e r c e n t carbon and 24
percent a c i d . Stack o p a c i t y was bclow 20 p e r c e n t , with a whi:e/S*own'sh
plume. A t high excess a i r l e v e l s , t h e r e i s more SO, a v a i l a b l e t h a n t h e r e
i s carbon t o absorb i t ; an a n a l y s i s of t h e c a t c h showed 15 p e r c e n t carbon and
50 p e r c e n t a c i d . S t a c k o p a c i t y i n c r e a s e d , o c c a s i o n a l l y exceeding 20 p e r c e n t ,
with an acid-blue haze plume ( -
126).

Fuel o i l and f i r e s i d e a d d i t i v e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y used t o reduce a c i d c o r r o s i o n

and t o improve b o i l e r h e a t t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A d d i t i v e s reduce a c i d
c o r r o s i o n by coupling w i t h s u l f u r t r i o x i d e t o form s u l f a t e s , and h e a t t r a n s f e r
i s improved by t h e conversion o f s t i c k y ash components, which a d h e r e t o h e a t
exchanger s u r f a c e s , i n t o powdery-like compounds t h a t can be removed by
sootblowing (133,m),. Alumina, dolomite and magnesia a r e f r e q u e n t l y used
a d d i t i v e s in u t i l i t y o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s . Carbon s m u t and a c i d m i s t have a l s o
been s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d by adding ammonia t o t h e f l u e gas j u s t upstream
of t h e a i r h e a t e r . Ammonia combines w i t h s u l f u r t r i o x i d e t o produce a fume of
(NH,),SO,, which can then be c o l l e c t e d i n a p a r t i c u l a t e c o n t r o l
device.

The e f f e c t of a d d i t i v e s on t h e q u a n t i t y and composition of p a r t i c u l a t e

emissions can be s i g n i f i c a n t . Additives usually increase emissions but, in
some c a s e s , can d e c r e a s e o r have a n e g l i g i b l e e f f e c t on t h e q u a n t i t y of
p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r e m i t t e d from o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s . T y p i c a l l y , use of alumina,
d o l o m i t e , magnesia, o r ammonia w i l l i n c r e a s e e m i s s i o n s by a f a c t o r of about
1 . 5 t o 2.5, with s u l f a t e s c o n s t i t u t i n g approximately 35 t o 50 p e r c e n t of t h e
f i l t e r a b l e p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s when f i r i n g a high s u l f u r f u e l o i l .
 -
r r r r m
SQ3, PPm
H+Q4 possible
in emissions
om-- Actual H2S04
emissions

Total
emissions

yields high-
acid plume

0
1.O 2.0 3.0 4.0
O2 LEVELS, %

Figure 8-6. Carbon/Acid Relationship in Oil-Fired Boiler Particulate

Emissions ( -
126)
particulate removal efficiency, the higher particulate emission rates shown in
Figure 8-4 when using magnesia additives are readily explainable The (m).
effect of aium'na and dolomite additives on the composition of superheater oil
ash deposits is graph 1 cally illustrated i n Figure 8-7. The indicated
troublesome constituents (sodium-vanadium complexes) are highly corrosive when
deposited i n a molten state on h i g h temperature metal surfaces. In addition
to this, vanadium also acts as a good catalyst for conversion of SO, to
SO,, hence giving low temperature corrosion an undesired boost. Alumina,

.,.. ,
e for b:-h--
, = i d ~ rccrrosion ci::r3;,
--..--A
s,,.~,. C ~ Ei;L.,.Live is t l i e d t; -L;,e
-
vanadjum co7tent of the fuel at a ratio normally of about 2 : l of
magnesium and aluminum oxijes to vanadium. The additives raise the
melting point of the ash deposit, rendering it a powdery substance
which can be removed by soatblowing and collected in a particulate
control device.
* For lsw temperature corrosion control, additives c3uple with sulfur
trioxide to form sulfates, which can be collected in a particulate
control device.
The distjllate oil add:tj)!es 1<:;:?2 $5 T;t:z 2-5 .,,:re i ~ ~ ~ by
~ - j f ~ ~ ~

irvesti~atgr2 s k i n g c 2 ~ 2 2 7 ecf reducing particulate emissions by 30 to 50

percent ( -
1 3 7 ) . The importance of additive concentration on particulate
emissions rate is demonstrate2 in Figure 8-8;this relationship was determined
during a test arcgram evaluating usage of Ethyl CI-2, one of the additives
listed oo Table 8-5.

Figure ti-9 shows p r ~ i c u l a t eemissions frorc industrial oi:-fired hollers as a

fgnction of the inorganic ash content of the fuel oil. Mezsured emissions are
on the order of one to two times the theoretically deternined enissions if
fuel zsh were csnsiderdd xo be the oniy emissions compo!lenx. Considering Lhat
oil ;sh carryover ranges between 30 T O 100 percect, this resclt demonstrates
that unburned carbon ranges from 30 to 80 percent, or on the order of one to
five times the inorganic a s h emissions ( 1 3 5 ) . When considering atility cil
f i r e d boi7ers, fuel ash content i s not a $srtic~;lar!y useful indicatsr of the
quantity of prticulate emissions due to widespread usage of additives and ash
reinjection. Ash reinjection typically adds 3 e t w e S n 50 a ~ d100 percent to the
 T a b l e 8-5

Seven Distillate Fuel Oil Additives Found

to Substantially Reduce P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions (118,137)

Concentrat ion Total p a r t i c u l a t e

Additive b with addi t i v e / t o t a l

-- Yeight ! p a r t f c u l a t e without
additive

Arapahoe Ferrocene
Ethyl C1-2
Comercial Chemical
Improsoot
Gaml en
DP231

Fuel Combustion Corp.

Fuel co SOj
C c m w c i a l Chemical
Formula L S D
Industrial Chemicals
Watcs 130

b ~ i limoles
l per kilogram
 WITHOUT
DOLOMITE

5 TROUBLESOME CONSTITUENTS

Figure 8 - 7 . Effect o f Fuel Oil A d d i t i v e s on t h e Composition

o f Superheater Oil Ash Deposit (Adapted fromlllO), - (124)) -
 ADDITIVE, W T %

Figure 8-8. Particui ate Ratio (Particulate 5~issions

with Additive/Particulat? Emissions without Additive)
versus Ethyl CI-2 Additive Concentration (118),
- (137)--
 WT% ASH IN FUEL

F i g u r e 8 - 9 . Uncontrolled I n d u s t r i a l Oil-Fired Boiler P a r t i c u l a t e

Emissions v e r s u s Weight-Percent Ash in Fuel Oil (UJ, 135)
inorganic dust loading (135). F i g u r e 8-10 demonstates t h e l a c k o f a
r e l a t i o n s h i p between f u e l a s h c o n t e n t a n d p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s f o r c o n t r o l l e d
r e s i d u a l o i l - f i r e d u t i l i t y b o i l e r s o f 70 MW c a p a c i t y and above.

C o n t r o l l e d and u n c o n t r o l l e d p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s f o r r e s i d u a l , o i l - f i r e d
u t i l i t y b o i l e r s o f 70 MW c a p a c i t y a n d above i s shown a s a f u n c t i o n o f f u e l o i l
s u l f u r c o n t e n t i n F i g u r e 8-11. Although t h e r e i s a s l i g h t t r e n d toward h i g h e r
emissions w i t h h i g h e r f u e l s u l f u r c o n t e n t , t h e data i s t o o s c a t t e r e d t o d e f i n e
a useful relationship (119). Hence, although additional s u l f u r i n the f l u e
gas c o u l d l e a d t o a d d i t i o n a l f i l t e r a b l e s u l f a t e s , a c i d smut and s u l f u r i c a c i d
m i s t , and o c h e r f u e l p r o p e r t i e s ( s u c h a s i n o r g a n i c ash c o n t e n t and r a r b o n
r e s i d u e c o n ~ e n t ) , b o i i e r r a t i n g and c o n b u s t i o n f i r i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e
overriding factors.

P a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s have been f o u n d t o i n c r e a s e when t h e c a r b o n r e s i d u e i n

t h e f u e l o i l i n c r e a s e s ( F i g u r e 8-12). Asphaltene (naptnenes and s i m i l i a r
h y d r o c a r b o n s ) , f o u n d i n V e n e z u e l i a n , G u l f C o a s t , C a l i f o r n i a and some Rocky
Mountain r e s i d u a l o i l s , c o n s t i t u t e a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h i s carbon residue.
A1 t h o u g h F i g u r e 8-12 i s based on i n d u s t r i a l b o i l e r t e s t s , s i r n i l i a r r e s u l t s
have been o b t a i n e d f o r l a r g e u t i l i t y r e s i d u a l o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s .

Comprehensive mass b a l a n c e s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e emissYons f r o m o i l - f i r e d

b o i l e r s a r e n o t a v a i i a b l e i n t h e open l i t e r a t u r e ; however, an i n t e r e s t i n g
e s t i m a t e was r e p o r t e d on by one i n v e s t i g a t o r ( T a b l e 8-6). This estimate i s
based on t h e f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s ( 1-
35):
O i l a s h c a r r y o v e r v a r i e s f r o m 30 t o 100 p e r c e n t , w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l
10 t o 20 p e r c e n t e m i t t e d d u r i n g s o o t b l o w i n g .

A d d i t i v e s a r e t r e a t e d as an e q u i v a l e n t amount o f o i l a s h . T h e i r
r e a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r e m i s s i o n s components i s i g n o r e d i n t h i s
estimate.

On t h e o r d e r o f 1 t o 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e f u e l s u l f u r i s c o n v e r t e d t o
s u l f u r t r i o x i d e , w h i c h c o u l d t h e n combine w i t h w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e
f l u e gas t o f o r m s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t . The S o 3 t o H 2 SO c o n v e r s i o n
r a t e i s d e p e n d e n t upon gas t e m p e r a t u r e ( r e l a t i v e t o t h e a c i d
d e w p o i n t ) i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h F i g u r e 8-13. I t i s assumed :hat t h e a i r
h e ~ t e ro u t i e t t ~ m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s f r o m 250 t o 27O0F, w i t h a d u c t w o r k
gradient o f + 50°F.

Carbon r e s i d u e i s assumed t o be between 0 . 0 2 and 0 . 1 0 g n s / a c f . The

l o w e r e n d v a l u e i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r u l e o f thumb t h a t 0 . 0 5 t o
 .20

3
G
.IS -
o Uncontrolled

5 x -Boilers Controlled
.16 by Electrostatic
9
vi
.I4
0
V)
2 .12
z
w
I- .10
53
2
I-
.08
er
a
L
.06 o
A
m
2
w
.04
+
i .02

PERCENTAGE O f SULFUR IN OIL 19149-5

F i g u r e 6-11. C o n t r o l l e d and U n c o n t r o l l e d P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions as a

Function o f Fuel S u l f u r Content f o r Residual Oil F i r e d Base-Loaded
U t i l i t y B o i l e r s a t o r Above 70 MW C a p a c i t y (No A d d i t i v i e s Employed) (E)
 Table 8-6
Estimated Particulate E m i s s i o n s for
Three Different Fuel Oils F i r e d i n
a U t i l i t y Boiler (Adapted from ( l a )

Fuel A Fuel B Fuel C

Oil A n a l y s i s

Ash C o n t e n t , % weight
Vanadium, ppm
Sulfur C o n t e n t , % weight
A d d i t i v e (MgO + A10) , X weight

Emission Components, g n s / a c f

I n o r g a n i c Ash 0.008 t o 0.025 0.008 t o 0.025 0.012 t o 0.038

Additives - 0.003 t o 0.010 0.006 t o 0.020
Sulfuric Acid M i s t 0 t o 0.003 0 t o 0.01 0 t o 0.03
Carbon R e s i d u e 0.02 t o 0.10 0.02 t o 0.10 0.02 t o 0.10
Carbon S o o t 0.003 0.003 0.003

T o t a l Emissions, gns/acf 0.031 t o 0.13 0.034 ta 0.15 0.041 t o 0.19

Total E m i s s i o n s w i t h Ash
Reinjection, gns/acf
 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

FUEL OIL CARBON RESIDUE. PERCENT

F i g u r e 8-12. Effect o f Fuel O i l Carbon Residue on

P a r t i c u l a t e E ~ ! i i s s i o n s fro111 I n d u s t r i a l O i l Fired
b o i l e r s (118,
- - 136)
 GAS TEMPERATURE (UNIFORM)*F

Figure 8-13. Sulfuric A c i d Mist Loading versus Flue Gas

Temperature for Oil Fired Boilers (110,- 135)
 0.10 percent of the heating value of the fuel is lost as carbon. The
upper end value is representative of boilers operating with low
excess combustion air, on the order of 5 percent or less.
Carbon soot is assumed to be 0.003 gns/acf, based on available
distillate fuel oil test data.
Acid smut formation is ignored in this estimate.
Based on available test data, an increase in organic ash loading of
50 to 100 percent is assigned to ash reinjection.
The range of total emissions estimated for each of the three fuels listed on
Table 8-6 varies by a factor of between 4 and 5. This reflects the high
degree of uncertainty associated with predicting oil ash carryover and the
amount of carbon residue in the emissions, and also the wide range of additive
rates employed by boiler operators.

Of interest is the use of emission factors for predicting emissions from

uncontrolled oil-fired boilers. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
compiles emission factors for all stationary sources for which sufficient
information exists to establish realistic relationships. Emission factors
relate the quantity of pollutants emitted to some indicator, usually boiler
size or quantity of fuel burned, while empirical data on process parameters
- U.S. Environmental
(temperature, excess air, etc.) is not considered (125).
Protection Agency emissions factors for the determination of uncontrolled
emissions from oil-fired power plants are summarized on Table 8-7. For a
typical No. 6 fuel oil, the particulate emissions factor of 8 lb
pollutants/1O3 gal of fuel oil is approximately equivalent to 0.053 lb/mBtu
emissions. A slightly more refined approach was developed by the GCA
Corporation in 1974. Based on the uncontrolled emissions data plotted in
Figure 8-3, the following regression equation was developed (119):

where: y = filterable particulate emissions (tb/rnBtu)

x = boiler capacity (MW).

This equation is useful for preliminary estimates of oil-fired boiler

emissions when additives are not utilized.
 Table 8-7
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Emissions Factors for Determination o f Uncontrolled
Emissions from Oil Fired Power Plants (Adapted from ( G ) )

Uncontrolled Emissions
Pollutant f l b p o l l u r a n t s / l ~ g~a l f u e l o i l )

Particulate 8*

S u l f u r D i o x i d e (SO2)

S u l f u r T r i o x i d e (SO3)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Hydrocarbons

N i t r o g e n O x i d e s (NO2)

Aldehydes (HCHO)

* E q u i v a l e n t t o 0.053 lb/mBtu f o r t y p i c a l No. 6 f u e l oil

** Use 50 f o r t a n g e n t i a l l y f i r e d u n i t s

S = p e r c e n t by w e i g h t o f s u l f u r i n f u e l oil
An i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s parameter w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d e s i g n and p e r f o r m a n c e o f
electrostatic precipitators i s the p a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the
effluent. F o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s , p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n depends on t h e
following factors:

Degree o f a t o m i z a t i o n o f t h e o i l

Degree o f m i x i n g i n t h e c o m b u s t i o n r e g i o n

Flame t e m p e r a t u r e

Furnace d e s i g n

The f l u e gas p a t h t h r o u g h t h e b o i l e r t o t h e s t a c k ( " t i m e a t

temperature p r o f i l e " ) .

P a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m one u n i t t o t h e n e x t , b u t
f o r t h e most p a r t , o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r e m i s s i o n s can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s b e i n g
very fine. Each p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s component has a unique p a r t i c l e s i z e
r a n g e , as l i s t e d on T a b l e 8-8. Carbon s o o t c o n t r i b u t e s t h e f i n e s t p a r t i c l e s ,
and carbon r e s i d u e c o n t r i b u t e s t h e c o a r s e s t ( t y p i c a l l y up t o 50 m i c r o n s
d i a m e t e r b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y as l a r g e as 100 m i c r o n s ) . When a c i d smut i s
p r e s e n t , t h e s e l a r g e p a r t i c l e s a r e c a p a b l e o f s t a y i n g e n t r a i n e d i n t h e gas
stream t h r o u g h t o t h e s t a c k due t o t h e i r t h i n f l a k y shape. Three t y p i c a l
o a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s showing t h e f i n e p a r t i c l e s i z e o f o i l e m i s s i o n s
a r e shown i n F i g u r e 8-14 (110,139).

The b u l k e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y o f o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s i s
t Y p i c a l l y l o w . Because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o w q u a n t i t y o f i n o r g a n i c a s h i n
f ue 1 o i l , t h e r e i s u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t SO, a v a i l a b l e f o r n a t u r a l
c o n d i t i o n i n g , even w i t h f u e l o i l s h a v i n g a v e r y l o w s u l f u r c o n t e n t (132). In
a d d i t i o n , 30 t o 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e e m i s s i o n s c o n s i s t s o f unburned carbon, w h i c h
i s always a h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e m a t e r i a l . Therefore, t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of
o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r p a r t i c u l a t e emissions i s almost always l e s s than t h a t f o r
caa , lo7 t o 10' ohm-cm f o r o i l v e r s u s lo9 t o 1013 ohm-cm f o r
coa (119). A t y p i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y v e r s u s t e m p e r a t u r e c u r v e , f o r an o i l - f i r e d
bo i e r b u r n i n g a No. 6 f u e l o i l , i s shown i n F i g u r e 8-15. Measured a s h
r e s s t i v i t y c u r v e s , f o r ash p r o d u c e d d u r i n g c o m b u s t i o n o f a v e r y l o w s u l f u r
con e n t f u e l o i l , a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 8-16.
 Table 8-8

P a r t i c l e Size Range o f Oil Fired B o i l e r

P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions Components (Adapted from (1l o ) , (135), (138))

Particulate
Emissions Component P a r t i c u l a t e Size Range

I n o r g a n i c Ash 1 to 5 microns

Additives l t o 5 microns

S u l f u r i c Acid M i s t O.Sto5 microns

Carbon Residue 10 t o 100 microns

Carbon S o o t 0 . 0 1 t o 0.10 microns

Acid Smut 1/8 t o 114 i n c h f l a k e s

 20

10
V)
Z

-
0
Z
rx-5
UI
!-
W

-50
W
-I
0
C
LT
2

1
80 90 99
CUMULATIVE % LESS THAN SIZE INDICATED

F i g u r e 8-14. T y p i c a l P a r t i c l e S i z e L i s t r i b u t i o n s
o f O i l F i r e d B o i l e r Emissions Based on u'ata P r o v i dled
b y t h e U.S. Department o f H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n and
W e l f a r e , Long I s l a n d L i g h t i n g Company and B e c h t e l
C o r p o r a t i o n (110,
- - 121 )
 GAS TEMPERATURE - O F

F i g u r e 8-1 5. Typical Resistivity versus Gas Temperature

Curve f o r a No. 6 Fue: Oil Fired Boiler (f10,121)
 FLUE - G A S TEMPERATURE, OF

F i g u r e 8-1 6 . Typical Oil Ash R e 5 i s t i v i ty Measurements, f o r

Very Low-Sulfur C o n t e n t Fuel O i l Ash ( - 1 10, -132)
Stack v i s i b l e emission i s a c r i t i c a l parameter f o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s . As
s t a t e d in the previous s e c t i o n , stack opacity i s usually the overriding f a c t o r
when d e t e r m i n i n g c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s . I t has a l s o been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t
o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s a r e a mixture of components, each
component having i t s own unique physical and chemical p r o p e r t i e s . Hence, i n
o r d e r t o understand t h e b a s i s f o r p a r t i c u l a t e removal d e v i c e s e l e c t i o n , we
must f i r s t understand how t h e v a r i o u s components o f o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r emissions
c o l l e c t i v e l y impact s t a c k o p a c i t y . A s i m p l i f i e d , g e n e r a l i z e d approach
f o l l o w s ; although somewhat i n c o n c l u s i v e , t h i s e x e r c i s e provides a framework
f o r understanding t h e mechanisms a v a i l a b l e f o r p r e d i c t i n g o p a c i t y (135).

I t i s g e n e r a l l y accepted t h a t o p a c i t y can be d e s c r i b e d by t h e f o l 1owi ng two

equations:

% Opacity = 100 (1 - -
1 )
1,
where: 1, = i n t e n s i t y of i n c i d e n t l i g h t

I = i n t e n s i t y of t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t
W = p a r t i c u l a t e mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n (gm/m , a c t u a l
conditions

p = p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y (gm/cm3)

L = i l l u m i n a t i o n p a t h l e n g t h ; i . e . , s t a c k diameter (m)

K = e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (cm3/rnz)

For low l e v e l s of o p a c i t y (20 p e r c e n t o r l e s s ) , t h e above e q u a t i o n s can be

approximated q u i t e we1 1 by:

% Opacity = 100 ( LW )

Values o f K have been computed and r e p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e , and a r e

p r i m a r i l y dependent upon t h e index of r e f r a c t i o n and diameter of t h e p a r t i c l e .

I l l u m i n a t i o n p a t h l e n g t h , i n t h i s case t h e s t a c k d i a m e t e r , i s an important
variable. For example, with a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s being e q u a l , an 800 MW u n i t
w o u l d produce t w i c e t h e o p a c i t y o f a 200 MV u n i t because t h e s t a c k d i a m e t e r i s
t w i c e as l a r g e . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s i m p o r t a n t ; c o r r e l a t i o n between o p a c i t y
a n d p a r t i c u l a t e g r a i n l o a d i n g must be r e f e r r e d t o a p a t h l e n g t h so t h a t i t can
be corrected f o r d i f f e r e n t size u n i t s .

U s i n g p u b l i s h e d v a l u e s o f e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , maximum v a l u e s o f g r a i n
l o a d i n g c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s t a c k o p a c i t y r e g u l a t i o n o f 20 p e r c e n t a r e shown
i n F i g u r e 8-17. These c u r v e s were d e v e l o p e d f o r a p a t h l e n g t h o f 20 f t .
T h r e e c u r v e s a r e g i v e n f o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r e m i s s i o n s components w i t h
d i f f e r e n t r e f r a c t i v e indexes: carbon ( e i t h e r carbon s o o t o r carbon r e s i d u e ) ,
i n o r g a n i c ash, and s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t . I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t p a r t i c l e s i z e has
a pronounced e f f e c t on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between o p a c i t y and g r a i n l o a d i n g .

T h i s i s shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n F i g u r e s 8-18 and 8-19, w h i c h p r e s e n t e s t i m a t e d

o p a c i t y l e v e l s v e r s u s p a r t i c u l a t e g r a i n l o a d i n g , assuming t h a t carbon r e s i d u e
p a r t i c l e s a r e 10 t o 50 m i c r o m e t e r s and i n o r g a n i c ash p a r t i c l e s a r e 1 t o 5
micrometers. Note t h a t l a r g e p a r t i c l e s make a m i n i m a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s t a c k
o p a c i t y ; f o r t h i s r e a s o n , a c i d smut e m i s s i o n s can be i g n o r e d i n t h i s a n a l y s i s .

U s i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a t e l o a d i n g s f o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r e m i s s i o n s shown on T a b l e
8-6, a carbon r e s i d u e e m i s s i o n o f 0.02 t o 0 . 0 3 g n s / a c f w o u l d y i e l d an o p a c i t y
o f 1 t o 8 percent. T h i s would i n c r e a s e t o 4 t o 26 p e r c e n t f o r t h e extreme
l o a d i n g o f 0.10 g n s / a c f . The c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h e i n o r g a n i c ash c a n n o t be
d e t e r m i n e d i n so s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a manner. I f t h e ash has been r e l e a s e d f r o m
c a r b o n r e s i d u e p a r t i c l e s , a l o a d i n g o f 0 . 0 1 g n s / a c f would produce 4 t o 22
percent opacity. However, i f t h e ash i s r e t a i n e d i n t h e carbon p a r t i c l e s i t
w o u l d behave l i k e t h e l a r g e carbon p a r t i c l e s and o n l y i n c r e a s e s t a c k o p a c i t y
by 2 t o 4 p e r c e n t . The a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n i s p r o b a b l y i n t e r m e d i a t e t o t h e s e two
cases. I f 0.005 g n s / a c f o f ash i s p r e s e n t as 1 t o 5 m i c r o n p a r t i c l e s w h i l e
t h e r e m a i n i n g 0.005 g n s / a c f i s s t i l l i n t h e c a r b o n r e s i d u e , o p a c i t y w o u l d
p r o b a b l y i n c r e a s e b y a b o u t 2 t o 12 p e r c e n t . I t i s apparent t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t
o p a c i t y f r o m t h e c a r b o n r e s i d u e and ash c o u l d range from v e r y l o w ( l e s s t h a n 5
p e r c e n t ) t o v e r y h i g h (20 t o 30 p e r c e n t ) d e p e n d i n g on assumptions made a b o u t
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ash and i t s s i z e . The d a t a r e q u i r e d t o e l i m i n a t e
guesswork a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s i s n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e .
 PARTICULATE LOADING GNSIACF

F i g u r e 8-19. Stack Opacity versus P a r t i c u l a t e Loading

f o r S u l f u r i c Acid Mist Emissions from Oil-Fired Boilers (135)
The s i t u a t i o n f o r carbon s o o t i s o p p o s i t e t o t h a t f o r i n o r g a n i c ash and c a r b o n
r e s i d u e because t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s w e l l known b u t t h e
p a r t i c u l a t e loading i s not. Carbon s o o t i s p r e s e n t as s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s
0 . 0 1 t o 0.1 m i c r o m e t e r s i n s i z e ; a more e x a c t e s t i m a t e i s n o t r e q u i r e d s i n c e
t h e e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s c o n s t a n t o v e r t h i s range. The r e s u l t a n t
o p a c i t y i s shown i n F i g u r e 8-18 f o r a r e a s o n a b l e r a n g e o f 0.001 t o 0 . 0 0 3
gns/acf. Soot has a more pronounced e f f e c t on o p a c i t y t h a n e i t h e r ash o r
carbon r e s i d u e , and t h e r e s u l t a n t o p a c i t y f o r t h e above r a n g e i s 6 t o 19
percent. The Shell-Bacharach smoke t e s t , d e v e l o p e d f o r d i s t i l l a t e f u e l
combustion, can p r o v i d e a r o u g h e s t i m a t e o f s o o t e m i s s i o n s , b u t t h i s t e s t has
n o t been r o u t i n e l y p e r f o r m e d on r e s i d u a l f u e l c o m b u s t i o n systems. The r a n g e
o f 0 . 0 0 1 t o 0.003 g n s / a c f r e p r e s e n t s a l e v e l e a s i l y o b t a i n e d f o r d i s t i l l a t e
f u e l s ; however, i t i s n o t known i f r e s i d u a l f u e l u n i t s a r e n o r m a l l y o p e r a t e d
i n a s i m i l a r range. There i s p r o b a b l y no i n h e r e n t r e a s o n why a u n i t c o u l d n o t
b e operated a t l e s s than 0.001 gns/acf soot emission, b u t experimental d a t a t o
confirm t h i s are not available.

B o i l e r a d d i t i v e s a r e n o r m a l l y o f s m a l l s i z e , 1 t o 5 m i c r o n s , and t h e y
presumably t e n d t o r e t a i n t h s s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n as an e m i s s i o n component.
Inadequate d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e f u e l o r agglomeration o f p a r t i c l e s would p r o b a b l y
increase p a r t i c l e size. The a d d i t i v e w o u l d behave s i m i l a r t o t h e f u e l ash i n
t h a t some would be r e t a i n e d n t h e l a r g e r carbon r e s i d u e p a r t i c l e s , e s p e c i a l l y
i f t h e unburned c a r b o n emi ss on i s h i g h . The e m i s s i o n r a t e f o r a d d i t i v e s ,
when used, c o u l d r a n g e from 0.004 t o a b o u t 0 . 0 2 g n s / a c f . T h i s would
c o r r e s p o n d t o an o p a c i t y o f l e s s t h a n 2 p e r c e n t t o g r e a t e r t h a n 22 p e r c e n t .

S u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t has been r e p o r t e d t o f o r m a t p a r t i c l e s i z e s o f 0.5 t o 5.0

m i c r o m e t e r s , depending on t h e w a t e r v a p o r c o n t e n t o f t h e gas. I n a combustion
system, some o f t h e a c i d c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y condense on t h e s u r f a c e o f a s h
p a r t i c l e s , r a t h e r t h a n f o r m i n g s e p a r a t e d r o p l e t s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e ash i s
alkaline. I f t h e f l u e gas were 5 t o 10°F b e l o w i t s a c i d d e w p o i n t , s u l f u r i c
a c i d m i s t l o a d i n g c o u l d range f r o m 0.005 t o 0.05 g n s / a c f , which corresponds t o
an o p a c i t y r a n g e o f 4 p e r c e n t t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n 20 p e r c e n t . There
i s l i t t l e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on c o r r e l a t i o n s between o p a c i t y and s t a c k
t e m p e r a t u r e , b u t i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t c o u l d be t h e
c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r f o r u n i t s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y low stack temperatures. It i s
a l s o p o s s i b l e f o r s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t t o form a t t h e s t a c k e x i t due t o mixing
of f l u e gas w i t h c o l d ambient a i r t o produce a mixture which i s below t h e a c i d
dewpoint. In t h i s c a s e , a p r e c i p i t a t o r w i l l not s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r t h e
o p a c i t y because t h e a c i d m i s t i s farmed a f t e r t h e p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t i o n
device.

T h e r e s u l t a n t o p a c i t y from t h e s e v a r i o u s emissions components a r e l i s t e d on

Table 8-9. Estimated o p a c i t y ranges from a low of about 10 p e r c e n t , i f
s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t i s n o t p r e s e n t , t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y more than 20 p e r c e n t . For
a given p a r t i c u l a t e l o a d i n g , carbon s o o t has t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t o n o p a c i t y
w i ~ honly 0 . 0 2 3 gns/acf y i e i d i n g 20 p e r c e n t opaci:y. I t c2n be s t a t e d
t h e r e f o r e t h a t whenever t h e p a r t i c u l a t e lozding i s c - e s t e r than 0.003 gns/acf
t h e r e i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r o p a c i t y g r e a t e r than 20 p e r c e n t . However,
depending on t h e e m i s s i o n composition, a h i g h e r l o a d i n g w i l l n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
cause t h e o p a c i t y s t a n d a r d t o be exceeded. Considering t h e minimum l e v e l s of
each e m i s s i o n s component and n e g l e c t i n g t h e e f f e c t of s u l f u r i c a c i d m i s t , a
minimum o p a c i t y l e v e l of 11 p e r c e n t can be a s s o c i a t e d with an e m i s s i o n s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 0.035 g n / a c f . This o p a c i t y l e v e l i s achieved when carbon
soot emissions a r e limited t o 0.001 gn/acf.

Precipitator Size Selection

E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e capable of reducing o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r
p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s by 50 t o 99 p e r c e n t , on t h e a v e r a g e . When o i l - f i r i n g ,
s t a c k v i s i b l e e m i s s i o n s i s u s u a l l y t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r ; t o meet a s t a c k
v i s i b l e e m i s s i o n s requirement of 20 p e r c e n t o p a c i t y ( p a r t i c u l a r l y with higher
s u l f u r f u e l o i l s which r e q u i r e a d d i t i v e s ) , a p r e c i p i r s t o r e f f i c i e n c y of a b o u t
90 p e r c e n t would be r e q u i r e d . P r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n e f f i c i e n c i e s have t y p i c a l l y
ranged from 90 t o 95 p e r c e n t f o r b o i l e r s f i r i n g high s u l f u r r e s i d u a l f u e l o i l .

The d a t a bank upon which o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r precipitator s i z i n g s a r e based i s

not a s well d e f i n e d a s f o r c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r p r e c i p i t a t o r s . T h i s i s due t o
s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e following:
Boi 1 e r e m i s s i o n s , and hence a1 so p r e c i p i t a t o r performance, i s highly
dependent upon b o i l e r f i r i n g c o n d i t i o n s ( i . e . , combustion e x c e s s a i r
l e v e l , f i r e b o x c l e a n l i n e s s , f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e , e t c . ) . Far
example, f i e l d t e s t s have demonstrated t h a t while m a i n t a i n i n g an
oxygen l e v e l i n t h e f l u e gas of about 2 p e r c e n t t e n d s t o minimize
 Table 8-9
Resultant Opacity Levels from Various
Emissions Components o f an Oil-Fired Boiler (1-
35)

Corresponding
Particulate
E m i s s i o n s Component 4 Opacity * Emissions (gn/acf )

I n o r g a n i c Ash 2-22

Carbon Residue 1-26

Carbon Soot 6-19

S u l f u r i c Acid M i s t ( i f present) 4-20 o r g r e a t e r

Boiler Additives 2-22

Total 15, t o much g r e a t e r

than 20**

* For a 20 f e e t d i a m e t e r s t a c k

** O p a c i t i e s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y a d d i c i v e f o r v a l u e s g r e a t e r than 20 p e r c e n t .
 uncontrolled oil-fired boiler emissions (Figure 9-5), reducing
combustion excess air to the lowest practical levels tends to
minimize sulfur trioxide and precipitator outlet particulate
emissions.
Because of the low electrical resistivity of oil ash, substantially
more'power must be delivered to the precipitator. Coal-fired boiler
precipitators are typically energized to levels of 0.5 to 2
watts/square foot of collecting electrode area, compared to 1.5 to 3
watts/ft2 C.E. for oil-fired boiler precipitators. This imp1 ies
that precipitator power supply, automatic voltage controls, and
electrode alignment are critical factors. For example, two oil-fired
boiler precipitators, each performing under identical conditions
including electrode specific collecting area (SCA), can have
significantly different collection efficiency levels if electrode
misalignment or an electrical energization problem prevents one of
them from achieving maximum corona power. Although this can also be
a fzctor with coal-fired boiler precipitarsrs, the hlshzr operating
corona power levels required of oil-fired precipitators magnifies the
effect.
The data base, at least here i n the United States, is primarily
comprised of weighted wire type precipitators. In some installations
weighted wire discharge electrode system have suffered wire breakage
probl ems.

A data base for oil-fired boiler precipitators may be found on Table 8-10.
The listed design and test data were assembled from an industry survey
conducted as part of a previous EPRI study (G), and also private
communications with Research-Cottrell, inc. (139)and Long Island Lighting
Company (140). Missing information was filled in where possible with data
from Power Magazine's annual "Plant Design Report" (141). Uhen extracting
data from the EPRI study, the published industry survey questionnaires were
first checked for completeness and consistency; if missing information or
contradictory responses could not be resolved beyond reasonable doubt, the
information from the questionnaire was left out of the data base. The final
data base is comprised of 24 units from 16 different power stations.

When examining precipitator sizing standards practiced by the industry, the

design data on Table 8-10 adds little insight until those precipitators
designed speciffcally for oil are segregated from those that were converted
from coal to oil (Figure 8-20), When this is lone it is appzrent that, with
only one exception, an SCA between 224 to 264 ftz/lOOO acfm was installed
 Converted to Oil
Designed for Oil

SPECIFIC COLLECTION AREA, ft2/kcfm

Figure 8-20. Design Collection Efficiency versus Specific

Collecting Data f o r P r e c i p i t a t o r s on Oil-Fired Boilers
f o r a d e s i g n e f f i c i e n c y o f 90 p e r c e n t , and between 250 t o 365 f t z / l O O O acfm
f o r a d e s i g n e f f i c i e n c y o f 95 p e r c e n t ( a l l a r e w e i g h t e d w i r e t y p e
p r e c i p i t a t o r s w i t h n i n e i n c h s p a c i n g between c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s ) .
Design m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s (unmodified) f o r these p r e c i p i t a t o r s range from
8.21 f p s t o 11.14 f p s , w i t h a mean o f 9 . 6 4 f p s . P r e c i p i t a t o r v e l o c i t i e s range
f r o m 4 . 2 5 f p s t o 5.00 f p s , w i t h a mean o f 4 . 6 4 f p s ; p r e c i p i t a t o r a s p e c t r a t i o s
( e l e c t r o d e t o t a l l e n g t h d i v i d e d by h e i g h t ) r a n g e f r o m 0.70 t o 1.20, w i t h a
mean o f 0.94.

D e s i g n and t e s t e d p e r f o r m a n c e f o r w e i g h t e d w i r e p r e c i p i t a t o r s a t f i v e
o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s i s compared i n F i g u r e 8-21. I t w o u l d appear
t h a t none o f t h e s e u n i t s l i v e d up t o t h e i r d e s i g n e x p e c t a t i o n s ( a l t h o u g h
d e s i g n c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e Danskammer
precipitators). Measured p e r f o r m a n c e v a r i e s o v e r a w i d e r a n g e a t Danskammer
U n i t s 1 and 2 and N o r t h p o r t U n i t 3; b o t h o f t h e s e i n s t a l l a t i o n s have
p r e c i p i t a t o r s w i t h SCA's o f s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n 200 f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 acfm. The
h i g h l y v a r i a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e small p r e c i p i t a t o r s i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f
d i f f i c u l t y e x p e r i e n c e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h o p e r a t i n g corona power l e v e l s and
t h e w i d e v a r i a t i o n i n i n l e t p a r t i c u l a t e l o a d i n g (up t o a f a c t o r o f f o u r a t t h e
Northport Unit 3 i n s t a l l a t i o n ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , when good e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g i z a t i o n was a c h i e v e d a t N o r t h p o r t U n i t 3, a m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y
( u n m o d i f i e d ) o f 21.95 fpm was measured d u r i n g h i g h i n l e t l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a71 o f t h e t e s t s r e p o r t e d i n F i g u r e 8-21, m i g r a t i o n
v e l o c i t y r a n g e d f r o m 5.36 fpm t o 21.95 fpm, w i t h a mean o f 11.37 fpm.

D e t a i l e d p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n d a t a i s shown on T a b l e 8 - 1 1 f o r f i v e
weighted-wire p r e c i p i t a t o r s designed f o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s (139). Design
c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s r a n g e f r o m 90 t o 95 p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t , i n s t a l l e d
s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a f r o m 224 t o 323 f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 acfm, and gas
t r e a t m e n t t i m e v a r i e s f r o m 5.03 t o 5 . 7 8 seconds. A l l t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s have
30 f t h i g h c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s w h i l e t h e number o f m e c h a n i c a l f i e l d s
v a r i e s f r o m two t o f o u r .

S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f M e c h a n i c a l and E l e c t r i c a l F e a t u r e s

O i l - f i r e d b o i l e r e m i s s i o n s have s e v e r a l u n d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h
m u s t be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when d e s i g n i n g an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r . The
 Design
1 Salem Harbor 4
A Testing 2 New Haven Harbor
3 Cokeworks 1
4 Danskarnmer 1 4
5 Northport 3

SPECt FIC COLLECTION AREA/1000 cfrn

Figure 8-21. Design and Tested Collection Efficiency versus

Specific Collecting Area for F i v e Oil-Fired Boiler Precipitator
Install ations
?do =I P.
J r L n
2<-
02
=
?I. N
5
ua
high percentage of combustibles in o i l a s h , t h e s t i c k i n e s s of t h e a s h , t h e
f i n e n e s s of t h e a s h , and t h e c o r r o s i v e n a t u r e of t h e e f f l u e n t g i v e r i s e t o t h e
following a r e a s of s p e c i a l concern:
The a s h ' s low r e s i s t i v i t y r e q u i r e s a high degree of e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g i z a t i o n . i n s t a l l e d r a t e d corona power f o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r
p r e c i p i t a t o r s t y p i c a l l y range from 1.8 w a t t s / f t 2 of c o l l e c t i n g
p l a t e a r e a up t o 3 . 5 w a t t s / f t 2 . Use of modern, a u t o m a t i c v o l t a g e
c o n t r o l l e r s with a f a s t response current l i m i t provision i s
recommended (121). E l e c t r o d e alignment i s c r i t i c a l f o r achievement
of a high d e g r e e of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g i z a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y f o r weighted
wire type p r e c i p i t a t o r s with nine inch spacing between c o l l e c t i n g
e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s . S m a l l e r bus s e c t i o n s (on t h e o r d e r of 10,000 f t z
of c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e a r e a ) a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g high
l e v e l s of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g i z a t i o n .

A medium t o high a s p e c t r a t i o and a low p r e c i p i t a t o r v e l o c i t y a r e

r e q u i r e d f o r c o l i e c t i o n of f i n e : y d i v i d e d , low r e s i s t i v i t y p a r t i c l e s .

The high combustible c o n t e n t of t h e ash may cause i t t o become

pyrophoric - t h a t i s , s u b j e c t t o spontaneous combustion i n t h e
presence of oxygen. A i r l e a k a g e i n t o t h e hopper from t h e ash
handling system, or any o t h e r o p e n i n g , can cause l o c a l i z e d combustion
of t h e s t o r e d a s h . T h i s may r e s u l t i n t h e formation of c l i n k e r s ,
which can plug t h e hopper o u t l e t or cause s t r u c t u r a l damage t o t h e
hoppers (132). I t was f e a r e d a t one time t h a t t h e high combustible
c o n t e n t of o i l ash would c a u s e a f i r e hazard. To d a t e , t h i s has not
proved a s e r i o u s concern; however, i t i s recommended t h a t hoppers be
emptied on a continuous c y c l e which w i l l prevent t h e a s h from
reaching a l e v e l where spark-over from t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e frame
t o t h e c o l l e c t e d ash might o c c u r , p o s s i b l y causing i g n i t i o n (121).
The r a t i o of t h e amount o f s u l f u r i c a c i d in t h e f l u e g a s t o t h e
amount of a s h i s h i g h e r i n o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s than i n c o a l - f i r e d
b o i l e r s . T h e r e f o r e , o p e r a t i o n a t f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e s n e a r t h e a c i d
dewpoint c a u s e s o i l a s h t o become s t i c k y and c o r r o s i v e . When t h i s
c o n d i t i o n i s s e v e r e , r a p p e r s cannot remove t h e ash from c o l l e c t i n g
e l e c t r o d e s , and hoppers become plugged ( 1 3 2 ) . When extended low
temperature o p e r a t i o n i s a n t i c i p a t e d , e x t r a thermal i n s u l a t i o n and
s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s of c o n s t r u c t i o n such a s Cor-Ten s t e e l can be
provided f o r minizing c o r r o s i o n , and s h a r p e r rapping blows may be
needed t o c l e a n c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s . I t should be noted t h a t t h e
manufacturers o f Cor-Ten S t e e l do not guarantee i t a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n .

P r e c i p i t a t o r hoppers n e a r l y always c r e a t e problems when c o l l e c t i n g

o i l a s h . E x t r a hopper h e a t i n g ( a t l e a s t 20 w a t t s / f t 2 of hopper
s u r f a c e ) and a d d i t i o n a l thermal i n s u l a t i o n help keep t h e o i l ash from
becoming t o o v i s c o u s t o f l o w . I f t h e wind-chill index f o r t h e a r e a
i s low, a weather e n c l o s u r e should be provided t o p r o t e c t t h e
hoppers (121). Steep hopper v a l l e y a n g l e s a l s o h e l p p r e v e n t
pluggages from o c c u r r i n g . Some manufacturers recommend d o u b l e angle
hoppers, having a 55" v a l l e y a n g l e t o p s e c t i o n and a 60 t o 65' v a l l e y
angle bottom s e c t i o n .
 High voltage support i n s u l a t o r s , through which the high voltage
s u p p l y i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e frame i n s i d e t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r chamber, r e q u i r e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n . D e p o s i t s o f o i l ash
on t h e i n s i d e o f t h e s e i n s u l a t o r s c o u l d promote e l e c t r i c a l breakdown
o r t r a c k i n g t o g r o u n d a t peak p o t e n t i a l s o f 70 kV o r more. It i s
t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e i n s u l a t o r p r e s s u r i z i n g a i r and
h e a t i n g . P r e s s u r i z i n g a i r , from 2 5 t o 100 f t 3 / m i n o f c l e a n a i r p e r
i n s u l a t o r , p r e v e n t s o i l a s h l a d e n gases f r o m s e t t l i n g on t h e i n s i d e
surface o f the insulator. E l e c t r i c h e a t e r s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 kW
r a t i n g p e r i n s u l a t o r , warm t h e a i r t o above t h e d e w p o i n t o f t h e
gas (121).

The e l e c t r o d e r a p p i n g system must be f l e x i b l e enough t o cope w i t h

b o t h s t i c k y , h a r d - t o - r e m o v e ash p a r t i c l e s and c a r b o n p a r t i c l e s w h i c h
can e a s i l y r e e n t r a i n and cause r a p p i n g p u f f s . V a r i a b l e i n t e n s i t y
r a p p e r s , and modern, p r o g r a m a b l e r a p p e r c o n t r o l l e r s , a r e recommended.

Many o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r p r e c i p i t a t o r s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h t o p s p r a y w a t e r
wash-down systems. These a l l o w t h e c o n v e n i e n t removal o f s t i c k y
e l e c t r o d e b u i l d u p s d u r i n g outages.

Nearly a l l o f the o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r p r e c i p i t a t o r s i n t h e United States are o f

t h e w e i g h t e d w i r e t y p e ; r i g i d f r a m e p r e c i p i t a t o r s d o m i n a t e i n b o t h Europe and
Japan. The most s u i t a b l e p r e c i p i t a t o r d e s i g n f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n s h o u l d
f u l f i l l the following criteria:
The p r e c i p i t a t o r s h o u l d have s m a l l bus s e c t i o n s , t o e n a b l e o p e r a t i o n
a t h i g h c o r o n a power l e v e l s .

The p r e c i p i t a t o r s h o u l d b e e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i a b l e i n t e n s i t y r a p p i n g
systems, so a s t o p r e v e n t p a r t i c u l a t e r e e n t r a i n m e n t .

The p r e c i p i t a t o r chamber s h o u l d b e o f medium t o h i g h a s p e c t r a t i o

d e s i g n , w h i l e s t i l l m a i n t a i n i n g compactness ( a n i m p o r t a n t
consideration f o r r e t r o f i t applications).

The p r e c i p i t a t o r s h o u l d have a s u p e r i o r d e g r e e o f e l e c t r o d e
a l i g n m e n t ; f r o m t h i s s t a n d p o i n t , t w e l v e i n c h s p a c i n g between
c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s i s more f o r g i v i n g t h a n n i n e i n c h s p a c i n g .

The d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s s h o u l d be d u r a b l e ( r e s i s t a n t t o c o r o n a w i n d
i n d u c e d movement, f a t i g u e f a i l u r e , and c o r o n a d i s c h a r g e b u r n - t h r o u g h
f a i 1u r e ) .

S e v e r a l m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s now o f f e r p r e c i p i t a t o r s w i t h r i g i d
mast-type e l e c t r o d e s having t w e l v e i n c h c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e spacings
and e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i a b l e i n t e n s i t y r a p p i n g systems. I n d i v i d u a l bus s e c t i o n s
can b e s i z e d a s s m a l l a s 10,000 f t Z o f c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e . Although t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n w o u l d appear t o b e b e s t s u i t e d f o r o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r
application, experience is limited because of the newness of the design and
the limited importance of oil as a utility fuel i n recent years.

REFUSE DERIVED FUEL ( R D F )

High on the priority list of potential nonconventional fuels for utility
boilers is refuse derived fuel (RDF), which is a processed form of municipal
solid waste (MSW). Table 8-12 summarizes current electric utility experience
with co-firing RDF.

There are two predominant waste-to-electricity technologies:

Mass-burning, which is the combustion of unprocessed solid wastes i n
either a waterwall incinerator, a waste-heat boiler or a combination
of both, thus generating steam to drive a turbine-generator set.
Practically no preparation of the garbage is required (only the
largest non-combustibles are removed) (146).
Co-firing, which is the firing of processed RDF along with coal, oil
or natural gas in a modified conventional boiler. RDF is produced by
removing metals, glass and other non-combustible matter from MSW, and
shredding and sizing the remaining combustible matter. Most of the
utility RDF facilities co-fire 10 to 15 percent RDF in suspension in
conventional pulverized coal-fired boilers. Some utilities have
retrofitted dump grates to support the RDF for more complete
combustion, a modification which has permitted up to 20 percent RDF
co-firing at the Ames Unit 7 facility.

The first mass-burn waste-to-electricity project i n the United States began

commercial operation in May, 1983. It is a 2100 tons/day facility erected in
Clearwater, Florida, owned by Pinellas County, and operated by UOP, Inc. The
electricity produced by this 50 MW unit i s sold to the Florida Power
Corporation. This arrangement is typical of the s i x mass-burn projects
currently i n operation or under construction i n the United States; the
facilities are owned and operated by either a municipality or a private
corporation, and the electricity is sold to a local investor-owned electric
uti 1 i ty (112).

RDF facilities in the United States are also owned and operated by
municipalities or private corporations; however, they are typically located at
an investor-owned utility's electric generating station, where RDF is co-fired
with coal in a modified conventional boiler. RDF has been co-fired along with
coa: by the electric utility industry since April, 1972, when the city of
 T a b l e 8-12

Summary o f E l e c t r i c U t i l i t y Experience w i t h C o - F i r i n g RDF

w i t h Coal (Adapted from ( I l l ) , (144))

RDF FACILITY. LO~ATION,

O*NERAOPEATP_R . -- PROJECT STATUS

AMES, IOWA S O L I D H ASTE RECOVERY RDF P n r n u c r l o ~CAPACITY I $

SYSTEM, OWtlED AND OPERRTED BY 150 TPD N O M I N A L . MF F A C I L I T Y
THE C I T Y . COST $ 6 . 3 M I L L I O N I N 1'375
DOLLARS.

B A L T IMOREI MARYLAND - T E S T BURN AT B A L T l n O R E GAS 8 1200 TPD THROUGHOUl C A P A C I T Y . STARTED OPERATING I N 1976. L A N D -
OWNED BY B A L T I M O R E COUNTY. E L E C l R l C 200-MU U N I T AT COST $10 H I L L I O N I N 1975, F I L L I N G RDF. I F BCUE CONVERTS
OPERATED BY TLLEDYNE N A T I O N A L CRANE S T A T I O N OF 230D TONS CRANE S T A T I O N TO COAL. I T COULD
DF RDF OVER 60 DAYS. 20% CONSUME UP TO H A L F THE RDF,
RDF F I R I N G R A T E . S T A R T l N G I N 1984
CHICAGO, OWNED AND OPERATED RDF USED A s SUPPLEMENT T o 3500 TONS RDF PER WEEK. PRODUCED RDF FROM L A T E 1978 TO
BY C l T Y OF CH IC AG O. COAL I N COHMONWEALTH E D I S O N COST $16 M I L L I O N (1975). D E C E W E R , 1979. OPERATES AS COM-
CO. ' S 200-MW CRAWFORD U N l T 7 PACTOR ONLY, P E N D I N G F U N D I N G FOR
RDF USED AT 1 0 % RATE: M O D I F I C A T I O N S TO RDF PLAHT AND B O I L E R
LAKELAND, F L O R I D A . TO BE 300 TPD. COST $186 n l L L I o N . SCHEDULED FOR 1983 OPERATION.
JOlJiTLY OWNED BY C l T Y OF
L A K E L A N D AlK! THE ORLANDO,
F L A . U T I L I T I E S C OMMISSION .

MADISOl4, WISC ON SIN. OWNED RDF I S BURNED I N T w o 5 0 - l l w 400 TPD. Cosr $2.4 M l L l l o r r . STARTUP IN JULY 1979. SINCE THEN,
AND OPE R ATED BY C l T Y O f B O I L E R S AT M A D I S O N GAS 8 E L E C - SYSTEM HAS OPERATED WELL, CONSUMING
MAD ISON, T R I C C O . ' S BLOUNT S T . S T A T I O N . 15,000 TONS OF TRASH, DISPLACING
RDF USED AS 11%S u P P t E n F N T . 7000 TONS o f COAL.
MILWAUKEE W I S C O N S I N . OWNED RDF WAS 0URNED I N W l S C O N S r N 1200 TPD. COST $21 H I L L I O N STARTUP I N MARCH 1977. SHUT DOWN
AND OPERATED BY AMERIC AN E L E C T R I C POWER C 0 . ' 5 310-w I N 1975. (PLUS $4 M I L L I O N FOR S I N C E AUGUST 1 9 8 0 ,
CAN COMPANY. UNITS 7 AND 8 AT OAK C R S E K POWER PLAHT W D l T I C C T l O U S , )
STATION, AT RATES UP TO 151,

I T I S I N T E N D E D TO BURN THE ZOO0 TPD ( 1 3 2 0 TPD OF R D F ) . STARTUP I N S t P T E R B E R 1979, con-

RDF AT ROCHESTER GAS 1 ELEC- COST $ 5 3 M I L L I O H . POHER BUSTIBLES LANDFILLED. P L A N TO START
T R I C C O . ' S RUSSELL STATION, PLANT F A C l L l T Y COST I S 112 BURNING RDF AT RGBE I N 1983, U P l o
4 B O I L E R S T O T A L I N G 235 tW. MILLION. H A L F THE RDF n a y u L T l M A T r L v BE t o # -

ST. L O U I S . OPERATED BY C I T Y . R DF H A S BURNED A 1 U N I O N ELEC- 300 TPD DEHONSTRATION U N l T STAPTUP I N 1972.

DEMONSTRATION PROJECT FU?4DED T R I C CO.'S MERAHEC S T A T I O N SHUT DOWN I N 1975. PLANNED L A I G E -
BY C I T Y , U N I O N E L E C T R I C CO. AND TN A 1 2 5 . ~ 1C O A L - F I R E C U N I T . SCALE SYSTEM WAS DROPPED I N 1976.
ENVIRONMEN TAL PROTECTION AGENCY.
St.Louis/Union E l e c t r i c Company RDF demonstration p r o j e c t commenced a t Meramec
Station. Of t h e e i g h t c o - f i r i n g p r o j e c t s l i s t e d on Table 8-13, o n l y two
p r o j e c t s , Ames, Iowa and Madison, Wisconsin, a r e p r e s e n t l y i n commercial
operation. The Lakeland, F l o r i d a and Rochester, New York f a c i l i t i e s a r e
c u r r e n t l y in a s t a r t - u p mode, and t h e B a l t i m o r e , Maryland f a c i l i t y was
p r o j e c t e d f o r s t a r t u p i n 1984.

The s t a r t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r RDF i s MSV, which i s t y p i c a l l y composed of 60 t o 90

p e r c e n t combustibles ( i n c l u d i n g o r g a n i c food w a s t e , p a p e r , p l a s t i c , wood,
rubber, l e a t h e r and t e x t i l e s ) with t h e remainder being g l a s s , m e t a l s and
miscellaneous materials. As a f u e l , MSW i n t h e United S t a t e s g e n e r a l l y has an
a s - r e c e i v e d heating value of from 3500 t o j u s t o v e r 5000 Btu/lb. The makeup
of MSW can vary widely depending upon g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , time of y e a r ,
w e a t h e r - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s , e t c . , which i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h e end-product RDF. P r e p r o c e s s i n g s t e p s such a s s h r e d d e r s , a i r c l a s s i f i e r s ,
s c r e e n s , magnetic s e p a r a t o r s , and aluminum removal systems a r e used t o prepare
RDF (144). The end product i s a RDF " f l u f f " m a t e r i a l , with a h e a t i n g value
range of from 4,500 t o j u s t below 8000 B t u / l b , which can be c o - f i r e d along
with coal i n a modified c o n v e n t i o n a l b o i l e r .

For t h e most p a r t , modern e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s o p e r a t i n g on l a r g e

p u l v e r i z e d c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r s c o - f i r i n g with RDF should be adequate t o c o n t r o l
particulates. However, c o - f i r i n g can cause a drop i n p r e c i p i t a t o r performance
because of i n c r e a s e d f l u e g a s volume flow r a t e s due t o l a r g e r e x c e s s a i r
r e q u i r e m e n t s , and a l s o due t o h i g h e r f l y a s h loading and/or i n c r e a s e d unburned
combustibles i n t h e f l y a s h . Accordingly, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d e s i g n o f
p r e c i p i t a t o r s must be somewhat modified t o r e f l e c t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of RDF
and i t s combustion ( 1-
44).

C a l c u l a t i o n of Process Parameters

The usual d e s c r i p t o r s f o r s o l i d f u e l s have been measured f o r RDF, i n c l u d i n g

h e a t i n g v a l u e , proximate and u l t i m a t e a n a l y s i s , composition, and s i z e . Tables
8-13 through 8-15 show a v e r a g e a s - r e c e i v e d RDF p r o p e r t i e s r e p o r t e d by t h e
v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s , e i t h e r from b o i l e r t e s t s conducted by t h e e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y
o r from t e s t s conducted a t t h e RDF p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t . These t a b l e s a r e
organized from h i g h e s t t o lowest v a l u e s of t h e major p r o p e r t y l i s t e d i n each
 T a b l e 8-:3

Average Properties of Refuse Derived

Fuel ( R D F ) as R e p o r t e ~a t Various F a c i l i t i e s (x)
As Received
Heating
Value misture Ash Sulfur Chlorine
Location Test D e s c r i p t i o n (Btullb) ( X by w t ) j X by wt) ( X by wt) ( X by w t l

Bridgeport ROF p l a n t sarples

ROF trucks t o u t i l i t y

Baltimore ROF p l a n t sanples, 1979

ROF p l a n t t e s t . 1980-81
B o i l e r t e s t , 1980

bdison B o i l e r t e s t , 1979
Monthly average, 1980-81
ROF p l a n t s m l e s . 1979

k S B o i l e r t e s t , 1982
Yeekly average. 1979
( I h P s data a f t e r 1978
d i s c screen i n s t a l l a t i o n ;

Chicago RDF p l a n t data, 1979

B o i l e r t e s t , 1979

M i luaukee RDF p l a n t data

Monthly average. 1979-80
B o i l e r t e s t . 1979

S t . Louis U t i l i t y d a i l y sanples, 1973-75

ROF p l a n t tests, 1974-75

a F i f t y sanples heating value only. t b i s t u r e , ash, and s u l f u r nurber o f sarples unknown.

b ~ w n t y - t h r e e m i s t l r r e and ash s m l e s .

'Five s u l f u r and c h l o r i n e sanples.

d ~ h i c a g oreported t h a t 30 b o i l e r t e s t s were conducted. Ass- one s w p l e per t e s t .

 T a b l e 8-14
Average RDF P r o x i m a t e and U l t i m a t e
Analyses a s R e p o r t e d a t V a r i o u s F a c i l i t i e s (111)

Bal t i m r e msa S t . Louis

RDF Plant %a1timore Amesa Yeekly Chicago H i 1uaukee M i lwaukee ROF Plant
Sarrples B o i l e r Test B o i l e r Test Averages 8oi l e r Test ROF Plant B o i l e r Test Test
1979 1980 1982 1979 1979 Data 1979 1974-15

Nuher of swples 13 3 3 8 30 NA 3 97

As received ROF
Heating value, B W l b 7,692 6,296b 6,356 6,113 5,231 5,190 4,800 4,576
Proximate analysis, X by w t
Hoisture 10.6 28.0 22.5 18.4 24.8 31.0 31.3 26.6
Ash 7.6 12.2 8.5 9.6 20.8 19.5 15.5 21.7
03 V o l a t i l e matter 69.4 56.1 46.7 41.2 45.5 43.6
Ln
m Fixed carbon 12.4
100.0
-15.9
100.0
- 7.7
100.0
- 8.3
100.0
7.7
100.0
- 8.1
100.0

Ultimate analysis. X by ut
Carbon 29.9 29.7 28.2 27.7 26.0
Hydrogen 6.0 3.9 3.8 3.1 3.8
Nitrogen 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.5
Oxygen 35.5 19.9 16.2 21.3 21.2
Sulfur 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
Chlorine 0.2 - 0.4 .- -
Hoisture and ash 28.0 w
45.6 50.5 -
46.8 -
48.3
100.OC 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

a ~&nes
l l data a f t e r 1978 d i s c screen i n s t a l l a t i o n .

b ~ h r e esarrpres f o r u l t i m a t e analysis. Heating value was 6,396 f o r the average o f 39 s w p l e s during t h i s t e s t period.

C ~ l t i m a t eanalysis reported on d r y basis and calculated here t o as received basis.

 Average RDF Composition and
Size as Reported a t Various F a c i l i t i e s (m)

BaItimre ?mesa S t . Louis Mdison

RDF Plant Meekly Chicago RDF Plant Milwaukee RDF Plant
Test Averages RDF Plant Test RDF Plant Test
198041 1979 Ddta 1974-75 Data 1979

8 30 97

As received RDF
Ccnposition, X by wt
Paper and cardboard 91.1 78.8 60.5 58.2
Plastic 5.1 5.3 4.9

Paper and cardboard - - - -

plus p l a s t i c 91.1 83.9 65.8 63.1

bod - 4.3 2.5 3.4

Glass 0.3 1.4 2. l 2.6
Ferrous metal 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3
Monferrous metal 0.6 0.6 0.5
Inorganic other 0.1 - .- -
organ icsb 4.1 3.1 22.3 4.7
Miscel laneous and
fines 3.7 -
6.6 -
7 .O -
25.4
loa.0C 100.0 100.0 100.0

Bulk density, Ib/ft3 3.7 2.6 6.8

X by Ut Larger than
Stated Screen Size.
Square Screen
Size (in.)

-
4.8
-
18.7
-
51.9

Note: Dash mark indicates no measurement nude.

'Arnes data after 1978 disc screen i n s t a l l a t i o n .

b ~ r g a n i c sinclude yard wastes, food wastes, cloth, t e x t i b s , tar, rubber, and leather.

C8altimore corposition a i r dried basis.

table. B r i d g e p o r t had t h e h i g h e s t h e a t i n g v a l u e because o f t h e RDF's low
moisture content. O f t h e l o c a t i o n s r e p o r t i n g c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e RDF a t
B a l t i m o r e had t h e h i g h e s t p a p e r and p l a s t i c c o n t e n t .

P e r c e n t ash b y w e i g h t r a n g e d f r o m 7.6 t o 21.7, and p e r c e n t s u l f u r b y w e i g h t

was g e n e r a l l y low, r a n g i n g f r o m 0 . 1 t o 0.7. The l a r g e s t RDF p a r t i c l e s i z e s
a r e o f most i n t e r e s t because t h e l a r g e r s i z e s have more p o t e n t i a l f o r
p l u q g a g e o f m a t e r i a l h a n d l i n g systems and a l s o r e q u i r e l o n g e r c o m b u s t i o n
time. Values l a r g e r t h a n 0.75 i n . a r e r e p o r t e d i n T a b l e 8-16 because
d i f f e r e n t s c r e e n s i z e s were used i n measurement a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s , and
0.75 i n . i s t h e s i z e above w h i c h a l l l o c a t i o n s r e p o r t e d d a t a (111).

The m a j o r components o f RDF a s h ( T a b l e 8-16) a r e s i l i c o n , aluminum, and

calcium. A p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f o f t h e RDF ash i s s i l i c o n . Of t h e l o c a t i o n s
r e p o r t i n g RDF ash a n a l y s i s , B a l t i m o r e had t h e h i g h e s t s i l i c o n c o n t e n t a n d
Ames t h e l o w e s t (111). Sodium, an i m p o r t a n t c h a r g e - c a r r i e r f o r
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n , v a r i e d f r o m 0 t o 8 . 2 p e r c e n t by w e i g h t .

U n f a v o r a b l e RDF ash r e s i s t i v i t y does n o t appear t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r

when c o - f i r i n g RDF w i t h c o a l . F l y a s h f r o m c o a l can v a r y f r o m l o w
r e s i s t i v i t y t o v e r y h i g h r e s i s t i v i t y depending on t h e c h e m i s t r y o f t h e
p a r t i c u l a r ash. I n g e n e r a l , RDF ash has a l o w e r r e s i s t i v i t y t h a n most c o a l
ashes p r i m a r i l y due t o a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f carbonaceous m a t e r i a l i n t h e
ash (149).

E x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t i n g c o n d u c t e d a t t h e Arnes U n i t 7 f a c i 1 i t y (148)i s the

most d e t a i l e d t e s t d a t a on RDF c o - f i r i n g c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e open
literature. T a b l e 8-17 i n c l u d e s c o m b u s t i o n a i r , f e e d w a t e r , steam, and f l u e
gas c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s measured d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t p r o g r a m . Heat
i n p u t f r o m ROF f i r i n g v a r i e d f r o m 0 t o 2 0 . 8 p e r c e n t . F i u e gas
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were measured a t a s a m p l i n g l o c a t i o n i n t h e smokestack.
W h i l e f l u e gas f l o w r a t e ( a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s ) d i d n o t change
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g RDF c o - f i r i n g when compared t o 100 p e r c e n t c o a l
f i r i n g , gas t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e d b y 49°F a t 80 p e r c e n t l o a d a n d b y 18OF a t
100 p e r c e n t l o a d . T h i s i n c r e a s e i n f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e has a d e t r i m e n t a l
e f f e c t on p r e c i p i t a t o r performance b y f o r c i n g coal/RDF ash r e s i s t i v i t y and
a c t u a l gas f l o w r a t e
 T a b l e 8-16

Average RDF Ash Properties

As Reported a t Various F a c i l i t i e s (111)

St. Louis
Baltinore Mil ity fii luaukee Bridgeport Chi cago msa
Boiler Daily Bailer ROF Boiler Boiler
Test Sanples Test Plant Test Test
1980 1973-75 1979 Data 1979 1982

N A ~ 651 3 NAb 30 3

Ash analysis. X by utC

Silicon, SiO, 57.0 55.5 54.2 M.7 49.3 47.7

Alunintm, A120, 17.8 8.8 9.3 11.3 7.4 18.3

Calciun, CaO 10.7 11.9 14.5 8.0 12.9 12.3

Copper. CuO 0.2

Iron, Fe,O, 2.5 5.3 4.5 18.6 3.6 4.7
Lead. PbO 0.2 0.2
Rgnesiun, ?4g0 1.7 1.5 2.9 1.2 3.1 2.4
hnganese. WnO, 0.3
Phosphorus, P205 1.3 0.3
Potdssiun, K,O 2.2 1.7 1.7 1.9 2.3
Sodiun, Na,O 2.2 8.2 5- 1 0 4.0
Sulfur, SO, 2.2 1.5 2.3 4.4
Tin, SnO, 1.8 0.03 0.1
Titaniun, TiO, 1 .o 1.0 3.3
Zinc, ZnO 0.3 0.5
Chlorine, C1 3.1 - -
99.4 78.2 100.0

akms data after 1978 disc screen installation.

b~ypicalaverage value. Htrber of s q l e s unknown.

CValues are shown for those analyses that uere conducted. In nust cases ash analysis does not total 100%
because a carplete analysis uas not conducted.
 Table 8-17

Average A i r , Feedwater, and Steam

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f a r Experimental Runs
a t Ames Boiler Unit (E)
upward. Fuel a n a l y s e s , b o t h RDF and c o a l , a r e l i s t e d on T a b l e 8-18. The
RDF has a mean h e a t i n g v a l u e o f 5602 B t u / l b and a mean ash c o n t e n t o f 13.09
percent. T a b l e s 8-19 and 8-20 a r e t a b u l a t i o n s o f t h e measured c o m b u s t i b l e
a n d n o n - c o m b u s t i b l e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e b o t t o m ash a n d t h e f l y a s h . An
i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s d a t a i s t h a t t h e f l y a s h and b o t t o m ash m i n e r a l
m a t t e r c o m p o s i t i o n and c a r b o n c o n t e n t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t when c o a l
i s the only fuel fired. However, as t h e f u e l m i x t u r e changes f r o m 0 t o 20
p e r c e n t RDF, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f . f l y a s h and b o t t o m ash become n e a r l y
identical. The m i n e r a l a s h c o n t e n t a l s o t e n d e d t o become n e a r l y t h e same
a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f dump g r a t e s . The average r e s u l t s o f t h r e e
i n d e p e n d e n t e m i s s i o n s t e s t s a r e p r e s e n t e d on T a b l e 8-21. Uncontrolled
p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s , as a f u n c t i o n o f RDF h e a t i n p u t and p e r c e n t l o a d , i s
p l o t t e d on F i g u r e 8-21. E x c e p t f o r t h e 100 p e r c e n t l o a d d a t a on c o a l o n l y ,
a l l t h e r u n s show s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s as t h e
amount o f RDF c o - f i r i n g i n c r e a s e s . T h i s appears t o b e a r e s u l t o f b o t h
l i g h t e r p a r t i c l e s and i n c r e a s e d f l o w t h r o u g h t h e b o i l e r when b u r n i n g RDF.
F i g u r e s 8-23 and 8-24 show p a r t i c u l a t e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , measured w i t h an
Anderson cascade i m p a c t o r , f o r 80 p e r c e n t and 100 p e r c e n t b o i l e r l o a d and
0, 10 and 20 p e r c e n t RDF c o - f i r i n g . From t h e s e f i g u r e s i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t
p a r t i c l e s i z e s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e d RDF c o - f i r i n g (148).

S t a c k o p a c i t y measurements were n o t r e p o r t e d d u r i n g t h e Ames U n i t 7 t e s t

program.

Precipitator Size Selection

T a b l e 8-22 p r e s e n t s a summary o f t h e Ames U n i t 7 p r e c i p i t a t o r d a t a

measured d u r i n g t h e 1978 t e s t p r o g r a m ( i t was e x t r a c t e d f r o m T a b l e 8-21).
A l s o i n c l u d e d on t h i s t a b l e a r e p r e c i p i t a t o r t e s t r e s u l t s f r o m Meramec
S t a t i o n U n i t 1, Ames S t a t i o n U n i t 8, a n d C r a w f o r d S t a t i o n U n i t 7 . In
n e a r l y a l l cases, t h e e x i s t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s u f f e r e d a d e c r e a s e i n
c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f between 0 . 2 t o 3 . 5 p e r c e n t when RDF was c o - f i r e d
when compared t o 100 p e r c e n t c o a l f i r i n g . The Ames U n i t 7 p r e c i p i t a t o r
s u f f e r e d e f f i c i e n c y d e c r e a s e s r a n g i n g f r o m 0 . 8 p e r c e n t t o 1.9 p e r c e n t . The
r e a s a n o r r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e e f f i c i e n c y d e c r e a s e s can be d e t e r m i n e d a f t e r
r e v i e w o f c r i t i c a l p r e c i p i t a t o r p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , as shown on
 Table 8-18
As Fired Coal and RDF
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t Ames F a c i l i t y (MJ)

Coal RDF

w~nberof Samples 1976 1978 1978

f m b e r of Samples 12
f i e a r i n p Value (HHV)
kJ/g 22.42 0.13 23.6 0.52 13.02 0.83

Ash ( X ) 12.98 2.30 9.74 2.23 13.09 2.72

Carbon ( X ) 53.96 2.81 56.6 1.5 30.66 2.92

Hydrogen ( L ) 3.42 0.65 G.01 0.19 4.51 0.44

Sulfur ( X ) 3.27 0.85 2.79 0.81 0.32 0.05

Chlorine ( X ) 0.03 0.01 0+21 0.12 0.35 0.15

 Analysis of Bottom Ash
Before and A f t e r I n s t a l l a t i o n
o f Dump Grates a t Ames Boiler U n i t 7 (148)

Prior to installation o f 0- Grates; 1976,1977

Parmeter 60% Load m Load 100% Load

(X) 0% ROF OX ROF OX ROF 10X ROF

Carbon 7.51 (4.90)~ 5.46 (1.24) 5.53 (0.95) 35.4 (3.42)

Hydrogen 0.87 (0.56) 0.61 (0.20) 0.49 (0.15) 3.83 (0.55)

Sulfur 2.58 (1.12) 3+59 (1.40) 2.90 (3.95) 0.75 10.06)

Chlorine 0.01 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.011 0.18 (0.04)

Mineral 89.0 (4.33) 90.3 (0.98) 91.1 (4.76) 59.9 (4.06)

After Installation o f OurQ Crates; 1978

BOX Load TOOT Load

OX RDF 10X ROF 20% ROF OX ROF 10X RDF M X ROF

Carbon 4.66 (0.88) 2.10 (0.28) 3.11 (0.72) 6.62 * 1.49 (0.27) 1.85 [1.21)

Hydrogen 0.20 (0107) 0.23 (0.02) 0.37 (0.08) 0.38 ( * ) 0.18 (0.04) 0.21 (6.12)

Sulfur 1.07 (0.87) 1.12 (0.99) 0.31 (0.04) 8.98 ( * ) 1.12 (0.71) 0.34 (0.08)

Chlorine 0.01 (0.00) 0.02 (0.01) 0.02 (0.02) 0.03 ( * ) 0.02 (0.0%) 0.02 (0.01)

Mineral 94.8 (0.82) 96.6 (0.82) 96.2 (0.80) 84.0 * 97.2 (0.51) 97.1 (1.411

a~atuesi n parentheses are 2 one standard deviation

 Table 8-20

Analysis o f Fly Ash

Before and After I n s t a l l a t i o n
o f Dump Gates a t Ames Boiler U n i t 7 (148)

Prior t o I n s t a l l a t i o n o f Ounp Grates 1976, 1977

Parater 60% Load BOX Load 100% Load

(X) OX ROF OX ADF OX ROF 1OX ROF

Carban 0.79 (0.19) 0.95 (0.27) 1.87 (1.15) 4.68 (0.43)

Hydrogen 0.27 (0.08) 0.60 (0.25) 0.61 (0.28) 0.07 (0.02)

Sulfur 1.52 (0.25) 1.35 (0.28) 1.35 (0.18) 1.02 (0.12)

Chlorine 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.001 0.01 (0.02) 0.00 (0.00)

Hineral 97.4 (0.47) 97.1 (0.57) 96.2 (1.47) 94.2 (0.57)

After l m t a l l a t i o n o f Ourp Grates 1978

69% toad lMlX Load

OX ROF 1OX ROF 20% ROF OX ROF 10%ROF 2OX ROF

Carbon 1.85 (0.55) 2.43 (0.35) 2.54 (0.05) 1.92 (0.78) 2.41 (0.49) 2.40 (0.40)

Hydrogen 0.10 (0.02) 0.11 (0.01) 0.17 (0.05) 0.10 (0.02) 0.11 co.01) 0.11 (0.02)

Sulfur 0.70 (0.34) 0.69 (0.13) 0.86 (0.14) 1.02 (0.511 0.82 (0.21) 0.83 (0.131

Chlorine 0.01 (0.01) 0.01 (0.00) 0.03 (0.01) 0.01 (0.01) 0.02 (0.01) 0.02 (0.01)

Hineral 97.3 (0.55) 96.8 (0.46) 96.4 (0.09) 97.0 (0.39) 96.6 (0.59) 96.6 (0.30)

a ~ a l u e si n parentheses are one standard deviation

 Table 8 - 2 1

Selected Emissions
Before and A f t e r I n s t a l l a t i o n
of Dump Grates a t Ames Boiler U n i t 7 (19)

P r i o r t o I n s t a l l a t i o n of O w Grates 1976. 1977

units MIX Load BOX Load 100* Load

0% ROF 0% ROF OX ROF 10% RDF

Particulates l b l l 0 ~ 8 ~ ~ ~ 0.23 (0.07)a 0.35 (0.121 0.60 10.09) 0.53 (0.12)

(control led)
Particulates l b/106BlU 9.05 (1.02) 7.49 (1.721 8.26 (0.05) 8.35 (0.30)
(uncontrol led)
Oxides of Sulfur SOX Ib/ t06BTU 2.61 (0.40) 2.88 (0.70) 3.70 (0.16) 2.88 (1.14)
Oxides af Nitrogen Wx lb/106BTU 0.32 10.03) 0.26 (0.09) 0.35 (0.02) 0.27 (0.04)
Chlorides lb/lO9BT!J 5.14 (3.75) 13.6 (8.42) 28.14 (6.91) 7.65 (5.05)
Formaldehyde Ib/lO.BTU 4.56 (5.58) 20.9 (44.0) 5.49 14.58) 60.0 l52.?)
Methane Ib/lO.BTu 0.00 (0.00,- 0.0 (0.00) 0.00 (0.W) 0.W (0.00)

After I n s t a l l a t i o n of Durp Grates 1978

Pardneter Units 80T Load IOOX Load

OX RDF 10% RUF 20%ROF 0% RDF 10% RDF 20% RDF

Particuiates I~/IO~BTLI 0.21 (0.05) 0.37 (0.09) 0.37 (0.07) 0.42 (0.21) 0.44 (0.07) 0.53 (o.??)
(controlled)
Particulates 1b/lO6BTU 6.54 (1.33) 7.63 (0.63) 8.21 0.21) 7.93 13.58) 7.28 (0.53) 7.47 (O.??)
(uncontrolled)
Oxides of Sulfur Ib/106BT~ 3.42 (0.14) 2.84 (0.16) 2.33 (0.63) 3.30 (2.07) 2.33 (0.491 1.93 (O.??)
SOX
OxidesofWitrogen lb/106BTU 0.39 (0.02) 0.33 (0.02) 0.33 (0.03) 0.31 (0.04) 0.26 (0.01) 0.26 (O.??)
WX
Chlorides Ib/lOeBTU 10.7 (1.77) M.9 (35.8) 93.7 (8.96) 7.65 (1.88) 58.4 (31.9) 28.6 (O.??)
Formaldehyde Ib/lO*ETu 8.37 114.0) 12. (201.1 0.77 (0.421 0.19 (0.33) 1.44 (0.721 0.42 (O.??)
eethane Ib/lO*BTU 5.30 (2.65) 6.07 (1.581 3.77 (0.30) 3.35 (0.93) 4.58 (1.44) 2.47 (0.??1

dvalues i n parentheses are + one standard deviation

b t o convert frm Ib/106BTU t o micrograa/Joule. w l t i p l y values i n the above table by 0.430

 - - -

EFFECT OF RDF O N UNCONTROLLED EMISSIONS

0 - 60 PERCENT LOAD
a -80 PERCENT LOAD
A - 100 PERCENT LOAD
-
OPEN SYMBOL 1978 DATA
SHADED SYMBOL-1976 OR 1977 DATA

I I i I i
0 4 8 12 16 20
REFUSE DERIVED FUEL INPUT, PERCENT

F i g u r e 8-22. Uncontrolled P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions versus RDF Heat I n p u t

a t Ames B o i l e r U n i t 7 (148)
 PARTICLE SIZING
80% LOAD
UNIT 7
ANDERSEN 1978

2 5 10 1 5 2 0 30 40 50 60 70 8085 90 95 98

CUMULATlVE PCT LESS THAN DS0

Figure 8-23. P a r t i c u l a t e S i z e D i s t r i b u t j o n f o r 80 Percent Load a t

Ames Boiler U n i t (148)
 PARTICLE SIZING
100% LOAD
UNIT 7
ANDERSEN 1978

CUMULATIVE PERCENT LESS THAN DS0

Figure 8-24. P a r t i c u l a t e S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n for 100 Percent Load a t

Ames B o i l e r U n i t 7(148)
 Table 8-22

Average ESP E f f i c i e n c y f o r Coal and

Coal/RDF f i r i n g a s Reported a t V a r i o u s F a c i l i t i e s (111)

ESP E f f i c i e n c y
Boiler N a inal Averaqe ESP E f f i c i e n c y Average RDF Reduction Due
Test Bci l e r Coal Only Coal 6 RDF Heat Input t o Cofiring
Location Unit Date Load (1X) 0 0 (X) jpercentaqe p o i n t s 1

(Electric u t i l i t y tests)
S t . Louis Wramec 1 1913-15 12
1I
10

(EPA tests)
s t . Louis wramec I 1973-75 9
18
27
9
18
9

1978b 10
20
10
20

knes 8 1982 22

Chicago Crauford 7 1919 HA^

ast. Louis percentage b o i l e r load based on 1 2 5 W rated f u l l load

bBefore disc screen i n s t a l l a t i o n c w l e t e d i n Docerrber 1978. Experience since 1979 may be different.

C ~ e p o r t e daverage o f 30 tests. Percentage ROF not reported.

Table 8-23. When s i z i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r ( i f indeed t h e r e i s t h e opportunity
t o do so a s most RDF c o - f i r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s a r e r e t r o f i t t e d i n t o e x i s t i n g
s t a t i o n s with o p e r a t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s ) i t i s suggested t h a t a c o n s e r v a t i v e
approach be t a k e n , a s follows:
S i z e t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r f o r t h e coal ash r e s i s t i v i t y l e v e l (do not take
c r e d i t f o r reduced coal/RDF ash r e s i s t i v i t y l e v e l s ) a t t h e new f l u e
gas temperature.

Do not t a k e c r e d i t f o r i n c r e a s e d coal/RDF ash p a r t i c l e s i z e .

Take i n t o account i n c r e a s e d ash loading when c a l c u l a t i n g ESP

emissions.

Account f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n f l u e g a s flow r a t e ( a t a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s ) .

Due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d amount of carbon p a r t i c u l a t e i n t h e coal/RDF a s h , i t i s

a l s o necessary t o maintain low p r e c i p i t a t o r v e l o c i t i e s ( p r e f e r a b l y below 6
f p s ) and moderate a s p e c t r a t i o s ( p r e f e r a b l y above 0 . 8 ) t o minimize carbon
p e n e t r a t i o n through t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r chamber

S p e c i f i c a t i o n of Mechanical and E l e c t r i c a l Features

A t t h i s t i m e , i t does not appear t h a t s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s need be made f o r

p r e c i p i t a t o r a d a p t i a n t o RDF co-f i r i n g . However, i f high p r e c i p i t a t ion
v e l o c i t i e s cannot be avoided, then v a r i a b l e i n t e n s i t y e l e c t r o d e rapp ing and
i n c r e a s e d rapping s e c t i o n a l i z a t i o n would be helpful towards reducing carbon
p a r t i c l e reentrainment.

COAL-WATER SLURRY (CWS)

C a l c u l a t i o n of Process Parameters

A coal-water s l u r r y was formed using coal from P i t t s t o n , West V i r g i n i a and

burned w i t h a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t s in t h e A t l a n t i c Research C o r p o r a t i o n ' s
one m i l l i o n Btu/hr experimental f u r n a c e . Combustion behavior was e s s e n t i a l l y
s i m i l a r t o s l u r r i e s previously t e s t e d i n t h e furnace except t h a t t h e P i t t s o n
CWS was much more d i f f i c u l t t o atomize. Atomization p r e s s u r e s of 30 t o 40
p s i g (3.1 x l o 5 t o 3.8 x lDSPa) were r e q u i r e d with t h i s s l u r r y .

Three combustion t e s t s a t d i f f e r e n t a i r / f u e l r a t i o s were conducted, each

approximately one hour long. As excess a i r increased from approximately 5 t o
39 p e r c e n t , combustion e f f i c i e n c y improved from about 84 t o 92 p e r c e n t .
 T a b l e 8-23
Review o f Changes in C r i t i c a l
ESP Process Parameters During RDF
Go-Firing a t Ames B o i l e r Unit 7 (Adapted f r o m ( 1 4 8 )

Change i n P a r a m e t e r
D u r i n g RDF C o - F i r i n g E f f e c t On
Process Parameter (Compared t o C o z l F i r i n g ) ESP P e r f o r m a n c e

Flyash R e s i s t i v i t y Decreased Improves P e r f o r m a n c e

Ash Carbon C o n t e n t Increased Can Have a D e t r i m e n t a l

Effect

Flue Gas Flow R a t e a t Insignificant Change No E f f e c t

Standard Conditions

Ash P a r t i c l e S i z e Slight Increase Slight Beneficial Effect

I n l e t Ash L o a d i n g Increased I n c r e a s e d ESP O u t l e t

Emissions

F l u e Gas T e m p e r a t u r e Increased Detrimental Effect

Combustion e f f i c i e n c y can be expressed e i t h e r a s t h e percent combustible
m a t t e r of t h e coal consumed (sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s carbon burnout) o r a s
t h e p e r c e n t of t h e energy of t h e coal r e l e a s e d . There i s only a s l i g h t
d i f f e r e n c e in t h e numerical values of t h e two. The energy r e l e a s e b a s i s was
used i n t h i s study and i s computed from measured s l u r r y flow r a t e , bottom ash
c o l l e c t i o n , f l y ash c o l l e c t i o n , and t h e r e s p e c t i v e heating values of t h e s e
m a t e r i a l s obtained from proximate a n a l y s i s . In a d d i t i o n , a small c o r r e c t i o n
i s a p p l i e d f o r t h e presence of CO i n t h e s t a c k g a s . The combustion
e f f i c i e n c i e s a r e unique t o t h e experimental furnace used in t h i s study and,
while v e r y r e s p e c t a b l e f o r t h i s small u n i t , a r e not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of what i s
expected i n a l a r g e u t i l i t y b o i l e r (where conversion of 99 percent i s t h e
rule) .

Another f i g u r e of merit t o e v a l u a t e combustion performance of s l u r r y i s

volumetric h e a t r e l e a s e r a t e . This i s computed a s t h e product of t h e f i r i n g
r a t e and combustion e f f i c i e n c y d i v i d e d by t h e furnace volume. The heat
r e l e a s e r a t e s varied from 54,100 t o 62,900 B t u / f t 3 / h r . Values f o r o i l
burning a t near 100 percent e f f i c i e n c y a r e approximately 7 2 , 0 0 0 B t u / f t 3 / h r
in t h e same equipment.

COAL-OIL MIXTURE (COM)

F l o r i d a Power and L i g h t Company has conducted a comprehensive t e s t program of

c o a l - o i l mixture a t i t s 400 megawatt Sanford U n i t 4 (154), Mixtures
c o n s i s t i n g of up t o 50 percent coal were burned. The purpose of t h e t e s t s
were t o demonstrate the f e a s i b i l i t y of preparing, t r a n s p o r t i n g , s t o r i n g , and
burning coal-oi 1 mixtures.

Because Sanford Unit 4 i s c o n t r o l l e d by a mechanical d u s t c o l l e c t o r , i t was

recognized t h a t an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r , o r o t h e r high e f f i c i e n c y ash
c o l l e c t i o n d e v i c e , would need t o be i n s t a l l e d t o reduce atmospheric emissions
of f l y ash t o a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s . There was concern regarding the a b i l i t y t o
p r e d i c t p r e c i p i t a t o r performance and s i z e a f u l l s c a l e p r e c i p i t a t o r with an
a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l of confidence f o r t h e coal-oil mixture. Precipitator
performance problems have occurred when unburned o i l , during s t a r t - u p , coated
coal f l y a s h . Florida Power and Light Company t h u s c o n t r a c t e d t h e s e r v i c e s of
F l a k t , I n c . t o operate a p i l o t p r e c i p i t a t o r during t h e coal-oil burn t e s t s .
This s e c t i o n w i l l d i s c u s s t h e r e s u l t s of t h e Flakt p i l o t p r e c i p i t a t o r t e s t
program.
P l a n t Description

Coal i s brought i n t o t h e p l a n t by r a i l c a r s from Virgina mines. The coal has

a t y p i c a l h e a t c o n t e n t of over 13,000 B t u p e r pound, a s u l f u r c o n t e n t under 1
p e r c e n t and an ash c o n t e n t under 10 p e r c e n t . The coal i s e i t h e r s t o r e d on t h e
ground o r in one of f o u r coal s i l o s . As needed, i t flows t o p u l v e r i z e r s where
i t i s reduced i n size t o 80 percent through a 200 mesh screen. The coal i s
then mixed with o i l i n a 15,000 gallon m i x tank. Production of a 50 p e r c e n t
by weight b a r r e l of c o a l - o i l mixture r e q u i r e s approximately 2013 pounds of coal
and 0 . 6 b a r r e l of o i l . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e coal and o i l , an a d d i t i v e and water
a r e a l s o provided t o i n c r e a s e t h e m i x t u r e ' s s t a b i l i t y . Coal has a tendency t o
s e t t l e when mixed with o i l , and an a d d i t i v e helps t o reduce t h i s tendency.

The mixture i s pumped t o a 55,000 b a r r e l s t o r a g e t a n k containing f o u r paddle

mixers which help maintain coal i n suspension. The mixture i s pumped t o t h e
b o i l e r burners and atomized w i t h steam. The b o i l e r has t h r e e burner l e v e l s
with s i x burners i n each l e v e l . During t e s t i n g , several d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of
b u r n e r t i p s were t r i e d . Sometimes d i f f e r e n t t i p s were t e s t e d simultaneously.
T h i s probably l e d t o some of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n p r e c i p i t a t o r t e s t r e s u l t s which
w i l l be discussed l a t e r .

P i l o t P r e c i p i t a t o r Description

Flue gas f o r t h e F l a k t p i l o t p r e c i p i t a t o r was e x t r a c t e d from t h e n o r t h main

d u c t between t h e a i r p r e h e a t e r o u t l e t and t h e mechanical d u s t c o l l e c t o r i n l e t
duct. An o f f - t a k e system c o n s i s t e d of f i v e nozzle banks. Each nozzle bank
had t h r e e nozzles, each with a diameter of f o u r i n c h e s . Nozzle banks were
s h u t o f f a s required t o g i v e i s o k i n e t i c sampling r a t e s over t h e range of
p r e c i p i t a t o r SCAs t e s t e d ; SCA ( s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n a r e a ) i s t h e square f e e t o f
p r e c i p i t a t o r c o l l e c t i o n s u r f a c e p e r thousand a c t u a l cubic f e e t per minute of
g a s flow r a t e .

An e l e c t r i c h e a t e r was i n s t a l l e d in the i n l e t duct of t h e p i l o t p r e c i p i t a t o r

t o c o n t r o l gas temperature.
The p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n s i s t e d of 826.7 square f e e t of c o l l e c t i o n s u r f a c e with t e n
inch c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e spacing. The p r e c i p i t a t o r was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e
e l e c t r i c a l s e c t i o n s o r f i e l d s , each w i t h i t s own e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g i z a t i o n and
c o n t r o l system. The d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s were F l a k t ' s standard h e l i c a l w i r e s
with a wire diameter of 0 . 1 0 inch.

Each p r e c i p i t a t o r f i e l d was equipped with a rapping system. Discharge

e l e c t r o d e s were rapped a t s i x minute i n t e r v a l s . C o l l e c t i o n p l a t e s were rapped
each s i x minutes in t h e f i r s t f i e l d , each twelve minutes i n t h e second f i e l d ,
and each t h i r t y minutes in t h e t h i r d f i e l d .

Gas flow r a t e s and emissions were measured downstream of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

The EPA method 5 (without t h e wet impinger c a t c h ) was used t o measure t h e d u s t
emission. Gelman t y p e A / E g l a s s f i b e r f i l t e r s were u t i l i z e d . Inlet dust
burden was determined by weighing t h e d u s t c o l l e c t e d in t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s
hoppers.

Performance t e s t s were conducted over a range from 150 SCA t o 300 SCA; t h i s
corresponds t o a gas v e l o c i t y of 4 . 3 f e e t per second t o 2.15 f e e t per second,
respectively. The p r e c i p i t a t o r c u r r e n t d e n s i t y was maintained a t
approximately 21.5 microamps per s q u a r e f o o t of c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e , which F l a k t
a n t i c i p a t e d would be s u i t a b l e f o r a f u l l - s i z e p r e c i p i t a t o r . Some t e s t s were
run a t h a l f and a t t w i c e t h i s level t o determine t h e e f f e c t of corona c u r r e n t
variations.

Performance Results

A t o t a l of ninety-three p r e c i p i t a t o r performance t e s t s were run between May 5

and October 1 0 , 1980. These t e s t s were conducted over a wide range o f b o i l e r
o p e r a t i n g conditions. Percent coal i n t h e coal-oil mixture ranged from 20 t o
50 percent. B o i l e r load ranged from 200 t o 400 megawatts. Boiler
oxygen level ranged from l e s s than one percent t o f i v e p e r c e n t . Various
burner t i p designs were used, hence varying t h e q u a l i t y of atomization.

Figure 9-25 summarizes t h e performance r e s u l t s . Considerable s c a t t e r i s

evident. I t w i l l be t h e o b j e c t i v e of t h e remainder of t h i s c h a p t e r t o e x p l a i n
t h i s s c a t t e r and t o p r e d i c t what s i z e of p r e c i p i t a t o r would be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r
t h e c o n d i t i o n s encountered.
N o r m a l l y as t h e SCA o f a p r e c i p i t a t o r i s i n c r e a s e d , i t s p e r c e n t c o l l e c t i o n
e f f i c i e n c y increases. The m o d i f i e d Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n used t o
d e s c r i b e t h e performance i s a s f o l l o w s :

k
100 - EFF - -
100 '-

Where :

EFF = c o i l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , p e r c e n t

SCA = s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n a r e a , f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 acfm

W = p a r t i c u l a t e e f f e c t i v e m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y , cm/sec

I n t h e above f o r m u l a , t h e f a c t o r "k" depends on t h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

t h e p a r t i c l e s and on o t h e r p a r t i c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h make each
p a r t i c l e more o r l e s s easy t o c o l l e c t . I f a l l t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e t h e same
s i z e , k w o u l d a p p r o x i m a t e u n i t y , w h i c h i s v i r t u a l l y n e v e r t h e case. A "kl'
o f 0 . 5 has been found t o be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s n o r m a l l y
encountered.

The p r e c i p i t a t o r performance shown on F i g u r e s 8-25, 8-27 and 8-28 e v i d e n t l y

d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h e Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n . T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o
many v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p l a n t o p e r a t i o n .

A n a l y s i s o f a s h samples i n d i c a t e d r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l s o f unburned f u e l
( l o s s on i g n i t i o n o r LOI). T h i s v a r i e d from f i v e percent t o almost t h i r t y
percent. H i g h l e v e l s o f unburned carbon were t h o u g h t t o be d e l e t e r i o u s t o
p r e c i p i t a t o r performance. F i g u r e 8-25 d i s t i n g u i s h e s between h i g h and l o w
LO1 v a l u e s . No c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n i s e v i d e n t . I f f a c t , some o f t h e
highest c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s occurred w i t h very high LO1 v a l u e s .
G e n e r a l l y , i n c r e a s i n g t h e b o i l e r oxygen l e v e l d e c r e a s e d t h e LO1 l e v e l , a s
shown i n F i g u r e 8-26.
 NOTE

A LO1 OVER 15%

LO1 UNDER 1%
x LO1 10-15%

Figure 8-25. P i l o t P r e c i p i t a t o r Test Results

 BOILER OXYGEN LEVEL (%)

Figure 8-26. Boiler Oxygen Effect on Ash Loss on Ignition (FOl)

The LO1 l e v e l i s a l s o a f f e c t e d b y t h e q u a l i t y o f a t o m i z a t i o n w h i c h i n t u r n
may a f f e c t t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e ; p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e i s dependent on
p a r t i c l e size. The b u r n e r t i p geometry v a r i e d f r o m t i p t o t i p due t o
e r o s i o n , s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s and o p e r a t i n g t i m e . During the e a r l y
o p e r a t i o n , i t became e v i d e n t t h a t e x c e s s i v e wear was o c c u r r i n g on t h e f r o n t
nozzle o f the burner t i p . T h i s caused p o o r a t o m i z a t i o n and r e q u i r e d
f r e q u e n t t i p replacement. Through a s e r i e s o f d e s i g n m o d i f i c a t i o n s , t h i s
e r o s i o n was reduced. A s o l i d c o a l l i k e d e p o s i t a l s o formed i n some o f t h e
b u r n e r s , and t h i s may have a l s o a f f e c t e d q u a l i t y o f a t o m i z a t i o n .

Because t h e r e were e i g h t e e n b u r n e r s , each w i t h i t s own o p e r a t i n g h i s t o r y ,

d e g r e e o f e r o s i o n , and a t o m i z a t i o n q u a l i t y , i t was n o t t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e t o
c o r r e l a t e b u r n e r p e r f o r m a n c e t o p a r t i c l e s i z e , LO1 l e v e l o r p r e c i p i t a t o r
performance. Thus, some o f t h e s c a t t e r o f F i g u r e 8-25 can be e x p e c t e d t o
l i k e w i s e o c c u r w i t h a f u l l - s i z e p r e c i p i t a t o r , as p e r f e c t a t o m i z a t i o n , and
combustion c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r on a day-to-day basis.*

A l i n e a r m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , i n c l u d i n g L O I , was c o n d u c t e d i n an
a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n some o f t h e spread i n t h e t e s t r e s u l t s . This did not
p r o v i d e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n t o t h e degree o f d a t a s c a t t e r . Thus, t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r must be s e n s i t i v e t o o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e
r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , such as t h e b o i l e r o p e r a t i o n . When such f a c t o r s a r e
e x c l u d e d from t h e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , c o r r e l a t i o n s f r o m t h e i n c l u d e d
v a r i a b l e s cannot be assured.

I n l e t p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n v a r i e d f r o m under 0 . 5 g r a i n s / d s c f t o 1.6
grains/dscf. No c o r r e l a t i o n was e v i d e n t between p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
and c a l c u l a t e d m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y o r p r e c i p i t a t o r c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y .

* P a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t s were n o t c o n d u c t e d on c o l l e c t e d ash
because a g g l o m e r a t i o n c o u l d have o c c u r r e d .
Gas t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i e d between 280 and 380°F. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e was n o t e d . E l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y t e s t s on a s h
samples i n d i c a t e d d e c r e a s i n g r e s i s t i v i t i e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s
above 300°F.

The p r e c i p i t a t o r secondary v o l t a g e v a r i e d between a p p r o x i m a t e l y 32 and 42

kV. I t i s most unusual t h a t t h i s had no a p p a r e n t i n f l u e n c e on p e r f o r m a n c e ,
as u s u a l l y secondary v o l t a g e has a s t r o n g e r i n f l u e n c e t h a n secondary
current level. S e v e r a l t e s t s were c o n d u c t e d a t much h i g h e r and much l o w e r
c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s t h a n a r e e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r d u r i n g normal o p e r a t i o n .
These t e s t s showed l o w e r i n f l u e n c e o f c o r o n a c u r r e n t on performance t h a n i s
normally found.

F i g u r e 8-27 shows c a l c u l a t e d m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y v e r s u s p r e c i p i t a t o r SCA

during the tests. The m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y i s based on a u n i t y exponent i n
t h e Deutsch-Anderson e q u a t i o n . N o r m a l l y , as SCA and c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y
i n c r e a s e , t h e m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y ( w i t h a u n i t y e x p o n e n t ) w o u l d be e x p e c t e d
t o decrease. F i g u r e 8-28 shows m i g r a t i o n v e l o c i t y v e r s u s SCA f o r a k v a l u e
equal t o 0 . 5 . T h i s f o r m s a more h o r i z o n t a l form and t h u s i s more u s e f u l i n
precipitator sizing.

F i g u r e 8-28 does, however, appear t o have a s l i g h t l y downward s l o p e w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g SCA.** Based on p a s t e x p e r i ence, t h i s i s most u n u s u a l . It
c o u l d be due t o a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f f i n e p a r t i c u l a t e e n t e r i n g t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r a t l o w sampling ( l o w SCA) r a t e s . I t a l s o c o u l d be due t o t h e
l o w p r e c i p i t a t o r v e l o c i t y a t h i g h SCA 1 e v e l s a t 300 SEA, t h e v e l o c i t y
t h r o u g h t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r was o n l y 2 . 1 5 f e e t p e r second. T h i s low v e l o c i t y
may d e c r e a s e t u r b u l e n c e t o l e v e l s w h e r e i n t h e f i n e p a r t i c u l a t e i s n o t
b r o u g h t c l o s e enough t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n p l a t e s f o r c a p t u r e . T h i s phenomenon
has been o b s e r v e d b y o t h e r s .

-
** A h o r i z o n t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n w o u l d be e x p e c t e d .
 SCA, ft2/k ACFM

F i g u r e 8-27. SCA vs. Fligration Velocity, K = 1 . 0

f i ~ u r e8-28. SCA vs. Migration V e l o c i t y , K = 3.5
In view of t h e high number of v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e c o a l - o i l
mixture burn t e s t s , some p r e c i p i t a t o r t e s t s c a t t e r can be e x p e c t e d . One
could d e s i g n a f u l l s i z e p r e c i p i t a t o r based on t h e average performance of
t h e p i l o t , which would probably n o t be adequate were performance measured,
on a day-by-day basis. Designing f o r t h e worst p i l o t performance would be
too c o n s e r v a t i v e because s i g n i f i c a n t t e s t e r r o r may be i n v o l v e d .

S t a t i s t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y can be used t o e v a l u a t e t h e l e v e l o f r i s k
a s s o c i a t e d with v a r i o u s p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e s e l e c t i o n s . Assuming a normal
d a t a d i s t r i b u t i o n forming t h e f a m i l i a r b e l l c u r v e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and u s i n g a
"k" exponent of 0 . 5 , t h e average t e s t migration v e l o c i t y was 23.96 cm/s and
t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was 6.53 cm/s. The modified Deutsch-Anderson
e q u a t i o n and s t a t i s t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s determined t h e e s t i m a t e d
r e q u i r e d p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e s shown i n Figure 8-29. This f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t o i n c r e a s e t h e confidence l e v e l t o 90 p e r c e n t , a p r e c i p i t a t o r should
be i n c r e a s e d i n s i z e by about 50 p e r c e n t aver t h a t i n d i c a t e d by t h e a v e r a g e
of t h e t e s t d a t a . Costs a r e not d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o p r e c i p i t a t o r
s i z e ; a 50 percent i n c r e a s e i n s i z e would c o s t on t h e o r d e r of 30 p e r c e n t
more.

The a c t u a l s i z e of a p r e c i p i t a t o r w i l l a l s o depend on t h e r e q u i r e d
collection efficiency. This can only be determined a f t e r review of the
range o f ash c o n t e n t expected from t h e c o a l s which a r e u l t i m a t e l y purchased
and on a c o r r e l a t i o n o f emissions t o o p a c i t y . The emission o p a c i t y l i m i t
may d i c t a t e a lower p a r t i c u l a t e emission l e v e l than mass emission l i m i t
regulations,

Other items regarding t h e s e t e s t s should be noted:

No back corona was encountered during any of t h e t e s t s .

Often a s c a t t e r of p r e c i p i t a t o r performance d a t a was noted when

t h e unburned carbon c o n t e n t was h i g h , e s p e c i a l l y with c o a r s e coke
p a r t i c l e s . The unburned c o n t e n t exceeded 1 0 p e r c e n t f o r more
than 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e t e s t s . T h i s unburned c o n t e n t d i d n o t
vary with t h e p e r c e n t coal i n t h e c o a l - o i l mixture. P r e c i p i t a t o r
migration v e l o c i t y a l s o d i d not vary i n a p r e d i c t a b l e way w i t h
p e r c e n t coal i n t h e m i x t u r e .
200 300 400 500 600 700
ESTIMATED REQUIRED PRECIPITATOR SIZE (SCA), ~ ~ ' J ~ A C F M

F i g u r e 8-29. E s t i m a t e d Precipitator S i z e
 T e s t s were a l s o c o n d u c t e d w i t h p u r e o i l f i r i n g and w i t h
c o a l - o i l m i x t u r e s a f t e r p e r i o d s o f o i l f i r i n g . No p r e c i p i t a t o r
f o u l i n g was o b s e r v e d .

The p r e c i p i t a t o r t e s t s a t S a n f o r d were u s e f u l because t h e y

p r o v i d e d i n s i g h t toward t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f performance which
can be e x p e c t e d . They d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e COM ash can be
s u c c e s s f u l l y c o l l e c t e d i n an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r . The
t e s t s i n d i c a t e d a need f o r f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e
e f f e c t s o f COM p r o d u c t i o n and combustion v a r i a b l e s on t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e . However, i f a f a i r l y l a r g e
p r e c i p i t a t o r i s s e l e c t e d , these v a r i a b l e s would n o t impair t h e
g o a l o f s u c c e s s f u ? l y c o l l e c t i n g t h e ash.

LIMESTONE INJECTION MULTISTAGED BURNERS (LIMB) MODIFIED BOILERS

Limeszone I n j e c t i o n M u l t i s t a g e B u r n e r t e c h n o l o g y a l l o w s f o r t h e r e t r o f i t
f o SO2 c o n t r o l s o n t o e x i s t i n g b o i l e r s . The b o i l e r i s m o d i f i e d t o a d j u s t
t h e l o c a t i o n where c o m b u s t i o n a i r i s i n t r o d u c e d , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g n i t r o g e n
o x i d e s ; and t o a l l o w l i m e s t o n e t o be i n j e c t e d , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g s u l f u r
dioxide.

S t e i n m u l l e r , an e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m i n West Germany has been p e r f o r m i n g

r e s e a r c h w o r k i n t h e a r e a o f LIMB t e c h n o l o g y . LIMB i n i t i a l development was
c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a 2.3 MW p i l o t s c a l e b u r n e r , as an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e l o w
NOx b u r n e r development. I n t h e f i r s t phase t h e f u e l used was n a t u r a l gas
dosed w i t h SO, o r H,S; l a t e r s e v e r a l b i t u m i n o u s c o a l s were b u r n e d
i n a p i l o t burner. P a r a m e t e r i c s t u d i e s were done w i t h l i m e , l i m e s t o n e and
a c t i v a t e d l i m e a t molar r a t i o s r a n g i n g from 1 t o 4. Three a d d i t i v e
i n j e c t i o n l o c a t i o n s were t r i e d : w i t h f u e l , w i t h s t a g i n g a i r , and i n t h e
e x t e r n a l r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone. Other v a r i a b l e parameters experimented w i t h
were t e m p e r a t u r e (900 t o l l O O ° C ) , b o i T e r l o a d (60 t o 150 p e r c e n t ) , a i r f l o w
r a t e s t o b u r n e r , c o m b u s t i o n a i r s w i r l and v e l o c i t y o f s t a g i n g a i r .

R e s u l t s o f t h e p i l o t b u r n e r w o r k showed t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e m a j o r
p r e - r e q u i s i t e s f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g SO, removal i n t h e b o i l e r w i t h a
r e a s o n a b l e r a t e o f success: optimum t e m p e r a t u r e , good m i x i n g , and adequate
residence time. The c o n c e p t o f l o w NOx b u r n e r s p r o v i d e s t h e optimum
t e m p e r a t u r e and good m i x i n g . Additive i n j e c t i o n i n the external
r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone i m p r o v e s b o t h t e m p e r a t u r e and m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
Residence t i m e i s b a s i c a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e b o i l e r s i z i n g c r i t e r i a .
SO, removal e f f i c i e n c i e s ranged from 0 t o 75 p e r c e n t , depending on Ca/S
molar r a t i o (75% removal a t Ca/S=4), s u l f u r c o n t e n t in t h e coal ( h i g h e r
e f f i c i e n c y occured a t h i g h e r s u ? f u r c o n t e n t ) and t y p e o f a d d i t i v e
( a c t i v a t e d lime p r o v i d e s b e s t e f f i c i e n c y and l i m e s t o n e t h e l o w e s t ) . A
r e a l i s t i c e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h e process i s 45% t o 50% SO, removal a t a
Ca/S molar r a t i o of about 2.

A number of e x i s t i n g u t i l i t y f l y ash p r e c i p i t a t o r s may be a f f e c t e d by

b o i l e r r e t r o f i t s o r p r o c e s s changes, such a s iIMB m o d i f i c a t i o n s , undertaken
t o c o n t r o l s u l f u r oxide e m i s s i o n s . The LIMB m o d i f i c a t i o n may a f f e c t t h e
o p e r a t i o n of e x i s t i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s and t h e d e s i g n of new p r e c i p i t a t o r s f o r

-
f o u r reasons:
An i n c r e a s e i n t h e s t i c k i n e s s of d u s t d e p o s i t s on t h e ESP
e l e c t r o d e s and i n t h e hoppers

An i n c r e a s e i n t h e t o t a l p a r t i c u l a t e mass loading e n t e r i n g t h e
ESP, by a f a c t o r of two o r more

An i n c r e a s e i n t h e mass loading of submicron p a r t i c l e s , by a

f a c t o r of two o r more

* A n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e c o l l e c t e d p a r t i c u l a t e
m a t t e r by two o r d e r s of magnitude o r more.

In c o n c l u s i o n , the LIMB p r o c e s s i s q u i t e promising f o r s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s

where high SO, removal i s n o t r e q u i r e d . S i n c e t h e economics of t h e
LIMB i n d i c a t e low c a p i t a l investment/high o p e r a t i n g c o s t (due t o t h e high
s t o i c h i o r n e t r i c r a t i o of r e a g e n t ) , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e most economic
advantages of LIMB can be achieved in r e t r o f i t s i t u a t i o n s where low SO,
removal i s a c c e p t a b l e combined with a low c a p a c i t y f a c t o r . These
c o n d i t i o n s may apply t o a l a r g e number of u n i t s which would be s u b j e c t t o
pending a c i d r a i n l e g i s l a t i o n . The U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency
and t h e E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e a r e involved in l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
and f u l l - s c a l e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s of LIMB. However, t h e r e a r e not y e t enough
d a t a t o make c e r t a i n p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e impact of LIMB on ESP design and
operation.
9 THE EFFECTS OF DRY SCRUBBERS 0
PRECIPITATORS
 Section 9

THE EFFECTS OF DRY SCRUBBERS ON PRECIPITATORS

LIME SPRAY DRYER PROCESS

The lime s p r a y d r y e r p r o c e s s i s a r e l a t i v e l y simple process used t o remove
s u l f u r o x i d e s from t h e f l u e gas s t r e a m . Most f l u e gas from a b o i l e r p a s s e s
u n t r e a t e d t o a spray d r y e r where i t c o n t a c t s an atomized s l u r r y of lime and
recycled waste. The s u l f u r o x i d e s a r e absorbed and r e a c t with t h e lime and
r e c y c l e d f l y ash t o form calcium s u l f i t e and calcium s u l f a t e . Water i n j e c t e d
i n t o t h e s p r a y d r y e r i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t u r a t e t h e f l u e g a s , and t h e
r e s u l t i n g waste m a t e r i a l l e a v e s a s e n t r a i n e d , dry p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r . The
f l u e gas n e x t p a s s e s i n t o p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t i o n equipment, e i t h e r a baghouse
o r a p r e c i p i t a t o r , where f l y a s h and r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s a r e removed from t h e gas
stream. T h i s r e s u l t s i n higher c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s , and e m p i r i c a l t e s t
d a t a bears t h i s out. An i n c r e a s e from 98.5 t o 9 9 . 4 percent c o l l e c t i o n
e f f i c i e n c y was observed f o r dry FGD i n p i l o t p l a n t o p e r a t i o n s o b t a i n e d by Joy
Manufacturing Company a t t h e R i v e r s i d e P l a n t i n Minneapolis, Minnesota, a s
shown i n Table 9-1. The c l e a n e d f l u e gas then flows through induced d r a f t
f a n s and o u t t h e s t a c k .

PROCESS PARAMETERS

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o d r y f l u e gas d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n (FGD) o p e r a t i o n s i n d i c a t e
t h a t e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s work well with such systems. There a r e
s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e s u c c e s s of d r y FGD with e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s .
One i s t h a t t h e tempera t u r e d e c r e a s e a s s o c i a t e d with a spray drying a b s o r p t i o n
o p e r a t i o n s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduces t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of f l y a s h . Empirical d a t a
c o l l e c t e d f o r a t y p c a l range of dry FGD o p e r a t i o n from 140 t o 180°F shows
t h a t s p r a y - d r i e d ma e r i a l has r e l a t i v e l y low r e s i s t i v i t y , in t h e range o f
l o 7 t o l o 9 ohm-cm. In t h i s r e s i s t i v i t y range back corona would not be a
problem and t h e co1 e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f l y a s h would be enhanced.
Because t h e s p r a y d r y e r p r o c e s s i s d r y , v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e w a t e r d r o p l e t s
a r e e v a p o r a t e d i n t h e f l u e gas stream, a n d t h e s e w a t e r d r o p l e t s a r e n o t
c a r r i e d i n t o t h e p a r t i c u l a t e removal equipment. Another reason t h a t
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s w o r k w e l l w i t h t h e d r y FGD p r o c e s s i s t h a t t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e decrease a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o p e r a t i n g t h e s p r a y d r y i n g a b s o r b e r
causes a d e c r e a s e i n f l u e g a s volume f l o w r a t e and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n
t h e s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n area o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

T h e r e f o r e , an e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r appears t o o f f e r a good c h o i c e f o r
p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t i o n w i t h a spray d r y e r system.

A comparison o f t h e range o f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e d r y p r o d u c t
p r e c i p i t a t o r v e r s u s t h e f l y a s h p r e c i p i t a t o r i s shown i n T a b l e 9-2.

PRECIPITATOR SIZING

T h e r e a r e t w o approaches t o s i z i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s f o r u t i l i t y use w i t h d r y FGD

systems. One i s t o s i z e t h e u n i t o n l y f o r d r y FGD o p e r a t i o n ; t h e second i s t o
s i z e f o r a w o r s t case s i t u a t i o n w h e t h e r t h a t be f l y a s h o n l y , d r y FGD o n l y , o r
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f d r y FGD w i t h u n t r e a t e d f l u e gas bypass.

Case 1 i s a system where an o p e r a t o r m i g h t b u r n a Wyoming c o a l w i t h a

p r e c i p i t a t o r s i z e d f o r d r y FGD o p e r a t i o n . The u s e r r e q u e s t e d a p r e c i p i t a t o r
s i z e t h a t was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 550 SCA a t 120 p e r c e n t Maximum C o n t i n u o u s R a t e d
(MCR) gas f l o w f r o m t h e s p r a y d r y e r a b s o r b e r s . T a b l e 9-3 shows t h e t y p i c a l
c o a l a n a l y s i s t h a t was g i v e n t o t h e d r y FGU c o n t r a c t o r on t h i s p r o j e c t . Table
9-4 shows t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s as a r e s u l t o f p a s s i n g
through t h e spray d r y e r vessels. Due t o s i z i n g a t 120 p e r c e n t o f d e s i g n gas
f l o w , a p r e c i p i t a t o r f o r t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e o p e r a t i n g p o i n t o f 100 p e r c e n t
b o i l e r l o a d i s sized extremely l a r g e . The r e q u i r e m e n t s show t h a t a d e s i g n
efficiency
 T a b l e 9-1

R i v e r s i d e ESP R e s u l t s

Fly Ash W i t h Hz0 C o n d i t i o n i n g D r y FGD

I n 1 e t Loading (GR/ACF) 2.2 ( e s t ) 6.79

O u t l e t Loading (GWACF) .032

Volume Flow (ACFM) 228,000

SCA ( f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 ACFM) 182
E f f i c i e n c y (%) 98.5 ( e s t )
Migration Velocity ( c d s e c ) 11.72
Average O p a c i t y % 18
Temperature (OF) 311
 T a b l e 9-2

Comparison o f Range o f O p e r a t i n g V a r i a b l e s
D r y P r o d u c t C o l l e c t i o n v s . Fly Ash C o l l e c t i o n Range

Fly Ash P r e c i p i t a t o r
D r y FGD P r o d u c t Range ( C o l d - S i d e ) Range

D u s t Loading 6 - 12 GR/ACF 1 - 5 GR/ACF

Temperature 140 - 180°F 250 - 4OO0F

Gas V e l o c i t y 3.5 - 4.5 f t / s e c 2.5 - 4.5 ft/sec

Moisture 10 - 15% b y volume 4 - 12% by volume

Average
Secondary V o l t a g e 40 - 50 kV

Average
Current Density 20 - 50 ma/1000 f t 2 5 - 40 rna/1000 f t 2

Resistivity l o 7 - lo9 ohm-cm IO9 - 10'' ohm-cm

P a r t i c l e Size
Mass Mean D i a m e t e r 8 - 20 pm
 T a b l e 9-3

Case I

Steam G e n e r a t o r F u e l D a t a

Proximate Analysis, W t . Percent Wyoming Coal

Moisture
Ash
Sulfur
B t u p e r Pound

Mineral A n a l y s i s o f Ash, W t . P e r c e n t

Ti02
CaO
 T a b l e 9-4

Case I

FGD Requirements

Gas Flow, acfm

Temperature, OF

SCA ( T o t a l ) , ft2/1000 acfm

SCA ( 5 P e r c e n t Out), f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 acfm

I n l e t Loading, GR/ACF

Guarantee O u t l e t , Ib/MBtu

Design E f f i c i e n c y , Percent
of 99.91 p e r c e n t i s required f o r t h e d u s t loadings shown, which a r e maximum
d u s t l o a d i n g s t o t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r without f a l l o u t from t h e
spray d r y e r . Table 9-5 shows computer p r e d i c t e d performance f o r a system
using t h e expected average v o l t a g e s and average c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s . A t 120
percent l o a d , t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r i s p r e d i c t e d t o have an e f f i c i e n c y of 99.92
percent. Based on a 20 f t diameter s t a c k and 0.03 Ibs/MBtu o u t p u t , t h e
s t a c k o p a c i t y i s projected t o be 13 p e r c e n t . For computer p r e d i c t e d o u t l e t
emissions, which a r e l e s s than 0.03 ?b/MBtu, t h e p r e d i c t e d o p a c i t y i s 12
percent a t 120 percent load and 4 percent a t 100 p e r c e n t load.

In Case 2 , t h e vendor was requested t o s i z e a p r e c i p i t a t o r f o r o p e r a t i o n on

e i t h e r dry FGD bypass condition o r f o r t h e dry FGD system, whichever was
dominant. Based on a l l t e s t i n g (and t h e coal d a t a shown in Table 9-6), t h e
bypass c o n d i t i o n with t h e worst case coal f l y a s h determined t h e
precipitator size. For t h e most d i f f i c u l t c a s e c o a l , a p r e c i p i t a t o r of 550
SCA was s e l e c t e d t o achieve t h e design e f f i c i e n c y of 99.51 percent r e q u i r e d
t o meet t h e New Source Performance Standards. Table 9-7 shows t h e expected
f l y a s h performance a s p r e d i c t e d by t h e SRI p r e c i p i t a t o r model. I t shows
t h a t t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r should achieve approximately 99.6 percent e f f i c i e n c y
with t h e a p p l i e d voltages and c u r r e n t s a n t i c i p a t e d on t h i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t
flyash application. Opacity was p r e d i c t e d a t approximately 12 percent f o r
0.03 lb/MBtu p r e c i p i t a t o r o u t l e t .

Using t h i s s e l e c t i o n , and applying i t t o t h e dry FGD o p e r a t i n g mode, t h e

p r e c i p i t a t o r requirements and s i z e a r e shown i n Table 9-8, i t shows two
o p e r a t i n g modes o r temperature o p e r a t i o n s on t h i s s i z e of p r e c i p i t a t o r .
The p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c c o l l e c t i o n a r e a i s l a r g e r i n t h i s c a s e due t o
reduced gas temperature and correspondly reduced g a s volume. The design
e f f i c i e n c y requirements in e i t h e r o p e r a t i n g mode i s 99.9 p e r c e n t . Table
9-9 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e predicted p r e c i p i t a t o r performance f o r d r y FGD
s e r v i c e i s i n excess of t h e requirement due t o s i z ? n g t h i s u n i t f o r t h e
worst coal c a s e . Because of t h e moisture c o n d i t i o n i n g in dry FGD
o p e r a t i o n s , t h i s w i l l be t h e usual c a s e .
The p r e d i c t e d o u t l e t , t h e s t a c k
o p a c i t i e s i s l e s s than 4 percent f o r t h e FGD mode.
 Table 9-5
Case I
Dry FGD Expected Performance

100%

Predicted Efficiency, Percent 99.98

Average AppJ ied Voltage, kV 40
Average Current Density, ma/1000 ft2 46
Opacity, Percent a t Stack (= 20 ft)
Calculated for 13.03 Ib/MMBtu 13.2
Calculated for Predicted Outlet Emission 3.69
 T a b l e 9-6

Case I1

F l y a s h Requirement

Gas Flow, acfm

S u l f u r i n Coal, Percent

Moisture

Fe203, P e r c e n t

Na 0 , P e r c e n t
2
Temperature O F

I n l e t L o a d i n g GR/ACF a t 6.12 l b / M B t u I n p u t

Guarantee O u t l e t a t 0.03 l b / M B t u I n p u t

Design E f f i c i e n c y , P e r c e n t

SCA, f t z / l O O O acfm (10% Bus s e c t i o n s o u t )

T a b l e 9-7

Case I1

E x p e c t e d F l y a s h Performance

Predicted E f f i c i e n c y , Percent

Average A p p l i e d V o l t a g e , kV

Average C u r r e n t D e n s i t y , rna/1000 f t z

O p a c i t y , P e r c e n t a t S t a c k (= 30 f t )

C a l c u l a t e d f o r 0.0088 GR/ACF

Calculated f o r Predicted O u t l e t
 Table 9-8

Case I1

FGD Requirement

Gas Flow, acfm

Temperature O F

SCA, f t 2 / 1 0 0 0 acfm
(10 p e r c e n t bus s e c t i o n s o u t )

I n l e t Loading, Maximum GR/ACF

Guarantee o u t l e t , Ib/MBtu

Design E f f i c i e n c y , Percent

T a b l e 9-9

Case I1
FGD Expected Performance

Predicted E f f i c i e n c y Percent 99.99

Average A p p l i e d V o l t a g e , kV 49

Average C u r r e n t D e n s i t y ma/lO00 ft2 44

O p a c i t y , Percent a t Stack Diameter (= 30 f t )

O u t l e t Opacity 13.9

Predicted Outlet 3.5

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

S e v e r a l d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when c h o o s i n g
p r e c i p i t a t o r s f o r d r y FGD s e r v i c e .

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Based on t h e o p e r a t i n g mode o f b o i l e r g e n e r a t i n g u n i t s t o d a y a n d t h e h i g h
c o s t o f e l e c t r i c i t y , i t i s important t o view a c t u a l , l i f e l o n g o p e r a t i o n o f
equipment a t t h e v a r i o u s p l a n t s i t e s . A l t h o u g h equipment i s u s u a l l y
d e s i g n e d f o r 100 p e r c e n t MCR c o n d i t i o n s o r g r e a t e r , t h e equipment t y p i c a l l y
o p e r a t e s a t a somewhat l o w e r l o a d f a c t o r . Therefore, w i t h t h e
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o examine t h e e l e c t r i c a l power
input t o the transformer-rectifier s e t s on each p r o j e c t . W i t h o u t an e n e r g y
management system, power consumption f r o m 100 p e r c e n t d e s i g n volume t o
l o w e r volumes r e m a i n s f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes c o n s t a n t f o r b o t h f l y a s h and
FGD cases. By u s i n g an energy management system c o n t r o l l e d b y i n - s t a c k
o p a c i t y o r o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s , power c o n s u m p t i o n can be r e d u c e d i n t h e manner
shown w h i l e s t i l l m a i n t a i n i n g o u t l e t e m i s s i o n s and o p a c i t y b e l o w f i x e d s e t
points. C a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t f o r a 10 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n o f gas f l o w ,
power consumption can be reduced b y lOOkW and s t i l l m a i n t a i n p r e c i p i t a t o r
efficiency. U s i n g a $5,000 p e r kW e v a l u a t i o n f a c t o r o v e r t h e l i f e o f a
p l a n t , t h e decrease i n power c o n s u m p t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o a o p e r a t i o n c o s t
r e d u c t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y $500,000 d u r i n g t h e l i f e o f t h e p l a n t . In
comparison, t h e c o s t o f an energy management system i s v e r y l o w and s h o u l d
be c o n s i d e r e d when s p e c i f y i n g t h i s t y p e o f equipment.

Rapping Systems

The r a p p i n g system i s a n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d e s i g n a s p e c t t o c o n s i d e r when

c h o o s i n g p r e c i p i t a t o r s f o r use w i t h d r y FGD systems. Rapping f r e q u e n c i e s
and i n t e n s i t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r o p e r a t i o n w i t h a s p r a y d r y i n g a b s o r b e r a r e
l e s s t h a n f o r a s t r a i g h t f l y ash c o n d i t i o n . The reason i s t h a t t h e
p a r t i c l e s a r e l o w e r i n r e s i s t i v i t y and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e d u s t cake b u i l d u p i s
e a s i e r t o rap.
I n s u l a t i o n Desiqn and Hopper Heater Design

Based on t h e t y p i c a l o p e r a t i n g range of 140 t o 180°F, insulation design

and hopper h e a t i n g a r e important t o t h e l i f e l o n g s u c c e s s and r e l i a b i l i t y of
equipment f o r FGD a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n s u l a t i o n d e s i g n i s important t o c o n t a i n
h e a t and t o prevent corrosion of t h e equipment. Much c a r e should be given
t o design and a p p l i c a t i o n such a s double lapping of i n s u l a t i o n on housing
s i d e p a n e l s and i n s u l a t i o n d e t a i l s around t h e doors of t h e equipment t o
minimize problems. Thicknesses must be c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d . The lower
t e m p e r a t u r e s encountered with a p r e c i p i t a t o r w i l l r e s u l t i n a c l o s e r
approach t o s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e . Recommended i n s u l a t i o n f o r a
p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t o r would be t h a t which w i l l hold t h e temperature l o s s t o
a maximum of 1OaF. A l a r g e r t e m p e r a t u r e drop can y i e l d o p e r a t i o n below t h e
water dewpoint and w e t d u s t cake w i l l r e s u l t .

( I n p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , e x t e n s i v e use was made of t h e paper

"The C u r r e n t S t a t u s o f ESP on Dry FGC Systems,'' by R . J . T r i s c o r i and
H. V . Krigmont,)
APPENDIXES
 Appendix 4A
FLOW MODELING

E x a c t g e o m e t r i c s i m i l i t u d e e x i s t s when a model i s a s c a l e d down copy o f t h e

f u l l - s c a l e i n s t a l l a ti o n i n every l i n e a r dimension. For e x a c t dynamic
s i m i l i t u d e , t h e Mach , Reynolds, Froude and Weber numbers must be t h e same i n
t h e model and t h e f u 3 1 - s c a l e system. These f o r c e r a t i o s a r e d e f i n e d as
follows:
Mach Number (M=V/C): The Mach Number i s t h e r a t i o o f f l u i d
velocity t o the local speed o f sound. I t i s a measure o f t h e r a t i o
o f i n e r t i a l forces t o e l a s t i c f o r c e s . T h i s r a t i o i s an i m p o r t a n t
c o r r e l a t i n g parameter o n l y when t h e f l u i d v e l o c i t y i s n e a r o r above
the sonic velocity.

Reynolds Number (Re=VD/ ) : The Reynolds Number i s t h e r a t i o o f

i n e r t i a l t o v i s c o u s f o r c e s . A c r i t i c a l Reynolds Number
d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between l a m i n a r o r t u b u l e n t f l o w i n f l u e s , i n
boundary l a y e r s near f l u e s u r f a c e s , and around t o t a l l y immersed
o b j e c t s such as p i p e t r u s s e s s i t u a t e d i n t h e f l u e gas s t r e a m .

Froude Number (Fr=VZ/gL): The Froude Number i s t h e r a t i o o f

i n e r t i a l f o r c e s t o g r a v i t y f o r c e s . The n a t u r e o f open channel f l o w
depends upon whether t h e Froude Number i s g r e a t e r o r l e s s t h a n
u n i t y . I t i s u s e f u l i n c a l c u l a t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c jump, i n t h e
d e s i g n o f h y d r a u l i c s t r u c t u r e s and i n s h i p d e s i g n .
- Weber Number (We=VZL / ) : The Weber Number i s t h e r a t i o o f
i n e r t i a l f o r c e s t o s u r f a c e t e n s i o n f o r c e s . I t becomes an i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r o n l y when a g a s - l i q u i d o r l i q u i d - l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e i s p r e s e n t
w i t h i n t h e f l o w system.

F o r t h e s p e c i a l case o f steady, i n c o m p r e s s i b l e , f u l l y t u r b u l e n t gas f l o w i n a

f l u e system, o n l y v i s c o u s and i n e r t i a l f o r c e s a r e o f i m p o r t a n c e . When
g e o m e t r i c s i m i l i t u d e i s observed, dynamic s i m i l i t u d e i s a c h i e v e d when model
and f u l l - s c a l e b o t h have Reynolds Numbers above t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e o f 3,200.
A c r i t i c a l Reynolds Number o f 3,200 i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n p o i n t between
l a m i n a r and t u r b u l e n t f l o w f o r d u c t e d gas. However, a Reynolds Number
mismatch p r o b l e m a r i s e s when a p r e c i p i t a t o r system i s s c a l e d down t o an e x a c t
1 / 1 6 t h s c a l e model, as was t h e p r a c t i c e p r i o r t o t h e m i d - s e v e n t i e s . Inside a
p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber, t h e h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r ( D ) i s equal t o t w i c e t h e
s p a c i n g between a d j a c e n t c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e p l a t e s . I n a full-scale
p r e c i p i t a t o r , c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s t y p i c a l l y f o r m passages r a n g i n g f r o m 9 i n c h e s
t o 12 i n c h e s w i d e . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n v i s c o s i t y between a i r a t
70°F and f l u e gas a t 300 t o 900°F, and a l s o a c c o u n t i n g f o r a r a n g e i n
p r e c i p i t a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s f r o m 3 f p s up t o 6 f p s , t h e Reynolds Number i n t h e
f u l l - s c a l e p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber r a n g e s f r o m 5,500 t o 39,300, w h i l e i n t h e
model i t r a n g e s o n l y f r o m 1 , 7 3 0 t o 4,600. Hence, t h e s c a l e e f f e c t can ( a n d
n e a r l y a l w a y s does) r e d u c e t h e l o c a l Reynolds Number i n t h e chamber t o a v a l u e
b e l o w t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e o f 3,200.

When t h i s p r o b l e m was r e a l i z e d i n t h e 1 9 7 0 1 s , model d e s i g n e r s s o u g h t o u t

t e c h n i q u e s t o assure t h a t a i r f l o w t h r o u g h modeled p r e c i p i t a t i o n chambers would
remain i n t h e t u r b u l e n t f l o w regime. An a v e r a g e Reynolds Number o f a b o u t
4,000 would be m i n i m a l l y s u f f i c i e n t , as t h i s a l l o w s f o r v a l i d m o d e l i n g o f
f l o w - s t a r v e d gas passages c h a n n e l i n g o n l y 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e a v e r a g e
precipitator velocity. To a c h i e v e t h i s , t h r e e t e c h n i q u e s were d e v e l o p e d :
I n c r e a s i n g t h e s c a l e o f t h e model, t y p i c a l l y up t o 1 / 8 t h s c a l e

A r t i f i c i a l l y w i d e n i n g t h e d i s t a n c e s between c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e
p l a t e s w i t h i n t h e modeled chamber, t h u s s a c r i f i c i n g some d e g r e e o f
g e o m e t r i c s i m i l i t u d e f o r a c h i e v e m e n t o f dynamic s i m i l i t u d e .

I n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e above t e c h n i q u e , i n c r e a s i n g f l o w
v e l o c i t y t h r o u g h t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r model.

A l l a r e a c c e p t a b l e , f i e l d - p r o v en t e c h n i q u e s c u r r e n t l y i n w i d e s p r e a d u s e i n t h e
precipitator industry.

I t i s suggested t h a t t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e " f u l l y d e v e 1oped

t u r b u l e n t f l o w i n t h e modeled p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber," and t h a t t h e mode 1
d e s i g n e r ' s method f o r a c h i e v i n g dynamic s i m i l i t u d e be r e v i e w e d and a p p r o v e d by
t h e u t i l i t y p r i o r t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a g e o m e t r i c model.

When s p e c i f y i n g model t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , an a p p r o p r i a t e s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s t h e
I n d u s t r i a l Gas C l e a n i n g I n s t i t u t e s ' s P u b l i c a t i o n No. EP-7, R e v i s i o n 4,
e n t i t l e d "Gas F l o w Model S t u d i e s " (57). The American S o c i e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l
E n g i n e e r s c o v e r s t h i s t o p i c i n a manual p u b l i s h e d i n 1980 (61); however, the
m a t e r i a l i s n o t t r e a t e d i n a comprehensive manner, and i t s use as a supplement
t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n i s n o t recommended.
There are several key aspects of flow modeling which should be addressed in
the precipitator specification:
Techniques for ensuring fully developed turbulent flow in the
precipitation chamber (as previously discussed)

Velocity measurement, instrumentation and procedures

Procedures for investigation of hopper fly ash reentrainment
potential
Pressure loss measurement, instrunentation and procedures
Dust dropout evaluations
Thermal modeling (if applicable)
Extent of model

The following gas flow uniformity criteria are set forth in IGCI Publication
No. EP-7, Revision 4 (38):
Within the treatment zone near the inlet and outlet face; of a
precipitator collection chamber, the velocity pattern shall have a
minimum of 85 percent of the velocities not more than 1.15 times the
average velocity, and 99 percent o f the velocities not more than
1.40 times the average velocity.

Consideration is often given to having lower than average gas

velocity at the upper and lower extremities of the collection plate
to minimize fiow over and under the treatment zone. Lower velocity
near the bottom of the ollection plate i s par ticularly important to
minimize re-entrainment and hopper losses.
For large precipitators subdivided into severa 1 chambers but
serving a single source the uniformity criteri a given above should
be considered as a combi nation of all chambers and evaluated as a
single unit.
The individual chamber average velocities should be compared with
the overall average velocity to ensure that they do not deviate from
it by more than 10 percent.

Baffles, large structural members, and rapping mechanisms can

cause dead zones immediately downstream. It is meaningless to
include velocity measurements made in these dead zones with other
velocity data; therefore, these test points may be excluded from the
above determinations, provided that all the excluded velocities are
less than the average velocity.

These criteria are, for the most part, adequately researched and well
presented. There is a significant difference between this revised set of
c r i t e r i a and f l o w u n i f o r m i t y c r i t e r i a p r e v i o u s l y i s s u e d b y t h e I G C I (40): the
f o r m e r c r i t e r i a l i m i t e d b o t h h i g h and l o w v e l o c i t y r e g i o n s , y e t t h e r e v i s e d
c r i t e r i a l i m i t s only high v e l o c i t i e s . T h i s makes more sense, a s h i g h v e l o c i t y
gas f l o w promotes f l y ash r e e n t r a i n m e n t w h i l e l o w v e l o c i t y gas f l o w a t t h e t o p
and b o t t o m o f t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s i s d e s i r a b l e s i n c e i t h e l p s p r e v e n t gas
sneakage and hopper r e e n t r a i n m e n t .

T h e r e a r e , n o n e t h e l e s s , s e v e r a l m i n o r comments on t h e r e v i s e d c r i t e r i a w h i c h
are worth noting:
I f a u t i l i t y i s c o n c e r n e d about t h e p r a c t i t e o f l o w e r v e l o c i t i e s
a t t h e bottom o f t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s , q u a n t i t a t i v e c r i t e r i a should
be e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s can be done i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: "The
average v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e l o w e r 25 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e
must be 10 p e r c e n t l o w e r t h a n t h e upper 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o l l e c t i n g
p l a t e s , " o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y , "There s h a l l be no v e l o c i t y r e a d i n g s i n
e x c e s s o f 1.15 t i m e s t h e average v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e l o w e r 25 p e r c e n t
o f the collecting plates."

It i s suggested t h a t t h e t e r m " s i n g l e source" be d e f i n e d . T h i s

can be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o be one s i d e o f a s p l i t a i r - h e a t e r . Single
s o u r c e s h o u l d a l w a y s be i n t e r p r e t e d as a t l e a s t one b o i l e r .

The c r i t e r i a o f 10 p e r c e n t d e v i a t i o n on i n d i v i d u a l chamber a v e r a g e
v e l o c i t i e s i s l i b e r a l b y p r e s e n t day i n d u s t r y p r a c t i c e ; some
u t i l i t i e s s p e c i f y t h i s a l l o w a b l e d e v i a t i o n t o be 5 p e r c e n t .

It i s suggested t h a t v e l o c i t y t e s t p o i n t s o n l y be e x c l u d e d by
m u t u a l agreement between t h e p u r c h a s e r and t h e equipment s u p p l i e r .

I t i s suggested t h a t t h e degree o f v e l o c i t y u n i f o r m i t y a l s o be
expressed i n t e r m s o f an RMS i n d e x . T h i s i n d e x i s c o n v e n i e n t f o r
q u i c k comparisons o f d i f f e r e n t t e s t r e s u l t s :

where:

n = number o f gas passages t r a v e r s e d a t a t e s t p l a n e

rn = number o f v e l o c i t y r e a d i n g s p e r gas passage

V.. = i n d i v i d u a l v e l o c i t y d a t a p o i n t s (fpm)
1J

V = average v e l o c i t y a t a t e s t p l a n e (fpm)
 TABLE 4A-I:
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT INSIDE MODELED P R E C I P I T A T I O N CHAMBER:
INSTRUMENTATION AND TEST PROCEDURES (38)

ITEM - REQUIREMENTS
V e l o c i t y Measuring E i e c t r o n i c ( h o t w i r e ) anemometer (measures
Instrumentation magnitude of t h e p r i n c i p a l v e l o c i t y component
and not t h e d i r e c t i o n , o r magnitude, of t h e
t r u e velocity vector) with:

Output s i g n a l s t r e n g t h adequate t o
provide r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s

Overall system response of under one

second

Reasonable a c c u r a c y , and be r e p e a t a b l e
within 2 p e r c e n t of t h e reading o r 0 . 5
percent of f u l l meter s c a l e .

V e l o c i t y Measuring The system ( s e n s o r , s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n e r s , read-

Instrumentation o u t / p r i n t o u t c o n d i t i o n e r ) should be r e c a l i -
Cali b r a t i o n brated as frequently as required.

V e l o c i t y T e s t Locations The d a t a should p r e f e r a b l y be taken w i t h i n

t h r e e f e e t downstrean of t h e leading edges of
t h e f i r s t f i e l d of c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s and
w i t h i n t h r e e f e e t upstream o f t h e t r a i l i n g
edges of t h e l a s t f i e l d of c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s .

Velocity Test Points A minimum number of t e s t p o i n t s equal t o

one-ninth t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e
a c t u a l p r e c i p i t a t o r f a c e ( i n square f e e t ) . To
e n s u r e proper e v a l u a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y
p a t t e r n , a minimum of every t h i r d gas passage
should be t e s t e d . Each passage can then be
subdivided i n t o equal p o i n t s r e q u i r e d t o meet
minimum r e q u i r e m e n t s . However, t h e v e r t i c a l
t e s t p o i n t s should not be f u r t h e r a p a r t than
1 0 p e r c e n t of t h e c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e h e i g h t .
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and t e s t p r o c e d u r e s f o r v e l o c i t y measurement i s a d e q u a t e l y
c o v e r e d i n Reference 6 ( T a b l e 4 . 1 ) , however, i t i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t :
E l e c t r o n i c ( " h o t w i r e " ) anemometers be used f o r a11 v e l o c i t y
measurements i n s i d e t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber. P i t o t tubes are n o t
s u i t a b l e f o r a c c u r a t e measurement o f v e l o c i t i e s b e l o w 600 fpm.

C a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s f o r a l l t e s t i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d
i n the model s t u d y r e p o r t .

I t i s o f u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e t h a t v e l o c i t y measurements i n t h e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber be t a k e n a s c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e l e a d i n g
edges o f t h e f i r s t f i e l d o f c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s a t t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
i n l e t t e s t p l a n e , and as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e t r a i l i n g edges o f
the f i n a l f i e l d o f collecting plates a t the p r e c i p i t a t o r outlet t e s t
plane. Furthermore, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e s e l e c t e d t e s t planes
can be p r o p e r l y t r a v e r s e d i n t h e f u l l - s c a l e p r e c i p i t a t o r , f o r
v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e mode? s t u d y r e s u l t s . The e x a c t l o c a t i o n o f
t h e s e t e s t p l a n e s s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d b y m u t u a l agreement between
t h e u t i l i t y and t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r . The b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o f
many p a s t model s t u d i e s has been n e g a t e d b y use o f t e s t p l a n e s
s i t u a t e d t o o f a r inward towards the c e n t e r o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n
chamber, where g e n e r a l l y more u n i f o r m gas f l o w e x i s t s r e g a r d l e s s o f
t h e p r e s e n c e o f i n l e t and o u t 1 e t f l o w m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

For measuring a i r v e l o c i t i e s i n t r a n s p o r t ductwork, t h e Stauscheibe

("S-Type") p i t o t t u b e i s n o t a d e s i r a b l e measurement d e v i c e . T h i s
p i t o t t u b e ' s p o o r o r i e n t a t i o n s e n s i t i v i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s make i t
i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t when t h e probe i s p r o p e r l y a l i g n e d w i t h t h e
oncoming a i r stream. The P r a n d t l ("L-Head" o r " S t a n d a r d " ) p i t o t
t u b e i s a f a r more d e s i r a b l e measurement d e v i c e f r o m t h i s s t a n d p o i n t .

IGCI p u b l i c a t i o n No. EP-7, R e v i s i o n 4 acknowledges t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e

p r e v e n t i o n o f hopper f l y ash r e e n t r a i n m e n t , s t a t i n g t h a t (9):

A n o t h e r q u a l i t a t i v e t e s t w h i c h s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e g e o m e t r i c
model s t u d y i s t h e i n j e c t i o n o f n e u t r a l buoyancy smoke i n t o t h e r o o f and
hopper r e g i o n s o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n chamber, p a r t i c u l a r l y n e a r t h e o u t l e t ,
t o check t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f gas a r e n o t e x i t i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
w i t h o u t passing through the c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s ("sneakage"), and t h a t
t h e r e a r e n o t s t r o n g f l o w s i n t h e hopper r e g i o n s ( h o p p e r sweepage), which
c o u l d cause e x c e s s i v e r e e n t r a i n m e n t . I f t h e smoke t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t
e x t e n s i v e sneakage o r hopper sweepage i s o c c u r r i n g , t h e n s t e p s s h o u l d be
taken t o minimize t h e e f f e c t , s i n c e t h i s has a d i r e c t h a r m f u l i m p a c t upon
the operating e f f i c i e n c y o f the p r e c i p i t a t o r .
S i m i l a r smoke t e s t s should be performed on t h e f u l l - s c a l e p r e c i p i t a t o r p r i o r
to startup. I t i s suggested t h a t t h e importance of t h i s t e s t be emphasized i n
the precipitator specification. Three f a c t o r s a r e necessary f o r t h e s u c c e s s
of t h e t e s t :
The geometric model must be f a b r i c a t e d w i t h p l e x i g l a s s hoppers s o
t n a t smoKe ~ e s z i n gca' De p r o ~ e r i ycbserved by t h e t e s t o r a s well a s
by w i t n e s s e s .

An a p p r o p r i a t e smoke g e n e r a t o r must be used. Due t o t h e low

v e l o c i t y of hopper flow c u r r e n t s , r e s u l t a n t smoke t r a c e s would not
be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i f smoke i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e hopper with even t h e
s l i g h t e s t driving velocity.

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of an a c c e p t a b l e degree of hopper flow a c t i v i t y

should be by mutual agreement between a u t i l i t y and t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
suppl i e r .

Measurement of system pressure drop i s not addressed i n d e t a i l in IGCI

P u b l i c a t i o n No. EP-7, Revision 4 . I t i s important t o use s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e s
f o r both model and f u l l - s c a l e p r e s s u r e drop measurements. Hence, i t i s
suggested t h a t t h e f i e l d performance t e s t procedure f o r press.Jre drop
measurement be a l s o employed f o r model t e s t i n g . Miniature Prandtl ("L-Head"
o r "Standard") p i t o t tubes or Kiel probes, a s d e s c r i b e d in Reference 6 , should
be u t i l i z e d f o r a l l t o t a l p r e s s u r e measurements performed in t h e model.

The v a r i o u s t e s t s devised over t h e y e a r s f o r e v a l u a t i n g d u s t dropout p o t e n t i a l

a r e t h e l e a s t dependable of the t e s t s t h a t a r e routine?^ c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g
t h e course of a p r e c i p i t a t o r model study program. S c a l e e f f e c t and p r a c t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s preclude an a p p r o p r i a t e match of a p p l i c a b l e modeling f o r c e
r a t i o s ; however, i f d i l i g e n t l y performed, s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t i o n s of
d u s t dropout p o t e n t i a l can be i n t e r p r e t e d from t h e t e s t observations. There
a r e two methods f o r conducting d u s t dropout e v a l u a t i o n s :
Layering a f i n e l y ground d u s t m a t e r i a l , t y p i c a l l y sawdust o r ground
cork, on a17 h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e s . The model a i r f l o w r a t e i s t h e n
g r a d u a l l y increased t o 2 5 , 50, 75, 100, and (sometimes) 125 p e r c e n t
of design flow r a t e , and v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o r photographs of d u s t
p a t t e r n s a r e made a t each flow increment.

Introducing sawdust o r ground cork i n t o t h e i n l e t of t h e model a t

25 percent of design flow r a t e , and g r a d u a l l y increasing model
a i r f l o w t o 50, 7 5 , 100 and 1 2 5 p e r c e n t of design flow r a t e while
continuously i n j e c t i n g t h e d u s t material i n t o t h e model's i n l e t i n a
c o n t r o l l e d manner. Visual o b s e r v a t i o n s o r photographs of d u s t
p a t t e r n s a r e made a t each flow increment.
E i t h e r of t h e above methods i s a d e q u a t e ; t h e s e l e c t i o n of one procedure over
t h e o t h e r i s u s u a l l y a matter of convenience. However, t h e use of m a t e r i a l s
such a s sawdust and ground cork has r e c e n t l y been i d e n t i f i e d a s a s i g n i f i c a n t
source of e r r o r . I n v e s t i g a t o r s have found t h a t t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of d u s t s f o r t h e i r s e l e c t i o n a s a dropout material a r e (45).
S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , which determines d e p o s i t i o n r a t e (and i n f l u e n c e s
compactability)

Compactabi l i t y and/or hygroscopity, which determine removal r a t e s .

T h f s p r o p e r t y i s b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e d u s t ' s natural angle of
repose.

P a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s of secondary importance. However,

s i m u l a t i o n should be made w i t h p a r t i c l e diameters within 2 50
percent of t h e Cull s c a l e d u s t .

I d e a l l y , f u l l - s c a l e d u s t material ( f l y a s h ) should be used; however, i f a

s u b s t i t u t e i s necessary, s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s should be matched. The l e s s
hygroscopic t h e m a t e r i a l used, t h e l e s s l i k e l y i s severe compaction, which
tends t o exaggerate t e s t r e s u l t s , e s p e c i a l l y a t room temperature where f l y ash
hygroscopy i s l i k e l y t o be more s e v e r e than a t o p e r a t i n g temperature.
Based
on experience, model t e s t s conducted a t about 50 t o 70 percent of design flow
r a t e seem t o b e s t r e p r e s e n t normai, f u l l load, f u l l - s c a l e operation (45).

Thermally modeled p r e c i p i t a t o r systems should be considered when a cold-side

p r e c i p i t a t o r i s c l o s e l y coupled t o t h e a i r h e a t e r , o r when t h e r e a r e m u l t i p l e
b o i l e r e n t r i e s i n t o a common duct l e a d i n g t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r . Thermal
modeling can p r e d i c t temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s t h a t w i l l e x i s t in t h e
f u l ' l - s c a l e gas stream and allows t h e d e s i g n e r t o optimize mixing d e v i c e s t o
reduce temperature g r a d i e n t s while maintaining reasonable pressure l o s s .

Thermal modeling i s achieved by h e a t i n g t h e model's gas stream(s) i n o r d e r t o

simulate f u l l - s c a l e temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s , An important f o r c e r a t i o f o r
thermal modeling i s t h e density-modified Froude Number, t h e r a t i o of i n e r t i a l
f o r c e s t o buoyancy f o r c e s (43).
where:
pavg = average density (lbm/ft 3)

PC
= density of cold gas stream (lbm/ft 3 )
pH = density of hot gas stream (lbm/ft 3 )
V = gas velocity (ft/sec)

g = acceleration of gravity (ft/sec 2 )

D = duct diameter (ft)

The fluid dynamic modeling of gas mix ing and temperature profiles in a duct
will be correctly modeled when the following dimensionless parameters are
maintained between the full-scale system and model (43):
The model is constructed to be a geometric scale of the full-size
system.
The momentum ratio of the flows joining in the mixing plenum or
duct will be set equal to the full-scale system values for each
operating condition to be simulated.
The model density-modified Froude number will be set equal to the
full-scale system value for each operating condition to be simulated.
The Reynolds number may not be matched in the model but will be
maintained well within the turbulent flow range so that flow
patterns will be similar.

A s a result of fluid dynamic modeling, the model stream temperatures will be

proportional to the full-scale values everywhere outside the thin thermal
boundary layers along the flue walls. The accuracy of model gas stream
temperature distributions near flue walls can be improved by applications of
appropriate thermal insulation to the outside surface of the model flue walls.

If there is a need for thermal modeling, the following should be included i n

the precipitator specification:
Temperature distribution data for the air heater outlet, or each
of the multiple boiler entries, for full-load and part-load
operation and/or various anticipated operating modes.
A request that the precipitator supplier submit a written procedure
for thermal modeling, for review and approval by the utility.
Temperature distribution criteria after mixing, and allowable
overall system pressure loss (inci uding thermal mixing devices).
Typical temperature distribution criteria are: "A maximum variation
 i n i n d i v i d u a l measurements o f + 10°F a b o u t t h e mean gas t e m p e r a t u r e
i n t h e f u l l - s c a l e duct a t a p o i n t f i v e f e e t upstream o f t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t nozzle." I t i s important t o s e l e c t reasonable
t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c r i t e r i a , as t h e d e g r e e o f t h e r m a l m i x i n g
i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s e d system p r e s s u r e l o s s .

The e x t e n t o f t h e model i s an i m p o r t a n t i s s u e w h i c h s h o u l d be c l e a r l y
indicated i n the precipitator specification. Many p a s t s t u d i e s have had t h e i r
p r e d i c t i v e v a l u e d i m i n i s h e d because t h e g e o m e t r i c model d i d n o t i n c l u d e
flow-influencing system components such as a i r h e a t e r s and p i p e t r u s s e s . In
g e n e r a l , i t i s suggested t h a t
Model s t u d i e s o f c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s s h o u l d a l w a y s i n c l u d e
s i m u l a t e d a i r h e a t e r s . The a i r h e a t e r s h o u l d be modeled as e x a c t l y
a s p o s s i b l e , complete w i t h t r a n s i t i o n s between t h e r o u n d a r c o f t h e
wheel and t h e r e c t a n g u l a r o u t l e t f l a n g e s , a s w e l l as t h e wash-out
hopper u n d e r n e a t h t h e a i r h e a t e r o u t l e t d u c t .

Models o f h o t - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r s s h o u l d a l w a y s i n c l u d e s i m u l a t i o n s
o f t h e o u t l e t bend o f t h e b o i l e r economizer, c o m p l e t e w i t h t h e
d r o p - o u t hopper u n d e r n e a t h t h e economizer o u t l e t d u c t .

P r e c i p i t a t o r o u t l e t t r a n s p o r t d u c t w o r k s h o u l d a l w a y s be i n c l u d e d up
t o t h e i n l e t o f t h e I D f a n s o r chimney f o r a c o l d - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r ,
and up t o t h e i n l e t o f t h e a i r h e a t e r o f a h o t - s i d e p r e c i p i t a t o r .

The g e o m e t r i c model s h o u l d always i n c l u d e a l l c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e

p l a t e banks. W i t h o u t c h a n n e l e d f l o w i n s i d e t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n
chamber, l a r g e s c a l e , t u r b u l e n t e d d i e s can a c t t o smooth o u t
velocity non-uniformities. Removing s e c t i o n s o f c o l l e c t i n g p l a t e s
a c t u a l l y p r e v e n t s , r a t h e r t h a n promotes, gas f l o w r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a t
t h e chamber o u t l e t .

A17 vane s t i f f e n e r s and i n t e r n a l f l u e s u p p o r t t r u s s e s s h o u l d be

a c c u r a t e l y modeled when p o s i t i o n e d i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e
p r e c i p i t a t o r . Vane s t i f f e n e r s p o s i t i o n e d on vanes l o c a t e d w i t h i n
p r e c i p i t a t o r b r e e c h i n g s have a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on f l o w f i e l d s .
 Appendix 4B

RAF9iNG TESTS

Rapping Acceleration
The purpose of rapper acceleration testing is to compare various
rapper/electrode designs based on measurement of accelerations normal to the
collecting electrode surface. The acceleration profile of the plate is
measured on a representative grid of test points using miniature piezoelectric
pick-ups. The voltage output of each pick-up is amplified and recorded on a
suitable instrument. Accelerations are measured i n multiples of " g , " with one
2
g equal to 32.2 ft/sec . Accelerations are usually reported as zero to peak
values measured over a preselected frequency band. Occasionally, a frequency
spectrum analyzer is used to record an entire frequency spectrum plot
(typically 5 to 10,000 Hz) for the shock wave. This specialized analysis is
conducted for investigative purposes only.

Two problems arise with non-standardized test procedures for measurement of

rapping acceleration:
The measurement o f acceleration is sensitive to the type of
accelerometer used. It has been demonstrated that a lower weight
accelerometer will give higher readings, all other conditions being
the same.
Rapping response varies with frequency band

It might seem surprising that a 25 gram accelerometer pick-up could affect the
vibrational response of a collecting plate weighing over 1OOQ kg.
Experimental interference does occur, however, and the degree of this
interference depends on plate thickness, plate construction, and the weight of
the accelerometer pick-up. Only an accelerometer with zero mass could measure
the true acceleration level. The most accurate acceleration measurements are
made with miniature, adhesive-mounted pick-ups that weigh on the order of
0.40 grams.
 The frequency responses of the different suppliers' collection plate designs
vary significantly. Frequency composition is also inconsistent over the
surface of each collection plate. Although the optimum frequency for
effective plate cleaning is a topic of debate among the suppliers, it may be
safely said that the most desirable frequencies for electrode cleaning are
below 3,000 Hz (49).

Hence, it is suggested that the precipitator specification address the

following items:
Minimum acceptable rapping acceleration (normal to the collecting
plate, measured zero to peak) for the application at hand.
Maximum allowable accelerometer pick-up weight (0.4 grams
maximum).
Frequency band (0 to 3000 Hz).

In addition, it is suggested that the test tower apparatus be reviewed by the

utility to ensure that the collecting plate design, the collecting plate
supports, rapper anvils and rapper are all representative of the proposed
full-scale components. Test specimens should be fabricated during normal
. production runs.

For discharge electrodes, rapping intensity is not as critical as with

collecting electrode plates; nevertheless, it must be sufficient to keep the
electrode reasonably clean. It should be noted that the vibration of the
discharge electrode must not result in a significant reduction in discharge
electrode to collecting plate spacing. Most precipitator specifications
require 35 to 50 g accelerations on the surface of the discharge electrode
element. The cleaning characteristic of rigid, mast-style electrodes is
interesting; after excitation, the vibration can be sustained for as long as 2
to 4 seconds. This action enhances electrode cleaning. A utility must be
mindful that when requiring a specific minimum acceleration, each supplier
must be evaluated on the merits and experiences of its design on fuels similar
to that to be used for the proposed project.
Accelerated Life Test

Accelerated l i f e t e s t s a r e condensed time e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e expected l i f e of

r a p p e r s , rapper a n v i l s , e l e c t r o d e s and e l e c t r o d e supports. The importance of
t h e s e t e s t s has come t o l i g h t in r e c e n t y e a r s w i t h an increased incidence of
f a t i g u e f a i l u r e s in p r e c i p i t a t o r s t h a t employ high i n t e n s i t y e l e c t r o d e
rapping.

T y p i c a l l y , p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e performance of a c c e l e r a t e d
rapping t e s t s t o demonstrate t h a t r a p p e r s and e l e c t r o d e s w i l l have a 30 y e a r
life. This t e s t i s conducted in the following manner:
A l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y of f u l l - s c a l e components a r e mounted i n a t e s t
tower i n much t h e same manner a s f o r t h e rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n t e s t .
Usually, a c c e l e r a t e d l i f e t e s t i n g immediately follows t h e successful
completion of rapping a c c e l e r a t i o n t e s t i n g , and t h e same t e s t setup
i s utilized.

Electrodes a r e rapped a t t h e i r maximum design rapping i n t e n s i t y on

a continuous, a c c e l e r a t e d frequency b a s i s u n t i l component f a i l u r e
occurs.

By use of a rapping equivalency r a t i o , t h e t o t a l number of r a p s t o

f a i l u r e i s used t o p r o j e c t t h e number of y e a r s t h e f u l l - s c a l e
i n s t a l l a t i o n w i l l o p e r a t e before a f a i l u r e occurs. Fatigue f a i l u r e s
such a s weld c r a c k s and f a s t e n e r deformations a r e of major concern.

The rapping equivalency r a t i o (Rr) i s t h e r a t i o of t h e frequency of t e s t

rapping t o f u l l - s c a l e rapping. I f i t i s projected that the full-scale
p r e c i p i t a t o r will be rapped a t a maximum r a t e of f i v e times an hour (based on
t h e performance of an i n l e t f i e l d a t maximum b o i l e r load, f l y ash l o a d i n g , and
f l y ash r e s i s t i v i t y ) , and t h e a c c e l e r a t e d frequency of rapping in t h e t e s t
tower i s f o u r times per minute, then (54):

- No. of t e s t r a p s per hour

Rr - No. of f u l l - s c a l e r a p s per hour

Hence, i f t h e t e s t i s r u n f o r 1825 hours, i t would be e q u i v a l e n t of t e n y e a r s

of continuous, f u l l s c a l e e l e c t r o d e r a p p i n g . Note t h a t i t i s not customary t o
take c r e d i t f o r u n i t outages in t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n .
Proper s p e c i f i c a t i o n of a c c e l e r a t e d l i f e t e s t ing should include t h e following
requirements:
A17 l i f e - t e s t e d components sha 1 7 be f a b r i c a t e d during normal
production runs.

T e s t i n g s h a l l be c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e maximum design rapper

intensity.

The t e s t r e p o r t s h a l l i n c l u d e photographs and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a l l

f a i l e d components. Component design improvements made subsequent t o
r e t e s t i n g during t h e course o f t h e t e s t program s h a l l a l s o be
described i n t h e report.

Although a c c e l e r a t e d rapping t e s t s ignore t h e combined e f f e c t o f c o r r o s i o n and

f a t i g u e , c a r e f u l execution of them w i l l ensure higher o v e r a l l r e l i a b i l i t y of
key p r e c i p i t a t o r components.
 Appendix 4 C

FIELD V E L O C I T Y D I S T R I B U T I O N TESTS

E a r l y f i e l d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t s lacked s u f f i c i e n t accuracy due t o use

of i n a d e q u a t e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and t e s t procedures. The v a l i d i t y of f i e l d t e s t
d a t a improved with t e c h n i c a l improvements, most s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e a r e a of
v e l o c i t y measuring i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . I t was soon recognized t h a t hot-wire
anemometers should (57):
be rugged; i . e . , shock r e s i s t a n t and dust-proof

be r e l a t i v e l y d r i f t - f r e e ; any c a l i b r a t i o n f a i l u r e s should be
sudden

have l i n e a r i z e d meter o u t p u t ; l o g a r i t h m i c meter s c a l e s and d i g i t a l

o u t p u t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o read a c c u r a t e l y under d i f f i c u l t f i e l d t e s t
conditions

have a h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t a t e d w i r e with a f l a t p i t c h and yaw

response and a c o s i n e curve r o t a t i o n a l response

have c a p a b i l i t y f o r v a r i a b l e response t i m e ; e . g . , a t h r e e p o s i t i o n
s e l e c t o r switch f o r 10 ms, 1 sec and 2 response t i m e , allowing a
t e s t o r t o t a i l o r h i s i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n response time t o t h e d e g r e e of
a i r flow t u r b u l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d .

A p p r o p r i a t e v e l o c i t y measuring i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n coupled w i t h t h e development of

procedures f o r o n - s i t e anemometer c a l i b r a t i o n s e l i m i n a t e d most of t h e
experimental e r r o r found i n e a r l i e r f ie7d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t s .

Some guidance f o r t h e proper conduct of f i e l d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t i n g

may be found i n IGCI P u b l i c a t i o n No. EP-7, Revision 4 ( -
57). The f o l l o w i n g
p r o c e d u r e s , which a r e r o u t i n e l y p r a c t i c e d by t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r
s u p p l i e r s , a r e suggested a s a supplement t o Reference 57:
I t i s important f o r model v e r i f i c a t i o n t h a t f i e l d t e s t i n g be
performed a t t h e e x a c t measurement l o c a t i o n s t h a t correspond t o flow
model t e s t i n g . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y c r i t i c a l f o r v e l o c i t y surveys a t
t h e i n l e t and o u t l e t of a p r e c i p i t a t i o n chamber.

= When a s e v e r e flow r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s discovered a t t h e i n l e t o r

o u t l e t of a p r e c i p i t a t o r chamber, a d d i t i o n a l v e l o c i t y surveys should
be performed t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t of m a l d i s t r i b u t e d flow
p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r chamber. T h i s i s
 needed t o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t s of f l o w m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n on
p r e c i p i t a t o r performance.

P i t o t t u b e t r a v e r s e s s h o u l d be c o n d u c t e d i n t h e d u c t w o r k ,
s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h e i n l e t t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r . T h i s d a t a can be used
t o v e r i f y d u c t w o r k v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s measured d u r i n g t h e model
study.

V e r i f i c a t i o n o f an a c c e p t a b l e d e g r e e of hopper f l o w a c t i v i t y
s h o u l d be made by s e ~ t i n go f f smoke bombs i n t h e o u t : e t row o f
p r e c i p i t a t o r h o p p e r s and c o s e r v i n g t h e r e s u l t i n g smoke t r a c e s . T h i s
a l s o s e r v e s a s f u l l - s c a l e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f smoke t e s t i n g c o n d u c t e d
d u r i n g t h e model s t u d y . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f an a c c e p t a b l e d e g r e e
o f hopper f l o w a c t i v i t y s h o u l d be by mutual a g r e e m e n t of t h e t h e
u t i l i t y and suppl i e r .

I t i s f u r t h e r suggested t h a t :
A s u p p l i e r be r e q u i r e d by p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t o s u b m i t
h i s f i e l d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t procedure t o t h e u t i l i t y f o r
r e v i e w and comment. I f t h e u t i l i t y deems t h e s u p p l i e r ' s p r o c e d u r e s
u n a c c e p t a b l e , t h e u t i l i t y t h e n h a s an o p t i o n t o make u s e of a
s u i t a b l e t h i r d party independent t e s t o r .

A u t i l i t y r e c e i v e s c o p i e s o f a l l raw t e s t d a t a and c a l i b r a t i o n
d a t a w o r k s h e e t s b e f o r e a t e s t o r l e a v e s t h e j o b s i t e . The u t i l i t y may
t h e n c a r r y o u t i t s own a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s .

F i e l d d a t a a n a l y s i s should be s i m i l a r t o model s t u d y d a t a a n a l y s i s
in a l l respects.

S u f f i c i e n t t i m e be s c h e d u l e d f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e t e s t s .
I t s h o u l d be k e p t i n mind t h a t t h e t e s t o r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o r e a d and
r e c o r d s e v e r a l hundreds o f r e a d i n g s u n d e r cramped, sometimes d i r t y
c o n d i t i o n s , and human e r r o r c a n be h i g h when a s c h e d u l e i s
unreasonably t i g h t .
 Appendix 4D

PERFORMANCE TESTS

P a r t i c u l a t e Emissions Testing

P a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s t e s t i n g i s n e a r l y always c a r r i e d o u t i n s t r i c t a c c o r d
w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g methods s e t f o r t h b y t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency i n
t h e Code o f F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n s CFR40, P a r t 60, Appendix A (46):
Method 1: Sample and v e l o c i t y t r a v e r s e s f o r s t a t i o n a r y s o u r c e s

Method 2: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t a c k gas v e l o c i t y and v o l u m e t r i c f l o w

r a t e (S-type P i t o t Tube)

Method 3: Gas a n a l y s i s f o r c a r b o n d i o x i d e , oxygen, excess a i r ,

and d r y m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t .

Method 4: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t i n s t a c k gases

Method 5 : Determination o f p a r t i c u l a t e emissions from s t a t i o n a r y

sources

Method 17: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s f r o m s t a t i o n a r y
sources ( I n - s t a c k F i l t r a t i o n Method)

Methods 1 and 2 c o v e r t h e use o f S-type p i t o t t u b e s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f l u e

gas v e l o c i t y and volume f l o w r a t e s . A l t h o u g h n o t as d e s i r a b l e as s t a n d a r d
p i t o t t u b e s , t h e S t y p e p i t o t t u b e must be used f o r f i e l d t e s t i n g because:
The s t a t i c and i m p a c t p r e s s u r e h o l e s o f t h e s t a n d a r d p i t o t t u b e s
a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o p l u g g i n g i n p a r t i c u l a t e l a d e n g a s streams

The p r o b e head o f t h e S t y p e t u b e i s compact, a l l o w i n g i t t o

e a s i l y f i t through standard f i e l d t e s t p o r t s .

Method 1 c o v e r s s e l e c t i o n o f d u c t w o r k t e s t l o c a t i o n s , t h e number o f t e s t
p o i n t s , and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l layouts o f t e s t points f o r achieving
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v e l o c i t y measurement and p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s sampling.
Method 2 c o v e r s t h e f a b r i c a t i o n a n d c a l i b r a t i o n o f S t y p e p i t o t t u b e s ,
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and a p p a r a t u s needed f o r v e l o c i t y
measurement, and t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g f l u e gas v e l o c i t y and volume
flow rates.
Method 3 c o v e r s v a r i o u s methods t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r f l u e gas c o m p o s i t i o n
analysis. I t i s suggested t h a t d r y gas a n a l y s e s be p e r f o r m e d b y t h e
m u l t i - p o i n t s a m p l i n g method u s i n g an O r s a t a n a l y z e r . Gas c o m p o s i t i o n
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n l e v e l s a r e t o o h i g h f o r s i n g l e p o i n t s a m p l i n g s t o be a c c e p t a b l y
a c c u r a t e (60).

Two p r o c e d u r e s a r e g i v e n i n Method 4 f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f
s t a c k gas:
An a c c u r a t e method f o r use d u r i n g p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
measurement r u n s c a r r i e d o u t i n accordance w i t h Method 5 o r 17

An a p p r o x i m a t e method f o r e s t i m a t i n g m o i s t u r e i n a f l u e gas stream

t o a i d i n s e t t i n g i s o k i n e t i c sampling r a t e s p r i o r t o a p a r t i c u l a t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n measurement r u n .

Method 5 i s a p r o c e d u r e f o r measurement o f p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . A
s c h e m a t i c o f t h e s a m p l i n g t r a i n used i n t h i s method i s shown i n Manual 111,
F i g u r e 5A-1. I n p r i n c i p l e , p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r i s withdrawn i s o k i n e t i c a l l y
f r o m t h e f l u e gas s t r e a m and c o l l e c t e d on a g l a s s f i b e r f i l t e r w h i c h i s
m a i n t a i n e d a t a t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e r a n g e o f 248 -
+ 25'F (unless otherwise
s p e c i f i e d b y t h e £PA A d m i n i s t r a t o r o r g o v e r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g u l a t o r y
agency). The p a r t i c u l a t e mass i s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d g r a v i m e t r i c a l l y a f t e r
uncombined w a t e r i s removed. The p r o p e r c o n d u c t o f Method 5 r e q u i r e s d a t a
i n p u t s f r o m Methods 1 and 4. The d a t a o u t p u t f r o m Method 5 t e s t i n g i s
p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , expressed a s e i t h e r u n i t s ( g r a i n s / S C F ) a t s t a n d a r d
c o n d i t i o n s o r u n i t s (grains/ACF) a t stack conditions. Alternatively, a
p a r t i c u l a t e emissions r a t e i n u n i t s ( I b / h r ) may be c a l c u l a t e d .

Method 17 may sometimes be used i n p l a c e o f Method 5. A schematic o f t h e

s a m p l i n g t r a i n used i n t h i s method i s shown i n Manual 111, F i g u r e 5A-5.
Method 17 employs an i n - s t a c k f i l t e r i n p l a c e o f t h e cumbersome g l a s s - l i n e d
p r o b e and h e a t e r f i l t e r h o l d e r assembly and i s i n t e n d e d t o be used i n p l a c e o f
Method 5 when p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( o v e r t h e normal range o f f l u e
gas t e m p e r a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n ) a r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o be
independent o f temperature. The f o r m a t i o n o f p s e u d o - p a r t i c u l a t e s i n t h e
s a m p l i n g t r a i n , w h i c h p r e d o m i n a n t l y o c c u r s a t l o w f i l t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s when
SO2 d i s s o l v e s i n w a t e r and i s o x i d i z e d t o n o n v o l a t i l e s u l f a t e s i s o f c o n c e r n .
These s u l f a t e s can f u r t h e r u n i t e w i t h i n g r e d i e n t s i n t h e f l y ash t o f o r m m e t a l
sulfates. F o r example, one Method 5 t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d t h a t when
tie f i l t e r was o p e r a t e d a t 400°F, t h e f i l t e r t r a p p e d 8 t o 24 p e r c e n t
of the total sulfur caught in the sampling train (the combined probe wash
catch, filter catch and impinger catch); however, when the filter was operated
at 250°F, over 41 percent of the total sampling train sulfur catch was
retained by the filter (63). Filter temperature, therefore, can have a
significant effect on measured particulate concentration, especially with the
medium to high sulfur coal applications. In accordance with Section 60.48a o f
the EPA Code of Federal Regulations CFR40 entitled "Compliance Determination
Procedures and Method," Method 17 may be used in place of Method 5 when flue
gas temperatures are less than 320°F. The decision on whether to use Method 5
or 17, however, is usually left to the discretion of the EPA administrator or
the governing environmental regulatory agency.

Data inputs and outputs of Method 17 are identical to those previously

described for Method 5 tests. Most emission regulations limit pollutants on
the basis of boiler heat input. Hence, instead of regulating direct
measurements of particulate concentration or emission rate, particulate
pollutants are restricted in terms of pounds of particulate matter emitted per
million Btu of boiler heat input (lb/rnBtu). In order to calculate this, the
applicable sections of EPA Method 19, entitled "Determination of Sulfur
Dioxide Removal Efficiency and Particulate, Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides
Emissions Rates From Electric Utility Steam Generators" must be followed
(59). An essential step in this calculation is the determination of an
F-factor. F-factors are ratios o f gas volume released dur ing combustion of a
fuel divided by the heat content of that fuel. Within the procedural
framework of Method 19, this F-factor can be determined by one of two o p t i m a
procedures:
A generic F-factor can be selected from a table which lists
average F-factors for anthracite, bituminous, and lignite coals.
An F-factor can be calculated from equations which are based on an
ultimate analysis of the coal supply (determined in accordance with
ASTM O 2015).

The more accurate method i s to calculate the F-factor using the equations set
forth i n Paragraph 5.2.2 of Method 19. In this case, the sampling and
analysis procedures followed in obtaining fuel data from these equations would
be subject to approval of the EPA Administrator.
A second o p t i o n a l s t e p i n t h e Method 19 p r o c e d u r e a l l o w s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
e m i s s i o n r a t e s t o be based on e i t h e r measurement o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e f l u e
gas s t r e a m o r measurement o f oxygen i n t h e f l u e gas stream. While there are

-
p r o s a n d cons a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e l e c t i o n o f each, i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t :
The p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n e l e c t one o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s

The measurement be made b y m u l t i p o i n t s a m p l i n g w i t h an O r s a t

analyzer.

I n a d d i t i o n t o EPA Method 17, t h e r e a r e o t h e r s t a n d a r d methods f o r i n - s t a c k

p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s sampling. The most n o t a b l e o f t h e s e was t h e American
S o c i e t y o f Mechanical E n g i n e e r ' s Performance T e s t Code 2 1 ( p u b l i s h e d i n 1941)
supplemented by ASME Performance T e s t Code 27 ( p u b l i s h e d i n 1957) ( 2 ,2 ) .
These t e s t p r o c e d u r e s were v e r y g e n e r a l i n n a t u r e and have become i n a d e q u a t e
f o r t e s t i n g modern, h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y p r e c i p i t a t o r s . A new code e n t i t l e d "ASME
Performance T e s t Code f o r D e t e r m i n i n g C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f P a r t i c u l a t e M a t t e r i n a
Gas Stream" was c o m p l e t e d and approved by t h e ASME a n d ANSI i n 1980 (35). The
i n t e n t o f t h i s new code i s t o p r o v i d e v i a b l e t e s t p r o c e d u r e s t o meet p r e s e n t
day needs and t o p r o v i d e r e q u i r e d g u i d a n c e i n t h e c h o i c e o f an i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
o f t h e s e procedures. Schematics o f f o u r d i f f e r e n t s a m p l i n g t r a i n
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s used i n t h e new ASME code a r e shown i n Manual 111, F i g . 5A-3.
N o t e t h a t t h e t y p e 1 and 2 s a m p l i n g t r a i n s a r e c o m p a r a b l e t o EPA Method 1 7 ,
w h i l e t h e t y p e 3 and 4 s a m p l i n g t r a i n s a r e comparable t o EPA Method 5.

A l t h o u g h u s e o f ASME t e s t p r o c e d u r e s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t i n g i s u s u a l l y
d i s a l l o w e d by r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s , t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s w e l l
r e s e a r c h e d and c o n s t i t u t e a v a l u a b l e r e f e r e n c e g u i d e .

T h e r e i s an ASTM s t a n d a r d on t h e measurement o f p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ;
however, t h i s t e s t p r o c e d u r e has n o t g a i n e d i n d u s t r y - w i d e a c c e p t a n c e and i s
n o t s u g g e s t e d as a supplement t o a p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

S t a c k V i s i b l e Emissions

S t a c k v i s u a l e m i s s i o n s can be q u a n t i f i e d by one o f two s t a n d a r d methods:

V i s u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n b y human o b s e r v e r s , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h EPA
Method 9 e n t i t l e d " V i s u a l D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f O p a c i t y o f E m i s s i o n s from
S t a t i o n a r y Sources," i n t h e Code o f F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n s CFR40, P a r t
60, Appendix A (46).
 O p t i c a l t r a n s m i s s o m e t e r measurement i n accordance w i t h EPA
Performance S p e c i f i c a t i o n 1 e n t i t l e d "Performance S p e c i f i c a t i o n s and
S p e c i f i c a t i o n T e s t Procedures f o r Transmissometer System f o r
C o n t i n u o u s Measurement o f t h e O p a c i t y o f S t a c k E m i s s i o n , " i n t h e
Code of F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n s CFR40, P a r t 60, Appendix B ( 3 ) .

€PA Methoa 9 c o v e r s t n e d e t e r m i r z i t i o n o f plume o p a c i t y by human o b s e r v e r s .

The method i n c l u d e s p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e t r a i n j n g and c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f
o b s e r v e r s , and p r o c e d u r e s t o be used i n t h e f i e l d f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t a c k
p l ume o p a c i t y .

€PA Performance S p e c i f i c a t i o n 1 encompasses i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n o p t i c a l d e s i g n and

c a l i b r a t i o n requirements, i n s t a l l a t i o n requirements, o p e r a t i o n a l t e s t
p r o c e d u r e s , and d a t a c o m p u t a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s f o r o p a c i t y measurement by o p t i c a l
transrnissiometer. The o p t i c a l t r a n s m i s s o m e t e r i s a p r e c i s i o n e l e c t r o - o p t i c a l
i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h measures t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f a l i g h t beam t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h
a stack o r duct. The i n s t r u m e n t c o n s i s t s o f a combined o p t i c a l t r a n s m i t t e r /
r e c e i v e r ( t r a n s c e i v e r ) u n i t a t t a c h e d t o one s i d e o f t h e s t a c k , a n d a r e f l e c t o r
u n i t oro t h e o t h e r s i d e . B o t h a r e a i r - , > u r g e d and l o c a t e d i n p r o t e c t i v e
housings. B a s i c a l l y , l i g h t from a s i n g l e source i n t h e t r a n s c e i v e r i s d i v i d e d
i n t o a measuring beam and a r e f e r e n c e beam. The m e a s u r i n g beam i s t r a n s m i t t e d
a c r o s s t h e s t a c k t o t h e r e f l e c t o r w h i c h t h e n d i r e c t s t h e a t t e n u a t e d beam back
i n t o the transceiver. The r e f e r e n c e beam and t h e m e a s u r i n g beam a r e p r o j e c t e d
i n t o t h e same p h o t o d i o d e where t h e i r measured s i g n a l s a r e compared. A signal
processor then converts these t o stack o p a c i t y .

When t h e o p t i c a l t r a n s m i s s o m e t e r i s c o r r e c t l y c a l i b r a t e d and w e l l - m a i n t a i n e d ,
i t measures s t a c k o p a c i t y more a c c u r a t e l y t h a n can be a c h i e v e d b y a human
observer. The problems o f j u d g i n g s t a c k v i s u a l e m i s s i o n s by human o b s e r v e r s
a r e w e l l known. The r e s u l t s a r e dependent on t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e sun r e l a t i v e
t o t h e o b s e r v e r ; e r r o r s a r e sometimes made on o v e r c a s t days, a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s
c a n n o t be made a t n i g h t t i m e . O p t i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o m e t e r measurements a r e n o t by
any means e r r o r - f r e e , b u t i n comparison w i t h human o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e y a r e
d e c i d e d l y more a c c u r a t e . Sources o f e r r o r f o r o p t i c a l t r a n s m i s s o r n e t e r s a r e
v o l t a g e changes, t e m p e r a t u r e changes, l i g h t s o u r c e and d e t e c t o r a g i n g , e f f e c t s
o f ambient l i g h t , t r a n s c e i v e r u n i t / r e f l e c t o r u n i t a l i g n m e n t d r i f t , and o p t i c s
soiling drift. W i t h p r o p e r c a l i b r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e , however, a
modern-design o p t i c a l transmissometer can achieve an o p e r a t i o n a l accuracy 2 3
p e r c e n t of span o r 4 1 . 5 percent o p a c i t y , whichever s g r e a t e r , over an
o p e r a t i o n a l period of a t l e a s t t h r e e months (46).

Although s t a c k o p a c i t y measurement by o p t i c a l transm ssometer i s a continuous

monitoring p r o c e s s , i t i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d t h a t an average of s t a c k o p a c i t y
measurements be taken during t h e performance t e s t p e r i o d f o r determination of
p a r t i c u l a t e concentration. T h i s i s done f o r two reasons:
To determine i f t h e equipment s u p p l i e r ' s performance guarantees
have been s a t i s f i e d .

To c o r r e l a t e o p a c i t y with p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , f o r f u t u r e
use during p r e c i p i t a t o r o p e r a t i o n s and t r o u b l e - s h o o t i n g .

With regard t o t h e l a t t e r , t h e r e a r e numerous f a c t o r s i n a d d i t i o n t o

p a r t i c u l a t e concentration t h a t influence stack opacity. The most n o t a b l e a r e
p a r t i c u l a t e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y , t h e c o l o r of t h e p a r t i c u l a t e
m a t t e r ( i n d e x of r e f r a c t i o n ) , t h e presence of water vapor, s t a c k gas
t e m p e r a t u r e , and s t a c k geometry. Because of t h e s e f a c t o r s , a c c u r a t e
c o r r e l a t i o n s of s t a c k o p a c i t y t o p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n l e v e l s a r e only
p o s s i b l e f o r a s p e c i f i c i n s t a l l a t i o n f i r i n g a fuel t h a t does not vary
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n composition.

A p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n should i n d i c a t e how o p a c i t y d a t a w i l l be reported

during t h e performance t e s t p e r i o d ; e . g . , "opacity s h a l l be reported a s
c o n s e c u t i v e s i x minute averages during t h e e n t i r e d u r a t i o n of each p a r t i c u l a t e
concentration t e s t . "

P r e s s u r e Drop

F i e l d performance t e s t s t h a t determine f l u e system p r e s s u r e drop do not have

industry-wide s t a n d a r d i z e d procedures. I n f a c t , t h e r e has been a g r e a t deal
of confusion in r e c e n t y e a r s concerning such fundamentals a s t h e c o r r e c t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e term p r e s s u r e drop. Appropriate t e s t i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ,
s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e c o r r e c t type of p r e s s u r e measurement probe, has always been
an item of d e b a t e .

There i s an ASME Performance Power T e s t Code on p r e s s u r e measurement (37);

however, t h i s document g e n e r a l l y covers measurement instrumentation and
a p p a r a t u s and does not s p e c i f i c a l l y address procedures f o r ductwork pressure
measurements. I t can be u s e f u l , n e v e r t h e l e s s , f o r a s s i s t i n g in s p e c i f y i n g
s u i t a b l e probe and l i q u i d l e v e l gages. The balance of t h e t e s t procedure must
be covered in a p r e c i p i t a t o r ' s s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

When d i s c u s s i n g f l u i d flow pressure measurements, i t i s b e s t t o begin with an

examination of B e r n o u l l i ' s equation. Along a s t r e a m l i n e i n s t e a d y ,
f r i c t i o n l e s s , incompressible flow, t h e following r e l a t i o n s h i p a p p l i e s :

2
pV + + 223 = B e r n o u l l i ' s Constant
2gc 9,

where:

p = f l u i d d e n s i t y ( l b m / f t2 )

V = fluid velocity (ft/sec)

gc = dimensional c o n s t a n t ( 3 2 . 2 lbm/lbf . f t / s e c 2 )
p
2
= s t a t i c pressure ( l b f / f t )

z = fluid elevation ( f t )

g = a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y ( ~ 3 2 . 2f t / s e c L )

For t h e s p e c i a l c a s e of g a s flowing in ductwork, we can ignore t h e secondary

e f f e c t of changes i n f l u i d e l e v a t i o n ; however, t h e assumption of f r i c t i o n l e s s
flow introduces a s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r . Hence, along a ductwork s t r e a m l i n e from
t e s t s t a t i o n 1 t o t e s t s t a t i o n 2 (assuming a n e g l i g i b l e change in gas d e n s i t y
due t o temperature l o s s ) :

where t h e term "Losses" r e p r e s e n t s the f l u i d flow f r i c t i o n a l and i n e r t i a l ( o r

shock) l o s s e s .

We a r e now prepared t o d e f i n e what i s meant by t h e terms " s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

l o s s " and " t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s " f o r t h i s s p e c i a l case of gas flowing in a
ductwork, a s follows:
 Static 2 2
Pressure = (pl - p2) = (*)2- + I Losses
(91)1
Loss 29c 2gc

Total

Loss

Note t h a t when t h e gas v e l o c i t y a t t e s t s t a t i o n 1 e q u a l s t h e gas v e l o c i t y a t

t e s t s t a t i o n 2 , t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e l o s s becomes equal t o t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e
l o s s (again assuming a n e g l i g i b l e change in gas d e n s i t y ) .

Most p r e c i p i t a t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s now s p e c i f y p r e s s u r e drop guarantees i n terms

of t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s f o r two primary reasons:
Total pressure can be a c c u r a t e l y measured by use of a Kiel probe
o r a simple impact probe.

S t a t i c pressure measurement i s made by use of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

t a p s , which a r e prone t o plugging and r e q u i r e p r e c i s e p o s i t i o n i n g
when making measurement in h i g h v e l o c i t y , h i g h l y t u r b u l e n t flow.

- I t i s customary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e s s u r e drop in terms of

t o t a l pressure l o s s during t h e design of ductwork.

The t e s t s e t u p f o r measuring t o t a l p r e s s u r e drop c o n s i s t s of an impact o r Kiel

probe connected by s u i t a b l e tubing t o one t a p of a manometer; t h e o t h e r
manometer t a p i s l e f t open t o atmospheric p r e s s u r e . Total duct pressure a t a
t e s t s t a t i o n i s measured by conducting a multi-point t o t a l p r e s s u r e t r a v e r s e ,
with t h e number of t r a v e r s e p o i n t s s e l e c t e d i n accordance with €PA Method 1
(59). Total p r e s s u r e a t a t e s t s t a t i o n i s then the a r i t h m e t i c average of a l l
t h e s t a t i o n ' s t r a v e r s e readings. Concurrent with t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s
measurements, gas volume flow r a t e i s measured using a t y p e S p i t o t t u b e in
accordance w i t h EPA Methods 1 and 2 (46). Total p r e s s u r e l o s s between two
t e s t s t a t i o n s i s by s u b t r a c t i o n , and i s reported a s a t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s ( i n
W . C . ) , a t g a s volume flow r a t e (acfm) and gas temperature ( O F ) . The flow r a t e
and temperature d a t a i s needed t o c o r r e c t the measured t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s t o
a s e t of pre-selected r e f e r e n c e c o n d i t i o n s by use of r e l a t i o n s h i p s such a s :
where :
PC = Corrected pressure drop (in W.C.)
Pm = Measured pressure drop (in W.C.)
Tm = Measured flue gas temperature (OR)

Tr = Reference flue gas temperature (OR)

Fm = Measured flue gas volume flow rate (acfm)

Fr = Reference flue gas volume flow rate (acfm)

Power Consumption
Power consumption is typically measured at the precipitator system's load
centers by use of calibrated instrumentation and transcribed by recorders
provided by the precipitator supplier. Power consumption measurement usually
takes place simultaneously with particulate concentration measurement.
Various types of power consumption measurements can be made, including:
total system average power consumption
total system maximum instantaneous power consumption
the average power consumption of the transformer-rectifier sets
The average power consumption of the system with selected
equipment deactivated.

Total system average power consumption and total system maximum instantaneous
power consumption are measured at the 480V tap of the 13.8 kV/480V
transformer. Some precipitator specifications require that power be measured
at point A with preselected equipment deactivated during testing (usually
hopper heaters and sometimes insulator bushing heaters). This, of course, can
o n l y be done d u r i n g warm w e a t h e r and f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s . A n o t h e r way t o
c o n d u c t t h i s p a r t i a l power measurement i s t o measure power a t p o i n t s A, B and
C o r D, and t h e n s u b t r a c t t h e h e a t e r l o a d s f r o m t h e t o t a l system power
measurement. It i s advisable, however, t o keep t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l power
measurements on a s i n g l e bus t o a minimum f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f c o s t ,
p r a c t i c a l i t y , and measurement a c c u r a c y .

Where power measurements a r e t o be made i n t h e f i e l d , a p r e c i p i t a t o r s u p p l i e r

now t y p i c a l l y p r o v i d e s permanent c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s and p o t e n t i a l
transformers. W a t t m e t e r c a l i b r a t i o n and power measurement p r o c e d u r e s s h o u l d
b e i n g e n e r a l a c c o r d w i t h ASME Performance T e s t Code PTC 19.6 e n t i t l e d " M a s t e r
T e s t Code f o r E l e c t r i c a l Measurements i n Power C i r c u i t s " (74). A precipitator
s u p p l i e r ' s s e l e c t i o n o f s p e c i f i c model i n s t r u m e n t s ( w a t t m e t e r s , s i g n a l
p r o c e s s o r s and r e c o r d e r s ) s h o u l d be s u b m i t t e d t o t h e u t i l i t y f o r r e v i e w and
approval. Certificates o f c a l i b r a t i o n f o r a l l instrumentation are usually
submitted t o t h e u t i l i t y f o r r e v i e w and approval p r i o r t o f i e l d t e s t i n g .

A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a v e r a g e power measurement f o r t h e t e s t p e r i o d may be

d e t e r m i n e d i n s e v e r a l ways, d e p e n d i n g on t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .
D i s c r e t e r e a d i n g s can be r e c o r d e d m a n u a l l y a t t i m e i n t e r v a l s , and an
a r i t h m e t i c mean c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e t e s t p e r i o d . A l t e r n a t e l y , r e c o r d e r s can be
used t o o b t a i n c o n t i n u o u s , permanent r e c o r d s o f i n s t a n t a n e o u s power
measurements d u r i n g t h e t e s t p e r i o d .

F l u e Gas Temperature Drop

The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p i s o c c a s i o n a l l y conducted

d u r i n g the performance t e s t i n g program t o evaluate t h e performance o f a
ductwork's thermal i n s u l a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y f o r hot-side p r e c i p i t a t o r
applications. EPA Methods 1 and 2 , w h i c h t o g e t h e r d e t e r m i n e gas v e l o c i t y and
volume f l o w r a t e , i n c l u d e p r o c e d u r e s f o r f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e measurement.
These t e s t methods r e q u i r e t h a t (2):
The t e m p e r a t u r e gauge be c a p a b l e o f measuring t e m p e r a t u r e t o
w i t h i n 1.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e minimum a b s o l u t e s t a c k t e m p e r a t u r e .

A t e m p e r a t u r e measurement be made a l o n g w i t h each v e l o c i t y

measurement d u r i n g t h e p i t o t t u b e t r a v e r s e o f t h e d u c t .

The t e m p e r a t u r e gauge be a t t a c h e d t o t h e p i t o t t u b e such t h a t

i n t e r f e r e n c e s a r e avoided.
 Provided t h a t n o t more than a one percent d i f f e r e n c e in v e l o c i t y
measurement i s introduced, t h e temperature gauge need not be
attached t o the p i t o t tube.

For f i u e gas temperature drop d e t e r m i n a t i o n , i t i s suggested t h a t EPA Methods

1 and 2 be s l i g h t l y modified a s follows:
The temperature gauge must be of t h e thermocouple thermometer type
with an accuracy of + Z°F o r b e t t e r , i n accordance with Chapter 3 o f
ASME Performance Test Code PTC 19.3 ( 2 ) .

The thermocouple thermometer i s t o Se c a l i b r a t e d in accordance

with procedures s e t f o r t h i n Chapter 9 of Reference 76.

The temperature gauge can be a t t a c h e d t o t h e p i t o t tube during a

v e l o c i t y t r a v e r s e , o r a multi-point t r a v e r s e may be performed with
t h e thermocouple device a l o n e . Under no circumstances, however, a r e
t h e procedures of EPA Method I t o be waived.

The temperature drop i s then determined t o be t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e a r i t h m e t i c

averages of temperature t r a v e r s e s a t two t e s t s t a t i o n s . Flue g a s temperature
drop i s t y p i c a l l y recorded t o t h e n e a r e s t d e g r e e . Care should be taken when
using t h i s r e s u l t t h a t i t s l i m i t of accuracy ( i n t h e o r d e r of + 4OF) i s not
exceeded.
 Appendix 7A

EXAMPLE SCOPE OF SUPPLY STATEMENT

Seller shall furnish complete set(s) of electrostatic precipitators and

accessories in accordance with the requirements set forth herein.
7.1.1 If Seller does not specifically list any technical deviations
or exceptions to the specification, then it shall be understood by
Purchaser that the offering is in complete agreement with this
Specification.
7.1.2 The equipment shall be located downstream of the air
preheaters. Space limitations and the general layout established are shown
on Purchaser's drawings listed i n Appendix A of the contract.
7.1.3 Equipment as detailed herein shall consist of the following
components to be furnished by the Purchaser or Seller as noted. Reference
is made to attached Figure 7A-1 for power supply and wiring schematics.
Furnished By
Purchaser Seller
7.1.3.1 Electrostatic precipitator(s) including Sell er
collecting electrodes, discharge electrodes, collecting
and discharge electrode rappers and control panels,
access doors, key interlock system, transformer -
rectifier sets with control panels, and ash hoppers.
7.1.3.2 Supporting structures for precipitator(s) Seller
and accessories listed i n Paragraph 7.1.3.
7.1.3.3 Ductwork including flue gas distribution
devices, dust collection hoppers, access manholes,
instrument and test connections, expansion joints and
dampers.
.I - From air preheater outlet flange Sell er
which is located - feet beyond
column 1 ine - to precipitator inlet
flange, including expansion joints.
.2 - From precipitator(s) outlet flange to Seller
induced draft fans, including expansion
joints.
.3 - Induced draft fans inlet and outlet Seller
transition ductwork.
6 CELL
h 1

1-6 ELECTRICAL BUS SECTION

ol] ELECTRICAL F I E L D

L I , ,

Figure 7A-1. Bus Section and Transformer-Rectifier Arrange~ents for

Any S i n g l e Electrical Field as Used with Precipitators H a v i n g Various
Groups o f Cell s and Numbers o f F i e 1 ds
 Furnished By
Purchaser S e l l e r

7.1.3.4 Supporting s t r u c t u r e s f o r S e l l e r s u p p l i e d Sell e r

ductwork and a c c e s s o r i e s .

7.1.3.5 Platforms , wal kways, access s t a i r w a y s ,

l a d d e r s and handrai 1 s and t h e i r required supporting
structures for:

.l - Prec i p i t a t o r ( s ) Seller

2 - S e l l e r supplied ductwork ( i n c l u d i n g
platforms t o a l l i n l e t and o u t l e t t e s t
stations) Sell e r

3 - Fly ash hoppers and hopper a c c e s s o r i e s Sel l e r

.4 - Walkways from steam g e n e r a t o r t o Sell e r

p r e c i p i t a t o r (roof a r e a )
.5 - Maintenance monorail(s) and t r o l l e y - Sell e r
h o i s t ( s ) f o r transformer-recti f i e r s e t s

7.1.3.6 P r e c i p i t a t o r dampers and f l u e gas d i s t r i b u t i o n

devices:
. 1 - O u t l e t balancing dampers (one p e r nozzle)* Seller

.2 - I n l e t and o u t l e t i s o l a t i o n dampers Seller

( i f required)

.3 - Flue gas d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s Seller

.4 - Rappers f o r gas d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s Seller

* Optional - Provides f o r a g r o s s c o r r e c t i o n in f l u e g a s
q u a n t i t y t o each chamber on an emergency and temporary
b a s i s u n t i l t h e S e l l e r can r e a d j u s t t h e gas d i s t r i b u t i o n
devices.

7.1.3.7 P r e c i p i t a t o r ash hopper a c c e s s o r i e s :

1 - Hopper v i b r a t o r s Purchaser*

.2 - Hopper a e r a t o r s Purchaser*
 Furnished By
Purchaser S e l l e r

3 - Hopper a e r a t o r s o l e n o i d valves Purchaser*

4 - Hopper h e a t e r s Selle r

.5 - Hopper l e v e l d e t e c t o r Sell e r

.6 - Hopper o u t l e t v a l v e s Purchaser
* Normally purchased a s p a r t of t h e f l y a s h handling system,
but t h e p r e c i p i t a t o r manufacturer can provide them i f so
desired.

7.1.3.8 P r e c i p i t a t o r ash hopper mounting p r o v i s i o n s :

1 - Hopper v i b r a t o r s Seller

.2 - Hopper a e r a t o r s Sef 1 e r

3 - Hopper a e r a t o r s o l e n o i d valves Seller

4 - Hopper h e a t e r s Se1 l e r

.5 - Hopper l e v e l d e t e c t o r s Selle r

6 - Hopper o u t l e t v a l v e s Sell e r

7 - Hopper ash handling vent valves Sell e r

7.1.3.9 P r e c i p i t a t o r i n l e t / o u t l e t connections and

flanged ductwork terminal p o i n t s . Seller

7.1.3.10 Weather e n c l o s u r e f o r p r e c i p i t a t o r roof

covering t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r r r a p p e r s and rapper
control cabinets:

1 - Framing Selle r

.2 - S i d i n g , r o o f i n g , d o o r s , louvers and Sell e r

w i ndows
.3 - Heating* Sell e r

.4 - Ventilation Sell e r

5 - Lighting Seller

* Dependent upon c l i m a t i c conditions ( i . e . , extreme h e a t o r

cold)
 Furnished By
Purchaser S e l l e r

7.1.3.11 Enclosure f o r t h e ash hopper a r e a

.l - Framing Seller

.2 - S i d i n g , r o o f i n g , doors, louvers and Sell er

windows

.3 - Heating Seller

.4 - Ventilation Sel l e r

.5 - Lighting Sell er

* Dependent upon c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s ( i . e . , extreme c o l d ) i n

o r d e r t o reduce cooling e f f e c t s on f l y ash hoppers and
provide a p r o t e c t e d environment f o r maintenance personnel
during outages.

7.1.3.12 Weather e n c l o s u r e f o r c o n t r o l room ( c o n t a i n i n g

r e c t i f i e r c o n t r o l u n i t s , power d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t e r s , and
ash hopper accessory c o n t r o l s )

.l - Framing Sel l e r

.2 - Siding r o o f i n g , d o o r s , louvers and Seller

windows

.3 - Heating Sell er

.5 - Air conditioning Sel i e r

.6 - Lighting Seller

7.1.3.13 I n s u l a t o r compartment h e a t e r s and blowers. Seller

7.1.3.14 H i g h v o l t a g e dc wiring between r e c t i f i e r s Sell e r

and d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s .

7.1.3.15 R e c t i f i e r low v o l t a g e alarm c i r c u i t . Seller

7.1.3.16 Power supply i n c l u d i n g :

1 - S t a t i o n s e r v i c e transformers A , B , C Sel l e r
and D (Raceway o n l y )
 Furnished By
Purchaser Seller

. 2 - 480 Volt Load Centers Sell er

.3 - 480 Volt Power Distribution Centers Sell er

7.1.3.17 Grounding
.1 - Underground Purchaser
.2 - Above-ground for Seller supplied Sell er
equipment

7.1.3.18 Controls, panels and cabinets for the following:

. 1 - Transformer-rectifiers Sell er
.2 - Collecting electrode rappers Sel l e r

.3 - Discharge electrode rappers Seller

.4 - Insulator compartment heater and/or Seller

blower system
. 5 - Precipitator inlet flue gas Seller
distribution d e v i c e rappers
(if required)
.6 - Precipitator outlet flue gas Sel ier
balancing dampers
7 - Precipitator inlet and outlet Sel ler
isolation dampers
.8 - Fly ash hopper heaters Sei 1 er

.9 - Fly ash hopper vibrators* Purchaser

.10 - Fly ash hopper aerators* Purchaser
.11 - Fly ash hopper level detectors Sel l er
12 - Heating, air conditioning, ventilation
and l i g h t i n g for weather enclosures:
a - Precipitator roof Seller

b - Ash hopper area Sell er

c - Control room Seller

 Furnished By
Purchaser Seller

.13 - Flue gas opacity meters for

precipitator control system Seller
14 - Flue gas analyzers for NOx, CO, 02,
SO2 or C02 ** Seller
* May be provided by Seller
** May be provided by Purchaser for steam generator control
information
7.1.3.19 Low voltage power and control wiring between:
.1 - Power transformers and load centers Seller
.2 - toad centers and power distribution Seller
.3 - Power distribution centers and control Sell er
cabinets
.4 - Control cabinets and terminal boxes Seller
.5 - Control, instrumentation and Sell e r
annunciation between control
cabinets or device to retransmitting
terminal cabinets
7.1.3.20 Low voltage power and control wiring between
terminal boxes and:
1 - Transformer-rectifiers Sell er
2 - Collecting and discharge Sell er
electrode rac.+rs
.3 - Insulator compartment heaters Sell er
and blowers
.4 - Inlet gas distribution device rappers Sell er
.5 - Outlet flue gas balancing dampers Sell er
.6 - Inlet and outlet isolation dampers Sell er
.7 - Hopper auxiliaries Seller
 Furnished By
Purchaser S e l l e r

7.1.3.21 For low v o l t a g e power and c o n t r o l wiring

s p e c i f i e d in Paragraph 7.1.3.19:

.1 - Engineering and design Sell e r

. 2 - Terminal boxes Seller

.3 - Cables and raceways Sel l e r

.4 - Field i n s t a l l a t i o n Sell e r

7.1.3.22 For low v o l t a g e power and c o n t r o l wiring

s p e c i f i e d i n Paragraph 7.1.3.20:

.1 - Engineering ahd d e s i g n Sell e r

.2 - Cables and raceways Seller

.3 - Field i n s t a l l a t i o n Seller

7.1.3.23 Thermal i n s u l a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g c l i p s ) f o r
the following:

.1 - P r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g Se7 l e r

-2 - P r e c i p i t a t o r hot roof Se: 1e r

.3 - S e l l e r supplied ductwork and Seller

expansion j o i n t s

.4 - Fly ash hoppers Seller

.5 - Insulator co~rartrnents Sell e r

.6 - I n l e t and o u t l e t i s o l a t i o n dampers Sell e r

( i f requi red)

. 7 - O u t l e t balancing dampers ( i f r e q u i r e d ) Seller

.8 - Control room Sell e r

7.1.3.24 Lagging f o r t h e following:

. I - P r e c i p i t a t o r casing Sel l e r

.2 - P r e c i p i t a t o r h o t roof ( s p e c i a l walking Sell e r

and maintenance s u r f a c e )

.3 - Ductwork Seller

.4 - Fly ash hoppers Seller

 Furnished By
Purchaser S e l l e r

.5 - i n s u l a t o r compartments Sel 'i e r

. 6 - P r e c i p i t a t o r weather e n c l o s u r e Sell e r

.7 - Hopper area e n c l o s u r e Sell e r

.8 - Control room Sel7er

7 . 1 . 3 .Z5 Foundations and a r e a d r a i n a g e Purchaser

7.1.3.26 Area l i g h t i n g Sell e r

7.1.3.27 Motors:

.1 - Motors ( i f r e q u i r e d ) w i t h horsepower Not Required

r a t i n g above 300 hp

.2 - Motor s t a r t e r s f o r motors s p e c i f i e d in Not Required

Paragraph 7.1.3.27.1

.3 - Motors ( i f r e q u i r e d ) with horsepower Sel l e r

r a t i n g s up t o and i n c l u d i n g 300 hp

.4 - Motor s t a r t e r s f o r motors s p e c i f i e d in Sell e r

Paragraph 7 . 1 . 3 . 2 7 . 3

.5 - Motors and s t a r t e r s f o r damper Sel I e r

actuators

7.1.3.28 F i r e Protection System Selle r

7.1.3.29 P r e c i p i t a t o r Water Washing System Sell e r

( i f required)

7.1.3.30 Erection of equipment:

.1 - Precipi t a t o r ( s ) Sel l e r

.2 - P r e c i p i t a t o r supporting s t e e l Sell e r

.3 - Ductwork, expansion j o i n t s and dampers Sel l e r

.4 - Ductwork supporting s t e e l Se1 l e r

.5 - Platforms, s t a i r w a y s , walkways and i t s Sel l e r

supporting s t e e l

.6 - Precipitator accessories Seller

.7 - Unloading, handling and Seller

storage a t s i t e
 Furnished By
Purchaser Seller

.8 - Control panels and cabinets Sell er

.9 - Powered control wiring Seller

.10 - Insulation and lagging Seller

.I1 - Field touch-up painting Sel 1 er

.12 - Field finish painting Sell er

.13 - Fire Protection System Sell er

.I4 - Precipitator Water Washing System Sell er

(i f required)

7.1.3.31 Special tools Sell er

7.1.3.32 All gaskets, bo:ts, nuts, rivets Seller

and welding rods with an excess of 5 percent
over actual requirement f o r field installation.
In addition, all bolts, nuts and gaskets for
ductwork interfaces with Purchaser's equipment
f 1 anges.
7.1.3.33 Induced draft fan material and erection Purchaser

7.1.3.34 Chimney Purchaser

 Appendix 75

EXAMPLE OF PURCHASER PROVIDED TECHNICAL DATA

7.2.1 S i t e Requirements

7.2.1.1 S i t e Conditions

.I - Grade e l e v a t i o n above mean sea l e v e l ft

. 2 - E l e v a t i o n a t t o p o f grade s l a b
(High Point) ft

.3 - Outdoor design d r y b u l b
temperature Range -OF to -OF

.4 - Outdoor r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y Range % t o -%

.5 - O u t d o o r a i r c o n d i t i o n s :
T r o p i c a l (Yes, No)
S a l t Laden (Yes, No)
A r c t i c (Yes, No)

.6 - Other outdoor abnormal c o n d i t i o n s

7 - I n d o o r temperature r e q u i r e d i n heated
a n d v e n t i l a t e d spaces a r e O F minimum
i n w i n t e r and O F maximum i n summer.

.8 - I n d o o r temperature r e q u i r e d i n a i r
c o n d i t i o n e d spaces a r e O F maximum i n
summer and -OF minimum i n w i n t e r .

7.2.1.2 Equipment D e s i g n L i f e years

7.2.1.3 D e s i g n f o r S e i s m i c Loads ( y e s , no)

1 - S e i s m i c r i s k zone (ANSI A58.1)

one/two/three/four

2 - Z (zone c o e f f i c i e n t value)
7.2.1.4 D e s i g n Loads

The equipment s h a l l b e d e s i g n e d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s :

.1 - Wind l o a d i n g i n accordance w i t h Building

Code :

B a s i c w i n d speed, mph
 . 2 - L i v e load, psf (walkways, p l a t f o r m s ,
s t a i r s , penthouse f l o o r , c o n t r o l room
f 1oor)
.3 - Baseplates s h a l l be designed f o r a maximum a l l o w a b l e
b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e o f -p s i

The above l o a d s a r e i n a d d i t i o n t o s e i s m i c f o r c e s , where a p p l i c a b l e .

However, wind and earthquake need n o t o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

7.2.2 Basic P l a n t Data

Nominal FRJ

T r i a l O p e r a t i o n Date

7.2.3 P r e c i p i t a t o r Data

7.2.3.1 S e l l e r s h a l l d e s i g n and f u r n i s h t h e equipment d e t a i l e d h e r e i n

i n accordance w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s :

.1 - I n l e t f l u e gas temperature, OF range

acfm B
.2 - Maximum f l u e gas f l o w gas temp. -OF

.3 - Maximum i n l e t f l y ash r a t e (does n o t

i n c l u d e p r o v i s i o n f o r s o o t b l owi ng), Ib / h r

.4 - Steam g e n e r a t o r maximum g r o s s h e a t
6
i n p u t , 10 Btu

.5 - Maximum p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n ,
lb/fo6 Btu

.6 - Minimum o p e r a t i n g S p e c i f i c C o l l e c t i n g
Area (SCA) w i t h 10 p e r c e n t o f bus
s e c t i o n s o u t o f s e r v i c e , sq. f t / 1 0 0 0 8 nominal
actual cubic f e e t - i n c h spacing

.7 - Maximum i n l e t f l u e gas v e l o c i t y , f t / s e c

.8 - Overall c o l l e c t i n g e f f i c i e n c y , percent

.9 - L o c a t i o n , r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r h e a t e r s
upstream/downstream

.10 - Maximum c o m b u s t i b l e s i n p a r t i c u l a t e
matter, percent

.ll- Induced d r a f t f a n i n l e t c r o s s o v e r acfm 8

ductwork d e s i g n gas f l o w gas temp. - OF
7.2.3.2 The p r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g , f l y a s h hoppers, d u c t w o r k a n d a l l
o t h e r equipment o r components t h e r e o f , s u b j e c t t o f l u e gas -exposure s h a l l
be d e s i g n e d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s :

1 - Maximum o p e r a t i n g positive/maxirnum
o p e r a t i n g n e g a t i v e , i n . wg. /
.2 - D e s i g n p o s i t i v e / d e s i g n n e g a t i v e , i n . wg /
7.2.3.3 The equipment s h a l l b e d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d a f l u e g a s h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n o f - O F f o r a minimum p e r i o d o f 30 m i n u t e s w i t h o u t
s u s t a i n i n g any damage w h a t s o e v e r .

7.2.3.4 P r e c i p i t a t o r a s p e c t r a t i o s h a l l b e equal t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n -
. Aspect r a t i o i s d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o o f e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h e x c l u s i v e o f
i n t e r f i e l d walkways, o f p r e c i p i t a t o r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f gas f l o w t o t h e
effective height o f precipitator.

7.2.3.5 Each p r e c i p i t a t o r s h a l l have a minimum o f electrical

and mechanical f i e l d s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f gas f l o w .

7.2.3.6 Performance W a r r a n t y

Equipment p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t y s h a l l be b a s e d upon any c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g ranges o f D e s i g n O p e r a t i n g C o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e equipment i n l e t :

-1 - I n l e t f l y ash r a t e f r o m z e r o t o and i n c l u d i n g
1 T h i s f l y a s h r a t e i s c a l c u l a t e d t o be e q u i v a l e n t
t o a p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r i n l e t l o a d i n g f r o m z e r o t o and
including pounds p e r m i l l i o n B t u p e r h o u r . However,
S e l l e r s h a l l extend ( i f necessary) t h e p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r
i n l e t l o a d i n g w a r r a n t y range t o account f o r f l y ash
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a n d uneven f l u e gas d i s t r i b u t i o n .

.2 - f l u e gas i n l e t v o l u m e t r i c f l o w p e r steam g e n e r a t o r , f r o m
z e r o up t o and i n c l u d i n g acfm.

.3 - F l u e gas i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e o f -O F ( t r a v e r s e average),
w i t h v a r i a t i o n s from a v e r a g e a c r o s s t h e f a c e o f d u c t ( s ) up
to 2 O F .

.4 - F l u e gas i n l e t p r e s s u r e f r o m -t o -in wg.

.5 - Combustibles i n p a r t i c u l a t e matter from - t o - percent

by weight.

.6 - Fuel c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as s p e c i f i e d h e r e i n i n P a r a g r a p h
7.2.8.1.
 .7 - Normal u n i t o p e r a t i o n i n c l u d i n g , but n o t l i m i t e d t o ,
s t a r t - u p , shutdown, 1oad f l u c t u a t i o n , simultaneously
f i r i n g of coal and f u e l o i l and/or r e f u s e d e r i v e d s o l i d
f u e l , sootblowing, operation of p r e c i p i t a t o r f l y ash
hopper a e r a t o r s and v i b r a t o r s and f l y ash removal
equipment w i t h venting of s t o r a g e s i l o s t o p r e c i p i t a t o r
i n l e t ( i f applicable).

.8 - S e l l e r ' s p a r t i c u l a t e matter c o r r e c t i o n c u r v e s s h a l l , a s a
minimum cover the ranges s p e c i f i e d i n Paragraphs
7.2.3.6.1, 7.2.3.6.2, 7 . 2 . 3 . 6 . 3 and 7.2.8.1.5h .
9 - The p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r c o r r e c t i o n curves s h a l l have a
value of 1 .OD a t t h e following r e f e r e n c e c o n d i t i o n s :

a - Flue gas flow r a t e p e r steam g e n e r a t o r acfm

b - I n l e t p a r t i c u l a t e loading pounds p e r mill ion

Btu p e r hour

c - Flue g a s temperature (Traverse Average) - F

d - Fuel s u l f u r c o n t e n t - percent by weight

.I0 - For p r e s s u r e drop c o r r e c t i o n , t h e following r e f e r e n c e

c o n d i t i o n s s h a l l be used:
a - Flue g a s flow r a t e per g e n e r a t o r acfm

b - Flue g a s temperature ( t r a v e r s e average) -a F

7.2.4 Ash Hopper Data

7.2.4.1 S e l l e r s h a l l d e s i g n and f u r n i s h t h e equipment d e t a i l e d h e r e i n

i n accordance with t h e following design requirements:

.1 - A f l y ash d e n s i t y of -lb/cu f t s h a l l be used f o r t h e

s t r u c t u r a l design of t h e f l y ash hoppers.
-2 -A f l y ash d e n s i t y of - lb/cu f t s h a l l be used t o
e s t a b l i s h f l y a s h hopper s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y .
.3 - The minimum f l y a s h hopper v a l l e y a n g l e s h a l l be -
degrees.

.4 - The terminal p o i n t of t h e f l y ash hopper w i l l be g - i n c h

diameter f l a n g e d r i l l e d t o match a s t a n d a r d ANSI 150 1 6 ,
round 12-inch f l a n g e .

.5 - Each hopper s h a l l be designed t o support approximately

pounds o f a s h handling equipment.
 .6 - Each h o p p e r s h a l l b e d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d a r e v e r s i b l e
h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y - I b s imposed by
f r i c t i o n i n t h e ash h a n d l i n g p i p e expansion couplings.

.7 - Minimum c l e a r a n c e between t h e hopper o u t l e t f l a n g e a n d

g r a d e s h a l l be feet.

.8 - I n l e t d u c t w o r k s h a l l be d e s i g n e d t o s u p p o r t a d e p o s i t e d
f l y ash l o a d o f Ibs/sq f t .
.9 - O u t l e t d u c t w o r k s h a l l be d e s i g n e d t o s u p p o r t a d e p o s i t e d
f l y ash l o a d o f - I b s / s q . f t .

7.2.5 E l e c t r i c a l Grounding

7.2.5.1 P u r c h a s e r w i l l p r o v i d e a medium r e s i s t a n c e grounded - kV

system f o r t h e - kV f e e d e r s t o S e l : e r l s system.

7.2.6 Material o f Construction

7.2.6.1 P r e c i p i t a t o r c a s i n g ( s ) s h a l l be c o n s t r u c t e d o f ASTM A-
Type material, - - i n c h minimum t h i c k n e s s .

7.2.6.2 Ash h o p p e r s s h a l l be c o n s t r u c t e d o f ASTM A- Type

material, - i n c h minimum t h i c k n e s s .

7.2.6.3 A l l d u c t w o r k , s u b j e c t t o e x p o s u r e t o f l u e gas, s h a l l be
c o n s t r u c t e d o f ASTM A- Type material, - - i n c h minimum t h i c k n e s s .

7.2.6.4 C o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e s s h a l l be c o n s t r u c t e d o f ASTM A-
Type material, gage minimum t h i c k n e s s .

7.2.7 Appl i c a t i o n

The e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r t o g e t h e r w i t h appurtenances and a c c e s s o r i e s

s p e c i f i e d h e r e i n s h a l l be s u i t a b l e f o r s e r v i c e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a
steam g e n e r a t o r a n d a c c e s s o r i e s d e s c r i b e d below:
Manufacturer

.1 - Furnace c o n d i t i o n s
P r e s s u r i z e d . Balance D r a f t

.2 - B u r n e r s , no. and t y p e
P u l v . Coal; Cyclone; Gas;
M e c h a n i c a l , Steam, o r A i r
Atomized O i l

3 - Warm-up t o r c h e s , no. and t y p e

Gas; M e c h a n i c a l , Steam o r
A i r Atomized O i l
 .4 - I g n i t i o n t o r c h e s , no. and t y p e
Gas; Mechanical, Steam o r
A i r Atomized O i l

.5 - Atomizing steam o r a i r f l o w
f o r burners/warrn-up t o r c h e s /
i g n i t i o n torches, l b / h r / /

-6 - Soot b l o w e r s maximum f l o w
lb/hr,/Steam or Air

-7 - A i r heater
a - No. and type, p r i m a r y :
secondary:
Horizontal o r V e r t i c a l Sbaft,
T u b u l a r o r Ljungstrom

b - Soot blowers/water washing I b / h r , A i r Heater

flow gpm, A i r H e a t e r

.8 - E s t i m a t e d number o f c o l d s t a r t s
per year

.9 - E s t i m a t e d number o f h o t s t a r t s
per year

.lo - Forced d r a f t f a n s
number

.11 - Induced d r a f t f a n s
number

12 - Primary a i r f a n s
number

.13 - Gas tempering f a n s

number

.14 - f u e l ( s ) w i l l be c o n d i t i o n e d by Purchaser
Primary-Secondary-
Tertiary

Fuel a d d i t i v e s :

7.2.8 Fuel Data

The steam g e n e r a t i n g u n i t w i t h which t h i s e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r ( s ) i s

a s s o c i a t e d w i l l be f i r e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f u e l ( $ ) :
Description: Primary Secondary Tertiary Other

( A n t h r a c i t e , Bituminous,Sub- Ref use

B i turninous, L i g n i t e , Bunker Bituminous Derived
"C", e t c . ) Coa 1 S o l i d Fuel No. 6 O i l N a t . Gas

Percent o f time f i r e d ( i f f o r
f u t u r e design, i n d i c a t e ''Future")

F u e l used f o r l i g h t o f f /
warm-up/flame s t a b i l i z a t i o n

Load below w h i c h f l a m e s t a b i l i z a t i o n
may be used, p e r c e n t

S i m u l t a n e o u s f u e l f i r i n g , Yes, No

I f yes, describe f u l l y :

7.2.8.1 Coal C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e and performance w a r r a n t y s h a l l be
based upon t h e f o l l o w i n g r a n g e o f c o a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on an a s - r e c e i v e d
basis:

.I - Fuel source

a - District or field

b - Mines

c - Seam

.2 - Fuel p r o d u c t i o n

a - Method o f m i n i n g

b - Size designation

c - Preparation

Minimum Maximum

.3 - Hardgrove g r i n d a b i l i t y Index
.4 - P r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s , p e r c e n t by w e i g h t

a - F i x e d carbon

b - Volatile matter

c - Moisture

d - Ash

e - Sulfur

f - Heating value, Btu/lb

(as received)

.5 - Ultimate analysis, percent by

weight (as received)

a - Carbon
b - Moisture
c - Hydrogen

d - Oxygen (by difference)

e - Nitrogen

f - Chlorine

g - Fluorine

h - Sulfur
i - Ash

-6 - Forms o f s u l f u r , p e r c e n t by w e i g h t :
a - Pyritic

b - Sulfate
c - Organic

.7 - Ash m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s , p e r c e n t b y
w e i g h t on an i g n i t e d b a s i s :

a - Phosphorus p e n t o x i d e , P205

b - S i l i c a , SiOp
 Minimum Maxi mum

c - F e r r i c o x i d e , Fep03

d - A l u m i n a , A1203

e - Titania, Ti02

f - Lime, CaO

g - Magnesia, MgO

h - S u l f u r t r i o x i d e , SO3

i - P o t a s s i u m o x i d e , K20

j - Sodium o x i d e , NaeO

k - Lithium, Li20
? - Undetermined

.8 - Ash f u s i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , OF

a - I n i t i a l deformation:

(1) - Reducing

(2) - Oxidizing

b - S o f t e n i n g (H = W):

(:) - Reducing

(2) - Oxidizing

c - S o f t e n i n g (H = ? / 2 W ) :

(1) - Reducing

( 2 ) - Oxidizing

d - Fluid:

(1) - Reducing

(2) - Oxidizing
 Minimum Maxi mum

.9 - Water s o l u b l e a l k a l i e s

i - Sodium o x i d e , NaEO

ii - P o t a s s i u m o x i d e , '$0

S e l l e r s h a l l n o t e t h a t none o f t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c o a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e
a d d i t i v e n o r r e p r e s e n t any s i n g l e c o a l sample.

7.2.8.2 O i 1 Characteristics

E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e and performance w a r r a n t y s h a l l b e
based upon t h e f o l l o w i n g r a n g e o f -and -o i 1 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

.1 A S T M c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ASTM f o r No. 2 O i l .

.2 P e r c e n t b y w e i g h t ( e x c e p t where pprn i s i n d i c a t e d )

Base

a - Carbon

b - Hydrogen

c - Sulfur

d - Nitrogen

e - Sodium, pprn

f - Ash
g - Moisture

h - Vanadium, ppm

i - Oxygen

.3 - Viscocity - SSF a t 12Z°F

.4 - Heating Value, B t u / l b

.5 - Maximum s u l f u r , p e r c e n t
.6 - Flash p o i n t , O F

.7 - Fire point, O F
 Base
.8 - Pour point, OF

.9 - Density, ?b/gal
.10 - Type Base, Asphalt or Paraffin
Seller shall note that none of the aforementioned oil characteristics are
additive nor represent any single oil sample.
7.2.8.3 Refuse Derived Solid Fuel (RDSF) Characteristics
Electrostatic precipitator performance and performance warranty shall be
based upon the following approximate range of RDSF supplemental fuel
characteristics on an as-received basis:
.1 - ASTM classification E-38 RDSF-3
.2 - Ultimate analysis, percent by
weight (as-received) Minimum Maximum
a - Carbon
b - Hydrogen
c - Oxygen
d - Nitrogen
e - Ash
f - Sulfur
g - Chlorine
h - Moisture
.3 - Heating value, Btu/lb (as received)
.4 - Bulk density, lb/ft 3
Seller shall note that none of the aforementioned RDSF characteristics are
additive nor represent any single RDSF sample.
7.2.9 Particle Size Distribution
The following anticipated fly ash particle size distribution is for
information only and may be used as a guide in the design of the
electrostatic precipitator(s). However, in no event shall equipment
performance warranties be contingent upon particle size distribution
entering said equipment:
Particle S i z e
Distribution Percent Distribution by Weight, Percent
Microns Primary Fuel Secondary Fuel Tertiary Fuel
1
5
10
20
30
40

SO
100

7.2.10 F1 ue Gas Velocities

Flue gas velocit ies at different points throughout the respective circuits
shall not exceed the values given below for maximum continuous average flue
gas flow:
Location Velocity, fps
.1 -Flue gas in duct to precipitator(s)

. 2 -Flue gas through electrostatic precipitator(s)

. 3 -Flue gas in duct to induced draft fan(s)

Economic evaluation factors

Fixed charge rate, percent
Interest during construction, percent/year
Levelized capacity factor, percent
Incremental demand charge, $/kW
Capitalized energy charge, $/kW-yr
She pressure drop through the precipitator
shall be evaluated at an equivalent-cap?tai ized' ID fan
energy consumption, $/in wg
7.2.11.7 Fly ash handling equipment associated with
each hopper, $/hopper
7.2.11.8 kV electric power supply cable,
$/1 i near f o o t $/terminal /
7.2.11.9 Cost for power feeds, $/cubicle
7.2.11.10 Foundations:

.1 - Excavations, $/cubic yard

.2 - Vibroflotation, $/linear foot
.3 - Piling, $/linear foot
.4 - Concrete, $/cubic yard

.5 - Paving, $/cubic yard

7.2.11.11 Levelized operating labor, $/man-yr

7.2.11.12 Capitalized incremental levelized heat loss,
S/O F

7.2.11.13 Replacement power costs, $/MW-hr

 Appendix 7C

EXAMPLE OF SELLER PROVIDED TECHNICAL DATA

The Seller furnished data and information is included in this specification
to indicate the warrantied performance data, predicted performance,
interface characteristics, and construction features of all the Seller
furnished equipment. The Seller s h a l l have the sole responsibility for the
accuracy o f such information and the compatibility of such information with
the Purchaser's specified overall performance requirements.
The Seller shall complete all blank spaces in this paragraph during the
proposal stage. Failure to do so will be cause for rejection of the
proposal.
7.3.1 Precipitator General Features
The electrostatic precipitator(s) general features are as follows (refer to
Figures 7C-1 and 7C-2 for terminology):
7.3.1.1 Model Number
7.3.1.2 Number of precipitators per steam generator
7.3.1.3 Precipitator configuration
7.3.1.4 Size of each precipitator, length/height/
depth, feet / /
7.3.1.5 Number of chambers per precipitator/
steam generator
7.3.1.6 Number of cells per precipitator/steam
generator /

7.3.1.7 Number/depth of electrical fields

per precipitator /

7.3.1.8 Number of bus sections per precipitator/

steam generator /
7.3.1.9 Precipitator casing material (ASTM)/
thickness, inches /

7.3.1.10 Maximum flue gas velocity through the

precipitator(s), fps
7.3.1.11 Minimum effective flue gas treatment time,
(excluding interfield walkways) seconds
7.3.1.12 Effective migration velocity with 10 percent
of bus sections out of service, cm/sec
NOTES:

COLLECTING ELECTRODES: M A X l M U M 59 PER CELL.

NUMBER OF CELLS BASED ON SELECTION OF NUMBER OF COLLECTING ELECTRODES
PER CELL TOTAL PRECIPITATOR LENGTH DIVIDED I N T 2 CELLS OF EQUAL SIZE.
DEPTH OF ELECTRtCAL FIELD CAN VARY.
CHAMBERS SHALL BE SEPARATED BY A DIVISION WALL.
FOR OTHER TERM!NOLOGY SEE l G C l (INDUSTRIAL GAS CLEANING INSTITUTE. INC.)

Figure 7C-I. E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t o r Terminology

J 1 ,
.w
v. I , , @
I * 1

@ TRANSFORMER-RECTI H E R

CI-.( ELECTRICAL BUS SECTlON

ELECTRICAL FIELD

Figure 7C-2. Bus Section and Transformer-Rectifier Arrangements for

Any Single Electrical Field a s Used with Precipitators Having Various
Groups of Cell s and Numbers of Fields
7.3.1.13 Specific collecting area with 10 percent of
bus sections out of service, sq ft/1000 acfm
7.3.1.14 Specific collecting area with all bus
sections i n service, sq ft/lOOO acfm
7.3.1.15 Aspect ratio (installed)
7.3.1.16 Precipitator casing design pressure,
in. wg, positive/negative
7.3.1.17 Precipitator flue connections
.1 - Inlet connection to each cell

b - Welded, Yes or No

c - Flanged and drilled, Yes or No

d - Bolt size/spacing, in
.2 - Outlet connection from each cell
a - Height/width, f t
b - Welded, Yes or No

c - Flanged and drilled, Yes or No

d - Bolt size/spacing, in
7.3.1.18 Gas flow model, material/scale
7.3.2 Fly Ash Hoppers
7.3.2.1 Hopper material, (ASTM)/thickness, in
7.3.2.2 Minimum hopper valley angles, degrees
7.3.2.3 Number of hoppers per precipitator/
steam generator
7.3.2.4 Number of hoppers in direction of flue
gas flow
7.3.2.5 Individual hopper storage capacity at
full load with all fields in operation, cu ft/hours
at design load
.1 - First row hopper
 2 - Second row hopper

.3 - Third row hopper

. 4 - Fourth row hopper

5 - F i f t h row hopper

6 - S i x t h row hopper

.7 - Seventh row hopper

8 - Eighth row hopper

9 - Ninth row hopper

.10 - Tenth row hopper

.11 - Eleventh row hopper

. 1 2 - Twelfth row hopper

.13 - T h i r t e e n t h row hopper

14 - Fourteenth row hopper

7.3.2.6 Hopper s u r f a c e a r e a , sq f t per

precipitator/steam generator

7.3.2.7 Total hopper c a p a c i t y (cu f t ) ger

precipitator/steam generator

7.3.2.8 S t o r a g e time of f i r s t f i e l d hoppers

( h o u r s ) a t maximum loading

7.3.2.9 S i z e of hopper d i s c h a r g e , i n

7.3.2.10 Hopper v i b r a t o r s

.1 - Number per hopper/precipi t a t o r /

steam generator

.2 - Type, indoor o r outdoor

.4 - Maximum sound l e v e l a t a
d i s t a n c e of f i v e f e e t , dB(A)

.5 - Total e l e c t r i c a l requirements
.6 - I n t e r r u p t i n g c a p a c i t y , amps, rms,
sym a t r a t e d v o l t a g e
.7 - C o n t r o l s f o r f l y a s h hopper v i b r a t o r s
s h a l l be a s d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n :

.8 - Type of e n c l o s u r e f o r e l e c t r i c a l
apparatus (including controls),
indoor o r outdoor

Hopper h e a t e r s

.1 - Number p e r h o p p e r / p r e c i p i t a t o r /
steam g e n e r a t o r / /
.2 - Type, i n d o o r o r o u t d o o r

. 3 - Makdnodel /

.4 - Heating d u t y p e r hopper, kW/Btu p e r hour

a - F i r s t row hopper /

b - Second row hopper

c - T h i r d row hopper
d - Fourth row hopper

e - F i f t h row hopper

f - S i x t h row hopper

g - Seventh row hopper

h - Eighth row hopper

i - Ninth row hopper

j - Tenth row hopper

k - Eleventh row hopper

1 - Twelfth row hopper

m - T h i r t e e n t h row hopper

n - F o u r t e e n t h row hopper
 .5 - Total simultaneous maximum heating
duty, kV/Btu/hr
a - Per precipitator /
b - Per steam generator /

.6 - Total electrical requirements -kW- V-Hz-pf

.7 - Electrical loads equally divided
between phases, Yes or No/load percent
per phase /

.8 - Interrupting capacity, amps, rms,

sym at rated voltage
.9 - Controls for fly ash hopper heaters
shall be as described herein:

.10 - Type of enclosure for electrical

apparatus (including controls),
indoor or outdoor
.lI - Thermostat
a - Electrical requirement
b - Range
7.3.2.12 Hopper level detectors
.1 - Number per hopper/precipitator/
steam generator
.2 - Type, indoor or outdoor

.4 - Total electrical reauirements

5 - Level detector application (describe
the intended service, i-e., for
alarm or contact, if for control,
location of control, etc.)
7.3.2.13 Hopper poke holes
.1 - Quantity per hopper
.2 - Size, inches
7.3.3 Ductwork
7.3.3.1 Number of inlet nozzles per precipitator/
steam generator /
7.3.3.2 Number of outlet nozzles per precipitator/
steam generator /
7.3.3.3 Ductwork material (ASTM)/thickness, in. /
7.3.3.4 Inlet flue gas distribution devices
. I - Material (ASTM)/thickness, in. /

-2 - Type

.3 - Quantity per precipitator/steam

generator /

.4 - Number of rappers for distribution

devices, per precipitator/steam
generator /
a - Make/type
b - Operation
c - Mounting
d - Access during operation
e - Minimum acceleration rating "g's"
f - Adjustable, describe
g - Lubrication, describe
h - Rapping bar material (ASTM)/size /
i - Total electrical requirements w V H z p f
j - Maximum sound level at a distance
of 5 feet, dB peak impact
k - Total maximum continuous/inrush
current, amps
 1 - I n t e r r u p t i n g c a p a c i t y , amps, rms,
sym a t r a t e d v o l t a g e

m - C o n t r o l s h a l l be as d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n
( i n c l u d i n g degree o f automation,
remote manual c o n t r o l and/or s u p e r v i s i o n
and l o c a t i o n o f c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s ) :

7.3.3.5 Out1 e t f 1 ue gas d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s

. I - M a t e r i a l (ASTM)/thickness, in. /

.3 - Quantity per precipitator/steam

generator

7.3.3.6 Out1 e t f 1ue gas b a l a n c i n g dampers

.2 - M a t e r i a l (ASTM)/thickness, in. /
.3 - Number p e r cell/chamber/precipitator/
steam g e n e r a t o r / / /

.4 - Operation

.5 - Mounting

.6 - Access d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n

.7 - Adjustable, describe

.8 - Lubrication, describe

.9 - Total e l e c t r i c a l requirements -W-V-Hz-pf

.10 - T o t a l maximum c o n t i n u o u s / i n r u s h
c u r r e n t , amps

.11 - I n t e r r u p t i n g c a p a c i t y , amps, rms,

sym a t r a t e d v o l t a g e
 .12 - Control shall be as described herein
(including degree of automation,
remote manual control and/or supervision
and location of control cabinets):

7.3.3.7 Inlet Flue Gas Isolation Dampers

.2 - Material (ASTM)/thickness, in. /

.3 - Number per cell/chamber/precipitator/
steam generator / / /
.4 - Operation
.5 - Access
6 - Lubrication, describe
7 - Total electrical requirements w V H z p f

.8 - Total maximum continuous/inrush

current, amps /
.9 - Interrupting capacity, amps, rms,
sym at rated voltage
.I0 - Control shall be as described herein
(including degree of automation,
remote manual control and/or supervision
and location of control cabinets):

11 - Purge blower motor, hp -

12 - Purge air heater, kW
7.3.3.8 Outlet flue gas isolation damper

.2 - Material (ASTM)/thickness, in. /

.3 - Number per cell/chamber/precipitator/

steam generator / / /
 .4 - Operation
.5 - Access
.6 - Lubrication, describe
.7 - Total electrical requirements w V H z p f

.8 - Total maximum continuous/inrush

current, amps
.9 - Interrupting capacity, amps, rms,
sym at rated voltage
.10 - Control shall be as described herein
(including degree of automation,
remote manual control and/or supervision
and location of control cabinets):

-11 - Purge blower motor, hp

.12 - Purge air heater, kW
7.3.3.9 Expansion joints
1 - Metal
a - No. per precipitator/steam generator /
b - Make/type /

c - Material/thickness /
2 - Fabric
a - No. per precipitator/steam generator /
b - Make/type /

c - Material/thickness /

7.3.4 Insulation and lagging

7.3.4.1 Total surface area to be insulated
.1 - Precipitator roof (per precipitator/
steam generator) /

.2 - Casing (per precipitator/steam generator) /

 . 3 - Hoppers (per precipitator/stearn
generator)
.4 - Inlet nozzles (per precipitator/steam
generator)
.5 - Outlet plenums (per precipitator/steam
generator)
.6 - Ductwork (per steam generator)
7 - Control room (per steam generator)
.8 - Total area to be insulated (per
steam generator)
7.3.4.2 Precipitator roof
1 - Insulation (material/thickness)
.2 - Method of application
3 - Lagging (rnaterial/thickness)
4 - Method o f application
7.3.4.3 Casing, hoppers, ductwork, etc
1 - Insulation (materialithickness)
.2 - Method of application
.3 - Lagging (material/thickness)
4 - Method of application/Material
.5 - Control room (per steam generator)
7.3.5 Coll ecti ng Electrode System
7.3.5.1 Number of gas passages per precipitator/
steam generator /

7.3.5.2 Spacing between gas passages, in.

7.3.5.3 Collecting electrode material (ASTM)/
thickness, in. /
7.3.5.4 Shape or form
7.3.5.5 Electrode projected size, height/depth, ft /

7.3.5.6 Method of support and guiding (describe,

including reference to typical drawings)
7.3.5.7 C o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e s i n each f i e l d p e r steam g e n e r a t o r :

Projected Projected
Depth/ S u r f a c e Area
Height, f t sq. f t

.I - F i e d No. 1

.2 - F i e d No. 2

.3 - F i e d No. 3

.4 - rie d No. 4

-5 - F i e d No. 5

.6 - F i e d No. 6

.7 - F i e d No. 7

. 8 - F i e d No. 8

.9 - F i e d No. 9
.10 - F i e d No. 10

.I1 - F i e d No. 11

.12 - F i e d No. 12

.13 - F i e l d No. 13

.14 - F i e l d No. 14
7.3.5.8 Total projected c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e
s u r f a c e a r e a p e r p r e c i p i t a t o r / s t e a r n g e n e r a t o r , sq f t -

7.3.5.9 Total projected c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e

s u r f a c e a r e a w i t h t e n p e r c e n t of t h e e l e c t r i c a l bus
s e c t i o n s o u t of s e r v i c e p e r p r e c i p i t a t o r / s t e a m
g e n e r a t o r , sq f t -

llecting electrode rappers

- T o t a l number of r a p p e r s p e r
precipitator/steam generator /
 .3 - Provision f o r a d d i t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l
r a p p e r s (Yes o r No)/number per steam
generator

.4 - Rapper l o c a t i o n
.5 - Rapper o p e r a t i o n

.6 - Maximum sound l e v e l a t a d i s t a n c e of
5 f e e t dB Peak impact
.7 - Total p r o j e c t e d c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e
s u r f a c e a r e a per rapper

.8 - Maximum p r o j e c t e d c o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e
s u r f a c e a r e a rapped a t any i n s t a n t per
steam g e n e r a t o r , sq f t / p e r c e n t o f t o t a l /
-9 - Minimum a c c e l e r a t i o n r a t i n g " g ' s "

.10 - Mounting

.11 - Access d u r i n g operation

.12 - Adjustable, describe

.13 - Lubrication, describe

.14 - Rapping b a r m a t e r i a l (ASTM)/size /

.15 - Total e l e c t r i c a l requirements - W - V H z p f

.16 - Total maximum continuous/inrush

c u r r e n t , Amps

.17 - I n t e r r u p t i n g c a p a c i t y , Amps, Rms,

Sym a t r a t e d voltage

.18 - Control s h a l l be a s described below

( i n c l u d i n g degree of automatic c o n t r o l ,
remote manual c o n t r o l and/or s u p e r v i s i o n ,
and l o c a t i o n of c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s ) :

7.3.5.10 Type rapper c o n t r o l (microprocessor/

solid-state/mechanical)

7.3.5.11 P l a t e a r e a l o s t i f transformer
r e c t i f i e r f a i l s (% of t o t a l )
7.3.6 D i s c h a r g e E l e c t r o d e System

7.3.6.1 D i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e m a t e r i a l (ASTM)/
thickness, i n /
7.3.6.2 Shape o r forrn/type ( r i g i d mast o r r i g i d frame) /
7.3.6.3 Total discharge electrode length per
precipitator/steam generator, f t /

7.3.6.4 Number o f d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s p e r
precipitator/steam generator /
7.3.6.5 Discharge e l e c t r o d e spacing i n d i r e c t i o n
o f f l u e gas f l o w , i n .

7.3.6.6 Discharge e l e c t r o d e spacing perpendicular

t o f l u e gas f l o w , i n .

7.3.6.7 Oischarge e l e c t r o d e p r o j e c t e d h e i g h t , f t

7.3.6.8 T o t a l d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e Tength p e r bus

section/transformer-rectifier, f t /
7.3.6.9 Method o f s u p p o r t and g u i d i n g ( d e s c r i b e
i n c l u d i n g reference t o t y p i c a l drawings)

7.3.6.10 Number o f bus s e c t i o n s p e r e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d p e r

precipitator/steam generator

. 1 - F i e l d No. 1
. 2 - F i e l d No. 2

.3 - F i e l d No. 3

.4 - F i e l d No. 4

.5 - F i e l d No. 5 /

.6 - F i e l d No. 6 /
.7 - F i e l d No. 7 /

.8 - F i e l d No. 8

.9 - F i e l d No. 9

.10 - F i e l d No. 10 /
 .11 - F i e l d No. 11

.12 - F i e l d No. 12

.13 - Field No. 13

.14 - F i e l d No. 14
7.3.6.11 Arrangement of bus s e c t i o n s in each e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d per
p r e c i p i t a t o r ( r e f e r t o Figure 7C-2)

.1 - F i e l d No. 1

-2 - F i e l d No. 2

.3 - F i e l d No. 3
.4 - Field No. 4

.S - F i e l d No. 5

.6 - F i e l d No. 6

.7 - F i e l d No. 7

.8 - F i e l d No. 8
.9 - F i e l d No. 9
.10 - F i e l d No. 10

.11 - Field No. 11

.12 - Field No. 12

13 - F i e l d No. 13

.14 - F i e l d No. 14
7.3.6.12 B u s d u c t m a t e r i a l (ASTM)/thickness,in. /

7.3.6.13 Busductform

7.3.6.14 Bus d u c t method o f support ( d e s c r i b e , i n c l u d i n g r e f e r e n c e t o

t y p i c a l drawings)

7.3.6.15 Bus d u c t enclosure ( d e s c r i b e , i n c i u d i n g r e f e r e n c e t o t y p i c a l

drawi ngs)
7.3.5.16 Number of i n s u l a t o r s p e r c e l l / p r e c i p i t a t o r /
steam g e n e r a t o r / /

7.3.6.17 Insulator material

7.3.6.18 I n s u l a t o r compartment h e a t e r 2nd b l o w e r s y s t e m

.1 - H e a t i n g d u t y p e r i n s u l a t o r , kW/Btu/hr / /

.2 - T o r a l s i m u l t a n e o u s maximum h e a t i n g d u t y ,
kW/Etu/hr

a - Per p r e c i p i t a t o r / /

b - P e r steam g e n e r a t o r / /

.3 - Total e l e c t r i c a l requirements w V H z p f

.4 - I n t e r r u p t i n g c a p a c i t y , amps, rms,
sym a t r a t e d v o l t a g e

.5 - Number o f h e a t e r s p e r steam g e n e r a t o r

.6 - Number of b l o w e r s p e r steam g e n e r a t o r
.7 - C o n t r o l s f o r i n s u l a t o r compartment h e a t e r
a n d / o r blower system s h a l l be a s
described herein ( i n c l u d i n g degree of
a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l , remote manual c o n t r o l
a n d / o r s u p e r v i s i o n and l o c a t i o n o f
control c a b i n e t s ) , indoor, outdoor:

7.3.6.19 Discharge e l e c t r o d e rappers

.2 - T o t a l number of r a p p e r s p e r
precipitator/steam generator

.3 - P r o v i s i o n f o r a d d i t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l
r a p p e r s (Yes o r No)/number p e r s t e a m
generator

.4 - Rapper l o c a t i o n

5 - Rapper o p e r a t i o n
 .€I - Maximum sound l e v e l a t a d i s t a n c e of
5 f e e t dB Peak impact
.7 - Number o f d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e s per
rapper

.8 - Total d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e length per

Rapper, f t

.9 - Maximum d i s c h a r g e e l e c t r o d e length
rapped a t any i n s t a n t p e r steam
g e n e r a t o r , f t / p e r c e n t of t o t a l /

.10 - Minimum a c c e l e r a t i o n r a t i n g " g 1 s "

.11 - Mounting

.12 - Access d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n

.13 - Adjustable - describe

.14 - Lubrication - describe

.15 - Rapping b a r m a t e r i a l (ASTM)/size

.16 - Total e l e c t r i c a l requirements -W-VHzpf

.17 - Total maximum continuous/inrush

c u r r e n t , amps /
.18 - I n t e r r u p t i n g c a p a c i t y , amps, rms,
sym a t r a t e d v o l t a g e

.19 - Control s h a l l be a s d e s c r i b e d herein

( i n c l u d i n g d e g r e e of automatic c o n t r o l ,
remote manual and/or s u p e r v i s i o n ,
and l o c a t i o n of c o n t r o l c a b i n e t s )

20 - Type rapper c o n t r o l (microprocessor/

solid-state/mechanical)

7.3.7 High Vo7tage E l e c t r i c a l System

7.3.7.1 Number and s i z e o f t r a n s f o r m e r r e c t i f i e r s e t s per steam

g e n e r a t o r by e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
 Power From Each Each
No. o f Load Center Transformer Rectifier
T/R volts kV
-Sets A
- -3 - C D
- kVA
- - rms Avg/Peak &

- 1 - F i e l d No. 1 - - - - /
.2 - F i e l d No. 2 - - - - /
.3 - F i e l d No. 3 - - - - /

.4 - F i e l d No. 4 - - - - /
.5 - F i e l d No. 5 - - - - /
.6 - F i e l d No. 6 - - - - /

.7 - F i e l d No. 7 - - - - /

.8 - F i e l d No. 8 - - /
.9 - F i e l d No. 9 - - - - /

.lo- F i e l d No. 10 - - - /
.11- F i e l d No. 11 - - - - /

-12- F i e l d No. 12 - - - - /
.13- F i e l d No. 13 - - - - /
.14-FieldNo.14 - - - - /

.15- T o t a l -- /
T o t a l Connected Load: kVA pf =

T o t a l Normal O p e r a t i og Load: kVA pf =

Rated / Expected

7.3.7.2 C u r r e n t d e n s i t y , rnicroarnperes/sq f t /
.1 - F i e l d No. 1 /

.2 - F i e l d No. 2 /
.3 - F i e l d No. 3 /

.4 - F i e l d No. 4 /
.5 - F i e l d No. 5
.6 - Field No. 6
.7 - F i e l d No. 7

.8 - F i e l d No. 8

.9 - F i e l d No. 9

. l o - F i e l d No. 10

.11- F i e l d No. 11

.12- F i e l d No. 12

.13- F i e l d No. 13

-14- Fie:d No. 14

7.3.7.3 Corona power d e n s i t y , w a t t s / s q f t Rated / Expected

.1 - Field No. 1
.2 - F i e l d No. 2

.3 - F i e l d No. 3
.4 - F i e l d No. 4

.5 - Field No. 5

.6 - F i e l d No. 6
.7 - Field No. 7

.8 - Field No. 8
.9 - Field No. 9

. l o - Field No. 10

.11- Field No. 11

.12- F i e l d No. 12

.13- Field No. 13

.14- Field No. 14

7.3.7.4 Tranformers

.1 - Number ( p e r p r e c i p i t a t o r / s t e a m g e n e r a t o r ) /
.2 - Manufacturer

.3 - Liquid immersed o r dry t y p e

.4 - Liquid type

.5 - Design temperature r i s e , O C
Maximum design temperature, OC

Rectifiers

.1 - Number ( p e r precipitator/stearn g e n e r a t o r ) /

.2 - Manufacturer

.3 - Type/wave form
.4 - Ambient design temperature, OC

.5 - Design temperature r i s e , OC

.6 - R e c t i f i e r t r a n s i e n t p r o t e c t i o n
-

7.3.7.6 R e c t i f i e r Control Unit

.1 - Number ( p e r p r e c i p i t a t o r / s t e a m g e n e r a t o r )

.2 - Manufacturer

.3 - Type

.4 - Voltage c o n t r o l
.5 - Location

.6 - Power supply, each -Volts,- Amps

H z , pf
.7 - Ambient design temperature, OC

.8 - Maximum ambient temperature, OC

.9 - Control c a b i n e t ( s )

a - Number f u r n i s h e d per p r e c i p i t a t o r /
steam g e n e r a t o r /
 b - Enclosure, i n d o o r , outdoor/NEMA /

c - Number space h e a t e r s r e q u i r e d /
h e a t i n g d u t y , kW each /

d - Automatic temperature c o n t r o l
( Y e s , No)

e - Hi-low temperature alarm (Yes, No)

f - Describe o t h e r design f e a t u r e s

.10 - Arc s u p e r v i s i o n s h a l l be by means of

11 - Overload p r o t e c t i o n s h a l l be ( d e s c r i b e )

a - High voltage

b - Low v o l t a g e - fuses

c - Low v o l t a g e - molded c a s e a i r
c i r c u i t breakers

.12 - Control c a b i n e t i n d i c a t o r s on each c a b i n e t

No.
- Function S c a l e / Range

1 Primary Voltage
1 Primary Amps
1 Secondary KV
1 Secondary MA
1 SparkRate

.13 - Provision f o r remote s u p e r v i s i o n of c o n t r o l

(describe)

7.3.7.8 Power D i s t r i b u t i o n

7.3.7.8.1 Transformers

1 - 6.9-.48 kV Switchgear

a - Manufacturer

b - kVA r a t i n g

c - Catalog No.

d - Technical B u l l e t i n No.
 .2 - Distribution

a - Manufacturer

b - kVA r a t i n g

c - C a t a l o g No.

d - T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n No.

7.3.7.8.2 Cables

Technical
Manufacturer B u l l e t i n No.

7.3.7.8.3 Panelboards

.1 - Manufacturer

.2 - Type and S i z e

.3 - T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n No.

7.3.7.8.4 Lighting Fixtures

Technical
Manufacturer B u l l e t i n No.
7.3.7.8.5 Communications
Technical
ID!? Manufacturer Quantity Bulletin No.

7.3.7.8.6 Spare Parts

Major Components Part Manufacturer

Key Inter1 ock System

Total Number per

Steam Generator
.1 - Top housing doors
- 2 - Precipitator doors
.3 - Hopper door (including ductwork hoppers)
.4 - High tension selector switches
.5 - H a l f wave-full wave switches

.6 - Grounding switches
.7 - Line circuit breakers
.8 - Discharge electrode rappers
.9 - Collecting electrode rappers
 .10 - Number o f f u t u r e p r o v i s i o n d o o r k e y s
f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r l o c k c i r c u i t s when
f u t u r e a d d i t i o n a l section(s) are
installed

.11 - I n l e t and o u t l e t i s o l a t i o n dampers

.12 - Hopper l e v e l d e t e c t o r s

Tota 1

7.3.9 Access D o o r s

7.3.9.1 Weather E n c l o s u r e Precipitator/Steam

Generator

. I - Number
.2 - Type/size

7.3.9.2 Roof

.l - Number

.2 - Type/size

7.3.9.3 Casing

.l - Number

.2 - Type/size

7.3.9.4 Hoppers ( i n c l u d i n g d u c t w o r k h o p p e r s )

. l - Number

.2 - Type/size

7.3.9.5 I n s u l a t o r Compartment (penthouse r o o f )

. ? - Number

.2 - Type/size

7.3.9.6 I n l e t Ductwork

.I - Number

.2 - Type/size
O u t l e t Ductwork

- 1 - Number
2 - Type/size

I n l e t and O u t l e t Nozzles

.l - Number

.2 - Type/size
Control Room

.I - Number /

.2 - Type/sizc /
Weather Enclosure, Heating and V e n t i l a t i n g /
Trolley-Hoists

.1 - Number per p r e c i p i t a t o r / s t e a r n g e n e r a t o r /

.2 - Model
.3 - Capacity, t o n s

Power Consumption Summary Per Steam Generator

Average Connected
LpfLpf
Transformer-rectifier s e t s - - - -
C o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e rappers - - - -
Discharge e l e c t r o d e rappers - - - -
I n s u l a t o r compartment h e a t e r - - - -
Hopper h e a t e r s
a. Precipitator
b. Ductwork

Hopper v i b r a t o r s

Lighting

Other ( I d e n t i f y )

Total
7.3.11.10 S e l l e r s h a l l provide an e l e c t r i c a l load t a b u l a t i o n i n t h e
following format:

Normal Bus T i e
Connected Operation Operation
Bus Number (kW/pf) ( kW/pf) _( kW/pf)

Totals:

(1) Represents t o t a l of bus -and -with t i e breaker c l o s e d .

T h i s w i l l be load t o one ( 1 ) transformer.

(2) Represents t o t a l of bus and -with t i e breaker c l o s e d .

This w i l l be load t o one (1) transformer.

7.3.12 Performance Warranty

7.3.12.1 The t o t a l f l u e gas p r e s s u r e drop

a c r o s s t h e equipment ( p r e c i p i t a t o r p l u s i n l e t / o u t l e t
ductwork and dampers within S e l l e r ' s scope of supply)
s h a l l n o t exceed i n . wg

7 . 3 . 1 2 . 2 . a The t o t a l power requirement of a l l

t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s s h a l l not exceed

7 . 3 . 1 2 . 2 . b The t o t a l power requirement of a l l

t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s , with 10 percent of
t h e t r a n s f o r m e r - r e c t i f i e r s e t s out of s e r v i c e
s h a l l not exceed

7 . 3 . 1 2 . 2 . c The t o t a l maximum power consumption

of a l l connected l o a d s , including S e l l e r supplied
a c c e s s o r i e s , with 1 0 percent of t h e transformer-
r e c t i f i e r s e t s o u t of s e r v i c e s h a l l not exceed

7.3.12.3 The equipment s h a l l , when operated with t e n

(10) p e r c e n t of t h e i n s t a l l e d and i n i t i a l l y energized
bus s e c t i o n s out of s e r v i c e have an o v e r a l l maximum
p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r emission r a t e of 0.030
pounds/mi 11 ion B t u

7.3.12.4 The equipment s h a l l have an average max imum

heat l o s s of
7.3.12.5 The maximum c u m u l a t i v e u n i t f o r c e d outage
and/or f o r c e d gas f l o w r e d u c t i o n f r o m d e s i g n gas f l o w
r a t e caused o r i n i t i a t e d by t h e equipment s p e c i f i e d
h e r e i n f r o m t r i a l O p e r a t i o n D a t e and t o F i n a l Acceptance
s h a l l n o t exceed hours

7.3.12.6 The f l u e gas o p a c i t y on a one (1) hour

average s h a l l n o t e x c e e d percent

7.3.13 Sound C o n t r o

7.3.13.1 - E x p e c t e d sound p r e s s u r e l e v e l measured a t a d i s t a n c e o f 5 f t

f r o m t h e o u t l i n e o f t h e equipment shown as a s i n g l e dB(A)
reading.

Equipment Decibels

7.3.13.2 - Expected sound p r e s s u r e l e v e l measured under " f r e e f i e l d "

c o n d i t i o n s a t a d i s t a n c e o f 5 f t f r o m t h e o u t l i n e o f equipment
shown i n d e c i b e l s a t the o c t a v e hand c e n t e r f r e q u e n c i e s r a n g i n g
f r o m 31.5 t o 8,000 Hz.

CenterFrequency 31.5 63 -
125 250
- 500 1K -
2K 4K 8K
Equipment Decibels
 3 - C a l c u l a t e d sound power l e v e l o f t h e equipment shown i n d e c i b e l s
a t band c e n t e r f r e q u e n c i e s r a n g i n g f r o m 31.5 t o 8,000 Hz and
r e f e r r e d t o a base o f 10-l2 w a t t s .

C e n t e r Frequency 31.5 63
- 125
- 250
- - TK
500 - 2K
- -
4K 8K
-
A pent Decibels

-
-

7.3.13.4 E x p e c t e d peak sound p r e s s u r e l e v e l a t a

d i s t a n c e o f 5 f t f r o m t h e r a p p e r when measured w i t h
an i m p a c t t y p e i n s t r u m e n t

7.3.13.5 S t a t e w h e t h e r t h e sound l e v e l s l i s t e d
above a r e a t t a i n e d w i t h a c o u s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t (Yes, No)

7.3.13.6 I f t h e answer t o 7 . 3 . 1 3 . 5 i s Yes, t h e n

describe the type o f a c o u s t i c a l treatment, manufacturer
and s t a t e i n d e t a i l S e l l e r ' s scope i n c l u d i n g e n g i n e e r i n g ,
supply, i n s t a l l a t i o n , e t c .

7.3.14 E l e c t r i c a l Motors

I t e m Number 1
- 2
- -
3 -
4 -
5 6
- 7
- 8
-
.1 - Quantity/Service
( D r i v e n Equipment

.2 - Horsepower, hp -- -----

.3 - Voltage Rating --------

/Phase
 .4 - Speed, rpm

5 - Location (Outdoor,
Indoor) --------

6 - Ambient Greater
than 40°C --------

7 - Full-load/Locked
Rotor Amperes

.8 - Temperature
Rise, O C

9 - Enclosure

.10 - Full Travel

Time - Sec*

.ll - Type (Open/Close

o r Jogging)* --------

* For damper motors o n l y

7.3.15 Equipment Weights

Precipitator/Stearn Generator

7.3.15.1 Assembled p r e c i p i t a t o r , 7 b /

7.3.15.2 P r e c i p i t a t o r support s t e e l , 1b /
7.3.15.3 Ductwork, l b /

7.3.15.4 Ductwork support s t e e l , l b /

7.3.15.5 Platforms, s t a i r s and walkways, Ib /

7.3.15.6 P l a t f o r m s , s t a i r s and walkway s u p p o r t
steel, l b /
7.3.15.7 Accessories /
7.3.15.8 Total /
7.3.15.9 H e a v i e s t p r e f a b r i c a t e d s e c t i o n t o be
handled d u r i n g e r e c t i o n /

7.3.15.10 H e a v i e s t p r e f a b r i c a t e d s e c t i o n t o be
h a n d l e d d u r i n g maintenance /
7.3.16 E s t i m a t e d E r e c t i o n Workhours

Precipitator/Steam Generator

7.3.16.1 Assernbl ed p r e c i p i t a t o r /
7.3.16.2 P r e c i p i t a t o r support s t e e l /
7.3.16.3 Ductwork /
7.3.16.4 Ductwork support s t e e l /
7.3.16.5 P l a t f o r m s , s t a i r s and walkways /

7.3.16.6 P l a t f o r m s , s t a i r s and walkway s u p p o r t

steel /
7.3.16.7 H i g h and l o w v o l t a g e w i r i n g /
7.3.16.8 Accessories /
7.3.16.9 Total /

7.3.17 E r e c t i o n Guarantee

The S e l l e r s h a l l w a r r a n t t h a t t h e amount o f shop f a b r i c a t i o n s h a l l n o t be l e s s

t h a n s t a t e d h e r e i n . S e l l e r s h a l l a l s o w a r r a n t t h a t t h e amount o f P u r c h a s e r ' s
f i e l d w e l d i n g and b o l t i n g ( e x c l u d i n g f o u n d a t i o n b o l t s ) i n e r e c t i n g a l l t h e
S e l l e r p r o v i d e d equipment s h a l l n o t exceed t h e q u a n t i t i e s s t a t e d h e r e i n . T h i s
w a r r a n t y i s w a i v e d i f e r e c t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d by t h e S e l l e r .

The P u r c h a s e r ' s c o s t o f p e r f o r m i n g t h e e r e c t i o n work, based on t h e f o l l o w i n g

i n f o r m a t i o n , w i l l be used i n t h e b i d e v a l u a t i o n i f t h e e r e c t i o n i s t o b e
p e r f o r m e d by t h e P u r c h a s e r .
A f t e r e r e c t i o n i s c o m p l e t e d , t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s w i l l be compared t o
S e l l e r. ' s f i e l d i n s t a l l a t i o n drawings t o d e t e r m i n e i f S e l l e r met h i s
warranty.

Number o f p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e of each
.- sections section

7.3.17.2 Roof e r e c t i o n

Number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e of each
sections section

7.3.17.3 Casing e r e c t i o n

Number o f p r e f a b r i c a t e d Size of each

Sections section

7.3.17.4 Ductwork e r e c t i o n

Number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e of each
sections section
7.3.17.5 Collecting plates erection

Number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e of each
sections section

7.3.17.6 Discharge e l e c t r o d e s e r e c t i o n

Number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e o f each
sections section

7.3.17.7 Weather enclosure e r e c t i o n

Number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e of each
sections section

7.3.17.8 S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , platform and stairway e r e c t i o n

Number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d S i z e of each
sections section
7.3.18 S e l l e r ' s Drawings

S e l l e r ' s drawings l i s t e d in p a r t a s follows and s p e c i f i e d by c h a r a c t e r ,

number and d a t e s h a l l be submitted with t h e proposal.

Character of Drawings o r Curves Number Date

7.3.18.1 E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r and
a s s o c i a t e d ductwork o u t l i n e , plan and s e c t i o n a l
views

7.3.18.2 E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r and
ductwork support s t e e l plan

7.3.18.3 E l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r and
a s s o c i a t e d ductwork loading diagrams

7.3.18.5 Platforms and s t a i r w a y s - sections

7.3.18.6 C o l l e c t i n g e l e c t r o d e supports
and g u i d e s

7.3.18.7 Anchor b o l t l o c a t i o n s and

foundation loads

7.3.18.8 Discharge e l e c t r o d e supports and

guides

7.3. 1 8 . 9 High v o l t a g e b u s , supports and

enc o s u r e

7 . 3 18.10 E l e c t r i c a l one-1 i n e diagram

7.3 18.11 S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l assembly and

e r e c t i o n procedure

7.3.18.12 Engineering c o n s t r u c t i o n and

procurement schedules

7.3.18.13 E f f i c i e n c y Correction Curves

.I - Correction f a c t o r v s Gas Volume CF 7

.2 - Correction Factor vs I n l e t Grain CF 2

Loading

.3 - Correction Factor vs Gas Temperature CF 3

 .4 - Correction Factor vs Sulfur Content
in Fuel
.5 - Correction Factor vs Percentage
Bus-Sections Deenergized
7.3.18.14 Power Consumption Curves
.1 - Correction Factor v s T/R Set
Guaranteed Power Consumption CF 10
7.3.19 Seller shall fully describe all operating and maintenance
procedures and manpower requirements on a precipitator and steam generator
basis.
7.3.20 Seller shall fully describe all recommended spare parts on a
precipitator and steam generator basis.
 Appendix 7D

COMMERCIAL TERMS AND CONDITIONS

CONCEPTS FOR MATERIAL SUPPLY

Since t h e m e r i t s of d e l i v e r and e r e c t c o n t r a c t s were discussed i n

Section 7 , t h e concepts f o r m a t e r i a l supply terms and c o n d i t i o n s a r e a s
f o l l o w s . The following a r e t y p i c a l examples of terms and c o n d i t i o n s of t h e
m a t e r i a l supply portion of a d e l i v e r and e r e c t e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r
contract.
Definitions
T h i s s e c t i o n d e f i n e s t h o s e words and terms which appear throughout a
c o n t r a c t , which i f l e f t undefined could be construed d i f f e r e n t l y by t h e
p a r t i e s involved. Some of t h e more commonly used terms and d e f i n i t i o n s
appearing i n material c o n t r a c t s a r e :

Owner - a u t i l i t y o r group of u t i l i t i e s involved i n t h e p r o j e c t .

Notice t o Proceed - means a n o t i c e d u l y a u t h o r i z e d and d e l i v e r e d by t h e owner,

a u t h o r i z i n g t h e c o n t r a c t o r t o commence t h e performance of any Work.

Change Order - means a w r i t t e n o r d e r t o t h e c o n t r a c t o r signed by t h e owner and

accepted by t h e c o n t r a c t o r e f f e c t i n g an a d d i t i o n , d e l e t i o n , o r r e v i s i o n in t h e
Work, o r an adjustment in t h e c o n t r a c t p r i c e o r t h e c o n t r a c t time i s s u e d a f t e r
execution of t h e c o n t r a c t .

Contract - means t h e c o n t r a c t documents s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d and

incorporated i n t o t h e c o n t r a c t such a s terms and c o n d i t i o n s , s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
and drawings.

Contract Execution - means t h e d a t e on which a c o n t r a c t o r executes and e n t e r s

i n t o a c o n t r a c t t o perform t h e work w i t h t h e owner. This d a t e i s u s u a l l y not
more than 20 calendar days a f t e r r e c e i p t of t h e c o n t r a c t by t h e c o n t r a c t o r .

Contract P r i c e - means t h e t o t a l monies, a d j u s t e d i n accordance with

c o n t r a c t u r a l p r o v i s i o n s , payable t o t h e c o n t r a c t o r under t h e c o n t r a c t .
C o n t r a c t Time - means t h e period of time s t a t e d in t h e c o n t r a c t f o r t h e
completion of t h e Work.

Contractor o r S e l l e r - means t h e p a r t y o r p a r t i e s c o n t r a c t i n g d i r e c t l y w i t h
t h e owner t o perform t h e work pursuant t o t h e c o n t r a c t .

-
means c o l l e c t i v e l y , a l l of t h e drawings, r e c e i p t of which i s
acknowledged by t h e c o n t r a c t o r , l i s t e d in t h e c o n t r a c t , and a l s o such
supplementary drawings a s t h e owner may i s s u e from time t o time i n order t o
c l w i f y o r e x p l a i n such drawings or t o show d e t a i l s which a r e not shown
thereon.

Contractor's Representative - means the individual designated i n w r i t i n g by

t h e c o n t r a c t o r a s having t h e a u t h o r i t y t o a c t on behalf of t h e c o n t r a c t o r with
respect t o the contract.

Engineer - means t h a t e n t i t y (Company, Corporation, e t c . ) r e t a i n e d by t h e

owner t o a s s i s t i n t h e d e s i g n , e n g i n e e r i n g , procurement and e r e c t i o n of a
project.

Equipment - means a l l of t h e m a t e r i a l s , a p p a r a t u s , s t r u c t u r e s , s u p p l i e s ,
equipment, and any o t h e r t h i n g s f u r n i s h e d by t h e c o n t r a c t o r in t h e performance
of t h e c o n t r a c t .

Erection Consultant - means an employee of t h e c o n t r a c t o r who s h a l l be a t t h e

j o b s i t e and a d v i s e t h e owner and/or i t s a g e n t s o r c o n t r a c t o r s a s t o t h e
s p e c i f i c method of e r e c t i o n o f t h e Work provided hereunder.

T r i a l Operation - i s t h e d a t e upon which t h e t u r b i n e g e n e r a t o r i s synchronized

w i t h the g r i d system.
Jobsite - means t h e ' l o c a t i o n a t w h i c h t h e work f u r n i s h e d b y t h e c o n t r a c t o r i s
t o be p e r m a n e n t l y i n s t a l l e d and c o n s t r u c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d .

Owner's P r o j e c t R e p r e s e n t a t i v e - means an employee o f t h e Owner who s h a l l have

t h e a u t h o r i t y t o a c t on b e h a l f o f t h e t h e Owner i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e day t o
day a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e P r o j e c t .

Party - means t h e c o n t r a c t o r o r t h e owner o r b o t h t h e c o n t r a c t o r a n d owner, as

appl i c a b l e .

Project - means t h e c o a l - f i r e d e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i n g u n i t ( s ) l o c a t e d a t a s i t e
i n a particular state. I f two g e n e r a t i n g u n i t s a r e b u i l t , t h e f i r s t b u i l t
s h a l l be known a s " U n i t 1," and t h e second b u i l t s h a l l be known as " U n i t 2,"
the p r o j e c t comprising both together.

Commercial O p e r a t i o n - t h e d a t e upon w h i c h a u n i t i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e power

g r i d d i s p a t c h system and t h e owners r a t e base.

P r o j e c t Manager - means an employee who s h a l l have t h e a u t h o r i t y t o a c t on

b e h a l f o f Engineer w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e P r o j e c t .

Specifications - means t h e w r i t t e n t e c h n i c a l p r o v i s i o n s i n c l u d i n g a 1
appendices t h e r e t o , b o t h general and s p e c i f i c , which form a p a r t o f the
c o n t r a c t documents.

Subcontractor - means any p e r s o n , f i r m , p a r t n e r s h i p , j o i n t v e n t u r e , company,

c o r p o r a t i o n , o r e n t i t y h a v i n g a c o n t r a c t u r a l agreement w i t h t h e contractor o r
w i t h any o f i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s a t any t i e r t o p r o v i d e a p a r t o f t h e w o r k
c a l l e d f o r by t h e c o n t r a c t .

Work - means any and a l l o b l i g a t i o n s , d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g

f u r n i s h i n g e q u i p m e n t , e n g i n e e r i n g , d e s i g n , workmanship, l a b o r a n d any o t h e r
s e r v i c e s o r t h i n g s necessary t o t h e successful completion o f t h e p r o j e c t
assigned t o o r undertaken by t h e c o n t r a c t o r under t h e c o n t r a c t .
M i s c e l l a n e o u s Terms - Wherever t h e words " o r Owner a p p r o v e d equal1' a r e used i n
a c o n t r a c t i n connection w i t h m a t e r i a l s , products o r equipment d e s i g n a t e d by
m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' o r v e n d o r s 1 names, t r a d e names, c a t a l o g numbers, e t c . , t h e y a r e
intended t o establish a standard. Other m a t e r i a l s , p r o d u c t s o r equipment
m e e t i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s t a n d a r d s may be used p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e i r e q u i v a l e n c y
has been d e m o n s t r a t e d t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e owner and e n g i n e e r .

C o n t r a c t Documents

T h i s s e c t i o n d e l i n e a t e s component p a r t s o f a c o n t r a c t b y name, s t a t i n g t h a t
t h e s e i t e m s a l o n e c o n s t i t u t e w h a t s h a l l be known and r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e
c o n t r a c t documents. I n addition, t h i s section deals w i t h resolving possible
c o n f l i c t s between t h e component p a r t s o f a c o n t r a c t by l i s t i n g t h e o r d e r o f
p r e c e d e n c e f o r each p a r t . The f o l l o w i n g i s an example o f a t y p i c a l o r d e r o f
p r e c e d e n c e f o r c o n t r a c t u r a l documents:
1 - Change Orders

2 - Agreement

3 - Special Conditions

4 - Supplementary Terms a n d C o n d i t i o n s and

S t a n d a r d Terms a n d C o n d i t i o n s

5 - Specifications

6 - Drawings

A d d i t i o n a l l y , d e t a i l e d d r a w i n g s s h a l l govern o v e r g e n e r a l d r a w i n g s , w i t h
c a l c u l a t e d measurements on d r a w i n g s b e i n g a b s o l u t e . No s c a l e measurements a r e
t o b e shown o r used on d r a w i n g s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t h e e v e n t t h e meaning o f f u l f i l l m e n t o f a p a r t i c u l a r
s p e c i f i c a t i o n o r d r a w i n g depends upon i n d i v i d u a l judgement, then t h i s section
must l i s t t h e owner o r i t s e n g i n e e r as t h e r e s p o n s i b l e p a r t y t o make t h e
judgement. I t s h o u l d a l s o r e q u i r e t h e e n g i n e e r t o make such judgements i n
w r i t i n g , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h good e n g i n e e r i n g o r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s .
Contractor's Obligations
This section deals with all the facts necessary for the Contractor to adhere
to in fulfilling its obligations under the Contract:

Plan, schedule, design, fabricate, inspect, deliver and direct the

Work in accordance with the Contract requirements.
Meet all delivery dates by development of a detailed schedule for
all design, engineering, material procurement and erection to
support the agreed contract dates.
Procedures for ensuring that equipment shipped to the jobsite will
be protected from the environment until start-up.
Furnishing of all drawings and technical data as called for by the
Contract Specifications, including layout, installation, licensing,
start-up, operation and maintenance.
Provide instruction manuals containing maintenance and operating
instructions for the equipment.
Provide the Owner with a fabrication, inspection and testing
schedule, including test reports within a specified time period
after completion of the testing. Also, provisions for surveillance
and inspection programs for major pieces of equipment must be
established, with the Owner having the right of program audit prior
to the event.
Supply spare parts as specified, including a recommended tist of
additional spare parts to be used during the operating life of the
equipment.
Prior to the delivery of the equipment or portion thereof, supply a
bill of material identifying the various components, items and
pieces comprising the equipment to be delivered.
Provide technical consultation services regarding the installation
of the work along with start-up training and services of the Owner's
operating personnel in the operation and maintenance of the
equipment.
Require all material including that supplied by or through
subcontractors, to be free and clear from liens.
Provide a security interest, in the Owners's favor, for all material
paid for by the Owner prior to fina: acceptance of equipment.
Owner's O b l i g a t i o n s
This s e c t i o n s t a t e s t h a t t h e Owner w i l l pay t h e C o n t r a c t o r f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y
performance of t h e Work i n accordance with t h e payment p r o v i s i o n s s e t f o r t h i n
t h e Contract. By using t h e phrase " s a t i s f a c t o r y performance", t h e Owner can
make t h e determination a s t o whether o r n o t t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s performance has
been s a t i s f a c t o r y . Suggested remedies f o r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y performance a r e
presented i n Section 7 of t h i s manual.

Delivery, T i t l e and Storage

T h i s p o r t i o n of t h e commercial terms and c o n d i t i o n s d e a l s w i t h shipment of
material t o the project s i t e .

Delivery - The f i r s t item of information t o be provided t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r

i s t h e F.O.B. p o i n t . A d e t e r m i n a t i o n by t h e Owner and i t s legal and
insurance s t a f f s should be made on t h e F.O.B. p o i n t p r i o r t o developing
t h e terms and conditons. The next item i s t o d e f i n e t h e Owner's meaning
of t h e word "delivery" - i t should s t a t e whether i t i s d e l i v e r y t o t h e
c a r r i e r o r delivery t o the project s i t e .

I t i s a l s o suggested t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n s t a t e which p a r t y i s r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r making shipping arrangements, paying f r e i g h t c h a r g e s , f i l i n g and
c o l l e c t i n g damage and l o s s c l a i m s , e t c . F u r t h e r , i t should ensure t h a t
t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r packing and c r a t i n g , e t c . , of t h e
equipment i n order t o p r o t e c t i t from damage d u r i n g t r a n s i t . Moreover,
i n s t r u c t i o n s should be i n c l u d e d , l i s t i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r unloading
equipment a t t h e s i t e .

Shipp ng papers a r e t o be forwarded t o t h e Owner a t t h e time o f shipment

t o a1 ow time f o r a r r i v a l p r e p a r a t i o n .

Title - Concurrent with t h e d e t e r m i n t i o n of t h e F . O . B . point f o r delivery

purposes, i t should a l s o be determined a t what p o i n t t i t l e passes t o t h e
Owner and which p a r t y has t h e r i s k of l o s s d u r i n g shipment. Again, t h e s e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s should be made based upon t h e a d v i c e from t h e Owner's
l e g a l and insurance s t a f f s .
 Storage - In the event the equipment is going to be stored for some
length of time prior to installation, provisions must be included in the
Contract for such circumstances. Included in the instructions should be
the location for such storage, provisions for protection of equipment to
be provided by Contractor (with the Owner responsible for the payment of
incurred storage expenses), inspection requirments and responsibiliy for
risk of loss.

Risk of Loss
This section deals with the loss of equipment during transit and then during
installation at the project site. The following wording is illustrative of
such a risk of loss provisions for a deliver and erect contract:

R I S K OF LOSS

Prior to commencement of shipments of Equipment from the

manufacturing facilities to the Jobsite or construction at the
Job-site, other than site preparation, whichever is earlier, Owner
will obtain, at Owner's ex?ense, (except as hereinafter provided),
Builder's Risk Insurance in a minimum amount of $50,000,000 (except
$10,000,000 with respect to losses in transit) covering the
insurable interest of Owner, Engineer, and their respective
contractors and subcontractors of every tier. Coverage is to insure
generally against "all risks'' of direct physical loss of, or damage
to, the Project, permanent and temporary structures at the Jobsite
used in connection with the Project, materials, equipment and
supplies to be incorporated into the Project while such property is
in transit by land, air and inlet water conveyance from points or
places in the continental United States or Canada, to and from, and
while in the course of construction a t , the Jobsite. Contractor
shall, however, at its own expenses pay, subject to a maximum amount
of $10,000 per occurrence, any deductible applicable to the
Builder's Risk Insurance. Contractor however, may be responsible
for more than 510,000 per occurrence should a specific loss be such
that the cause of loss i s not insured under the Bidder's Risk
policy, or the a mount of loss exceeds the amount of insurance
available. Should more than one insured be involved in a single
occurrence covered by this insurance, eacb insured shall assume the
same portion of the deductible amount that their portion of the loss
bears to the total loss. Should owner elect to purchase Builder's
Risk Insurance with deductible in excess of $10,000 per occcurrence,
to the extent the loss would have been covered but for the selection
of a higher deductible by Owner, Owner shall be responsible for that
 portion of the loss in excess of 510,000 up to the amount of
deductible by Owner, Owner shall be responsible for that portion of
the loss in excess of 510,000 up to the amount of deductible
selected. Except with respect to Owner's responsibility for the
excess deductible portion, however, Owner's agreement to provide the
Builder's Risk Insurance shall in no way transfer the risk of loss
to Owner. The Builder's Risk Insurance shall contain waivers of
subrogation in favor of Contractor and its Subcontractors. At
Contractor's request, a copy of the Builder's Risk Insurance Policy
will be made available by Owner for Contractor's inspection at
Owner's office. Contractor shall provide owner with a copy of
insurance policies, if any, which Contractor obtains due to the
$10,000 deductible included in Owner's Builder's Risk Insurance
Policy. Nothing herein shall obligate Owner to obtain Builders Risk
Insurance until such time a s actual commencement of shipments of
Equipment from the manufacturing facility to the Jobsite or
construction at the Jobsite, other than site preparation, whichever
is earlier.
Risk of loss or damage for each item of the Equipment shall pass to
Owner upon arrival on carrier at the Jobsite or at the storage
location specified except when Contractor's Work includes
installation or erection of the Equipment, in which case Contractor
shall retain risk of loss or damage for each item until trial
operation.
After any loss or damage for which Contractor shall have risk of
loss o r damage, Contractor shall, with due diligence and dispatch,
repair or replace the lost or damaged items at its own expense.
This provision shall not be construed to prevent Contractor from
recovering the proceeds o f any applicable insurance covering such a
loss o r damage.

Taxes
This section is used by an owner to advise the contractor of its tax status
for the equipment being purchased. Tax exemption certificates etc. should be
included in this area in order to avoid future problems.

Warranties
An electrostatic precipitator is an expensive and complex piece of
equipment. In order to obtain the proper warranty coverage, it is prudent
that a strong warranty provision be included in a Contract. The following
warding i s illustrative of such a warranty provision for a deliver and erect
contract:
 WARRANTIES

C o n t r a c t o r w a r r a n t s t o Owner t h a t a l l Equipment f u r n i s h e d under t h i s

C o n t r a c t s h a l l be : a) f r e e f r o m d e f e c t s i n d e s i g n , m a t e r i a l and
workmanship; b ) s u i t a b l e f o r t h e use and purpose s p e c i f i e d o r
r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s C o n t r a c t ; c ) s u i t a b l e f o r any o t h e r use o r
p u r p o s e as r e p r e s e n t e d i n w r i t i n g by C o n t r a c t o r ; d) i n conformance
w i t h t h e Drawings, S p e c i f i c a t i o n s and d e s i g n c r i t e r i a s u p p l i e d t o
C o n t r a c t o r by Owner; and e) new and o f f i r s t - c l a s s q u a l i t y .
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , a t i t s expense, c o r r e c t any d e f e c t s w h i c h may
appear i n t h e Work d u r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e Work o r anytime p r i o r
t o t h e d a t e t h i r t y - t h r e e ( 3 3 ) months a f t e r t h e Commercial O p e r a t i o n
D a t e s t a t e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t ; p r o v i d e d , however, t h a t t h e f o r e g o i n g
w a r r a n t y p e r i o d s h a l l be extended by an amount o f t i m e equal t o any
downtime r e s u l t i n g f r o m a b r e a c h o f t h i s w a r r a n t y and t h a t s h o u l d
t h e Work be r e p a i r e d o r r e p l a c e d , p u r s u a n t t o t h i s A r t i c l e , t h e
a f f e c t e d p o r t i o n t h e r e o f s h a l l be s i m i l a r l y w a r r a n t e d f o r an
a d d i t i o n a l p e r i o d t w e l v e (12) months f r o m t h e t i m e o f such r e p a i r o r
replacement. C o n t r a c t o r ' s l i a b i l i t y under t h i s s e c t i o n f o r
c o r r e c t i o n o f d e f e c t s i n t h e Work s h a l l i n no e v e n t exceed t h e c o s t
o f r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t o f such d e f e c t i v e Work, i n ~ l u d i n gc o s t o f
r e m o v a l , s u p p l y , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and r e i n s t a l l a t i o n . Where e i t h e r
r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t i s f e a s i b l e and Owner d e s i r e s t h e more c o s t l y
a l t e r n a t i v e , C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l p r o c e e d i n accordance w i t h t h e d e s i r e s
o f Owner, and t h e P a r t i e s w i l l m u t u a l l y a g r e e upon t h e a d d i t i o n a l
compensation t o be p a i d t o C o n t r a c t o r . C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l b e a r a l l
f i e l d c o s t s , i n c l u d i n g a p p l i c a b l e overhead, i n c u r r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h c o r r e c t i n g d e f e c t s i n t h e Work. W i t h r e g a r d t o premiums f o r
o v e r t i m e , m u l t i p l e s h i f t s and o t h e r t i m e p a i d f o r b u t n o t worked:
1) C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r such premiums i f t h e
c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n c o u l d be p e r f o r m e d w i t h o u t premiums d u r i n g a
s c h e d u l e d o u t a g e o f t h e Work; a n d 2) C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r such premiums i f Owner d i r e c t s t h a t c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n be t a k e n
on an o v e r t i m e o r m u l t i p l e s h i f t b a s i s as t h e r e s u l t o f an emergency
shutdown o f t h e Work. Emergency shutdown i s d e f i n e d as a f o r c e d
o u t a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m a w a r r a n t y d e f e c t n e c e s s i t a t i n g immediate
shutdown o f t h e Work. I f t h e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n c a n n o t be
p e r f o r m e d i m m e d i a t e l y due t o t h e i n a b i l i t y t o s h u t down t h e
o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Work, C o n t r a c t o r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e
c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n w i l l e x t e n d u n t i l such t i m e when i t can be
c o m p l e t e d . Owner w i l l , t o t h e e x t e n t p r a c t i c a b l e , g i v e C o n t r a c t o r
n o t i c e o f when C o n t r a c t o r may, a t a t i m e c o n v e n i e n t t o Owner,
o e r f o r m such c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n .

T h e r e s h a l l be no b r e a c h o f w a r r a n t y h e r e u n d e r t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t
is d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a d e f e c t i s caused by i m p r o p e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
Equipment f u r n i s h e d , b u t n o t i n s t a l l e d , b y C o n t r a c t o r o r i t s
s u b c o n t r a c t o r s o r b y t h e i m p r o p e r use o r maintenance o f t h e
Equipment. Use o r maintenance s h a l l be i n accordance w i t h
C o n t r a c t o r ' s O p e r a t i o n and Maintenance I n s t r u c t i o n s whicb have been
r e v i e w e d and a c c e p t e d b y Owner and i n accordance w i t h g e n e r a l l y
accepted u t i l i t y p r a c t i c e s .
 i f , i n s t e a d o f r e q u i r i n g c o r r e c t i o n o r removal and r e p l a c e m e n t o f
d e f e c t i v e Work, Owner p r e f e r s t o a c c e p t i t , i t may do so. I n such
case, i f acceptance o c c u r s p r i o r t o r e m i t t a n c e o f f i n a l payment, a
Change O r d e r s h a i l be i s s u e d i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y r e v i s i o n s
i n t h i s Contract, including appropriate reduction i n the Contract
P r i c e , o r , i f t h e a c c e p t a n c e o c c u r s a f t e r f i n a l payment, an
a p p r o p r i a t e amount s h a l l be p a i d t o Owner b y C o n t r a c t o r .

Owner s h a l l have t h e r i g h t t o u s e t h e Work, o r p a r t t h e r e o f , w h i c h

may r e q u i r e c o r r e c t i o n , r e p l a c e m e n t o r r e p a i r b y C o n t r a c t o r u n t i l
such t i m e as Owner may c o n v e n i e n t l y remove f r o m s e r v i c e such Work,
o r p a r t t h e r e o f , as may r e q u i r e c o r r e c t i o n , r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t .
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any d e f e c t s w h i c h may o c c u r
d u r i n g and be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o such use b y Owner, u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e
agreed t o i n w r i t i n g by C o n t r a c t o r .

I f C o n t r a c t o r f a i l s t o r e p l a c e o r c o r r e c t any d e f e c t i v e Work w i t h i n
a reasonable time p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g r e c e i p t o f w r i t t e n n o t i c e t o
C o n t r a c t o r f r o m Owner, Owner may, a t i t s o p t i o n , cause such
d e f e c t i v e Work t o be r e p l a c e d o r c o r r e c t e d and a l l d i r e c t and
i n d i r e c t c o s t s and expenses, i n c l u d i n g c o s t s f o r a d d i t i o n a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s , i n c u r r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n t h e r e w i t h s h a l l be
borne by C o n t r a c t o r .

CONTRACTOR AND OWNER AGREE THAT, I N CONSIDERATION OF THE WARRANTIES

AND GUARANTEES STATED I N THIS CONTRACT, ALL OTHER WARRANTIES AND
GUARANTEES, OTHER THAN TITLE, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, WHETHER
ARISING UNDER LAW OR EQUITY OR CUSTOM OF THE TRADE, INCLUDING
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE,
ARE EXCLUDED FRDN THIS CONTRACT.

L i m i t a t i o n Of L i a b i l i t y

T h i s p o r t i o n c f t h e t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s i s used t o s e t f o r t h t h o s e a r e a s
where an owner i s l i m i t i n g a c o n t r a c t o r ' s l o s s due t o d e l a y , t e r m i n a t i o n , o r
suspension o f t h e c o n t r a c t . Conversely, t h i s s e c t i o n a l s o s e t s f o r t h those
a r e a s where a c o n t r a c t o r l i m i t s an o w n e r ' s l o s s d u e t o d e l a y s o r p o o r
p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c o n t r a c t o r ' s p a r t . The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e
o f such a l i m i t a t i o n o f l i a b i l i t y f o r a d e l i v e r and e r e c t c o n t r a c t . I t must
be n o t e d i n a l l cases, t h a t an o w n e r ' s l e g a l and i n s u r a n c e s t a f f s must be
c o n s u l t e d d u r i n g t h e development o f t h i s s e c t i o n .
 L I M I T A T I O N OF L I A B I L I T Y

Except as o t h e r w i s e e x p r e s s l y p r o v i d e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t , i n no e v e n t
s h a l l Owner be l i a b l e ( i n C o n t r a c t o r i n t o r t i n c l u d i n g n e g l i g e n c e )
t o C o n t r a c t o r f o r c o n s e q u e n t i a l damages, i n c l u d i n g , b u t n o t l i m i t e d
t o , i n t e r e s t o r c a r r y i n g c h a r g e s on i t s i n v e s t m e n t , expenses a r i s i n g
from c o s t s o f c a p i t a l , l o s s o r p r o f i t s on w o r k n o t performed, o r f o r
l o s s o f use o f , o r u n d e r - u t i l i z a t i o n o f l a b o r , equipment o r
f a c i 1 it i e s o f C o n t r a c t o r , r e s u l t i n g f r o m Owner1s performance,
nonperformance, o r d e l a y i n p e r f o r m a n c e o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n s u n d e r
t h i s C o n t r a c t , o r f r o m Owner's d e l a y , t e r m i n a t i o n o r suspension o f
t h e Work under t h i s C o n t r a c t .

I n no e v e n t s h a l l C o n t r a c t o r , o r i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s o f any t i e r , be
l i a b l e ( i n C o n t r a c t o r i n t o r t i n c l u d i n g n e g l i g e n c e ) t o Owner f o r
c o n s e q u e n t i a l damages i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o i n t e r e s t o r
c a r r y i n g charges on i t s i n v e s t m e n t , expenses a r i s i n g from c o s t o f
c a p i t a l , l o s s o f p r o f i t s o r revenue, l o s s o f a n t i c i p a t e d p r o f i t s ,
c l a i m s o f customers r e l a t e d t o e l e c t r i c a l s e r v i c e , o r c o s t o f
purchased o r r e p l a c e m e n t power r e s u l t i n g f r o m C o n t r a c t o r ' s
performance, nonperformance o r d e l a y i n p e r f o r m a n c e o f i t s
o b l i g a t i o n s under t h i s C o n t r a c t .

The p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s p a r a g r a p h s h a l l n o t be a p p l i c a b l e t o d i r e c t
p r o p e r t y damage caused b y a b r e a c h o f C o n t r a c t o r ' s w a r r a n t y o r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t t h e r e under, personal i n j u r y , b o d i l y i n j u r y ,
d e a t h , o r l i q u i d a t e d damages and/or f o r f e i t u r e o f economic
assessments f o r f a i l u r e t o meet ~ e r f o r m a n c ew a r r a n t y . o r f i n e s f o r
C o n t r a c t o r ' s v i o l a t i o n o f OSHA o r o t h e r laws o r reg;iations.

The p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s S e c t i o n and any o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f t h i s

Contract providing f o r l i m i t a t i o n o f o r protection against l i a b
s h a l l a p p l y t o t h e f u l l e x t e n t p e r m i t t e d by l a w .

The p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s S e c t i o n and any o t h e r p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s

Contract providing f o r l i m i t a t i o n o f o r protection against
l i a b i l i t i e s between t h e P a r t i e s h e r e t o s h a l l s u r v i v e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
t h i s C o n t r a c t o r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e Work h e r e u n d e r .

R e p o r t s and Schedul inq

T h i s s e c t i o n e s t a b l i s h e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e t y p e o f r e p o r t s t o be
s u b m i t t e d by a c o n t r a c t o r t o an owner. The r e p o r t s m u s t i n c l u d e a v a i l a b i l i t y
and s t a t u s o f m a t e r i a l and equipment and components i n c l u d i n g d e l i v e r y d a t e s .
The r e p o r t s s h o u l d a1 so i n c l u d e d r a w i n g s t a t u s a n d s u b m i t t a l schedules,
e x p e d i t i n g e f f o r t s , f a b r i c a t i o n s t a t u s , and t e s t d a t e s t o a l l o w t h e Owner t o
a d e q u a t e l y p l a n i n h o u s e work l o a d s and make p l a n s t o w i t n e s s t h e t e s t i n g o f
components.
Patents

T h i s s e c t i o n of t h e terms of c o n d i t i o n s a d d r e s s e s the p r o t e c t i o n t h a t a
c o n t r a c t must a f f o r d t o an owner f o r p a t e n t i n f r i n g e m e n t , copy r i g h t
infringement, e t c . I t o u t l i n e s t h o s e a r e a s i n which an owner i s t o be
p r o t e c t e d from harm from t h i r d p a r t i e s due t o infringement s o l e l y o r p a r t l y on
a contractor's part. The following wording d e s c r i b e s t h o s e t y p e s of a r e a s and
circumstances t h a t must be addressed. I t i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of an owner's
l e g a l and purchasing departments t o d e v e l o p s p e c i f i c wording which i s i n
conformance w i t h an owner's c o r p o r a t e p o l i c y

PATENTS

C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l a t i t s own expense defend, indemnify, save harmless

and pay any and a l l awards of damages a s s e s s e d a g a i n s t Owner or
Engineer, and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members, d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s ,
and employees, o r any of them, from and a g a i n s t l i a b i l i t y o r l o s s ,
i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o any c l a i m s , judgements, c o u r t c o s t s and
a t t o r n e y s ' f e e s i n c u r r e d i n any c l a i m s , o r any p r e t r i a l , t r i a l o r
a p p e l l a t e proceedings on account of i n f r i n g e m e n t s of p a t e n t s ,
c o p y r i g h t e d o r uncopyrighted works, s e c r e t p r o c e s s e q , t r a d e s e c r e t s ,
p a t e n t e d o r unpatented i n v e n t i o n s , a r t i c l e s o r a p p l i a n c e s , o r
a l l e g a t i o n s t h e r e o f , p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e Work, o r any p a r t t h e r e o f ,
combinations t h e r e o f , p r o c e s s e s t h e r e i n or t h e use o f any t o o l s o r
implements used by C o n t r a c t o r . For one d o l l a r ($1.00) acknowledged
t o be i n c l u d e d and paid f o r i n t h e Contract P r i c e and o t h e r good and
v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s t o indemnify and hold
harmless Owner, Engineer and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s and
employees, i n accordance w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s Paragraph.

C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , a t i t s own e x p e n s e , procure f o r Owner t h e r i g h t t o

c o n t i n u e use of t h e Work, p a r t s o r combinations t h e r e o f , o r
p r o c e s s e s used t h e r e i n r e s u l t i n g from a s u i t o r judgement on account
of p a t e n t o r c o p y r i g h t i n f r i n g e m e n t t h e r e i n .

i f , i n any such s u i t o r p r o c e e d i n g , a temporary r e s t r a i n i n g o r d e r or

p r e l i m i n a r y i n j u n c t i o n i s g r a n t e d , C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l make e v e r y
r e a s o n a b l e e f f o r t , by g i v i n g a s a t i s f a c t o r y bond o r o t h e r w i s e , t o
s e c u r e t h e suspension of such r e s t r a i n i n g o r d e r o r temporary
injunction.

I f , i n any such s u i t o r p r o c e e d i n g , t h e Work, any p a r t t h e r e o f ,

combination t h e r e o f , o r p r o c e s s t h e r e i n i s held t o c o n s t i t u t e an
i n f r i n g e m e n t and i t s use i s permanently e n j o i n e d , C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l ,
a t once, make every reasonable e f f o r t t o s e c u r e f o r Owner a l i c e n s e ,
a t no expense t o Owner, a u t h o r i z i n g t h e continued use of t h e Work,
p a r t t h e r e o f o r p r o c e s s t h e r e i n . I f C o n t r a c t o r f a i l s t o s e c u r e such
l i c e n s e f o r Owner, C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , a t i t s own expense, r e p l a c e t h e
Work, p a r t o r combination t h e r e o f , o r p r o c e s s t h e r e i n , w i t h
n o n - i n f r i n g i n g Work, o r modify t h e Work, p a r t o r combination
 t h e r e o f , or process t h e r e i n , i n a way s a t i s f a c t o r y t o Owner, so t h a t
t h e Work i s n o n - i n f r i n g i n g .

Termination f o r Convenience

This a r e a of t h e terms and c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w s an owner t o t e r m i n a t e a C o n t r a c t

a t h i s convenience f o r reasons o t h e r than a c o n t r a c t o r ' s d e f a u l t . An owner
w i l l be o b l i g a t e d t o pay t h a t p o r t i o n of a c o n t r a c t p r i c e corresponding t o t h e
amount of work completed t o t h e owner's s a t i s f a c t i o n , along with any c o s t s
i n c u r r e d by a C o n t r a c t o r in t e r m i n a t i n g . a c o n t r a c t . A c o n t r a c t o r , upon
r e c e i p t of a "Notice of Termination," i s o b l i g a t e d t o s t o p work a s speci i ed
under t h e n o t i c e of t e r m i n a t i o n . T h i s n o t i c e of t e r m i n a t i o n may be used t 0
t e r m i n a t e a l l o r only p o r t i o n s of t h e work. A c o n t r a c t o r i s f u r t h e r obl g a t e d
t o c a n c e l a l l s u b c o n t r a c t o r work and purchase o r d e r s and then begin t u r n
over equipment, m a t e r i a l , t o o l s , e t c - , f o r which payment has been received t o
an owner.

Termination f o r D e f a u l t

In t h e e v e n t a c o n t r a c t o r f a i l s t o perform work i n accordance with a c o n t r a c t

and c o n t r a c t s c h e d u l e s , o r in t h e e v e n t of a c o n t r a c t o r ' s bankruptcy,
i n s o l v e n c y , e t c . , an owner r e t a i n s t h e r i g h t t o t e r m i n a t e a c o n t r a c t f o r
default. The f o l l o w i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e wording f o r a n owner's remedies and
rights:
TERMINATION FOR DEFAULT

The Owner may, by w r i t t e n n o t i c e of d e f a u l t t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r ,

t e r m i n a t e t h e whole o r any p a r t of t h i s C o n t r a c t in any one of t h e
f o l l o w i n g circumstances:

i - i f t h e C o n t r a c t o r f a i l s t o perform t h e Work c a l l e d f o r by t h i s
C o n t r a c t w i t h i n t h e tirne(s) s p e c i f i e d h e r e i n o r any extension
thereof, or

ii - i f t h e C o n t r a c t o r f a i l s t o perform any of t h e o t h e r p r o v i s i o n s
of t h i s C o n t r a c t , o r so f a i l s t o make p r o g r e s s a s t o endanger
performance of t h i s C o n t r a c t in accordance with i t s terms, o r

iii - i f t h e Contractor r e f u s e s t o perform t h e requirements of t h e

C o n t r a c t o r r e p u d i a t e s i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o perform under t h i s
Contract, or
iv - i n t h e event of C o n t r a c t o r ' s bankruptcy, i n s o l v e n c y , assignment
f o r t h e b e n e f i t of c r e d i t o r s , o r of a p e t i t i o n o r a p p l i c a t i o n
by o r a g a i n s t i t f o r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , d i s s o l u t i o n o r
l i q u i d a t i o n , o r in t h e event a r e c e i v e r o r t r u s t e e i s appointed
f o r any of i t s p r o p e r t y , o r i f t h e r e i s any attachment o r levy
a g a i n s t o r upon t h e person o r property of C o n t r a c t o r , o r i f any
judgement i s rendered a g a i n s t C o n t r a c t o r which i s unbonded,
unstayed, and i f i n any of t h e s e circumstances t h e C o n t r a c t o r
does not c o r r e c t such f a i l u r e w i t h i n a period of t e n ( 1 0 )
calendar days a f t e r r e c e i p t of n o t i c e from t h e Owner
s p e c i f y i n g such f a i l u r e .

Owner r e s e r v e s t h e r i g h t t o provide f o r immediate t e r m i n a t i o n in t h e

event o f ( i v ) above i f the Owner c o n s i d e r s t h i s t o be i n i t s b e s t
interest.

I f t h e Contractor does n o t c o r r e c t any of t h e s e circumstances within

a period of t e n (10) calendar days a f t e r r e c e i p t of n o t i c e from t h e
Owner, t h e Owner r e s e r v e s t h e r i g h t t o execute an immediate Contract
termination.

In t h e event of any such t e r m i n a t i o n , Owner s h a l l immediately serve

n o t i c e thereof upon Contractor and S u r e t y i f e r e c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d
under t h i s Contract and wherein Surety s h a l l have t h e r i g h t t o t a k e
over and perform t h e Contract, provided, however, t h a t S u r e t y
commences performance thereof within t h i r t y (30) c a l e n d a r days from
t h e d a t e of t h e mailing t o such Surety of n o t i c e of t e r m i n a t i o n .

Owner may procure, upon such terms and i n such manner a s t h e Owner
may deem a p p r o p r i a t e , work, s u p p l i e s o r s e r v i c e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e so
t e r m i n a t e d , and Contractor and i t s S u r e t y , i f e r e c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d ,
s h a l l be l i a b l e t o t h e Owner f o r any excess c o s t s occasioned thereby.

The Contractor s h a l l continue t h e performance of t h i s C o n t r a c t t o

t h e e x t e n t not terminated under t h e p r o v j s i o n s of t h i s S e c t i o n .

I f t h i s Contract i s terminated a s provided under t h i s S e c t i o n , t h e

Owner i n a d d i t i o n t o any o t h e r r i g h t s provided i n t h i s c l a u s e , may
r e q u i r e the Contractor t o t r a n s f e r t i t l e and d e l i v e r t o t h e Owner,
i n t h e manner and t o t h e e x t e n t d i r e c t e d by t h e Owner any completed
s u p p l i e s , any p a r t i a l l y completed s u p p l i e s and m a t e r i a l s , p a r t s ,
t o o l s , d i e s , j i g s , f i x t u r e s , p l a n s , drawings, and i n f o r m a t i o n , and
C o n t r a c t r i g h t s ( h e r e i n a f t e r c a l l e d "manufacturing m a t e r i a l s " ) a s
t h e Contractor has s p e c i f i c a l l y produced o r s p e c i f i c a l l y acquired
f o r t h e performance of such p a r t of t h i s Contract a s has been
terminated. The Contractor s h a l l , upon d i r e c t i o n of t h e Owner,
p r o t e c t and preserve property in t h e possession of t h e C o n t r a c t o r i n
which t h e Owner has an i n t e r e s t . Payment f o r completed s u p p l i e s
d e l i v e r e d t o and accepted by t h e Owner s h a l l be a t t h e C o n t r a c t
Price.
 Payment f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g m a t e r i a l s d e l i v e r e d t o and a c c e p t e d by t h e
Owner and f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y s h a l l be
i n an amount a g r e e d upon b y t h e C o n t r a c t o r and Owner. The Owner may
w i t h h o l d f r o m amounts o t h e r w i s e d u e t h e C o n t r a c t o r f o r such
c o m p l e t e d s u p p l i e s o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g m a t e r i a l s such sum as t h e Owner
d e t e r m i n e s t o be n e c e s s a r y t o p r o t e c t t h e Owner a g a i n s t l o s s because
o f outstanding l i e n s o r c l a i m s o r former l i e n holders.

- I f , a f t e r n o t i c e o f t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h i s Contract under t h e
p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s S e c t i o n , i t i s d e t e r m i n e d f o r any r e a s o n t h a t t h e
C o n t r a c t o r was n o t i n d e f a u l t u n d e r t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s c l a u s e ,
t h e r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s o f t h e p a r t i e s s h a l l be t h e same a s i f
t h e n o t i c e o f t e r m i n a t i o n had been i s s u e d p u r s u a n t t o t h e s e c t i o n o f
t h e C o n t r a c t e n t i t l e d , " T e r m i n a t i o n f o r Convenience".

The r i g h t s and remedies o f t h e Owner p r o v i d e d i n t h i s c l a u s e s h a l l

n o t be e x c l u s i v e and a r e i n a d d i t i o n t o any o t h e r r i g h t s a n d
remedies p r o v i d e d b y l a w o r u n d e r t h i s C o n t r a c t .

Upon t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h i s C o n t r a c t , a l l o f t h e t e r m s and p r o v i s i o n s
o f t h e C o n t r a c t s h a l l r e m a i n i n f u l l f o r c e and e f f e c t a s t o a l l
m a t e r i a l o r e a, u i ~ m e n td e l i v e r e d h e r e i n t o Owner p r i o r t o , o r i n
6

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h , such t e n i n a t i o n .

Suspension o f Work
T h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e t e r m s a n d cond t i o n s a1 l o w s t h e Owner t o suspend,
i n t e r r u p t o r d e l a y any p a r t o r o r a l l o f t h e w o r k f o r any r e a s o n , upon w r i t t e n
notice t o the Contractor. The n o t i c e s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e
suspension and i t s e x p e c t e d d u r a t i o n . The C o n t r a c t o r s h o u l d t h e n a d v i s e t h e
Owner o f t h o s e p o r t i o n s o f work which, i n t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s o p i n i o n , a r e i n
such a s t a t e a s t o r e q u i r e c o m p l e t i o n t o a v o i d a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s . The Owner
w i l l then advise t h e C o n t r a c t o r o f i t s d e c i s i o n as t o whether t o proceed.

The C o n t r a c t o r must resume a l l w o r k when so d i r e c t e d by t h e Owner, and t h e

d e l i v e r y schedule and t i m e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e i s t o be r e v i s e d f o r a p e r i o d o f
t i m e n e c e s s a r y t o overome t h e e f f e c t o f t h e d e l a y . Further, the Contractor
s h o u l d be e n t i t l e d t o reimbursement f o r r e a s o n a b l e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s i n c u r r e d
due t o t h e d e l a y .
I n s p e c t i o n and T e s t s
T h i s s e c t i o n o u t l i n e s t h e Owner'? r i g h t s r e l a t i v e t o making i n s p e c t i o n s and
the w i t n e s s i n g of t e s t s . I t a l s o o b l i g a t e s t h e Contractor t o provide acccess
f o r Owner's i n s p e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and t o inform t h e Owner p r i o r t o t h e
performance of any t e s t s . A determination by t h e Owner a s t o what t y p e s of
i n s p e c t i o n w i l l be performed and which t e s t s w i l l be witnessed must be made in
c o n j u n c t i o n with Owner's Q u a l i t y Assurance/Control s t a f f s . Additionally, i t
i s i n t h i s s e c t i o n t h a t t h e Contractor i s informed t h a t f a i l u r e of t h e Owner
t o w i t n e s s any t e s t s does n o t r e l i e v e t h e Contractor of i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o
f u l f u l l t h e requirements of t h e C o n t r a c t , nor i s i t t o be construed a s
acceptance of t h e work.

Force Ma j e u r e
T h i s s e c t i o n of t h e terms and c o n d i t i o n s a d d r e s s e s d e l a y s o r nonperformance
due t o e v e n t s not reasonably w i t h i n t h e c o n t r o l o r not reasonably f o r s e e a b l e
by e i t h e r o r both p a r t i e s . Such e v e n t s may be f i r e , f l o o d , war, r i o t , a c t s of
God, e t c . Neither p a r t y would be considered i n d e f a u l t f o r nonperformance due
t o t h e occurrence of such an e v e n t . The following i l l u s t r a t i v e wording
d e s c r i b e s t h o s e e v e n t s which may be addressed. Again, i t i s t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e Owner's Legal and Purchasing Departments t o develop
s p e c i f i c wording.

FORCE MAJEURE

Performance of t h i s Contract by both Owner and C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be

pursued with due d i l i g e n c e i n a l l requirements h e r e o f ; however,
n e i t h e r Owner nor C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be considered in d e f a u l t in t h e
performance of i t s o b l i g a t i o n s under t h i s C o n t r a c t t o t h e e x t e n t
t h a t such performance i s prevented o r delayed by causes not
reasonably w i t h i n i t s c o n t r o l and n o t reasonably f o r s e e a b l e o r , i f
f o r s e e a b l e , cannot be avoided by t h e e x e r c i s e of a l l reasonable
e f f o r t s , i n c l u d i n g but n o t l i m i t e d t o , a c t of c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y
a u t h o r i t y (incTuding but n o t l i m i t e d t o c o u r t s o r a d m n i s t r a t i v e
a g e n c i e s ) ; a c t s of God; war; r i o t ; i n s u r r e c t i o n ; i n a b i l i t y t o secure
approval, v a l i d a t i o n o r s a l e of bonds; i n a b i l i t y t o o b t a i n any
required p e r m i t s , l i c e n s e s o r zoning; blockades; embargoes;
sabotage; epidemics; f i r e s ; f l o o d s ; s t r i k e s ; l o c k o u t s ; o r c o l l e c t i v e
bargaining. In t h e event of any delay r e s u l t i n g from such cause t h e
time f o r performance of each of the P a r t i e s hereunder ( i n c l u d i n g t h e
 payment o f monies i f such e v e n t a c t u a l l y p r e v e n t s payment) s h a l l be
e x t e n d e d f o r a p e r i o d o f t i m e r e a s o n a b l y n e c e s s a r y $0 overcome t h e
e f f e c t o f such d e l a y s .

I n t h e e v e n t o f any d e l a y o r nonperformance caused b y t h e above

causes, t h e P a r t y a f f e c t e d s h a l l p r o m p t l y n o t i f y t h e o t h e r i n
w r i t i n g o f t h e n a t u r e , cause, d a t e o f commencement and t h e
a n t i c i p a t e d e x t e n t o f such d e l a y , a n d s h a l l i n d i c a t e t h e e x t e n t , i f
any, t o w h i c h i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t any d e l i v e r y o r c o m p l e t i o n
d a t e s w i l l be a f f e c t e d t h e r e b y .

Liens

T h i s s e c t i o n i s used b y an owner t o i n f o r m a c o n t r a c t o r t h a t a l l m a t e r i a l ,
equipment and l a b o r i s t o be p r o m p t l y p a i d f o r by t h e c o n t r a c t o r i n o r d e r t o
keep i t f r e e and c l e a r f r o m m a t e r i a l m e n ' s and workmen's l i e n s . A contractor
must h o l d an owner h a r m l e s s f r o m any a n d a l l c l a i m s a r i s i n g o u t o f any such
claims. T h i s s e c t i o n f u r t h e r r e q u i r e s t h e C o n t r a c t o r t o p r o v i d e t h e Owner
w i t h a f f i d a v i t s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t a l l b i l l s have been p a i d .

Compliance w i t h Codes, P e r m i t s , Laws, a n d L i c e n s e s

T h i s s e c t i o n i n s t r u c t s a c o n t r a c t o r as t o h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o comply w i t h
a l l a p p l i c a b l e l a w s , r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s , codes, and s t a n d a r d s o f a l l f e d e r a l ,
s t a t e , l o c a l and m u n i c i p a l a g e n c i e s t h a t c o u l d i n any way a f f e c t t h e w o r k . A
c o n t r a c t o r must a l s o comply w i t h any f u t u r e changes i n laws w h i c h c o u l d a f f e c t
t h e w o r k , b u t he s h a l l be compensated f o r any a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s and s c h e d u l e
changes a r i s i n g t h e r e f r o m .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , a c o n t r a c t o r must h o l d an owner harmless f r o m any damages,

l o s s e s , e t c , , o c c u r r i n g f r o m a c o n t r a c t o r ' s noncompliance w i t h any o f t h e
l a w s , r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s , codes, e t c .

A p p l i c a b l e S t a t e Law

T h i s s e c t i o n s t a t e s t h a t a c o n t r a c t s h a l l be i n t e r p r e t e d and governed i n a l l
r e s p e c t s b y t h e l a w s o f a p a r t i c u l a r S t a t e s p e c i f i e d b y an owner.
Changes and Extra Work

T h i s s e c t i o n of t h e commercial terms and c o n d i t i o n s a d v i s e s a c o n t r a c t o r t h a t

an owner may, a t any time, make changes within t h e general scope of t h e
c o n t r a c t i n t h e form of a w r i t t e n change o r d e r . When any such change c a u s e s
an i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e in t h e c o s t and/or a f f e c t s t h e time r e q u i r e d f o r a
c o n t r a c t o r ' s performance, an e q u i t a b l e adjustment i n the p r i c e and/or d e l i v e r y
schedule must be made. I t i s customary t o give a c o n t r a c t o r 30 c a l e n d a r days
n o t i c e t o respond w i t h t h e a f f e c t an owner's change may have on a c o n t r a c t .

Assignments and Subcontracts

T h i s s e c t i o n prevents t h e Contractor from subcontracting o r a s s i g n i n g t h e
Contract t o o t h e r p a r t i e s without t h e p r i o r w r i t t e n approval of t h e Owner.
Unless a s p e c i f i c item i s t o be s u p p l i e d by a s o l e s u b c o n t r a c t o r a s s p e c i f i e d
i n t h e C o n t r a c t , t h e Contractor must provide a l i s t o f p o t e n t i a l
s u b c o n t r a c t o r s f o r the Owner's apprc 11 p r i o r t o C o n t r a c t Award and p r e f e r a b l y
i n t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s proposal.

In t h e e v e n t t h e Contract i s assigned by e i t h e r p a r t y , t h e C o n t r a c t s h a l l be
binding on t h e a s s i g n e e and must be c a r r i e d through t o completion.

P r o p r i e t a r y Information

This s e c t i o n of t h e terms and c o n d i t i o n s s t a t e s t h a t a l l drawings,

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , t e c h n i c a l d a t a , and any information f u r n i s h e d t o a c o n t r a c t o r
by an owner a r e and s h a l l remain t h e property of t h e owner. A contractor i s
n o t permitted t o use t h e drawings, s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , e t c . f o r any purposes o t h e r
than t h a t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e work required by a c o n t r a c t . The drawings,
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , e t c . , a r e not t o be d i s c l o s e d t o t h i r d p a r t i e s o r used i n a
manner which could be d e t r i m e n t a l t o an owner, and they a r e t o be r e t u r n e d
upon r e q u e s t a t t h e completion of work.

A c o n t a c t o r i s t o provide f o r t h e s e same r e s t r i c t i o n s i n any of i t s

subcontracts.
Nonwaiver

T h i s s e c t i o n s t a t e s t h a t a f a i l u r e o f e i t h e r p a r t y t o i n s i s t upon s t r i c t
p e r f o r m a n c e o f any o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f a c o n t r a c t , d e l a y i n e x e r c i s i n g any o f
e i t h e r p a r t y ' s r i g h t s o r remedies p r o v i d e d i n a c o n t r a c t o r b y l a w s h a l l n o t
c o n s t i t u t e a w a i v e r o r release by e i t h e r p a r t y o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n s under a
contract.

N o t i c e s and Correspondence

T h i s s e c t i o n i s t o l i s t t h e names o f i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e t o r e c e i v e
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , t h e i r addresses, and t h e r e s p e c t i v e number o f c o p i e s each i s
t o receive.

Equal Employment O p p o r t u n i t y a n d A f f i r m a t i v e A c t i o n

T h i s s e c t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a c o n t r a c t o r t o conform t o
a p p l i c a b l e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a l l f e d e r a l , s t a t e and l o c a l laws, o r d i n a n c e s ,
r u l e s , and r e g u l a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o e q u a l employment o p p o r t u n i t y . A
c o n t r a c t o r ' s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s must a l s o c o n f o r m t o t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t .

O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y and H e a l t h A c t

T h i s s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e equipment s u p p l i e d b y a
c o n t r a c t o r c o m p l i e s w i t h , and i n no way p r e v e n t s an owner f r o m c o m p l y i n g w i t h
OSHA 1970. The f o l l o w i n g i s an example:

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT

C o n t r a c t o r ' s Equipment s h a l l comply w i t h , and i n no way p r e v e n t Owner's

c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e OccupationaT S a f e t y and H e a l t h A c t o f 1970 and a l l
r e g u l a t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d s p r o m u l g a t e d t h e r e u n d e r i n e f f e c t on t h e d a t e o f
t h i s C o n t r a c t . C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f a i l u r e t o comply
w i t h t h e A c t , r e g u l a t i o n s and s t a n d a r d s t o t h e e x t e n t such f a i l u r e
r e s u l t s from t h e f a i l u r e o f Owner t o p r o p e r l y l o c a t e , o p e r a t e , use, o r
m a i n t a i n t h e Work, f r o m a l t e r a t i o n s o f t h e Work b y persons o t h e r t h a n
C o n t r a c t o r , f r o m an o p t i o n o r a c c e s s o r y t o t h e Work w h i c h was a v a i l a b l e
t o t h e Owner b u t o m i t t e d a t Owner's d i r e c t i o n , o r f r o m d e s i g n o r
i n s t r u c t i o n s f u r n i s h e d by Owner and i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e Work o v e r
C o n t r a c t o r ' s w r i t t e n o b j e c t i o n . C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l
c o s t s , i n c l u d i n g c o s t s o f r e m o v a l , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and r e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f ,
m o d i f i c a t i o n o f , o r s u p p l y i n g a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r , t h e Work so t h a t t h e
Work c o n f o r m s t o t h e a p p l i c a b l e r e g u l a t i o n s o r s t a n d a r d s and, e x c e p t a s
o t h e r w i s e p r o v i d e d h e r e i n , s h a l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l damages due t o
d e l a y r e s u l t i n g f r o m nonconformance. I f caused by C o n t r a c t o r ' s a c t s o r
o m i s s i o n s , C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l i n d e m n i f y Owner f o r any f i n e s and p e n a l i t i e s ,
 i n c l u d i n g a t t o r n e y s ' f e e s and o t h e r defense c o s t s and expenses. F o r one
d o l l a r ($1.00) acknowledged t o be i n c l u d e d and p a i d f o r i n t h e C o n t r a c t
P r i c e and o t h e r good a n d v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s t o
i n d e m n i f y and h o l d h a r m l e s s Owner, E n g i n e e r and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s and employees, i n accordance w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s
Section.

Role o f Engineer

I n t h e e v e n t an owner has r e t a i n e d an o u t s i d e e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m t o p r o v i d e
d e s i g n , e n g i n e e r i n g , and a s s o c i a t e d s e r v i c e s , t h i s s e c t i o n l i s t s t h e d u t i e s ,
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and a u t h o r i t y o f t h e e n g i n e e r .

C o n t r a c t o r ' s Drawings and I n s t r u c t i o n Manuals

T h i s s e c t i o n i n f o r m s a c o n t r a c t o r t h a t t h e r e v i e w o f any d r a w i n g s , d a t a ,
etc., b y an owner i s f o r t h e purpose o f a s c e r t a i n i n g g e n e r a l c o n f o r m i t y w i t h
t h e t e c h n i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , and f o r i n t e r f a c e i n f o r m a t i o n . I t does n o t
i n c l u d e a r e v i e w o f c o n t r a c t o r ' s e f f i c i e n c y o r adequacy o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
methods, n o r does i t i n c l u d e a r e v i e w o f any d e t a i l e d d e s i g n s o r
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s p r e p a r e d by a c o n t r a c t o r . Also, t h i s r e v i e w does n o t r e l i e v e a
c o n t r a c t o r from t h e e n t i r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o r r e c t n e s s o f h i s e n g i n e e r i n g ,
d e s i g n , workmanship, and a1 1 o t h e r s e r v i c e s r e q u i r e d b y him.

A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h i s s e c t i o n may be used t o l i s t an o w n e r ' s d r a w i ng r e q u i r e m e n t s

(mylar, w a s h o f f , e t c . ) and t h e f o r m a t f o r i n s t r u c t i o n manuals.

P h y s i c a l Damage t o J o b s i t e

T h i s s e c t i o n r e q u i r e s a c o n t r a c t o r t o be s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any c o s t s
i n c u r r e d due t o r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t o f damaged equipment o r s t r u c t u r e s a t a
p r o j e c t s i t e w h i c h have been damaged o r d e s t r o y e d as t h e r e s u l t o f a
c o n t r a c t o r ' s o r h i s subcontractor's negligence o r breach o f warranty.
However, t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s o n l y f o r t h o s e c o s t s w h i c h an owner c o u l d n o t
r e c o v e r t h r o u g h damage i n s u r a n c e .

Price Policy

Due t o t h e l o n g l e a d t i m e a s s o c i a t e d i n t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f an e l e c t r o s t a t i c
p r e c i p i t a t o r and t h e c o n s t a n t f l u c t u a t i o n o f t h e economy, t h i s s e c t i o n o f a
c o n t r a c t d e t a i l s t h e p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t p o l i c y t o be used t o r e f l e c t t h e changes
i n m a t e r i a l and l a b o r p r i c e s . The c u s t o m a r y manner t o t r a c k and a c c o u n t f o r
p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t s i s t o use t h e U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f L a b o r , Bureau o f Labor
S t a t i s t i c s (BLS) w h i c h p u b l i s h e s i n d i c e s f o r m a t e r i a l a n d shop l a b o r . Field
l a b o r p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t s may be based upon changes i n t h e h o u r l y r a t e f o r
c o n t r a c t o r s w o r k i n g u n d e r agreements w i t h t h e B u i l d i n g and C o n s t r u c t i o n T r a d e s
Department (AFL-CIO) having j u r i s d i c t i o n i n t h e area. For c o n t r a c t o r s n o t
w o r k i n g under AFL-CIO agreements, a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c r e w m i x can be used t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e h o u r l y r a t e and t h e n compared w i t h changes i n t h e B u i l d i n g and
C o n s t r u c t i o n Trades Department h o u r l y r a t e .

F o r purposes o f c a l c u l a t i n g p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t s , o r e s c a l a t i o n , n i n e t y p e r c e n t
(90%) o f a c o n t r a c t p r i c e i s t y p i c a l l y b r o k e n down i n t o t h r e e p a r t s :
m a t e r i a l , shop l a b o r , and f i e l d l a b o r . The r e m a i n i n g t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e p r i c e
i s n o t subject t o escalation. This ten percent p o r t i o n o f the p r i c e i s
g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o i n c l u d e a c o n t r a c t o r ' s p r o f i t , o v e r h e a d and
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o s t s , o v e r w h i c h i t has c o n t r o l . I t i s g e n e r a l l y assumed t h a t
a c o n t r a c t o r has no c o n t r o l o v e r t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e p r i c e and i s t h e n e n t i t l e d
t o be compensated f o r any such i n c r e a s e s . C o n v e r s e l y , an owner w o u l d b e n e f i t
i n t h e e v e n t o f decreases i n economic i n d i c e s . O v e r a l l , t h i s concept o f f e r s
l i t t l e r i s k t o a c o n t r a c t o r w h i l e e x p o s i n g an owner t o p o t e n t i a l l y s u b s t a n t i a l
and s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n a c o n t r a c t p r i c e .

Changes i n c u r r e n t p u r c h a s i n g p r a c t i c e s a r e t e n d i n g t o w a r d e s c a l a t i n g
c o n t r a c t s w i t h a "cap" o r maximum p e r c e n t a g e b y w h i c h a c o n t r a c t may be
increased. T h i s b e n e f i t s an owner i n t w o ways: f i r s t , an owner w i l l know a t
a71 t i m e s what t h e maximum t o t a l c o n t r a c t p r i c e w i l l be ( i n c l u d i n g changes),
and secondly, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t r e d u c t i o n s i n i n f l a t i o n r a t e s w i l l
r e s u l t i n a c o n t r a c t p r i c e t h a t i s l e s s t h a n t h e maximum amount. Should an
owner e l e c t t o use t h i s t y p e o f arrangement, i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e
t h a t t h e p r i c e cap i s t o be based on t h e s p e c i f i c s c h e d u l e c o n t a i n e d i n a
contract. I n t h e e v e n t o f a s u s p e n s i o n o r d e l a y w h i c h i s beyond a
c o n t r a c t o r ' s c o n t r o l , t h e t o t a l d o l l a r cap amount may be a d j u s t e d b y a d d i n g
t h e a c t u a l d o l l a r amount i n c r e a s e i n c u r r e d ( b a s e d upon i n c r e a s e s i n t h e BLS
i n d i c e s ) d u r i n g t h e suspension o r d e l a y t o t h e cap amount. The same w o u l d
hold t r u e f o r f i e l d l a b o r because t h e percentage i n c r e a s e in t h e wage r a t e
could be added t o t h e cap amount on f i e l d l a b o r .

I n v o i c i n g and Payment Terms

This s e c t i o n of t h e commercial terms and c o n d i t i o n s provides t h e invoicing

i n s t r u c t i o n s and terms of payment. Invoicing i n s t r u c t i o n s u s u a l l y a d v i s e a
c o n t r a c t o r where t o mail t h e i n v o i c e , number of c o p i e s , format, and any o t h e r
information an owner d e s i r e s t o have included on t h e i n v o i c e . The payment
terms f o r c o n t r a c t s a s s o c i a t e d with p r e c i p i t a t o r s should be based upon t h e
a c t u a l monthly p r o g r e s s made by t h e c o n t r a c t o r . Progress i s u s u a l l y measured
i n terms o f t h e amount of engineering completed, number of drawings completed,
m a t e r i a l received a t a c o n t r a c t o r ' s f a c i l i t i e s , amount of shop f a b r i c a t i o n
completed, material r e c e i v e d a t t h e j o b s i t e , and payment f o r work in p l a c e
during erection. The time frame f o r each of t h e s e t y p i c a l milestones i s
agreed upon during c o n t r a c t n e g o t i a t i o n s . Any milestone not met by a
c o n t r a c t o r through h i s own f a u l t would r e s u l t i n non-payment by an owner.
This form of payment a l l o w s an owner t o c l o s e l y monitor a c o n t r a c t o r ' s
p r o g r e s s and performance.

Payment terms should a l s o s p e c i f y t h a t r e t e n t i o n w i l l be withheld from each

invoice. The t o t a l r e t e n t i o n , expressed a s a percentage of a c o n t r a c t p r i c e ,
t y p i c a l l y ranging between f i v e and ten p e r c e n t , i s determined by an owner.
Many c o n t r a c t o r s b a l k a t t h e i d e a of an owner withholding even f i v e p e r c e n t of
money d u e ( 5 percent of $100,000,000 i s $5,000,000), so i t may be necessary
f o r an owner t o pay i n t e r e s t on t h e money. I n t e r e s t can be t i e d , f o r
i n s t a n c e , t o t h e d i s c o u n t e d r a t e f o r U.S. Treasury Notes o r some o t h e r
published i n t e r e s t amount. Release of r e t e n t i o n i s then t i e d t o t h e
s u c c e s s f u l completion of performance t e s t s .

E s c a l a t i o n p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t s a r e normalTy invoiced a t f u l l value of t h e a c t u a l

amount o f e s c a l a t i o n on m a t e r i a l and l a b o r i n v o i c e s with no r e t e n t i o n withheld
from t h e e s c a l a t i o n i n v o i c e s .

In t h e e v e n t o f a d i s p u t e over an i n v o i c e , t h e d i s p u t e d amount i s not paid

u n t i l t h e r e i s a s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s o l u t i o n of t h e d i s p u t e by t h e p a r t i e s .
O w n e r ' s P r e s c r i b e d Forms

T h i s s e c t i o n l i s t s t h e f o r m s p r e s c r b e d b y an owner f o r use i n a c o n t r a c t b y
a contractor. Forms may i n c l u d e an o w n e r ' s i n s u r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s and
c e r t i f i c a t e s o f i n s u r a n c e , c o n t r a c t bond, a p p l i c a t i o n f o r payment, o r any
o t h e r p e r t i n e n t forms r e q u i r e d by a o w n e r ' s p r o c e d u r e s and p r a c t i c e s .

Complete Agreement

T h i s s e c t i o n s t a t e s t h a t a c o n t r a c t i s t h e e x c l u s i v e statement o f t h e
agreement between owner and c o n t r a c t o r . V e r b a l o r w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e may n o t be
u s e d t o v a r y o r c o n t r a d i c t t h e e x p r e s s t e r m s o f a c o n t r a c t , and a l l p r i o r
d e a l i n g s , agreements, s u b m i t t a l s , e t c . , s h a l l be n u l l and v o i d . This section
a l s o s t a t e s t h a t a c o n t r a c t cannot be m o d i f i e d o r amended and no w a i v e r o f any
p r o v i s i o n c a n o c c u r u n l e s s a w r i t t e n change o r d e r i s s i g n e d by b o t h p a r t i e s .

S e c t i o n Headings

T h i s a r t i c l e e x p l a i n s t h a t section headings appearing i n t h e c o n t r a c t a r e

i n s e r t e d f o r c o n v e n i e n c e o f r e f e r e n c e o n l y and i n no way a r e t o be c o n s t r u e d
as i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e t e x t o f t h e c o n t r a c t .

Indernni f i c a t i o n

I n t h e e v e n t o f a i n j u r y , a c c i d e n t , d e a t h , o r damage t o p r o p e r t y due t o o r
i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e w o r k , an owner uses t h i s p r o v i s i o n t o make a c o n t r a c t o r
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e f e n d i n g and h o l d i n g t h e owner harmless f r o m c l a i m s . An
example f o l l o w s , b u t i t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t h a t an o w n e r ' s l e g a l and
i n s u r a n c e s t a f f s be i n v o l v e d i n t h e development o f t h i s c l a u s e .

INDEMNIFICATION

C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l h o l d h a r m l e s s , i n d e m n i f y 'and defend Owner and E n g i n e e r

( f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s S e c t i o n e n t i t l e d INDEMNIFICATION, t h e words "Owner"
and " E n g i n e e r " s h a l l be deemed t o i n c l u d e d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members,
d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s , employees, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and a g e n t s ) a g a i n s t any
c l a i m , a c t i o n , l o s s , damage, i n j u r y , l i a b i l i t y , c o s t and expense o f
w h a t s o e v e r k i n d o r n a t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g , b u t n o t by way o f l i m i t a t i o n ,
a t t o r n e y s ' f e e s ) a r i s i n g o u t o f i n j u r i e s ( w h e t h e r mental o r c o r p o r e a l ) t o
p e r s o n s , i n c l u d i n g d e a t h , o r damage t o p r o p e r t y a r i s i n g o u t o f o r
i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e performance o f t h i s C o n t r a c t o r Work p e r f o r m e d
t h e r e u n d e r , w h e t h e r o r n o t due t o o r caused b y n e g l i g e n c e o f Owner o r
E n g i n e e r , e x c l u d i n g t h e s o l e n e g l i g e n c e o r Owner and E n g i n e e r . Owner and
E n g i n e e r a g r e e t o p r o v i d e C o n t r a c t o r n o t i c e o f any such c l a i m as soon as
p r a c t i c a b l e and p r o v i d e a l l r e a s o n a b l e a s s i s t a n c e i n c o n n e c t i o n t h e r e w i t h
as C o n t r a c t o r may r e q u e s t . C o n t r a c t o r ' s s a i d o b l i g a t i o n t o h o l d
 h a r m l e s s , i n d e m n i f y and d e f e n d Owner and E n g i n e e r p u r s u a n t t o t h i s
S e c t i o n e n t i t l e d INDEMNIFICATION s h a l l e x t e n d up t o , b u t s h a l l n o t exceed
t h e sum o f $5,000,000.00 f o r i n j u r y , d e a t h o r damage t o p r o p e r t y a r i s i n g
o u t o f a s i n g l e occurrence.

Subcontractors
T h i s s e c t i o n a l l o w s t h e Owner t o r e q u e s t t h e C o n t r a c t o r t o t e r m i n a t e a
s u b c o n t r a c t o r i f , i n t h e Owner's s o l e o p i n i o n , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
s u b c o n t r a c t o r becomes i m p a i r e d such t h a t t h e work p e r f o r m e d w o u l d b e
q u e s t i o n a b l e as t o q u a l i t y and workmanship.

Schedule

T h i s s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a c o n t r a c t o r w i t h a s p e c i f i c t i m e frame d u r i n g w h i c h he
i s t o p e r f o r m i t s d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r a c t . This time
frame u s u a l l y commences w i t h a d a t e no l a t e r t h a n w h i c h a c o n t r a c t o r can b e g i n
d e l i v e r y o f equipment t o a j o b s i t e . Further, a date i s established which
n o t e s t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e a c o n t r a c t o r may commence c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s .
Moreover, i n t e r f a c e d a t e s a r e t o be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r o t h e r p i e c e s o f equipment
a n d / o r systems such as d u c t w o r k c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e steam g e n e r a t o r ' s a i r
h e a t e r and i n d u c e d d r a f t f a n s , i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e f l y ash h a n d l i n g system,
and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r m a l i n s u l a t i o n . T h i s s p e c i f i c t i m e frame f o r a
c o n t r a c t o r ' s a c t i v i t i e s r e q u i r e s a completion date o r s e r i e s o f dates f o r
e s t a b l i s h i n g a gas p a t h t o t h e chimney f o r steam g e n e r a t o r b o i l o u t a n d t r i a l
operation.

Unit(s) Option

T h i s s e c t i o n a l l o w s an owner t o e x e r c i s e an o p t i o n t o have a c o n t r a c t o r
p r o v i d e d u p l i c a t e work f o r a s p e c i f i c number o f a d d i t i o n a l u n i t s a t t h e same
j o b s i t e f o r the option p r i c e included i n the contract. T h i s s e c t i o n i s t o be
used o n l y i f more t h a n one u n i t i s p l a n n e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h i n a
reasonable p e r i o d o f time.

C o n t r a c t Bonds

Due t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t s i n v o l v e d i n a p r e c i p i t a t o r c o n t r a c t , an owner
must be a f f o r d e d p r o t e c t i o n t h a t a c o n t r a c t o r w i l l p e r f o r m and make payment
f o r a l l o f i t s obligations. T h i s p r o t e c t i o n i s i n t h e f o r m o f p e r f o r m a n c e and
payment bonds o b t a i n e d b y t h e c o n t r a c t o r i n t h e f o r m and manner p r e s c r i b e d by
an owner and w i t h t h e premiums p a i d f o r by an owner as p a r t o f t h e c o n t r a c t
rice.

C a n c e l l a t i o n Charges

A l t h o u g h i t i s n o t normal t o b e g i n t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f an e l e c t r o s t a t i c
p r e c i p i t a t o r w i t h p r o j e c t c a n c e l l a t i o n i n mind b e f o r e completion, t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y always e x i s t s t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s beyond an o w n e r ' s c o n t r o l may
f o r c e t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e work. Should t h i s o c c u r , t h e owner m u s t know a t
any t i m e , t h e t o t a l amount o f t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n c h a r g e s f o r w h i c h i t w o u l d be
liable. D f c o u r s e , any payments made t o a c o n t r a c t o r by a owner w o u l d be
deducted from t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n charge. C a n c e l l a t i o n charges a r e e x p r e s s e d i n
c u m u l a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s o f t h e c o n t r a c t p r i c e on a m o n t h l y b a s i s o v e r t h e
d u r a t i o n o f t h e schedule.

CONCEPTS FOR ERECTION

T h i s s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s t h e c o n c e p t s f o r t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e e r e c t i o n p o r t i o n o f d e l i v e r and e r e c t c o n t r a c t s . This erection portion o f
t h e t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o as "Supplementary Terms and
Conditions". These c o n c e p t s w i t h ill u s t r a t i v e examples must n o t be
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o c o n t r a c t s w i t h o u t a a p p r o v a l and d i r e c t i o n o f a u t i l i t y ' s
le g a l d e p a r t m e n t .

Definitions

T h i s s e c t i o n d e f i n e s a l l o f t h e s e words and t e r m s w h i c h appear t h r o u g h o u t a

c o n t r a c t , w h i c h i f l e f t u n d e f i n e d m i g h t be c o n s t r u e d d i f f e r e n t l y b y t h e
p a r t i e s involved. Some o f t h e more commonly used t e r m s and d e f i n i t i o n s
appearing i n e r e c t i o n c o n t r a c t s are:

C o n t r a c t o r ' s S u p e r i n t e n d e n t - means a c o n t r a c t o r ' s d u l y a u t h o r i z e d

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e s i g n a t e d i n accordance w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s of a
c o n t r a c t , who s h a l l have t h e a u t h o r i t y t o manage a c o n t r a c t o r ' s j o b s i t e
a c t i v i t i e s associated w i t h a project.
 Engineer's Superintendent - means an e n g i n e e r employee who s h a l l have t h e
a u t h o r i t y t o manage an e n g i n e e r ' s j o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s assoc i a t e d w i t h t o
t h i s Project.

F i e l d Order - means a w r i t t e n o r d e r i s s u e d b y t h e e n g i n e e r and approved

b y t h e owner w i t h r e c e i p t acknowledged by the c o n t r a c t o r , w h i c h o r d e r s
m i n o r changes i n t h e w o r k n o t i n v o l v i n g e x t r a c o s t and c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
the overall i n t e n t o f the contract.

S u b s t a n t i a l C o m p l e t i o n - means t h e d a t e as c e r t i f i e d b y t h e owner when

t h e work performed i n accordance w i t h t h e c o n t r a c t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y
c o m p l e t e so t h a t t h e w o r k can be u t i l i z e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h i c h i t
was i n t e n d e d ; o r , i f t h e r e be no such c e r t i f i c a t i o n , t h e d a t e when f i n a l
payment i s due.

Surety - means t h e p a r t y who has made secure t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e

c o n t r a c t b y a bond.

M i s c e l l a n e o u s Terms - w h e r e v e r f i g u r e s a r e g i v e n i n t h i s c o n t r a c t under
t h e w o r d " E l e v a t i o n " o r a b b r e v i a t i o n o f i t , o r where f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t i n g
e l e v a t i o n s a r e g i v e n , t h e y s h a l l mean t h e e l e v a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o U n i t e d
S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y Sea L e v e l Datum, as r e p r e s e n t e d b y v a r i o u s bench
marks i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e work, o r t h e y s h a l l mean t h e e l e v a t i o n
r e l a t i v e t o t h e a r b i t r a r y datum p l a n e f i x e d b y t h e e n g i n e e r f o r t h e
p a r t i c u l a r work.

Obligations o f Contractor
T h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s d e a l s w i t h t h e
c o n t r a c t u a l o b l i g a t i o n s a c o n t r a c t o r must f o l l o w p r i o r t o , d u r i n g , and a f t e r
completion o f a l l j o b s i t e r e l a t e d work. The f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t e s s e v e r a l o f
t h e more common r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r w h i c h a c o n t r a c t o r w o u l d be o b l i g a t e d :

OBLIGATIONS OF CONTRACTOR

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l f u r n i s h a n d p r o v i d e a1 1 m a t e r i a l , l a b o r ,
s u p e r v i s i o n , t o o l s , p l a n t , a p p a r a t u s , conveyances, equipment, and
i n c i d e n t a l s r e q u i r e d f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h e Work, e x c e p t t h e
m a t e r i a l s and s e r v i c e s s p e c i f i c a l l y m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t t o be
p r o v i d e d b y Owner.
The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l keep one ( I ) r e c o r d copy o f a l l S p e c i f i c a t i o n s ,
Drawings, and o t h e r d r a w i n g s a t t h e J o b s i t e i n good o r d e r and
a n n o t a t e d ( a s - b u i l t d r a w i n g s ) t o show a l l c h a n g e s made d u r i n g
c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e s e s h a l l be a v a i l a b l e t o t h e Owner and E n g i n e e r
and s h a l l be d e l i v e r e d t o t h e Owner upon c o m p l e t i o n of t h e Work.

The C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s t o meet t h e d e l i v e r y and c o m p l e t i o n d a t e s

r e q u i r e d by t h i s C o n t r a c t . The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l d e v e l o p a d e t a i l e d
s c h e d u l e f o r t h e e x e c u t i o n of t h e Work, s a i d s c h e d u l e t o be
submitted t o t h e Engineer f o r i t s review p r i o r t o s t a r t of
C o n t r a c t o r ' s J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s . The d e t a i l e d s c h e d u l e s h a l l
conform t o t h e o v e r a l l s c h e d u l e f o r P r o j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n . The
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l p r o v i d e a monthly u p d a t e d s c h e d u l e , i n c o r p o r a t i n g
t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s and S u b c o n t a c t o r s ' d e l i v e r y s c h e d u l e s , f o r a l l Work.

C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l perform a l l a p p l i c a b l e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s ,
e x c e p t t h o s e t o be p r o v i d e d by t h e Owner, a t t h e J o b s i t e , i n c l u d i n g
r a d i o g r a p h y and p r o v i d e a l l equipment a s r e q u i r e d t o perform such
quality control a c t i v i t i e s .

The C o n t r a c t o r ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , r e c o r d s , v o u c h e r s and books o f

a c c o u n t a t t h e J o b s i t e and C o n t r a c t o r ' s home o f f i c e s h a l l be open t o
t h e Owner's o r i t s d e s i g n a t e d a g e n t ' s , i n s p e c t i o n and s u b j e c t t o i t s
a u d i t t o t h e e x t e n t necessary t o v e r i f y reimbursable c o s t s incurred
u n d e r t h i s C o n t r a c t . The C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s t o m a i n t a i n s u c h books
and r e c o r d s f o r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e ( 3 ) y e a r s from t h e d a t e o f
c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e Work and t o make such r e c o r d s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e
Owner, o r i t s d e s i g n a t e d a g e n t , d u r i n g normal b u s i n e s s h o u r s w i t h i n
t h e three-year period.

The C o n t r a c t o r a l o n e s h a l l be a n d remain l i a b l e and r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

t h e e f f i c i e n c y , a d e q u a c y and s a f e t y o f t h e methods and means by
which i t p e r f o r m s i t s Work, and o f i t s m a t e r i a l s , working f o r c e and
e q u i p m e n t , i r r e s p e c t i v e of w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e C o n t r a c t o r makes any
change a s a r e s u l t o f any comments r e c e i v e d from t h e Owner o r
Engineer.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l s u b m i t r e s u m e ' s o f key c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l

( P r o j e c t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , QA/QC p e r s o n n e l , S c h e d u l e / C o s t C o n t r o l
p e r s o n n e l ) t o the E n g i n e e r a t l e a s t s i x ( 6 ) months p r i o r t o s t a r t of
e r e c t i o n work.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l comply w i t h t h e O w n e r ' s J o b s i t e s a f e t y a n d

s e c u r i t y programs and a l l c h a n g e s and a d d i t i o n s t h e r e t o , c o p i e s o f
which s h a l l be f u r n i s h e d t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r p r i o r t o s t a r t of
Contractor's Jobsite activities.

P r i o r t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r commencing i t s J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s ,
C o n t r a c t o r shaT1 p r o v i d e t o t h e Owner, f o r r e v i e w , i t s r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r J o b s i t e t e m p o r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n b u i l d i n g s p a c e and laydown
a r e a s . The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l p r o v i d e a l l o f f i c e equipment and
s u p p l i e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e performance of t h e Work.
 C o n t r a c t o r may e l e c t t o perform work with l a b o r not working under
agreements with t h e Building and C o n s t r u c t i o n Trades Department
(AFL-CIO). However, i f t h e C o n t r a c t o r performs work with l a b o r t h a t
i s working under agreements with t h e Building and C o n s t r u c t i o n
Trades Department (AFL-CIO), t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l provide and
a d m i n i s t e r a l a b o r r e l a t i o n s program which s h a l l be c o n s i s t e n t with
t h e P r o j e c t l a b o r r e l a t i o n s program. Any j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i s p u t e
which may a r i s e i n connection with t h e Work performed p u r s u a n t t o
t h e terms of t h i s C o n t r a c t s h a l l be s e t t l e d i n accordance with t h e
Plan f o r t h e S e t t l e m e n t of J u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i s p u t e s i n t h e
C o n s t r u c t i o n I n d u s t r y and any d e c i s i o n by t h e I m p a r t i a l
J u r i s d i c t i o n a l Disputes Board w i ? l be f i n a l and b i n d i n g .

O b l i g a t i o n s o f Owner

T h i s s e c t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h e o b l i g a t i o n s of an owner. They normally i n v o l v e

s e c u r i n g a l l p e r m i t s and l i c e n s e s r e q u i r e d by a l l l e v e l s o f government;
supplying a l l r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , drawings, e t c . ; i n s p e c t i o n and a u d i t i n g
of t h e work and performance of t h e c o n t r a c t o r , and f u r n i s h i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and
d r i n k i n g water and e l e c t r i c power f o r c o n s t r u c t ~ o n use.

Delivery and S t o r a g e

T h i s s e c t i o n c o v e r s t h e o b l i g a t i o n s p u r s u a n t t o t h e d e l i v e r y and s t o r a g e of
t h e m a t e r i a l s and equipment a c o n t r a c t o r w i l l e r e c t . Customary procedures t o
be follcwed a r e o u t l i n e d below a s an example of such wording

DELIVERY AND STORAGE

C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l r e c e i v e , document t h e r e c e i p t o f , i n s p e c t , u n l o a d ,
h a n d l e , s t o r e and m a i n t a i n , p u r s u a n t t o t h i s C o n t r a c t , a11 m a t e r i a l s
and equipment f u r n i s h e d under t h i s C o n t r a c t which i t w i l l e r e c t o r
i n s t a l l and t h e Owner f u r n i s h e d m a t e r i a l s and equipment which t h e
C o n t r a c t o r w i l l e r e c t o r i n s t a l l . C o n t r a c t o r ' s documentation of
r e c e i p t of m a t e r i a l s ( M a t e r i a l Receiving Reports) s h a l l be f u r n i s h e d
t o t h e Engineer. Spare p a r t s s h a l l be turned o v e r t o t h e Owner, i n
t h e Owner's s t o r a g e f a c i l i t y , upon r e c e i p t a t t h e J o b s i t e . A l l
m a t e r i a l p o s s e s s i o n changes s h a l l be documented by a M a t e r i a l
Report, signed by t h e C o n t r a c t o r and a copy given t o t h e Engineer.
The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l have t o t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s a f e t y and
p r o t e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s and equipment from l o s s o r damage by t h e
elements o r from any cause whatsoever while i n i t s c a r e and through
completion of e r e c t i o n by t h e C o n t r a c t o r and a c c e p t a n c e by t h e
Owner. Material received i n damaged c o n d i t i o n s h a l l be s e t a s i d e
f o r i n s p e c t i o n by t h e Engineer and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e c a r r i e r .
 The Owner f u r n i s h e d equipment and m a t e r i a l s i n s t a l l e d by t h e
C o n t r a c t o r and, i f s p e c i a l arrangements have been made w i t h t h e
Owner, t h e C o n t r a c t o r f u r n i s h e d equipment and m a t e r i a l s , a r r i v i n g a t
the J o b s i t e prior t o the Contractor's s t a r t i n g J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s ,
s h a l l be r e c e i v e d by t h e C o n t r a c t o r on t h e ground a s they o c c u r , o r
from t h e Owner's s t o r a g e f a c i l i t y on t h e J o b s i t e o r landed on
foundations.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l develop a formal s t o r a g e procedure u t i l i z i n g

t h e a r e a d e s i g n a t e d by t h e Engineer. The s t o r a g e procedure s h a l l be
p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Engineer f o r review and s h a l l i n c l u d e a s k e t c h w i t h
n e c e s s a r y e x p l a n a t i o n t o expose t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s plan f o r space
a l l o t m e n t , dunnage, weather p r o t e c t i o n , e t c . The s t o r a g e p r o c e d u r e s
s h a l l s p e c i f y t h e methods t o be used t o avoid damage t o o r
d e t e r i o r a t i o n of m a t e r i a l d u r i n g s t o r a g e due t o h a n d l i n g ,
p r e s e r v a t i o n , packaging, o r c l e a n i n g . These procedures s h a l l be
submitted i n w r i t i n g f o r t h e E n g i n e e r ' s review p r i o r t o
imp1ementat;on. I f r e q u i r e d by t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e f o r e g o i n g
procedure s h a l l be developed i n accordance w i t h t h e a p p l i c a b l e Owner
and ANSI s t a n d a r d s , i n c l u d i n g c o v e r i n g s , indoor s t o r a g e ,
p r e s e r v a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s , c l o s u r e s , heat and humidity c o n t r o l s , and
o t h e r measures recommended by t h e manufacturer, t o e l i m i n a t e damage
i n handling and from exposure t o t h e environment.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l provide f o r s t o r a g e p r o t e c t i o n and p e r i o d i c

maintenance of r o t a t i n g equipment. In t h e c a s e t h a t s p e c i f i c
manufacturer's i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e absent, the Contractor shall p r o t e c t
t h e equipment from adverse w e a t h e r , r o t a t e and l u b r i c a t e t h e
equipment a t a frequency s p e c i f i e d by t h e Engineer.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l i n s t a l l t h e f i r s t change of l u b r i c a t i n g o i l i n
equipment, and in s i t u a t i o n s where temporary o i l i s i n i t i a l l y p l a c e d
i n equipment, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l d r a i n and r e c h a r g e equipment w i t h
permanent 1 u b r i c a t i o n .

C o n t r a c t o r Responsible f o r Work u n t i l Accepted

T h i s s e c t i o n r e q u i r e s a c o n t r a c t o r t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e risk of l o s s f o r
t h e work. Examples follow although t h e e x a c t n a t u r e of t h e wording should be
developed by a u t i l i t y ' s l e g a l department

CONTRACTOR RESPONSIBLE FOR WORK UNTIL ACCEPTED

S u b j e c t t o t h e Risk of Loss S e c t i o n of t h e Standard Terms and

C o n d i t i o n s , a l l Work, i n c l u d i n g without l i m i t a t i o n any Eauipment
f u r n i s h e d by t h e C o n t r a c t o r under t h i s C o n t r a c t and any temporary
work o r f a c i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d , s h a l l be a t t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s r i s k u n t i l
Unit T r a i l Operation and i f t h e Work, o r any p o r t i o n t h e r e c f , s h a l l
be damaged i n any way e x c e p t by s o l e negligence of t h e Owner o r
E n g i n e e r , b e f o r e Unit T r i a l O p e r a t i o n , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l promptly
r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e such damaged work f r e e from a l l expense t o t h e
 Owner and Engineer, b e f o r e Unit T r a i l Operation. T h e C o n t r a c t o r
s h a l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any l o s s o r damage t o m a t e r i a l , t o o l s o r
o t h e r a r t i c l e s used o r held f o r use in connection w i t h t h e Work.
The Work s h a l l be c a r r i e d on t o completion without damage t o any
work or p r o p e r t y of t h e Owner o r of o t h e r s and w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e
w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n of e x i s t i n g machinery o r equipment* Any damage
t o o t h e r c o n t r a c t o r ' s equipment o r t o o l s s h a l l be s e t t l e d d i r e c t l y
between t h e c o n t r a c t o r s involved.

The Contractor s h a l l not s e l l , a s s i g n , mortgage, hypothecate o r

remove Work which has been d e l i v e r e d t o o r i n s t a l l e d a t t h e J o b s i t e
without t h e p r i o r w r i t t e n consent of t h e Owner.

Personal A t t e n t i o n of Contractor
This s e c t i o n r e q u i r e s a c o n t r a c t o r t o g i v e personal a t t e n t i o n t o t h e work
This r e q u i r e s t h e use of an o n - s i t e duly a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . An
example f o l l o w s :
PERSONAL ATTENTION OF CONTRACTOR

The Contractor s h a l l c o n s t a n t l y g i v e i t s personal a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

f a i t h f u l prosecution of t h e Work, and s h a l l c o n t i n u a l l y be p r e s e n t during
progress e i t h e r i n person o r r e p r e s e n t e d by a duly a u t h o r i z e d
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t h e J o b s i t e . Before proceeding with t h e Work, t h e
Contractor s h a l l provide t h e Owner i n w r i t i n g , w i t h t h e name and t i t l e of
i t s duly a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , who s h a l l be a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e
Gwner. I f r e q u i r e d by t h e Owner, t h e Contractor s h a l l maintain an o f f i c e
on o r a d j a c e n t t o t h e s i t e of t h e Work and s h a l l a t a l l t i m e s keep in
such o f f i c e a complete copy of t h e Drawings and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

C o n t r a c t o r ' s Representations

This s e c t i o n s t a t e s t h a t upon signing t h e c o n t r a c t , a c o n t r a c t o r makes

c e r t a i n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of work t o be performed. The following provides an
example of t h i s concept.

CONTRACTOR'S REPRESENTATIONS

The Contractor s t a t e s t h a t i t has examined a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e records

p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e Work; t h a t i t has made a f i e l d examination of t h e
d o b s i t e and rights-of-way; and t h a t i t has informed i t s e l f about t h e
c h a r a c t e r , q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s
and water c o n d i t i o n s t o be e n c o u n t e r e d , t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n t h e
various s e c t i o n s of t h e Work, t h e c h a r a c t e r of equipment and
f a c i l i t i e s needed f o r t h e p r o s e c u t i o n of t h e Work, t h e l o c a t i o n and
s u i t a b i l i t y of a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , t h e l o c a l l a b o r
c o n d i t i o n s , t h e a p p l i c a b l e laws and governmental r e g u l a t i o n s and a l l
o t h e r m a t t e r s which may in any way a f f e c t t h e performance of t h e
Work under t h i s C o n t r a c t .
 Records of s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s , water records o r o t h e r
o b s e r v a t i o n s which may have been made by o r f o r t h e Owner o r
Engineer s h a l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e Contractor upon r e q u e s t f o r
i t s i n f o r m a t i o n , but t h e r e i s no expressed o r implied warranty a s t o
t h e accuracy of t h e r e c o r d s o r any i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of them. The
Contractor s t a t e s t h a t i t recognizes t h i s , and t h a t i t has formed
i t s own opinion of a l l t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s from an i n s p e c t i o n of t h e
J o b s i t e and has made i t s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r e c o r d s .

The Contractor f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t t h e Contract P r i c e and d e t a i l e d

schedule f o r t h e execution of t h e Work a r e based o n i t s own
knowledge and judgment of t h e c o n d i t i o n s and hazards involved, and
not upon any r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e Owner o r Engineer. The Owner and
Engineer assume no r e s p o n s i b i l i t y whatsoever f o r any understanding
o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n made by any of t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s during a r
p r i o r t o t h e execution of t h i s C o n t r a c t uniess such understandings
or r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e e x p r e s s l y s t a t e d in t h i s C o n t r a c t and t h i s
Contract e x p r e s s l y provides t h a t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s assumed by
t h e Owner.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l c a r e f u l l y study and review t h i s C o n t r a c t . The

Contractor s h a l l perform work on any p o r t i o n of t h e Work only upon
r e c e i p t of drawings and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s issued f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n .
P r i o r t o commencing any p o r t i o n of t h e Work, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
c a r e f u l l y review t h e drawings and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and s h a l l a t once
r e p u r t t o Engineer any c o n f l i c t with a p p l i c a b l e law, o r any e r r o r ,
i n c o n s i s t e n c y o r omission i t may d i s c o v e r . The Contractor s h a l l not
be l i a b l e t o Owner f o r a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s incurred by Owner r e s u l t i n g
from any such r e p o r t e d e r r o r s , i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s o r omissions.
Engineer w i l l promptly review t h e a l l e g e d c o n f l i c t s , e r r o r s ,
i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s o r omissions and i s s u e revised drawings o r
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , o r t h e Owner may i s s u e a Change Order. Any Work
done a f t e r such discovery and u n t i l r e c e i p t of r e v i s e d drawings o r
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o r t h e Owner's Change Order s h a l l be a t t h e
Contractor's sole r i s k .

Insurance Requirements

This s e c t i o n s e t s f o r t h t h e requirement t h a t a c o n t r a c t o r maintain c e r t a i n

l e v e l s of insurance. The following i l l u s t r a t e s such insurance requirements.
I t must be noted t h a t each u t i l i t y has i t s own insurance requirement and must
be reviewed before any attempt i s made in using t h e following concepts.

INSURANCE REQUIREMENTS

Without l i m i t i n g any of t h e o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s o r l i a b i l i t i e s of t h e
C o n t r a c t o r , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l provide and maintain, from t h e
commencement of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s work under t h i s C o n t r a c t , insurance
coverage i n accordance w i t h requirements e s t a b l i s h e d in Form -,
insurance Requirements, which i s a t t a c h e d hereto and made a p a r t of
t h i s Contract. Except with r e s p e c t t o coverage f o r Products -
Completed Operations ( I n c l u d i n g Broad Form Property Damage) which
must be maintained f o r a minimum p e r i o d of t h r e e (3) y e a r s a f t e r
completion of a l l Services/Work by Contractor, a l l coverages must be
maintained u n t i l completion and acceptance of a l l ServicedWork by
t h e Contractor.

The Contractor s h a l l , before commencing i t s work on t h i s C o n t r a c t

and upon each renewal t h e r e a f t e r , d e l i v e r t o t h e address s p e c i f i e d
i n Form - t h r e e ( 3 ) c o p i e s of t h e C e r t i f i c a t e of Insurance,
completed by i t s insurance c a r r i e r c e r t i f y i n g t h a t insurance
coverages a s r e q u i r e d a r e i n e f f e c t . Duplicate c o p i e s of insurance
p o l i c i e s s h a l l be furnished t o t h e Owner o r Engineer w i t h i n t e n ( 1 0 )
days when requested. The copies provided s h a l l be t r u e and complete
i n a l l r e s p e c t s , except t h a t , t h e C o n t r a c t o r may, a t i t s o p t i o n ,
deface those p o r t i o n s of the insurance p o l i c i e s t h a t r e l a t e t o
r a t e s , premiums and r a t i n g bases and which do n o t , i n any way,
modify t h e coverages otherwise a f f o r d e d by t h e insurance p o l i c i e s .

As an a l t e r n a t i v e t o i n c l u s i o n of t h e Owner, Engineer and t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e members, d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s and employees a s Additional
Insureds under Coverages a s s e t f o r t h i n Insurance Requirements, t h e
Contractor may provide an Owners' and C o n t r a c t o r s ' P r o t e c t i v e Policy
w i t h a combined s i n g l e l i m i t of l i a b i l i t y of 520,000,000 w i t h t h e
Owner and E n ~ i n e e ra s Named Insureds and with t h e l r r e s p e c t i v e
members, d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s , and employees a s Additional I n s u r e d s .
Said policy s h a ? l not l i m i t t h e coverage f o r a c t s o r omissions of
t h e Owner, Engineer o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members, d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s
and employees, t o o n l y t h a t l i a b i l i t y a r i s i n g o u t o f general
supervision of t h e Work performed by o r on behalf of t h e
Contractor. The designated c o n t r a c t o r s h a l l i n c l u d e t h e C o n t r a c t o r
and Subcontractor and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p a r e n t s , s u b s i d i a r i e s ,
a f f i l i a t e s , o f f i c e r s and employees. The p o l i c y s h a l l r e q u i r e a
minimum of t h i r t y (30) days w r i t t e n n o t i c e by C e r t i f i e d Mail t o t h e
Owner p r i o r t o c a n c e l l a t i o n , nonrenewal o r change. Except w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e requirement of i n c l u s i o n of the Owner, Engineer and
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members, d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s and employees a s
Additiona? I n s u r e d s and t h e i n c l u s i o n of a c r o s s l i a b i l i t y o r
s e v e r a b i l i t y of i n t e r e s t provision, t h e providing of t h e Owner's and
Contractors' P r o t e c t i v e Policy by t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l i n no way
r e l i e v e C o n t r a c t o r of t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o provide t h e insurance
coverages s e t f o r t h i n Insurance Requirements.

With r e s p e c t t o t h e insurance required by t h i s S e c t i o n ,

notwithstanding t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of any d e d u c t i b l e o r r e t e n t i o n
a p p l i c a b l e t o insurance coverage provided f o r t h e C o n t r a c t o r , t h e r e
s h a l l be no d e d u c t i b l e , r e t e n t i o n o r s i m i l a r provision a p p l i c a b l e
with r e s p e c t t o t h e insurance coverages t o be provided by t h e
Contractor f o r t h e Owner, Engineer, and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members,
d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s and employees. Provided f u r t h e r , should any
such d e d u c t i b l e , r e t e n t i o n o r s i m i l a r provision apply, t h e
Contractor s h a l l hold harmless, indemnify and defend t h e Owner,
 Engineer and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members, d i r e c t o r s , o f f i c e r s and
employees a g a i n s t any claim, a c t i o n , l o s s , damage, i n j u r y ,
l i a b i l i t y , c o s t o r expense of whatsoever kind o r n a t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g ,
but not by way of l i m i t a t i o n , a t t o r n e y ' s f e e s ) t o t h e extent t h e
required insurance coverage would have otherwise responded t o such
claim, a c t i o n , l o s s , damage, i n j u r y , l i a b i l i t y c o s t o r expense had
t h e insurance not been s u b j e c t t o any d e d u c t i b l e , r e t e n t i o n o r
s i m i l a r p r o v i s i o n . For one d o l l a r ($1.00) acknowledged t o be
included and paid f o r in t h e Contract P r i c e and o t h e r good and
valuable c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e Contractor agrees t o indemnify and hold
harmless t h e Owner, Engineer and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e members d i r e c t o r s ,
o f f i c e r s and employees in accordance with the p r o v i s i o n s of t h i s
Section.

Contractor a g r e e s t h a t , i f requested by t h e Owner, the C o n t r a c t o r

s h a l l p a r t i c i p a t e and s h a l l r e q u i r e a l l i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s t o
p a r t i c i p a t e in an Owner provided Vorker's Compensation/Employerst
L i a b i l i t y and Comprehensive General L i a b i l i t y i n s u r a n c e program the
e s s e n t i a l s of which a r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e Owner Provided Insurance
Program, which i s a t t a c h e d h e r e t o and made a p a r t of t h i s C o n t r a c t .
The C o n t r a c t o r c e r t i f i e s t h a t no insurance c o s t s s h a l l be included
in t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e o r i n t h a t of i t s s u b c o n t r a c t s t o t h e e x t e n t
t h a t such coverages a r e provided by t h e Owner Provided Insurance
Program.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , upon w r i t t e n r e q u e s t of t h e Owner or Engineer,

prepare o r cause t o be prepared and execute f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n t o
i n s u r e r s , a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s and documents necessary o r d e s i r a b l e f o r
use by t h e Owner in s o l i c i t a t i o n o f proposals f o r Owner Provided
Insurance o r f o r any o t h e r insurance proposed by t h e Owner with
respect t o the Project.

Planning, Cost, Scheduling and Control

T h i s s e c t i o n r e q u i r e s a c o n t r a c t o r t o properly s t a f f a job so t h a t work can

be a p p r o p r i a t e l y planned, scheduled, and c o s t c o n t r o l l e d . These a c t i v i t i e s
must be ongoing d u r i n g t h e work. In a d d i t i o n , a c o n t r a c t o r should g e n e r a l l y
be required t o maintain t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i n accordance with an owners o r
engi n e e r l s standard programs.
Independent Contractor and Key Personnel

T h i s s e c t i o n d e f i n e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a c o n t r a c t o r and owner, and t h e

assignment of a c o n t r a c t o r ' s personnel t o t h e p r o j e c t . The f o l l o w i n g
i l l u s t r a t e s wording f o r t h e s e concepts:
INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR AND KEY PERSONNEL

In t h e performance of t h i s Contract, the Contractor shall operate as

an independent c o n t r a c t o r , and not a s a s u b c o n t r a c t o r , a g e n t o r
employee of t h e Owner, and s h a l l have complete charge of i t s workers
engaged in t h e performance of t h e Work.

The Owner s h a l l have t h e r i g h t t o review t h e experience record of

C o n t r a c t o r ' s key personnel p r i o r t o t h e i r assignment t o t h e Work.
The Contractor and Owner w i l l mutually agree on i n i t i a l assignments
of lead personnel and on a l l changes i n such personnel. C o n t r a c t o r
w i l l provide a l t e r n a t e personnel a s required u n t i l such agreement
can be reached, which agreement s h a l l n o t be unreasonably withheld
by e i t h e r Party. Owner s h a l l have t h e r i g h t t o p e r i o d i c a l l y review
t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and performance of personnel assigned t o t h e Work
by Contractor and may r e q u e s t a p p r o p r i a t e changes, which r e q u e s t s
s h a l l not be unreasonably made by Owner and s h a l l be complied with
within a reasonable time.

None of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , s u p e r v i s o r s o r e n g i n e e r s
may be withdrawn from t h e Work without due n o t i c e being given t o t h e
Owner; however, no such withdrawal s h a l l be made i f i t w i l l
jeopardize s u c c e s s f u l completion of t h e Work. The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
provide a two ( 2 ) week t r a n s i t i o n period f o r t h e Owner approved
changes of C o n t r a c t o r ' s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , s u p e r v i s o r s o r e n g i n e e r s .

C o n t r a c t o r ' s Employees

T h i s s e c t i o n d e a l s with t h e d u t i e s and r e s t r i c t i o n s placed upon a

c o n t r a c t o r ' s employees. The following a r e examples of t h e s e c o n c e p t s :
CONTRACTOR'S EMPLOYEES

The Contractor s h a l l perform t h e Work in an o r d e r l y and workmanlike

manner, enforce s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e and o r d e r among i t s employees, and
s h a l l e x e r c i s e due d i l i g e n c e so a s not t o employ on t h e Work any
u n f i t person o r anyone u n s k i l l e d i n t h e work assigned t o such person.

A t t e n t i o n i s c a l l e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s of t h e Work
c a l l s f o r workers s k i l l e d not only i n t h e i r t r a d e b u t speciaTized in
t h e p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of work r e q u i r e d by t h i s C o n t r a c t . The
Contractor s h a l l ensure t h a t such Work s h a l l be done by workers who
a r e s k i l l e d and s p e c i a l i z e d i n t h e work t o which they a r e a s s i g n e d .

The Contractor s h a l l use l o c a l m a t e r i a l , equipment, s u b c o n t r a c t o r s

and workers when such use w i l l not r e s u l t i n a d d i t i o n a l expense t o
t h e Contractor.
 The Contractor s h a l l immediately remove from t h e Work any person
considered by t h e Owner t o be incompetent, disposed t o be
d i s o r d e r l y , o r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y or u n d e s i r a b l e f o r any o t h e r r e a s o n ,
and such person s h a l l not again be employed on t h e Work without t h e
p r i o r w r i t t e n consent of t h e Owner.

The C o n t r a c t o r ' s employees' c a r s and C o n t r a c t o r ' s c a r s and t r u c k s

s h a l l be parked in a r e a s e x p r e s s l y s e t a s i d e and d e s i g n a t e d a s
parking a r e a s .

The C o n t r a c t o r ' s employees s h a l l be provided with means of

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n showing employee's payroll number and t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s name. The employees s h a l l be required t o d i s p l a y t h i s
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n where p l a i n l y v i s i b l e t o t h e Owner's s e c u r i t y
personnel and i n s p e c t o r s . Employees f a i : i n g t o do t h i s s h a l l , upon
request of t h e Owner, be summarily d i s c h a r g e d . The C o n t r a c t o r ' s
employment records and job records s h a l l include any r e a s o n a b l e
information a s may be required by Owner and s h a l l be made a v a i l a b l e
if requested.

The C o n t r a c t o r , i t s employees, a l l of i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s and t h e i r

employees s h a l l comply w i t h the requirements of t h e J o b s i t e s e c u r i t y
program. I t i s t h e prime function of t h e Owner's guard s e r v i c e t o
provide a p e r i p h e r a l p a t r o l and guard s t a t i o n s t o prevent
unauthorized removal of t h e Owner's p r o p e r t y and prevent
unauthorized e o t r a n c e of personnel and v e h i c l e s , This may be
accomplished by checking employees lunch boxes o r v e h i c l e s l e a v i n g
t h e g a t e t o d e t e c t t h e removal of s t o l e n a r t i c l e s . I t s h a l l remain
t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p o l i c e i t s own employees and
p r o t e c t i t s own premises and property a g a i n s t t h e f t o r unauthorized
removal of job r e l a t e d property such a s t o o l s , s u p p l i e s , m a t e r i a l s
and equipment from t h e J o b s i t e . The Owner and/or Engineer w i l l not
be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s l o s s e s .

T e s t s and I n s p e c t i o n s ; Access t o t h e Work

This s e c t i o n d e a l s with c o n t r a c t u r a l r i g h t of e n t r y f o r t e s t s and i n s p e c t i o n s

by an owner. The following wording i s i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h i s concept:
TESTS AND INSPECTIONS: ACCESS TO THE WORK

* The Owner o r Engineer, o r t h e i r d e s i g n e e s , s h a l l a t a l l reasonable

times have access t o t h e Work. The Owner r e s e r v e s t h e r i g h t t o
perform such examinations, i n s p e c t i o n s and t e s t s of equipment,
m a t e r i a l and workmanship a s i t may d e s i r e t o a s s u r e i t s e l f t h a t t h e
Work meets a l l s p e c i f i e d requirements.

The Contractor and a l l of i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s s h a l l permit

u n r e s t r i c t e d access t o t h e Owner, o r Engineer o r t h e i r d e s i g n e e s f o r
t h e purpose of conducting such examinations, i n s p e c t i o n s and t e s t s
a t a l l reasonable times and places where t h e Work i s in p r o c e s s ,
s h a l l provide s u f f i c i e n t , s a f e and proper f a c i l i t i e s such a s
l a d d e r s , s c a f f o l d s , openings, and drop l i g h t s required f o r such
a c c e s s , and s h a l l make a v a i l a b l e any and a l l d a t a which i s r e l e v a n t
t o the performance of t h e Work.
The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l a ? s o g i v e t h e S e c r e t a r y o f L a b o r , o r h i s / h e r
a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , a r i g h t o f e n t r y t o any s i t e o f C o n t r a c t
performance f o r t h e purpose o f i n s p e c t i n g , i n v e s t i g a t i n g , o r
c a r r y i n g o u t any o f t h e S e c r e t a r y ' s d u t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e d u t i e s
u n d e r t h e O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y and H e a l t h A c t o f 1970, as amended
(OSHA).

I f t h i s C o n t r a c t , laws, o r d i n a n c e s , r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s o r o r d e r s o f
any p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y h a v i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n r e q u i r e any Work t o
s p e c i f i c a l l y b e i n s p e c t e d , t e s t e d , o r a p p r o v e d b y someone o t h e r t h a n
the Contractor, the Contractor s h a l l g i v e t h e Engineer timely notice
o f readiness therefor. The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l f u r n i s h t h e E n g i n e e r
the required c e r t i f i c a t e s o f inspection, t e s t i n g o r approval. A l l
t e s t s , i n s p e c t i o n s a n d / o r a p p r o v a l s w i l 7 be a r r a n g e d and/or
performed by t h e Contractor, unless otherwise s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s
C o n t r a c t , i n accordance w i t h t h e methods p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e American
S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g a n d M a t e r i a l s o r such o t h e r a p p l i c a b l e methods
as may b e r e q u i r e d b y t h i s C o n t r a c t , l a w s , o r d i n a n c e s , r u l e s ,
r e g u l a t i o n o r o r d e r s o f any p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y h a v i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n .
I f any Work r e q u i r e d t o be i n s p e c t e d , t e s t e d o r a p p r o v e d i s c o v e r e d
up w i t h o u t w r i t t e n a p p r o v a l o r c o n s e n t o f t h e Owner, i t must, i f
d i r e c t e d b y t h e E n g i n e e r f o r t h e Owner, b e u n c o v e r e d f o r o b s e r v a t i o n
a t C o n t r a c t o r ' s expense. The c o s t o f a l l i n s p e c t i o n s , t e s t s and
approval r e q u i r e d under t h i s subsection, o t h e r t h a n those arranged
f o r o r p e r f o r m e d by t h e Owner o r E n g i n e e r , s h a l l b e b o r n e b y t h e
Contractor unless otherwise provided i n t h i s Contract.

Any Work w h i c h f a i l s t o meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f any t e s t ,

i n s p e c t i o n o r a p p r o v a l , and any Work w h i c h does m e e t t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f any t e s t , i n s p e c t i o n o r a p p r o v a l b u t does n o t meet
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s C o n t r a c t , s h a l l be c o n s i d e r e d d e f e c t i v e .

Observations, i n s p e c t i o n s , t e s t s o r approvals by persons o t h e r than

the Contractor s h a l l nat r e l i e v e t h e Contractor from i t s obligations
t o p e r f o r m t h e Work i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s
Contract.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t e s t s , i n s p e c t i o n s and a p p r o v a l s s p e c i f i c a l l y
r e q u i r e d by t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e Owner may d i r e c t t h a t t h e C o n t r a c t o r
l e a v e Work exposed o r u n c o v e r e d f o r t i m e l y i n s p e c t i o n o r o b s e r v a t i o n
b y t h e Owner o r E n g i n e e r . I f any Work i s c o v e r e d c o n t r a r y t o such
d i r e c t i o n , i t m u s t , i f r e q u i r e d b y t h e Owner, b e u n c o v e r e d f o r
i n s p e c t i o n or o b s e r v a t i o n a n d r e p l a c e d a t t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s expense.

Ifany Work has been c o v e r e d w h i c h t h e Owner has n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y

requested t o observe p r i o r t o i t s b e i n g covered, o r i f t h e Engineer
c o n s i d e r s i t n e c e s s a r y o r a d v i s a b l e t h a t c o v e r e d Work be i n s p e c t e d
o r t e s t e d b y o t h e r s , t h e C o n t r a c t o r , a t t h e Owner's r e q u e s t , s h a l l
uncover, expose o r o t h e r w i s e make a v a i l a b l e f o r o b s e r v a t i o n ,
i n s p e c t i o n o r t e s t i n g , a s t h e E n g i n e e r may r e q u i r e , t h a t p o r t i o n of
t h e Work i n q u e s t i o n , f u r n i s h i n g a17 n e c e s s a r y l a b o r , m a t e r i a l and
equipment. I f i t i s f o u n d t h a t s u c h Work i s d e f e c t i v e o r does n o t
meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l b e a r
a l l expenses o f u n c o v e r i n g , e x p o s u r e , o b s e r v a t i o n , i n s p e c t i o n ,
 t e s t i n g and r e c o v e r i n g o f such Work. I f , however, such Work i s
f o u n d n o t t o be d e f e c t i v e and meets t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s
C o n t r a c t , t h e C o n t r a c t o r may be a l l o w e d an i n c r e a s e i n t h e C o n t r a c t
P r i c e o r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e C o n t r a c t Time d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
such u n c o v e r i n g , e x p o s u r e , o b s e r v a t i o n , i n s p e c t i o n , t e s t i n g and
recovering.

N o t h i n g c o n t a i n e d i n t h e above p a r a g r a p h s s h a l l i n any way v o i d ,

r e s t r i c t o r l i m i t t h e r i g h t o f t h e Owner o r E n g i n e e r t o l a t e r
c o n d u c t such p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s a s i t may d e s i r e , o r v o i d , r e s t r i c t
o r l i m i t t h e Owner's r i g h t s under t h i s C o n t r a c t .

Turnover

T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s when a c o n t r a c t o r t u r n s t h e
equipment o v e r t o an owner. An example f o l l o w s :
TURNOVER

When i n t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s o p i n i o n , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n

t e s t i n g o f t h e Work has been completed and i s r e a d y f o r t u r n o v e r t o
t h e Owner f o r p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t i n g , and t h e Work can be t e s t e d o r
i n s p e c t e d under r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t h e C o n t r a c t o r
s h a l l so n o t i f y t h e Owner i n w r i t i n g , i d e n t i f y i n g any m i n o r i t e m s o f
c l e a n u p w h i c h r e m a i n t o b e completed. The Owner o r i t s d e s i g n e e
w i l l i n s p e c t t h e Work a n d w i l l g i v e t h e C o n t r a c t o r w r i t t e n n o t i c e o f
e i t h e r a c c e p t a n c e f o r t u r n o v e r t o t h e Owner o r o f u n f i n i s h e d Work o r
d e f i c i e n c i e s . The b a s i s f o r such i n s p e c t i o n and n o t i f i c a t i o n s h a l l
be w h e t h e r each p a r t o f t h e Work conforms w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
t h i s C o n t r a c t . Upon l a t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f any such u n f i n i s h e d Work o r
c o r r e c t i o n o f any s u c h d e f i c i e n c i e s as c o v e r e d by s a i d Owner's
n o t i c e s , t h e f o r e g o i n g p r o c e d u r e f o r C o n t r a c t o r n o t i f y i n g t h e Owner
i n w r i t i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o m p l e t i o n o f such s p e c i f i e d u n f i n i s h e d
Work o r c o r r e c t i o n o f s u c h d e f i c i e n c i e s s h a l l b e r e p e a t e d .

C o n t r a c t o r ' s Records
This section requires the Contractor t o maintain appropriate records f o r a l l
r e i m b u r s a b l e c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e work, and t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e concept.
CONTRACTOR'S RECORDS

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l m a i n t a i n a p p r o p r i a t e books and r e c o r d s w i t h

r e s p e c t t o wages, s a l a r i e s , r e i m b u r s a b l e s , c o s t s , c h a r g e s , f e e s and
expenses r e l a t i n g t o t h e Work, compensated f o r on a r e i m b u r s a b l e
c o s t b a s i s , and such r e c o r d s s h a l l be s u p p o r t e d by p a y r o l l s ,
i n v o i c e s , v o u c h e r s , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e and o t h e r documents e v i d e n c i n g i n
p r o p e r d e t a i l t h e n a t u r e and p r o p r i e t y o f c h a r g e s . A l l checks,
p a y r o l l s , i n v o i c e s and o t h e r documents p e r t a i n i n g i n whole o r i n
p a r t t o t h e Work, compensated f o r on a r e i m b u r s a b l e c o s t b a s i s s h a l l
be c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d , r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e and, t o t h e e x t e n t
f e a s i b l e , k e p t s e p a r a t e and a p a r t f r o m a l l o t h e r such documents n o t
 r e l a t e d t o t h e Work. Contractor s h a l l provide f r e e a c c e s s t o such
books and r e c o r d s t o t h e Owner during reasonable b u s i n e s s hours and
t h e r i g h t t o examine and a u d i t t h e same and t o make o r have made
c o p i e s of t r a n s c r i p t s therefrom a s necessary t o allow i n s p e c t i o n of
a l l d a t a , documents, proceedings and a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e Work
performed under t h i s Contract. The Contractor s h a l l l i k e w i s e
s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u i r e a1 1 s u b c o n t r a c t o r s t o conform t o t h e
requirements of t h i s Section.

Copies of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n books of account and copies

of o t h e r o r i g i n a l records of account a t t h e J o b s i t e , i n c l u d i n g any
d u p l i c a t e f i e l d payroll r e c o r d s r e l a t i n g t o Work performed on a
reimbursable c o s t b a s i s , s h a l l be d e l i v e r e d t o t h e Owner upon
completion of t h e Work.

Suspension of' Work. T h i s s e c t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h e s e i n s t a n c e s when t h e owner may

wish t o suspend work f o r e i t h e r cause o r convenience. The following wording
i s i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e concept.
SUSPENSION FOR CAUSE

The Owner may temporarily suspend the Work under t h i s C o n t r a c t o r any

p o r t i o n t h e r e o f , when the performance thereof by t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s
u n r . a t i s f a c t o r y t o o b t a i n t h e r e s u l t s required by t h e Drawings and
Specifications.

a The methods by which t h e C o n t r a c t o r performs i t s work a r e e n t i r e l y

t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the Contractor. The Owner's r i g h t t o suspend
Work under t h i s s e c t i o n i s intended s o l e l y t o see t h a t t h e Work being
performed by t h e Contractor w i l l r e s u l t in t h a t r e q u i r e d by t h e
Drawings and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s and s h a l l not o b l i g a t e t h e Owner t o
review t h e e f f i c i e n c y , adequacy o r s a f e t y of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s methods
o r means of c o n s t r u c t i o n .

I f t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y condition i s promptly c o r r e c t e d by t h e
C o n t r a c t o r , t h e Owner w i l l a u t h o r i z e resumption of t h e Work. I f t h e
C o n t r a c t o r does not promptly c o r r e c t the u n s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n d i t i o n s ,
Owner may proceed under t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e S e c t i o n e n t i t l e d
"TERMINATION FOR DEFAULTN of t h e Standard Terms and Conditions. The
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l not be e n t i t l e d t o a d d i t i o n a l compensation a s a
r e s u l t of suspension of Work under t h i s s e c t i o n .

SUSPENSION FOR CONVENIENCE

The Owner has t h e a b s o l u t e r i g h t t o temporarily suspend, o r extend
t h e time f o r performance of t h e Work, o r any p o r t i o n t h e r e o f , of t h i s
Contract a t anytime by w r i t t e n n o t i c e t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r . T h e r e a f t e r ,
t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l resume t h e f u l l performance of t h e Work when
d i r e c t e d t o do so by t h e Owner.
 T h i s r i g h t t o t e m p o r a r i l y suspend, o r e x t e n d t h e t i m e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e
o f , t h e Work i s i n t e n d e d o n l y t o f a c i l i t a t e , t h e D w n e r ' s c o n v e n i e n c e
and s h a l l n o t be c o n s t r u e d as imposing upon t h e Owner o r E n g i n e e r any
d u t y t o i n s p e c t t h e Work o r t o i n s p e c t , r e v i e w o r a p p r o v e t h e methods
b y w h i c h t h e C o n t r a c t o r p e r f o r m s i t s Work.

I n t h e e v e n t o f suspension o r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
Work, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be e n t i t l e d t o r e i m b u r s e m e n t f o r
a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s r e a s o n a b l y and n e c e s s a r i l y i n c u r r e d b y t h e t h e
C o n t r a c t o r i n suspending o r e x t e n d i n g t h e Work and d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d
o f s u s p e n s i o n o r e x t e n s i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t such a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s
a r e i n c u r r e d , w h i c h c o s t s s h a l l be d e t e r m i n e d i n accordance w i t h t h e
S e c t i o n e n t i t l e d "CHANGES I N THE WORK". The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l use i t s
b e s t e f f o r t s t o m i n i m i z e such c o s t s . The s c h e d u l e s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e
o f t h e Work s h a l l be amended b y m u t u a l agreement t o r e f l e c t any such
suspension o r extension.

Force Majeure

T h i s s e c t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h a r e beyond t h e r e a s o n a b l e
c o n t r o l o f t h e C o n t r a c t o r and Owner. The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e of
g e n e r a l l y accepted concepts:
FORCE MAJEURE

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y t h i n g t o t h e c o n t r a r y , n e i t h e r P a r t y s h a l l be i n
any way r e l i e v e d o f o r excused i n i t s p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r t h i s C o n t r a c t
f o r d e l a y s due t o normal w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t
l i m i t e d t o seasonal r a i n f a l l and seasonal f l o o d i n g .

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y t h i n g t o t h e c o n t r a r y , n e i t h e r P a r t y s h a l l be i n
any way r e l i e v e d o f o r excused i n i t s p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r t h i s C o n t r a c t
f o r d e l a y s due t o r e a s o n a b l y f o r s e e a b l e a c t s o r f a i l u r e t o a c t b y
f e d e r a l , s t a t e o r l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e agencies.

P a r t i a l U t i l i z a t i o n of Work. T h i s s e c t i o n addresses t h e Owner's r i g h t a n d

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o u t i l i z e a p o r t i o n o f t h e work. The f o l l o w i n g example
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e concept:
PARTIAL UTILIZATIDN OF WORK

P r i o r t o f i n a l payment, t h e Owner may r e q u e s t t h e C o n t r a c t o r i n w r i t i n g t o

p e r m i t t h e Owner t h e use o f a s p e c i f i e d p a r t o f t h e Work t h a t may be used
without s i g n i f i c a n t interference t o the construction o f the other p a r t s o f
t h e Work. I f t h e C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s , i t w i l l c e r t i f y t o t h e Owner a n d
E n g i n e e r t h a t s a i d p a r t o f t h e Work i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e and r e q u e s t
t h e Owner t o i s s u e a c e r t i f i c a t e o f S u b s t a n t i a l C o m p l e t i o n f o r t h a t p a r t .
T u r n o v e r o r use o f p o r t i o n s o f t h e Work as n e c e s s a r y t o p e r m i t o t h e r
 c o n t r a c t o r s t o perform t h e i r work i s n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e procedure
described i n t h i s section.

Changes F o r Work. T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of b o t h t h e
C o n t r a c t o r and Owner t o w a r d s changes i n t h e w o r k t o be p e r f o r m e d . The
f o l l o w i n g wording i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f the concepts involved.
CHANGES IK THE UORK
The Owner, t h r o u g h t h e Owner's a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , may, a t any
t i m e o r from t i m e t o t i m e , make changes i n t h e Work b y an o r d e r i n
w r i t i n g t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r . U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e Owner,
t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l p r o c e e d w i t h t h e Work i n v o l v e d upon r e c e i p t o f
such o r d e r . A l l such Work s h a l l be e x e c u t e d under t h e a p p l i c a b l e
c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s C o n t r a c t . I f any change causes an i n c r e a s e o r
d e c r e a s e i n t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e o r an e x t e n s i o n o r s h o r t e n i n g o f t h e
C o n t r a c t Time, an e q u i t a b l e a d j u s t m e n t w i l l be made and s u c h
a d j u s t m e n t w i l l be a u t h o r i z e d b y a Change O r d e r . I n o r d e r t o comply
w i t h the provisions o f t h i s Section, the Contractor shall furnish, i n
a t i m e l y manner, w h a t e v e r i n f o r m a t i o n may be r e a s o n a b l y r e q u i r e d by
t h e Owner t o make a d e c i s i o n a s t o t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f s u c h changes.

The E n g i n e e r may, w i t h a p p r o v a l o f t h e Owner's P r o j e c t

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e , i s s u e F i e l d O r d e r s a u t h o r i z i n g m i n o r changes o r
a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e Work n o t i n v o l v i n g e x t r a c o s t and c o n s f s t e n t w i t h
the overall i n t e n t o f t h i s Contract.

E x c e p t i n an emergency e n d a n g e r i n g l i f e o r p r o p e r t y , no change shall

be made by C o n t r a c t o r w i t h o u t an o r d e r i n w r i t i n g a u t h o r i z i n g t h e
change and no c l a i m b y C o n t r a c t o r f o r a d d i t i o n a l compensation s h a l l
be v a l i d u n l e s s so o r d e r e d .

CHANGES I N SCHEDULE

The C o n t r a c t Time and C o n t r a c t d e l i v e r y and c o m p l e t i o n d a t e s may be

a d j u s t e d o n l y by a Change O r d e r . I f t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s e n t i t l e d by
t h i s C o n t r a c t t o make a c l a i m f o r an a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e C o n t r a c t
Time o r C o n t r a c t d e i i v e r y and c o r n p i e t i o n d a t e s , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
g i v e w r i t t e n n o t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s i n t e n t t o submit a c l a i m d e l i v e r e d
t o t h e Owner and E n g i n e e r w i t h i n t e n ( 1 0 ) w o r k i n g d a y s o f t h e
occurrence o f t h e event g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e claim.

C l a i m s f o r e x t e n s i o n s o f t i m e t o t h e p a t h o f c r i t i c a l e v e n t s w i l l be
approved o n l y i f t h e Work o r t h e e v e n t t h a t causes t h e d e l a y a f f e c t s
t h e p a t h o f c r i t i c a l e v e n t s of t h e P r o j e c t . I n such case, an
e x t e n s i o n o f t i m e w i l l be a l l o w e d o n l y e q u a l t o t h e number o f days by
which t h i s p a t h o f events i s lengthened which i n c l u d e s such
a d d i t i o n a l t i m e as i s reasonably necessary t o enable t h e C o n t r a c t o r
t o resume p e r f o r m a n c e of i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I f r e q u i r e d b y t h e
 Engineer, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l i n d i c a t e t h i s p a t h o f c r i t i c a l e v e n t s ,
b y d i a g r a m o r n a r r a t i v e , i n such d e t a i l as may be n e c e s s a r y t o
j u s t i f y i t s c l a i m and e s t a b l i s h t h e number o f days d e l a y . The p a t h
o f c r i t i c a l event; m e n t i o n e d h e r e i n i s d e f i n e d a s t h a t s e r i e s o f
i n t e r d e p e n d e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n e v e n t s t h a t must be s e q u e n t i a l l y
p e r f o r m e d and t h a t r e q u i r e a l o n g e r t o t a l t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h a n any
o t h e r such s e r i e s .

CHANGES I N CONTRACT PRICE

The C o n t r a c t P r i c e c o n s t i t u t e s t h e t o t a l compensation p a y a b l e t o t h e
C o n t r a c t o r f o r p e r f o r m i n g t h e Work. A l l d u t i e s , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and
o b l i g a t i o n s assigned t o o r undertaken by the Contractor i n performing
t h e Work d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t s h a l l be a t i t s expense w i t h o u t
change i n t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e .

The C o n t r a c t P r i c e may be a d j u s t e d o n l y by a Change O r d e r . I f t h e

C o n t r a c t o r i s e n t i t l e d b y t h i s C o n t r a c t t o make a c l a i m f o r an
adjustment i n t h e Contract P r i c e , t h e Contractor s h a l l g i v e w r i t t e n
n o t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s i n t e n t t o s u b m i t a c l a i m d e l i v e r e d t o t h e Owner
and E n g i n e e r w i t h i n t e n ( 1 0 ) w o r k i n g days o f t h e o c c u r e n c e o f t h e
event g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e c l a i m .

The v a l u e o f any Work c o v e r e d b y a Change Order o r o f any c l a i m f o r

an a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e s h a l l be d e t e r m i n e d i n one o f t h e
f o l l o w i n g ways:

i - By a p p l i c a t i o n o f u n i t p r i c e s t o t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e i t e m s
i n v o l v e d , where t h e Work i n v o l v e d i s covered by u n i t p r i c e s
c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t o r i n t h e Change O r d e r .

ii - By m u t u a l acceptance o f a lump sum.

iii - On t h e b a s i s o f a c t u a l d i r e c t c o s t o f l a b o r , m a t e r i a l ,
i n c i d e n t a l expenses a n d s u b c o n t r a c t e d s e r v i c e s p e r f o r m e d on a
r e i m b u r s a b l e c o s t b a s i s n e c e s s a r i l y i n c u r r e d i n good f a i t h and
p a i d d i r e c t l y by t h e C o n t r a c t o r and approved b y t h e Owner as
described herein, p l u s a percentage thereof f o r t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
f e e as s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t . Work p e r f o r m e d on t h i s b a s i s
must b e accompanied b y a g u a r a n t e e d maximum n o t t o exceed amount
w h i c h amount s h a l l be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e C o n t r a c t o r . I n t h e
event t h e actual d i r e c t c o s t o f labor, material, incidental
expenses and s u b c o n t r a c t e d s e r v i c e s p l u s t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s f e e
exceeds t h e e s t a b l i s h e d g u a r a n t e e d maximum n o t t a exceed amount,
payment t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r by t h e Owner f o r such expenses and
s e r v i c e s p l u s f e e w i l l be l i m i t e d t o s a i d g u a r a n t e e d maximum n o t
t o exceed amount.

The d i r e c t c o s t o f l a b o r s h a l l i n c l u d e a l l l a b o r d i r e c t l y on t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s j o b p a y r o l l . i n c l u d i n q c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o f u n d s and
o t h e r f r i n g e b e n e f i t s r e q u i r e d under t h e t e r m s o f c o l l e c t i v e
b a r g a i n i n g agreements, s a l a r i e s and wages o f t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
employees ( o t h e r t h a n s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e ) s t a t i o n e d a t t h e J o b s i t e ,
and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y , Unemployment I n s u r a n c e and W o r k e r ' s
Compensation a p p l icab1 e t o t h e f o r e g o i n g .

The d i r e c t c o s t o f m a t e r i a l s s h a l l i n c l u d e m a t e r i a l s , t o o l s
( o t h e r t h a n " s m a l l t o o l s " as d e f i n e d h e r e i n ) and suppl i e s
p u r c h a s e d and d e l i v e r e d t o t h e J o b s i t e b y t h e C o n t r a c t o r ;
a p p l i c a b l e s a l e s and use t a x e s , l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g ,
demurrage, e x p r e s s , f r e i g h t and c a r t a g e c h a r g e s .

The d i r e c t i n c i d e n t a l expense s h a l l i n c l u d e a p r o r a t a p o r t i o n
o f preniium f o r t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s bond, i f any, and f o r such
i n s u r a n c e as may be r e q u i r e d by t h e Owner, i n a d d i t i o n t o
i n s u r a n c e r e q u i r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h l a b o r , and s p e c i f i c
t e l e g r a p h i c and t e l e p h o n e charges i n c u r r e d s o l e l y on a c c o u n t o f
such Work.

F o r Work i n v o l v i n g t h e use o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n equipment and heavy

equipment such as t r u c k s , t r a c t o r s , d e r r i c k s , c r a n e s ,
e x c a v a t o r s , e t c . , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be r e i m b u r s e d f o r t h e i r
use a t r e n t a l p r i c e s s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t . Such r e n t a l
p r i c e s s h a l l i n c l u d e t h e f u r n i s h i n g o f a l l n e c e s s a r y power o r
f u e l , and l a b o r and m a t e r i a l s t o l u b r i c a t e , g r e a s e , r i g ,
m a i n t a i n and r e p a i r e q u i a m e n t , b u t , u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e
s p e c i f i c a l l y agreed t o , s h a l l n o t i n c l u d e l a b o r f o r o p e r a t i n g
p u r p o s e s . F o r heavy equipment n o t s e l f - p r o p e l l e d o r r e a d i l y
movable, e x t r a expense f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o and from t h e
J o b s i t e w i l l be p a i d f o r a t a g r e e d p r i c e s i n a d d i t i o n t o r e n t a l
r a t e s . Such r e n t a l r a t e s and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r i c e s s h a l l
c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o m p l e t e payment f o r equipment f u r n i s h e d ,
i n c l u d i n g p r o f i t , s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e , g e n e r a ? overhead and o t h e r
i n d i r e c t expenses, a n d s h a l l be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e amount t o
which a percentage f e e i s a p p l i e d .

I n r e s p e c t t o any Work f u r n i s h e d u n d e r t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s
S u b s e c t i o n iii, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , p r i o r t o 10:OO A.M. on t h e
f o l l o w i n g day, f u r n i s h t o t h e E n g i n e e r d a i l y t i m e s l i p s showing
t h e name and number o f each w o r k e r and p i e c e o f equipment
employed t h e r e o n , w i t h t h e t i m e worked, t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Work
i n v o l v e d , t h e wages o r r e n t a l p r i c e s p a i d o r t o be p a i d , and a
d a i l y memorandum o f t h e m a t e r i a l , used on such Work showing t h e
amount and c h a r a c t e r o f such m a t e r i a l f r o m whom purchased, and
t h e amount p a i d o r t o be p a i d t h e r e f o r .

F o r s u b c o n t r a c t e d s e r v i c e s , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be r e i m b u r s e d
f o r each o f i t s r e s p e c t i v e s u b c o n t r a c t o r ' s a c t u a l d i r e c t c o s t of
l a b o r , m a t e r i a l and i n c i d e n t a l expense d e t e r m i n e d on t h e same
b a s i s as s e t f o r t h i n S u b s e c t i o n iii.
 The p e r c e n t a g e f e e s h a l l c o v e r t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s p r o f i t ;
s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e ; p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s and expense o f t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s personnel assigned t o main o r branch o f f i c e s ; main
and b r a n c h o f f i c e o v e r h e a d and g e n e r a l expense o f any k i n d ; and
t h e c o s t , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , use, d e p r e c i a t i o n , wear a n d t e a r o r
l o s s o f "small t o o l s " . "Small t o o l s i i s h a l l be d e f i n e d as t o o l s
and equipment o t h e r t h a n m a j o r equipment where t h e i n i t i a l c o s t
p e r i t e m does n o t exceed 5500.00. The amount o f l a b o r bonus
payments and premium payments made b y t h e C o n t r a c t o r t o l a b o r ,
on a c c o u n t o f premium t i m e worked and a l l o w e d f o r payment t o t h e
C o n t r a c t o r a s d i r e c t c o s t o f l a b o r s h a l l be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e
amount t o w h i c h a p e r c e n t a g e f e e i s a p p l i e d . I n t h e event
additional supervisors o r technical specialists are required t o
p e r f o r m t h e e x t r a scope o f w o r k , the C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l p r o v i d e
such p e r s o n n e l , s u b j e c t t o t h e Owner's p r i o r w r i t t e n a p p r o v a l ,
n o t as p a r t o f t h e percentage f e e b u t a t a r a t e m u t u a l l y agreed
upon between t h e Owner and t h e C o n t r a c t o r .

The maximum p e r c e n t a g e t h a t s h a l l be a l l o w e d f o r t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s p e r c e n t a g e f e e s h a l l be a s f o l l o w s :

( a ) F o r a l l such Work done b y i t s own o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e

C o n t r a c t o r mzy add up t o percent ( ) o f i t s actual d i r e c t
c o s t o f l a b o r , m a t e r i a l and i n c i d e n t a l expense.

( b ) F o r a l l Work done b y s u b c o n t r a c t o r s , each r e s p e c t i v e

s u b c o n t r a c t o r may add up t o t w e n t y p e r c e n t (20%) o f i t s a c t u a l
d i r e c t c o s t o f l a b o r , m a t e r i a l and i n c i d e n t a l expense f o r t h e
S u b c o n t r a c t o r l s p e r c e n t a g e f e e ; and C o n t r a c t o r may add up t o
percent ( %) o f S u b c o n t r a c t o r ' s t o t a l c o s t s .

Subcontracts. T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e C o n t r a c t o r
and i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s . The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e c o n c e p t .
SUBCONTRACTS

I f t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l cause any p a r t o f i t s J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s t o
be p e r f o r m e d b y a s u b c o n t r a c t o r , t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s C o n t r a c t
s h a l l a p p l y t o such s u b c o n t r a c t o r and i t s o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s o r
employees i n a l l r e s p e c t s a s i f t h e y were employees o f t h e
C o n t r a c t o r , and t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t t h e r e b y be d i s c h a r g e d f r o m
any o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n s and l i a b i l i t y h e r e u n d e r , b u t s h a l l be l i a b l e
h e r e u n d e r f o r a l l a c t s and o m i s s i o n s o f t h e s u b c o n t r a c t o r , i t s
o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s and employees, a s i f t h e y were employees o f t h e
Contractor. No s u b c o n t r a c t s h a l l be made w i t h o u t w r i t t e n n o t i c e t o
t h e Owner o f t h e s u b c o n t r a c t and w r i t t e n r e p l y t h a t t h e Owner has no
o b j e c t i o n s b u t no such r e p l y s h a l l a f f e c t t h e p r o v i s i o n s h e r e o f .
Copies o f a l l s u b c o n t r a c t s s h a l l be f u r n i s h e d t o t h e E n g i n e e r .
 The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t s u b l e t i t s J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s t o any one
subcontractor i n a g r e a t e r monetary percentage o f t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e
t h a n w i l l be p e r f o r m e d by i t s own o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h o u t p r i o r a p p r o v a l
o f t h e Owner, i n w r i t i n g . I n addition, the Contractor shall not
s u b l e t i t s J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s i n an amount more t h a n - p e r c e n t
() o f t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e . I n t h e e v e n t t h e Owner approves t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s s u b l e t t i n g i t s J o b s i t e a c t i v i t i e s t o a degree g r e a t e r
t h a n t h e p e r c e n t a g e s s t a t e d above, t h e above p e r c e n t a g e l i m i t a t i o n s
s h a l l a p p l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o s a i d S u b c o n t r a c t o r and i t s
sub-subcontractors.

Labor Requirements and F r i n g e B e n e f i t s - J o b s i t e A c t i v i t i e s Only. This

s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o c e d u r e s t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s r e q u i r e d t o use i n
compensating i t s employees. The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e
concepts.
LABOR REQUIREMENTS AND FRINGE BENEFITS - JOBSITE ACTIVITIES ONLY

I t s h a l l be mandatory upon a l l c o n t r a c t o r s and s u b c o n t r a c t o r s t o pay

t h e i r s k i l l e d and u n s k i l l e d employees employed d i r e c t l y on t h e s i t e
o f such Work, a t i n t e r v a l s n o t t o exceed one (1) week, and w o r k e r s
s h a l l n o t be r e q u i r e d t o w o r k more t h a n t e n ( 1 0 ) h o u r s i n any
t w e n t y - f o u r (24) h o u r p e r i o d , e x c e p t i n c a s e s o f emergency o r
a u t h o r i z e d o v e r t i m e ; t h e C o n t r a c t o r and i u b c o n t r a c t o r s s h a l l keep, o r
cause t o be k e p t , an a c c u r a t e r e c o r d showing names and o c c u p a t i o n s o f
a l l l a b o r e r s , journeymen, a n d a p p r e n t i c e s employed by them a n d
showing t h e a c t u a l r a t e o f wages p e r d i e m o r p e r h o u r o f each s a i d
w o r k e r , t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f w h i c h s h a l l be sworn t o by t h e C o n t r a c t o r
a n d / o r S u b c o n t r a c t o r s and s a i d r e c o r d s h a l l be open t o i n s p e c t i o n a t
t h e J o b s i t e by t h e Owner o r b y an a u t h o r i z e d a g e n t o f t h e Owner n o t
otherwise interested i n the Project.

C o n t r a c t o r u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t i t w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t s own l a b o r
r e l a t i o n s w i t h any u n i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g i t s employees, and t h e
C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s t o n e g o t i a t e and seek t o a d j u s t any d i s p u t e s
between t h e C o n t r a c t o r and i t s employees o r anyone r e p r e s e n t i n g such
employees. Whenever t h e C o n t r a c t o r has knowledge o f any a c t u a l o r
p o t e n t i a l l a b o r d i s p u t e w h i c h may a f f e c t t h e Work, C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
immediately give n o t i c e t h e r e o f , i n c l u d i n g a l l r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n
r e g a r d i n g any a c t i o n s o r p r o p o s e d s t e p s t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s t a k i n g o r
w i l l t a k e t o r e s o l v e t h e d i s p u t e , t o Owner. The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
i n c l u d e t h e substance o f t h i s S e c t i o n i n a l l c o n t r a c t s w i t h
S u b c o n t r a c t o r s and r e q u i r e t h a t a l l such s u b c o n t r a c t o r s i m m e d i a t e l y
i n f o r m t h e C o n t r a c t o r o f any knowledge t h e S u b c o n t r a c t o r may have o f
any a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l l a b o r d i s p u t e w h i c h may a f f e c t t h e Work.
Waiver of Claims. This section describes the Contractor's obligation t o
complete t h e work a s s e t f o r t h i n t h e C o n t r a c t . The following example i s
r e p r e s e n t s t h e concept.
WAIVER OF CLAIMS

The C o n t r a c t o r ' s o b l i g a t i o n t o perform and complete t h e Work i n accordance

with t h i s C o n t r a c t s h a l l be a b s o l u t e . Approval of any p r o g r e s s o r f i n a l
payment by t h e Engineer, i s s u a n c e of a c e r t i f i c a t e of S u b s t a n t i a l
Completion, any payment by t h e Owner t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r under t h i s
C o n t r a c t , any use o r occupancy of t h e Work o r any p a r t t h e r e o f by t h e
Owner, any a c t of acceptance by the Owner o r any f a i l u r e t o do s o , o r any
c o r r e c t i o n of f a u l t y o r d e f e c t i v e work by t h e Owner s h a l l not c o n s t i t u t e
waiver of any of t h e Owner's r i g h t s under t h i s Contract nor c o n s t i t u t e an
a c c e p t a n c e of t h e Work n o t i n accordance w i t h t h i s C o n t r a c t .

Temporary F a c i l i t i e s . T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r e of t h o s e temporary
c o n s t r u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s which w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r . The
f o l l o w i n g wording i l l u s t r a t e s of t h e c o n c e p t s .
TEMPORARY FACILITIES

The b u i l d i n g s o r s t r u c t u r e s f o r housing workers, and t h e e r e c t i o n of

o t h e r forms of s h e l t e r s a t t h e J o b s i t e w i l l be permitted o n l y a t such
p l a c e s and times a s d e s i g n a t e d by Engineer. C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l a t a l l
t i m e s m a i n t a i n , i n a manner s a t i s f a c t o r y t o Engineer, s a n i t a r y
c o n d i t i o n s in and about such b u i l d i n g , s t r u c t u r e s and s h e l t e r s .

* Except a s o t h e r w i s e provided i n t h i s C o n t r a c t , necessary s a n i t a r y

f a c i l i t i e s f o r use by t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s employees a t t h e J o b s i t e s h a l l
be f u r n i s h e d and maintained by t h e C o n t r a c t o r i n such manner and a t
such p o i n t s a s s h a l l be approved by t h e Engineer. The C o n t r a c t o r
s h a l l s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e t h e u s e of such f a c i l i t i e s .

All of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s s u p p o r t a r e a s on t h e J o b s i t e s h a l l be
a s s i g n e d by t h e Engineer. The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l c o n f i n e i t s o f f i c e ,
s h o p s , s t o r a g e , assembly and equipment and v e h i c l e parking t o t h e
a r e a s so a s s i g n e d . Should t h e C o n t r a c t o r f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y o r
advantageous t o use any a d d i t i o n a l l a n d o u t s i d e t h e J o b s i t e f o r any
purpose whatever, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , a t i t s own expense, provide
and make i t s own arrangements f o r t h e use of such a d d i t i o n a l l a n d .

Temporary s t r u c t u r e s such a s f a b r i c a t i o n shops, s t o r a g e b u i l d i n g s and

o f f i c e s w i l l not be p e r m i t t e d w i t h i n t h e p l a n t s t r u c t u r e s . Such
temporary s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be p e r m i t t e d o u t s i d e a n d a d j a c e n t t o t h e
p l a n t s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n an a r e a d e s i g n a t e d by t h e Engineer. All such
b u i l d i n g s s h a l l be c o n s t r u c t e d o f f i r e r e t a r d e n t m a t e r i a l s .
 - The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l perform e l e c t r i c and w a t e r hook-ups t o t h e Owner
s u p p l i e d s o u r c e s and provide necessary d i s t r i b u t i o n of same.

Overnight s t o r a g e of mobile y a r d equipment such a s h y d r a u l i c c r a n e s ,

l o a d e r s , e t c . , w i l l not be p e r m i t t e d w i t h i n t h e p l a n t s t r u c t u r e s .

P e r m i t s , F e e s , Notices. This section describes the Contractor's obligation

r e l a t i v e t o t h e s e c u r i n g of n e c e s s a r y p e r m i t s . The f o l l o w i n g wording i s
i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e c o n c e p t s .
PERMITS, FEES, NOTICES

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l s e c u r e and pay f o r a l l p e r m i t s , governmental f e e s and

l i c e n s e s necessary f o r i t t o c a r r y on i t s b u s i n e s s and f o r proper
e x e c u t i o n and completion o f t h e Work u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s
Contract.

Health and S a f e t y . This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s

t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s t o implement a t t h e J o b s i t e . The f o l l o w i n g wording i s
i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e c o n c e p t s .
HEALTH AND SAFETY

The importance of t h e s a f e t y of a l l personnel on t h e P r o j e c t shaTl be

recognized by t h e C o n t r a c t o r , and a c c i d e n t p r e v e n t i o n s h a l l be an
i n t e g r a l p a r t of the C o n t r a c t o r ' s o p e r a t i o n s . The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
t a k e a l l p r e c a u t i o n s n e c e s s a r y and s h a l l bear s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
t h e s a f e t y of t h e Work and t h e s a f e t y and adequacy of t h e methods and
means i t employs i n performing t h e Work.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l t a k e a l l p r e c a u t i o n s f o r t h e s a f e t y and h e a l t h
o f , and s h a l l provide a l l p r o t e c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t damage,
injury or loss to:

(i) All employees on t h e Work and a l l o t h e r persons w h o may be

a f f e c t e d thereby;

( i i ) All Work and a l l m a t e r i a l s and equipment t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d

t h e r e i n , whether i n s t o r a g e on o r o f f t h e J o b s i t e , under t h e
c a r e , custody o r c o n t r o l of t h e C o n t r a c t o r or i t s S u b c o n t r a c t o r s

* The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l comply w i t h a l l a p p l i c a b l e f e d e r a l , s t a t e and

l o c a l laws, o r d i n a n c e s , r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e
h e a l t h and s a f e t y of p e r s o n s o r p r o p e r t y , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e promulgated
p u r s u a n t t o OSHA. The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l e r e c t and maintain a s
r e q u i r e d by e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and p r o g r e s s of t h e Work a l l
s a f e g u a r d s f o r s a f e t y and p r o t e c t i o n i n c l u d i n g , w i t h o u t l i m i t a t i o n ,
p o s t i n g danger s i g n s and o t h e r warnings a g a i n s t h a z a r d s , e n f o r c i n g
a p p l i c a b l e s a f e t y and h e a l t h a n d f i r e r e g u l a t i o n s and n o t i f y i n g
owners and u s e r s o f a d j a c e n t u t i l i t i e s .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l m a i n t a i n a s a f e t y program, i n c l u d i n g a w e e k l y
c r a f t s a f e t y m e e t i n g , on t h e J o b s i t e . The purpose o f such s a f e t y
p r o g r a m s h a l l be t o m a i n t a i n a s a f e work p l a c e and t o e n s u r e
c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s and s t a n d a r d s adopted p u r s u a n t
t o OSHA t o g e t h e r w i t h a l l o t h e r a p p l i c a b l e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e Owner, E n g i n e e r and a l l o t h e r

c o n t r a c t o r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s a f e t y programs. The C o n t r a c t o r ' s
s a f e t y program s h a l l c o n f o r m t o t h e P r o j e c t s a f e t y program and s h a l l
be s u b j e c t t o c o o r d i n a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g b y t h e E n g i n e e r . The
C o n t r a c t o r ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s h a l l a t t e n d t h e weekly P r o j e c t Safety
Committee m e e t i n g s .

Any c i v i i o r c r i m i n a l p e n a l t i e s imposed upon t h e C o n t r a c t o r p u r s u a n t

t o OSHA b y governmental a g e n c i e s h a v i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n s h a l l n o t
c o n s t i t u t e reimbursabie costs o f the Contractor. I n addition, t h e
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l r e i m b u r s e t h e Owner and E n g i n e e r f o r c o s t s o f
c o m p l i a n c e and, t o t h e e x t e n t p e r m i t t e d b y law, any p e n a l t i e s
r e l a t i n g t o OSHA c i t a t i o n s i n c u r r e d b y Owner o r E n g i n e e r a r i s i n g f r o m
t h e C o n t r a c t o r l s OSHA v i o l a t i o n s . The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l remedy a t i t s
expense t h e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h produced t h e c i t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e t i m e s e t
f o r t h i n such c i t a t i o n . A copy o f a l l OSHA c i t a t i o n r e p o r t s , as w e l l
as any S t a t e s a f e t y i n s p e c t i o n r e p o r t s , s h a l ; be s u b m i t t e d t o t h e
E n g i n e e r i m m e d i a t e l y upon r e c e i p t i n each i n s t a n c e b y C o n t r a c t o r . A
copy o f each s e r i o u s a c c i d e n t and f a t a l i t y r e p o r t s h a l l a l s o be
submitted t o t h e Engineer.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l t a k e a l l n e c e s s a r y p r e c a u t i o n s t o a s s u r e t h a t
i t s employees and t h o s e o f i t s S u b c o n t r a c t o r s d u r i n g t h e t i m e t h e y
a r e w o r k i n g a t t h e J o b s i t e comp7y w i t h a i l a p p l i c a b l e s a f e t y , h e a l t h
and p e r s o n n e l r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s i n e f f e c t . Owner may r e q u i r e t h e
C o n t r a c t o r t o remove f r o m t h e P r o j e c t employees who f a i l t o obey s u c h
r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s a t no i n c r e a s e d c o s t t o Owner. The Owner's
s a f e t y i n s p e c t o r s w i l l have a c c e s s t o t h e J o b s i t e a t a l l t i m e s .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l f u r n i s h a l l r e a s o n a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n concerning
t h e s a f e t y o f i t s o p e r a t i o n s on t h e P r o j e c t as may be r e q u i r e d b y
Engineer, i n c l u d i n g records o f accidents t o employees, exposure h o u r s
o f employees and l o s t t i m e due t o a c c i d e n t s , when so r e q u e s t e d b y t h e
Engineer.

E x c e p t as o t h e r w i s e p r o v i d e d f o r i n t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e C o n t r a c t o r
s h a l l be s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
i n s t a l l a t i o n , use, and adequacy o f a l l temporary s u p p o r t s , s h o r i n g ,
b r a c i n g , s c a f f o l d i n g , m a c h i n e r y o r equipment, s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s o r
d e v i c e s and s i m i l a r i t e m s used b y t h e C o n t r a c t o r and S u b c o n t r a c t o r s
d u r i n g performance o f t h e Work.
 Owner s h a l l provide P r o j e c t f i r s t - a i d f a c i l i t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g ambulance
s e r v i c e and t h e s e r v i c e s of a q u a l i f i e d f i r s t - a i d a t t e n d a n t during
normal working hours) which s h a l l be a v a i l a b l e a t t h e main
c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e a f o r t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s use. Use of t h e Owner's
f a c i l i t i e s by t h e Contractor i s c o n t i n g e n t upon C o n t r a c t o r s execution
of t h e F i r s t Aid F a c i l i t i e s Hold Harmless Agreement, which i s
a t t a c h e d h e r e t o and made a p a r t o f t h i s C o n t r a c t . Should t h e
Contractor f a i l t o execute such hold harmless agreement, t h e
Contractor s h a l l provide and m a i n t a i n i t s own adequate f i r s t a i d
f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e d u r a t i o n of t h i s C o n t r a c t .

When t h e use o r s t o r a g e of e x p l o s i v e s o r o t h e r hazardous m a t e r i a l s o r

equipment i s necessary f o r execution of t h e Work, t h e C o n t r a c t o r
s h a l l e x e r c i s e t h e utmost c a r e and s h a l l c a r r y on such a c t i v i t i e s
under t h e supervision of p r o p e r l y q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l .

The Contractor s h a l l not permit o r s u f f e r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o r use of

i n t o x i c a t i n g 1 i q u o r o r n a r c o t i c s o r c o n t r o l l e d s u b s t a n c e s on t h e
J o b s i t e o r upon any of t h e grounds occupied o r c o n t r o l l e d by t h e
Contractor.

A11 m a t e r i a l s and products c o n t a i n i n g a s b e s t o s a r e e x p r e s s l y

p r o h i b i t e d from being brought i n t o o r used a t t h e J o b s i t e , e i t h e r a s
a temporary means of c o n s t r u c t i o n o r a s a p a r t of t h e permanent
installation.

P u b l i c a t i o n s , Photoqraphs and Commerciai A c t i v i t i e s . This section r e s t r i c t s

t h e commercial purposes f o r which t h e C o n t r a c t o r may wish t o use t h e
Contract. The following example i l l u s t r a t e s t h e concept.
PUBLICATIONS, PHOTOGRAPHS AND COMMEKIAL ACTIVITIES

The Contractor s h a l l not t a k e any photographs, make any announcement

o r r e l e a s e any information concerning t h i s C o n t r a c t o r t h e P r o j e c t o r
any p a r t t h e r e o f t o any member of t h e p u b l i c , p r e s s o r o f f i c i a l body,
f o r a d v e r t i s i n g o r o t h e r commercial purposes, u n l e s s p r i o r w r i t t e n
consent i s obtained from t h e Owner.

The Contractor s h a l l not e s t a b l i s h any commercial a c t i v i t y o r i s s u e

concessions o r permits of any kind t o t h i r d p a r t i e s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g
commercial a c t i v i t i e s on lands owned o r c o n t r o l l e d by t h e Owner. The
Contractor s h a l l not allow i t s employees t o engage i n any commercial
a c t i v i t i e s on t h e Jobsi t e .

T i t l e t o M a t e r i a l s Found

This s e c t i o n informs the Contractor t h a t any m a t e r i a l s found d u r i n g t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e Owner. The following wording
i s i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e concept.
 TITLE TO MATERIALS FOUND
The t i t l e t o water, s o i l , rock, g r a v e l , sand, m i n e r a l s , timber and any
o t h e r m a t e r i a l s developed o r obtained in t h e excavation o r o t h e r
o p e r a t i o n s of t h e Contractor o r any of i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s and t h e r i g h t t o
use s a i d item o r t o dispose of same i s hereby e x p r e s s l y reserved by t h e
Owner. Neither t h e C o n t r a c t o r , Subcontractors nor any of t h e i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o r employees s h a l l have any r i g h t , t i t l e o r i n t e r e s t i n
s a i d m a t e r i a l s . The Contractor s h a l l use o r d i s p o s e of such m a t e r i a l s i n
accordance with t h i s Contract o r , a s determined by t h e Owner and s u b j e c t
t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e Change Order, a f f o r d t h e Owner t h e r i g h t t o use o r
consume t h e s e m a t e r i a l s .

P r o t e c t i o n of Property of Others

The s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e requirements f o r t h e C o n t r a c t o r in p r o t e c t i n g t h e
property of o t h e r s during t h e execution of t h e C o n t r a c t . The fojlowing
wording i s i 7 l u s t r a t i v e of t h e c o n c e p t .
PROTECTION OF PROPERTY OF OTHERS

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , u n l e s s otherwise s p e c i f i c a l l y provided f o r ,

make s u i t a b l e arrangements w i t h and o b t a i n a l l necessary permits from
governmental a u t h o r i t i e s and r a i 1 roads f o r t h e c o n s t w c t i o n of a1 1
s t r u c t u r e s underneath o r w i t h i n road and r a i l r o a d rights-of-way and
f o r p r o t e c t i n g and s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e p u b l i c using t h e roads and t h e
movement of t r a i n s from a c c i d e n t and d e l a y , a l l in accordance w i t h
t h e requirements of t h e owners t h e r e o f .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l not damage, c l o s e , o r o b s t r u c t any u t i l i t y

i n s t a l l a t i o n , highway, road o r o t h e r property u n t i l permits t h e r e f o r
have been obtained. I f f a c i l i t i e s a r e c l o s e d , o b s t r u c t e d , damaged o r
rendered unsafe by t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s o p e r a t i o n s , t h e Contractor s h a l l ,
a t i t s own expense, make such r e p a i r s and provide such temporary
guards, l i g h t s and o t h e r s i g n a l s a s necessary o r r e q u i r e d f o r s a f e t y
and a s w i l l be acceptable t o t h e Owner, governmental a u t h o r i t i e s o r
t h e owners of such i n s t a l l a t i o n , highway, road o r o t h e r property.

Unless otherwise s p e c i f i c a l l y provided i n t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e

C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l not do any Work t h a t would d i s r u p t o r otherwise
i n t e r f e r e with t h e o p e r a t i o n of any p i p e l i n e , telephone o r e l e c t r i c
transmission l i n e , d i t c h o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r e , nor e n t e r upon l a n d s i n
t h e i r n a t u r a l s t a t e u n t i l approved by t h e Owner.

P r o t e c t i o n of Environment

This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s those a c t i v i t i e s t h e C o n t r a c t o r i s t o undertake i n

order t o p r o t e c t t h e environment.
 P r o t e c t i o n of t h e environment s h a l l be an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s o p e r a t i o n s hereunder. Unless otherwise provided f o r in
t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e Contractor s h a l l , a t no a d d i t i o n a l c o s t t o the
Owner, f u r n i s h a l l such f a c i l i t i e s and measures a s may be necessary
t o prevent contamination of t h e atmosphere and bodies of water.

No substance o r m a t e r i a l s h a l l be permitted t o e n t e r any stream,

r i v e r , l a k e o r o t h e r body of water which may p o l l u t e t h e water o r
c o n s t i t u t e s u b s t a n c e s o r m a t e r i a l s harmful t o f i s h o r w i l d l i f e . In
t h e event a substance or m a t e r i a l e n t e r s a stream, r i v e r , lake o r
o t h e r body of w a t e r , t h e Contractor s h a l l immediately n o t i f y t h e
Engineer of such happening.

Dust, smoke o r o t h e r a i r contaminants from any source whatsoever

s h a l l not be discharged i n t o t h e atmosphere in v i o l a t i o n of laws,
r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s of governmental a u t h o r i t i e s having j u r i s d i c t i o n .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l use reasonable e f f o r t s t o minimize d u s t

c o n d i t i o n s i n a l l a r e a s within t h e s i t e of t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
o p e r a t i o n s . The Contractor may use methods s u i t a b l e t o t h e a r e a
involved i n c l u d i n g s p r i n k l i n g , chemical treatment o r o t h e r standard
methods of d u s t c o n t r o l .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t i f y t h e Engineer a t l e a s t twenty-four ( 2 4 )

hours p r i o r t o t h e need t o use e x p l o s i v e s in t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
performance of t h e Work. The use of e x p l o s i v e s in a manner which
might d i s t u r b o r endanger t h e s t a b i l i t y , s a f e t y o r q u a l i t y of t h e
Work o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of a d j a c e n t p l a n t s and f a c i l i t i e s s h a l l not be
allowed. Explosives s h a l l be s t o r e d , handled and used a s p r e s c r i b e d
by t h e a p p l i c a b l e f e d e r a l , s t a t e and l o c a l laws and r e g u l a t i o n s . The
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l g i v e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e immediate d i s p o s a l of
paper wrappings from explosives which wrappings may be d e t r i m e n t a l t o
t h e environment.

A17 a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s t o t h e Owner, due t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s

noncompliance w i t h t h e above, s h a l l be f o r t h e account of t h e
Contractor.

Cleaning Up

The s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e e f f e c t s r e q u i r e d of t h e Contractor in keeping a

c l e a n work p l a c e . The following wording i s i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e concept
CLEANING UP

As p a r t of t h e Work included i n t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e Contractor s h a l l remove

d a i l y a l l d e b r i s r e s u l t i n g from i t s performance of t h e Work and dispose of
same a t a l o c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e J o b s i t e a s d e s i g n a t e d by t h e Engineer. All
d e b r i s r e s u l t i n g from t h e r e p a i r o r removal of d e f e c t i v e Work s h a l l be
 disposed of o f f - s i t e by t h e C o n t r a c t o r . As required by Owner, C o n t r a c t o r
s h a l l completely remove and s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d i s p o s e of a17 temporary works,
s h a l l t e a r down and d i s p o s e of a l l temporary b u i l d i n g s ; s h a l l remove o r
grade a l l embankments o r cofferdams made f o r i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n purposes;
s h a l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f i l l e x c a v a t i o n s ; s h a l l remove a l l i t s p l a n t and
equipment; s h a l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d i s p o s e of a l l rubbish r e s u l t i n g from t h e
o p e r a t i o n s under t h i s C o n t r a c t ; and s h a l l do a l l work necessary t o r e s t o r e
t h e t e r r i t o r y embraced within t h e s i t e of i t s o p e r a t i o n s t o a t l e a s t a s
good o r d e r and c o n d i t i o n a s a t t h e beginning of t h e Work under t h i s
Contract. F a i l u r e on t h e p a r t of t h e C o n t r a c t o r t o abide by t h e s e
c o n d i t i o n s w i l l cause t h e Owner t o perform, o r cause t o have performed,
t h e necessary clean-up work. All c o s t s t o t h e Owner a s s o c i a t e d w i t h same
s h a l l be charged t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s account.

C o n t r a c t o r ' s P l a n t and Equipment

This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e requirements f o r t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n

plant.
CONTRACTOR1S PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

The Contractor s h a l l provide and use on t h e Work only such

c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n t and equipment capable of producing t h e q u a l i t y and
q u a n t i t y of Work required by t h i s Contract and within t h e time o r
times s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s C o n t r a c t .

The Contractor s h a l l not remove i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n t o r equipment

from t h e J o b s i t e before t h e Work i s f i n a l l y accepted without t h e
Owner's w r i t t e n approval. Such approval s h a l l not be unreasonably
withheld.

Emergency I n s t r u c t i o n s

This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e requirements of t h e Contractor during emergency

situations. The following wording i s i T l u s t r a t i v e of t h e concept.
EMERGENCY INSTRUCTIONS
When t h e Contractor o r i t s a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i s n o t p r e s e n t on any
p a r t of the Work where i t may be d e s i r e d t o g i v e d i r e c t i o n s in t h e event
of emergencies, i n s t r u c t i o n s may be given by t h e Owner o r Engineer and
s h a l l be received and c a r r i e d o u t by t h e superintendent o r foreman who may
have charge of t h e p a r t i c u l a r p a r t of t h e Work i n r e f e r e n c e t o which
i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e g i v e n . I f r e q u e s t e d , t h e Owner o r Engineer w i l l confirm
such i n s t r u c t i o n s in w r i t i n g .

Lines and Grades

This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h a t t h e Owner w i l l e s t a b l i s h and maintain b a s e l i n e s

and bench marks a d j a c e n t t o t h e Work. The following wording i s i l l u s t r a t i v e
of t h e concept.
 LINES AND GRADES
The Owner w i l l e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n base l i n e s and bench marks
a d j a c e n t t o t h e vari.ous s e c t i o n s o f Work. A l l such marks and s t a k e s
m u s t be c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d b y t h e C o n t r a c t o r , and i n case o f t h e i r
d e s t r u c t i o n by t h e C o n t r a c t o r o r any o f i t s employees, t h e y w i l l be
r e p l a c e d b y t h e Owner a t t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s expense.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l l a y o u t i t s work and be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l

l i n e s and e l e v a t i o n s , and s h a l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a c c u r a c y o f
a l l d i m e n s i o n s w i t h i n t h e v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h e Work a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e f i g u r e d d i m e n s i o n s on t h e Drawings.

* The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l , as and t o t h e e x t e n t n e c e s s a r y f o r p r o p e r
a c c u r a c y and accomplishment o f t h e Work, v e r i f y a l l measurements i n
t h e f i e l d . E x i s t i n g d i m e n s i o n s and c l e a r a n c e s s h a l ? be v e r i f i e d b y
t h e C o n t r a c t o r b e f o r e l a y i n g o u t t h e Work and any d i m e n s i o n s o r
c l e a r a n c e s f o u n d t o be i n e r r o r s h a l l be r e p o r t e d t o t h e E n g i n e e r
immediately.

Time and O r d e r o f C o m p l e t i o n and C o o p e r a t i o n . T h i s section describes t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e C o n t r a c t o r c o m p l e t e i t s work i n accordance w i t h t h e
schedule. The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e c o n c e p t .
TIME AND ORDER OF COMPLETION AND COOPERATION

The C o n t r a c t o r a g r e e s t h a t t h e Work s h a l l be commenced and c a r r i e d

on a t such l o c a t i o n s , and i n t h e sequence, as may be r e q u i r e d t o
m e e t t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s d e t a i l e d schedule. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d i n
t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h i s s c h e d u l e has been e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s o f
w o r k i n g f i v e (5) d a y s p e r week, s i n g l e s h i f t , e i g h t (8) h o u r s p e r
d a y o r f o u r ( 4 ) d a y s p e r week, t e n (10) h o u r s p e r d a y . A d d i t i o n a l
c o s t i n c u r r e d due t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f f o u r days p e r week t e n
(10) h o u r s p e r day w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s s h a l l be r e i m b u r s e d i n
accordance w i t h S e c t i o n h e r e o f e n t i t l e d "Changes i n C o n t r a c t P r i c e " .

i f t h e C o n t r a c t o r f a i l s t o p r o s e c u t e t h e Work w i t h n e c e s s a r y means
and d i l i g e n c e t o ensure i t s completion w i t h i n t h e t i m e l i m i t o f t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s d e t a i l e d s c h e d u l e , t h e n t h e Owner may g i v e t h e
C o n t r a c t o r w r i t t e n n o t i c e t o t h a t e f f e c t and t h e Contractor s h a l l ,
i f so d i r e c t e d and a t i t s own expense, i n c r e a s e o r supplement t h e
w o r k i n g f o r c e and equipment a n d p e r f o r m t h e Work on an o v e r t i m e o r
m u l t i p l e s h i f t b a s i s t o such an e x t e n t a s t o g i v e r e a s o n a b l e
assurance o f compliance w i t h t h e schedule and t h e r e q u i r e d q u a l i t y
o f t h e Work. When so d i r e c t e d b y t h e Owner, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
s u b m i t f o r r e v i e w b y t h e Owner such s u p p l e m e n t a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n
s c h e d u l e s as may b e n e c e s s a r y t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e manner i n w h i c h
s u c h compliance w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d . I f t h e C o n t r a c t o r does n o t
p r o m p t l y comply w i t h such d i r e c t i o n s , t h e Owner may p r o c e e d u n d e r
t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e S e c t i o n h e r e o f e n t i t l e d "TERMINATION FOR
DEFAULT". The f a i l u r e o f t h e Owner t o make such demands s h a l l n o t
 r e l i e v e t h e C o n t r a c t o r o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o s e c u r e t h e q u a l i t y and
the r a t e o f progress r e q u i r e d by t h i s Contract o r i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r l i q u i d a t e d damages.

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l n o t be p e r m i t t e d t o p e r f o r m Work o u t s i d e o f t h e
normal w o r k i n g h o u r s w i t h o u t p r i o r a p p r o v a l o f t h e Owner, u n l e s s
otherwise directed.

Should t h e Owner r e q u i r e , e i t h e r f o r t h e Owner's convenience o r f o r

a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e s c h e d u l e f o r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e Work, t h a t t h e
C o n t r a c t o r p e r f o r m Work o u t s i d e o f t h e normal w o r k i n g h o u r s , t h e
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l do so, i n w h i c h case t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be
r e i m b u r s e d f o r t h e a c t u a l premium payments made f o r l a b o r o v e r t i m e
worked. F o r an a u t h o r i z e d e x t e n s i o n o f t h e work week, t h e
i n e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r s s h a l l a p p l y i n accordance w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s
o f t h e S e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " O v e r t i m e and S h i f t Work'' o f t h e S p e c i a l
C o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e e v e n t t h a t such o v e r t i m e w o r k i s r e q u i r e d b y t h e
Owner, t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l j , a t t h e end o f each day on w h i c h t h e
o v e r t i m e i s worked, f u r n i s h t o t h e E n g i n e e r d a i l y t i m e s l i p s showing
t h e e m p l o y e e ' s p a y r o l l number o f each w o r k e r employed t h e r e o n w i t h
t h e t i m e worked, t h e c h a r a c t e r o f w o r k done and t h e wages t o b e p a i d .

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e Owner i n s c h e d u l i n g t h e
o r d e r o f p e r f o r m a n c e o f , and s h a l l p u r s u e , t h e Work i n o r d e r t o
m i n i m i z e i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h o t h e r work b e i n g p e r f o r m e d a t t h e J o b s i t e .

The Owner r e s e r v e s t h e r i g h t t o have o t h e r s a s i t may e l e c t , e n t e r

upon t h e p r o p e r t y o r l o c a t i o n upon w h i c h t h e Work h e r e i n
contemplated i s b e i n g constructed, f o r t h e purpose o f i n s t a l l i n g o r
e r e c t i n g s u c h c o l l a t e r a l w o r k as t h e Owner may r e q u i r e . Such
c o l l a t e r a l w o r k w i l l be i n s t a l l e d o r e r e c t e d w i t h as l i t t l e
h i n d r a n c e o r i n t e r f e r e n c e as p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e C o n t r a c t o r . The
C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l w o r k i n harmony w i t h o t h e r c o n t r a c t o r s employed b y
t h e Owner, and any d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n between c o n t r a c t o r s s h a l l
be a r b i t r a t e d b y t h e Owner b u t s h a l l n o t r e s u l t i n a d d i t i o n a l c o s t
t o t h e Owner.

I n v o i c i n g and Payment Terms. T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e i n v o i c i n g and payment

procedures which the Contractor i s r e q u i r e d t o f o l l o w . The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g
i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e concepts.
INVOICING AND PAYMENT TERMS

W i t h i n t e n ( 1 0 ) days a f t e r C o n t r a c t E x e c u t i o n , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l
s u b m i t a breakdown o f t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e (Schedule o f Values),
i n c l u d i n g q u a n t i t i e s and u n i t p r i c e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
pay i t e m s . T h i s Schedule o f Values s h a l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e
Owner and E n g i n e e r i n f o r m and substance and s h a l l s u b d i v i d e t h e
Work i n t o component p a r t s i n accordance w i t h t h e Owner's c o s t
m o n i t o r i n g and s c h e d u l i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . Upon recommendation o f t h e
E n g i n e e r and a p p r o v a l b y t h e Owner, t h e Schedule o f V a l u e s w i l l be
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment f o r m .
 When prosecuting Work, f o r which u n i t p r i c e s have been e s t a b l i s h e d
i n t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e b a s i s of payment f o r such Work s h a l l be t h e
a c t u a l amount of Work completed i n each c a s e . The C o n t r a c t o r agrees
t h a t i t w i l l make no claim f o r l o s s of a n t i c i p a t e d p r o f i t s o r f o r
any o t h e r damages because no Work i s ordered under c e r t a i n items o r
because of a d i f f e r e n c e between t h e q u a n t i t i e s of Work a c t u a l l y
completed and any estimated q u a n t i t i e s t h a t have been o r may be
furnished t o t h e Contractor by t h e Owner o r Engineer. The f i n a l
q u a n t i t i e s incorporated i n t o t h e Work under items f o r which u n i t
p r i c e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d in t h i s C o n t r a c t w i l l be determined by t h e
Engineer e i t h e r by measurement o r approximation. Items f o r which
u n i t p r i c e s have been e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e b a s i s of payment s h a l l be
included a s Tine items in t h e Schedule of Values r e f e r r e d t o above.

Application For Proqress Payments

i - As s e t f o r t h in t h i s C o n t r a c t o r a s otherwise agreed by t h e
Owner and C o n t r a c t o r , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l submit, b u t not more
o f t e n than once a month, t o the Engineer f o r review t h e
Application of Payment f i l l e d o u t and signed by t h e Contractor
covering a l l Work completed up t o t h e d a t e of t h e Application
f o r Payment and supported by such d a t a a s Owner r e q u i r e s . The
C o n t r a c t o r ' s Application f o r Payment s h a l l i n c l u d e a l l Change
Orders. I f payment i s r e q u e s t e d on t h e b a s i s of Equipment not
incorporated in t h e Work b u t d e l i v e r e d and s u i t a b l y s t o r e d a t
t h e J o b s i t e o r a t another l o c a t i o n agreed t o i n w r i t i n g , t h e
Application f o r Payment s h a l l a l s o be accompanied by such
supporting d a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e Owner, i n c l u d i n g evidence
of appTicab1e insurance, a s w i l l e s t a b l i s h t h e Owner's t i t l e t o
t h e Equipment and p r o t e c t t h e Owner's i n t e r e s t t h e r e i n .

ii - The Engineer w i l l , not l a t e r than f i f t e e n ( 1 5 ) working days

a f t e r r e c e i p t of each A p p l i c a t i o n of Payment, e i t h e r t r a n s m i t
t o t h e Owner i t s w r i t t e n recommendation f o r payment o r i n d i c a t e
t o t h e Contractor t h e E n g i n e e r ' s r e j e c t i o n of t h e Application
f o r Payment advising t h e C o n t r a c t o r of t h e b a s i s f o r t h e
Engineer's r e j e c t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of Work completed o r
otherwise e l i g i b l e f o r payment w i l l be reviewed by t h e
Engineer. Disagreement by t h e Engineer with t h e q u a n t i t i e s and
q u a l i t y of Work covered by an Application f o r Payment o r t h e
C o n t r a c t o r ' s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o s e c u t i o n of t h e Work may form a
b a s i s f o r t h e Engineer's r e j e c t i o n of t h e A p p l i c a t i o n f o r
Payment. With r e s p e c t t o any Application f o r Payment r e j e c t e d
by t h e Engineer, t h e C o n t r a c t o r may make necessary c o r r e c t i o n s
o r otherwise e f f e c t r e s o l u t i o n of t h e m a t t e r g i v i n g r i s e t o
such r e j e c t i o n . The C o n t r a c t o r may then resubmit t h e
Application f o r Payment.

iii- The Owner w i l l , not l a t e r t h a n t h i r t y (30) days a f t e r r e c e i p t

from t h e Engineer of a recommended A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment, pay
t h e Contractor t h e amount recammended by t h e Engineer o r , not
l a t e r than t e n ( 1 0 ) working days a f t e r r e c e i p t , r e t u r n t h e
Application f o r Payment t o the C o n t r a c t o r , through t h e
 Engineer, s t a t i n g i n w r i t i n g t h e Owner's r e a s o n s f o r r e f u s i n g
payment.

iv - In t h e e v e n t e i t h e r t h e Engineer o r Owner d i s a g r e e with an

Application f o r Payment, t h e Engineer o r Owner w i l l approve
such p o r t i o n of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n which i s n o t i n d i s p u t e and t h e
Owner w i l l make payment f o r such p o r t i o n . The Engineer o r
Owner w i l l , a t t h e same t i m e , n o t i f y t h e C o n t r a c t o r r e g a r d i n g
t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment in d i s p u t e .

Unless o t h e r w i s e provided o r agreed upon, from t h e amount s t i p u l a t e d

i n t h e A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment and accepted by Owner a s e l i g i b l e f o r
payment, a t e n percent (10%) r e t e n t i o n w i l l be d e d u c t e d , and from
t h e remainder t h e r e w i l l f u r t h e r be deducted a l l p r e v i o u s payments.
In a d d i t i o n , Owner may d e d u c t from s a i d amount any amounts due Owner
from C o n t r a c t o r under t h e terms of t h i s C o n t r a c t i n c l u d i n g c o s t s
p e r t a i n i n g t o r e t e s t i n g of Equipment due t o Equipment f a i l u r e t o
meet performance c r i t e r i a , i f a p p l i c a b l e . In c a s e C o n t r a c t o r i s i n
v i o l a t i o n of any c o n d i t i o n o r term of t h i s C o n t r a c t , Owner may
withhold any payment which may be due C o n t r a c t o r on account of any
A p p l i c a t i o n of Payment.

A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment s h a l l be made on t h e forms and i n t h e format

p r e s c r i b e d by Owner.

Final A p p l i c a t i o n For Payment

i - Upon w r i t t e n n o t i c e from t h e C o n t r a c t o r t h a t t h e Work i s

complete, t h e Owner, Engineer and C o n t r a c t o r w i l l make a f i n a l
i n s p e c t i o n of t h e Work. The Engineer w i l l n o t i f y t h e
C o n t r a c t o r in w r i t i n g of any p a r t i c u l a r s i n which t h i s
i n s p e c t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t t h e Work i s incomplete o r d e f e c t i v e .
The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l immediately t a k e such measures a s a r e
necessary t o complete o r remedy such incomplete o r d e f e c t i v e
Work.

ii - A f t e r t h e C o n t r a c t o r has completed t h e Work t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n

of t h e Owner and Engineer i n c l u d i n g t h e d e l i v e r y of a l l
maintenance and o p e r a t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , a s b u i l t drawings,
s c h e d u l e s , g u a r a n t e e s , bonds, c e r t i f i c a t e s of i n s p e c t i o n , and
o t h e r documents, a l l a s r e q u i r e d by t h i s C o n t r a c t , t h e
C o n t r a c t o r may make, and t h e Owner w i l l pay, t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
f i n a l Application of Payment following t h e same procedure a s
s e t f o r t h above i n A p p l i c a t i o n f o r P r o g r e s s Payments. The
f i n a l Application f o r Payment s h a l l be accompanied by complete
and l e g a l l y e f f e c t i v e r e l e a s e s o r w a i v e r s , s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e
Owner, of a l l l i e n s , c l a i m s , s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s and
encumbrances a r i s i n g o u t o f t h e performance of t h i s C o n t r a c t .
In l i e u t h e r e o f and i f approved by t h e Owner, t h e C o n t r a c t o r
may f u r n i s h ( a ) r e c e i p t s o r r e l e a s e s i n f u l l ; ( b ) an a f f i d a v i t
of C o n t r a c t o r t h a t t h e r e l e a s e s and r e c e i p t s i n c l u d e a l l l a b o r ,
s e r v i c e s , m a t e r i a l and equipment f o r w h i c h a l i e n , c l a i m ,
 s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t o r encumbrance c o u l d be f i l e d , and t h a t a l l
p a y r o l l s , m a t e r i a l and equipment b i l l s , and o t h e r i n d e b t e d n e s s
c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e Work f o r w h i c h t h e Owner o r i t s p r o p e r t y
m i g h t i n any way be r e s p o n s i b l e , have been p a i d o r o t h e r w i s e
s a t i s f i e d ; and, ( c ) c o n s e n t o f t h e S u r e t y , i f any, t o f i n a l
Appl i c a t i o n f o r Payment.

iii - I f , a f t e r S u b s t a n t i a l C o r c p l e t i o n o f t h e Work, f i n a l c o m p l e t i o n
t h e r e o f i s m a t e r i a l l y d e l a y e d t h r o u g h no f a u l t o f t h e
C o n t r a c t o r , and such d e l a y i s c o n f i r m e d b y t h e Owner and
E n g i n e e r , t h e Owner may, w i t h o u t t e r m i n a t i n g t h i s C o n t r a c t ,
make payment o f t h e b a l a n c e due f o r t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e Work
c o m p l e t e d . I f t h e v a l u e , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e ,
o f t h e i n c o m p l e t e Work i s l e s s t h a t t h e r e t e n t i o n , and i f a
bond has been f u r n i s h e d , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l s u b m i t t o t h e
Owner t h e w r i t t e n c o n s e n t o f t h e S u r e t y t o t h e payment o f t h e
b a l a n c e due f o r t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e Work c o m p l e t e d p r i o r t o
such payment. Such payment s h a l l be made under t h e t e r m s and
c o n d i t i o n s g o v e r n i n g f i n a l A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment.

iv - I n a d d i t i o n t o the f o r e g o i n g requirements, t h e Contractor

s h a l l , p r i o r t o t h e O w n e r ' s payment o f t h e f i n a l A p p l i c a t i o n
f o r Payment, e x e c u t e and s u b m i t t h e a f f a d a v i t e n t i t l e d
" C e r t i f i c a t e o f Contract Completion".

v - Payment o f t h e r e t e n t i o n w i l l be made b y t h e Owner n o t l a t e r

t h a n t h i r t y ( 3 0 ) days a f t e r t h e Owner's payment o f t h e f i n a l
A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Payment o r t h i r t y (30) days a f t e r a l l
p e r f o r m a n c e w a r r a n t i e s o f t h e Equipment a r e met, w h i c h e v e r
occurs l a s t . I n t h e event s t a r t o f performance t e s t s a r e
d e l a y e d due t o reasons beyond t h e C o n t r o l o f t h e C o n t r a c t o r f o r
a p e r i o d i n excess o f one h u n d r e d and e i g h t y (180) days f r o m
n o t i f i c a t i o n by t h e C o n t r a c t o r t h a t t h e Equipment i s r e a d y f o r
such p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s , payment o f t h e r e t e n t i o n w i l l be made
b y t h e Owner n o t l a t e r t h a n t h i r t y ( 3 0 ) days t h e r e a f t e r upon
r e c e i p t o f a performance bond o r o t h e r m u t u a l l y a g r e e d upon
s e c u r i t y f r o m t h e C o n t r a c t o r , i n an amount equa? t o t h e
retention.

C o n t r a c t Bonds. T h i s s e c t i o n describes t h e requirements f o r bonding o f t h e

Contractor. The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e c o n c e p t .
CONTRACT BONDS

The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l f u r n i s h p e r f o r m a n c e and payment bonds as

s e c u r i t y f o r t h e f a i t h f u l p e r f o r m a n c e and payment o f a l l i t s
o b l i g a t i o n s under t h i s C o n t r a c t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e r e c t i o n p o r t i o n
o f t h e Work. These bonds s h a l l be i n amounts equal t o t h e p o r t i o n
o f t h e C o n t r a c t P r i c e a p p l i c a b l e t o Work t o be p e r f o r m e d a t t h e
J o b s i t e f o r b o t h U n i t 1 and U n i t 2 and i n such form and w i t h such
 s u r e t y a s a r e a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e Owner. Premiums f o r such
p e r f o r m a n c e and payment bonds s h a l l be i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n t r a c t
P r i c e f o r t h e c o m p l e t e e r e c t i o n o f t h e Equipment f o r U n i t 1 and f o r
U n i t 2 as a p p l i c a b l e . The Owner may r e q u i r e t h e C o n t r a c t o r t o
f u r n i s h o t h e r bonds, i n such form and w i t h such s u r e t i e s as t h e
Owner may r e q u i r e , t h e premiums t h e r e f o r t o be p a i d b y t h e Owner.
Such o t h e r bond f o r m s and s u r e t i e s a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e C o n t r a c t o r ' s
r e v i e w and a p p r o v a l . The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l f u r n i s h s e p a r a t e bonds
f o r each U n i t . A l l bonds s h a l l be e x e c u t e d i n t h e f o r m p r o v i d e d b y
t h e Owner and s h a l l accompany t h e executed C o n t r a c t when i t i s
r e t u r n e d b y t h e C o n t r a c t o r t o t h e Owner.

The s u r e t i e s on a l l bonds s h a l l be d u l y l i c e n s e d and a u t h o r i z e d t o

do b u s i n e s s i n t h e s t a t e i n w h i c h t h e P r o j e c t i s l o c a t e d . Each
s u r e t y s h a l l be one w h i c h i s l i s t e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s T r e a s u r y
D e p a r t m e n t as h o l d i n g a C e r t i f i c a t e o f A u t h o r i t y f r o m t h e S e c u r i t y
o f t h e T r e a s u r y as b e i n g a c c e p t a b l e as a s u r e t y on f e d e r a l bonds.
No s u r e t y s h a l l be p a r t y t o a bond w h e r e i n such s u r e t y ' s l i a b i l i t y
exceeds t h e u n d e r w r i t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s s p e c i f i e d by t h e T r e a s u r y
Department f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e s u r e t y .

Bomb T h r e a t P r o c e d u r e . T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o c e d u r e s f o r bomb t h r e a t s
t h a t t h e C o n t r a c t o r would f o l l o w d u r i n g such an e v e n t . The f o l l o w i n g w o r d i n g
i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e concept
BOMB THREAT PROCEDURE

I n t h e e v e n t t h a t a bomb t h r e a t i s r e c e i v e d a t t h e J o b s i t e by t h e Owner
o r E n g i n e e r , t h e C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be a d v i s e d o f t h e t h r e a t w i t h o u t d e l a y
and g i v e n a l l a v a i l a b l e d e t a i l s . I f w a r r a n t e d , a bomb s e a r c h w i l l be
c o n d u c t e d b y a search team d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e E n g i n e e r . I f d e t e r m i n e d
n e c e s s a r y b y t h e E n g i n e e r , an emergency w a r n i n g s i g n a l w i l l be g i v e n
s i g n i f y i n g t h a t t h e E n g i n e e r ' s employees w i l l evacuate t h e a f f e c t e d
a r e a . The w a r n i n g w i l l be f o l l o w e d by a second s i g n a l s i g n i f y i n g t h a t
t h e E n g i n e e r ' s employees a r e t o r e t u r n t o w o r k . The C o n t r a c t o r s h a l l be
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i t s employees a r e t o
f o l l o w when i t i s a d v i s e d o f a bomb t h r e a t , i n c l u d i n g a d e c i s i o n , e i t h e r
b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e E n g i n e e r ' s w a r n i n g s i g n a l , as t o w h e t h e r t o e v a c u a t e
t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a o r c o n t i n u e w o r k i n g . The C o n t r a c t o r w i l l n o t be
r e i m b u r s e d f o r t i m e l o s t w h i l e i t s employees a r e a b s e n t from t h e i r p l a c e
o f w o r k a s a r e s u l t o f a c t i o n s t a k e n i n response t o n o t i f i c a t i o n o f a
bomb t h r e a t .
 Appendix 7E

EXAMPLE OF SELLER PROVIDED MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROL SYSTEM DATA

7.4.1 Operating Experience on Similar Installation

.1 - Utility users list (name and
telephone number)
. 2 - Non-utility users list (name
and telephone number)
.3 - Last major design change
(describe and date)
.4 - Component suppliers (list
name and equipment)
7.4.2. Maintenance
. I - Test equipment required
.2 - Training schools available
(on-si te)
.3 - Training schools available
(off-si te)
.4 - Spare parts required
(on-si te)
.5 - Spare parts available from
manufacturer (on-shelf)
.6 - Location of manufacturer's
spare parts (city, state)
.7 - Maintenance services
available (describe)
.8 - Equipment warranty (describe)
Microprocessor

.1 - Manufacturer

. 2 - Model
.3 - Processor c y c l e time

.4 - R e g i s t e r s i z e ( b i t s )

.5 - A p p l i c a t i o n program response t i m e

1 - digital

.2 - analog

. 6 - R e c o g n i t i o n t i m e o f manual
i n p u t (maximum t i m e i n p u t
c o n t a c t m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d )

.7 - I n c r e m e n t a l memory s i z e

.8 - Maximum i n t e g r a l memory s i z e

.9 - Type o f memory ( a p p l i c a t i o n
program s t o r a g e )

. I 0 - Type o f programming
.11 - Method o f program backup

.12 - Type o f d i a g n o s t i c s

.13 - Maximum number o f d i g i t a l 1/0

.14 - Maximum number o f a n a l o g I / O

.15 - Number and t y p e o f s t a n d a r d

control algorithms

.16 - Type o f s t a n d a r d c o n t r o l
algorithms

.17 - E f f e c t of power f a i l u r e on
memory

.1 - AC - maximum t i m e o f
b a t t e r y backup

.2 - DC - maximum t i m e o f
b a t t e r y backup
 3 - Both - maximum t i m e o f
b a t t e r y backup

7.4.4 A d d i t i o n a l Memory

.1 - Resident

1 - Type o f memory

.2 - Access speed

.3 - E f f e c t o f power f a i l u r e

.2 - Non-Resident

1 - Type o f memory

.2 - Access speed

. 3 - E f f e c t o f power f a i l u r e
7.4.5 Input/Output (I/O)
.1 - D i g i t a l Inputs

.I - V o l t a g e range AC

2 - V o l t a g e range DC

.3 - C u r r e n t range AC

4 - C u r r e n t range DC

5 - I s o l a t i o n value

.6 - Response t i m e

7 - Interrogation voltage
supervision

.8 - On-line diagnostics
(describe)

.9 - Surge w i t h s t a n d c a p a b i l i t y

.ID- LED s u p e r v i s i o n

.11- Number p e r c a r d
.2 - D i g i t a l Outputs

1 - V o l t a g e r a n g e AC

.2 - V o l t a g e r a n g e DC

. 3 - C u r r e n t maximum AC
.4 - C u r r e n t maximum DC

.5 - Switching time

.6 - F a i l u r e mode o p t i o n s ( o n
l o s s o f microprocessor)

.7 - I s o l a t i o n value

.8 - Surge w i t h s t a n d

.9 - Number p e r c a r d
. l o - LED s u p e r v i s i o n

. 3 - Analog I n p u t s (4-20 ma) and t h e r m o c o u p l e

.1 - Loop r e s i s t a n c e

.2 - Accuracy (number o f b i t s
per c o n v e r s i o n )

.3 - Repeatability isolation

.4 - On-line d i a g n o s t i c
(describe)

.5 - On-line c a l i b r a t i o n
(describe)

.6 - Loss o f i n p u t s e n s i n g

.7- Number p e r c a r d

.8 - Loop power s u p p l y

.4 - A n a l o g o u t p u t s 4-20 ma

.1 - Maximum l o o p r e s i s t a n c e

.2 .- Accuracy
 .3 - Number of bits per
conversion
.4 - Repeatability
. 5 - On-line diagnostic
.6 - Open loop alarm
.7 - On-line calibration
(describe)
.8 - Failure mode options
(on loss of
microprocessor)
Power Supply
.I - 125 VDC input

.1 - Maximum input voltage

.2 - Minimum input voltage
.3 - Maximum input current
(on-1 i ne)
.4 - Minimum input current
( standby)

.5 - Maximum ripple voltage

.6 - Output voltages
-7 - Monitoring and alarming
(describe)
.1 - 120 VAC input
-1 - Maximum input voltages
-2 - Minimum input voltage
.3 - Maximum input current
(on-1 ine)

4 - Minmum input current

( standby)
 -5 - Maximum harmonic content
.6 - Output voltages
.7 - Monitoring and alarming
(describe)
.3 - Distribution
.1 - Redundancy
.2 - Fuse or breaker
coordination (describe)
3 - Distribution diagram
(attach)
.4 - Coordination with
mechanical and electrical
systems (describe)
7.4.7 Internal Data Bus
.1 - Redundancy (describe)
.2 - Speed
.3 - Security (describe)
7.4.8 External Data Bus
.1 - Redundancy (describe)
.2 - Speed
.3 - Cable type
.4 - Maximum cable length
.5 - Configuration (radial, party
line, combination]
.6 - Security (describe)

.7 - Operation (describe)
7.4.9 System Diagnostics
Seller shall completely explain system diagnostics, how they
relate to 1/0 diagnostics, individual microprocessor
diagnostics, and the operator/maintenance interface system.
Programming
Seller shall completely explain programming techniques including
the following:
.1 - Type of language for interlock sequencing
.2 - Type o f language for analog control

. 3 - Method of entering field programs by Purchaser

.4 - Standard Seller supplied programs including flow charts,
analog control schematics, etc. (Seller shall supply complete
information including written description o f each program and
options available)
.5 - Method of scaling inputs and outputs and modifying scales and
ranges of each analog 1/0 device
.6 - Method of calibrating control algorithms
Support of Computer Type Peripheral
.1 - Operating experience on similar instal lation
.1 - Utility users list (name and
telephone number)
.2 - Non-utility users list (name
and telephone number)
.3 - Last major design change
(describe and date)
.4 - Last major design change
(date)

. 5 - Component suppliers
(list name and equipment)
.1 - Maintenance

1 - Test equipment required

.2 - Training schools available
(on-si te)
.3 - Training schools available
(off-site)
.4 - Spare p a r t s required
(on-si t e )

.5 - Spare parts a v a i l a b l e from

manufacturer (on-shelf)

-6 - Location of manufacturer's
spare p a r t s ( c i t y , s t a t e )

.7 - Maintenance s e r v i c e s
a v a i 1a b l e ( d e s c r i b e )

.8 - Equipment warranty
(describe)
REFERENCES
 REFERENCES

White, H . J . I n d u s t r i a l E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t i o n . Addison-Wesley
P u b l i s h i n g Co. Reading, MA, 1963.

G a l l a e r , C. A. E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t o r R e f e r e n c e Manual. EPRI
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T r i a n g l e Park, NC, December, 1974.

W a l k e r , A. B. " S t a t u s o f Technology f o r C o n t r o l o f P o l l u t a n t s from

F o s s i l Fuel F i r e d Power P l a n t , " A t a 7 k p r e s e n t e d a t t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n
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H a r t s h o r n , W. T. " E l e c t r o s t a t i c D u s t C o l l e c t i o n From O i l - F i r e d
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P i n h e i r o , G. " P r e c i p i t a t o r s f o r O i 1 - F i r e d B o i l e r s . " Power E n g i n e e r i n g ,

A p r i l 1971.

P r i v a t e communication w i t h L o d g e - C o t t r e l l / D r e s s e r Industries, Inc..

S t e a m / I t s G e n e r a t i o n and Use. The Babcock and W i l c a x Company, 1975.

"Compilation o f A i r P o l l u t a n t Emission F a c t o r s . " U.S. Environmental

P r o t e c t i o n Agency AP-42, Second E d i t i o n , U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n
Agency, Research T r i a n g l e P a r k , NC, March, 1975.

M o r t e l , G. and T. V e r a t t i , "Reduce I m p a c t o f A c i d E m i s s i o n s f r o m Your

0 i 1 - F i r e d B o i l e r .I1 Power, O c t o b e r , 1983

D a n i e i s o n , J . A. A i r P o l l u t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g Manual. U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l
P r o t e c t i o n Agency AP-40, Second E d i t i o n , U . S . E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n
Agency, Research T r i a n g l e P a r k , NC, May 1973.

W i l l i a m s , H. R . and C . J. Meyers. O i l and Gas Terms. Matthew Bender &

Company, T h i r d E d i t i o n , 1971.

G i l l s , B. G. " P r o d u c t i o n and E m i s s i o n s o f S o l i d s , SO2 and NOX f r o m

L i q u i d Fuel Flames." J o u r n a l o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f F u e l , Volume 46,
F e b r u a r y , 1973.

B a r s i n , J. A. " F o s s i 1 Steam G e n e r a t o r NO x C o n t r o l Update." Paper

p r e s e n t e d a t t h e EPRI/EPA J o i n t Symposium on S t a t i o n a r y Combustion NOx
C o n t r o l , October 1980.

S i e g e l , R. e t a l . "A S t r a t e g y o f R e d u c t i o n o f P a r t i c u l a t e E m i s s i o n s i n
t h e Boston A r e a . " JAPCA,
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B o i l e r s , P a r t V , Power f r o m O i l . " Power, September, 1976.

Lee, G . , F. F r e i d r i c h , and E . M i t c h e l l . " C o n t r o l o f SO2 i n

Low-Pressure H e a t i n g B o i l e r s b y an A d d i t i v e . " J o u r n a l o f t h e I n s t i t u t e
o f F u e l , F e b r u a r y , 1969.

Moore, W. W. e t a l . "Panel Session on t h e Performance o f Modern

P r e c i p i t a t o r s . " P r o c e e d i n g s I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on E l e c t r o s t a t i c
P r e c i p i t a t i o n , O c t o b e r , 1981.

" C o n t r o l o f P a r t i c u l a t e s and V i s i b 1 e Emi s s i o n s f r o m O i l - F i r e d

B o i l e r s . " Houston L i g h t i n g and Power Company, 1973.

Cato, G . A . , e t a l . " F i e l d T e s t i n g : A p p l i c a t i o n o f Combustion

M o d i f i c a t i o n s t o C o n t r o l P o l l u t a n t Emissions from I n d u s t r i a l B o i l e r s . "
EPA-650/2-75-078a, U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, Research
T r i a n g l e P a r k , NC, O c t o b e r , 1974.

M a r t i n , G. B . , D. W. P e r s h i n g , and E . E . B e r k a u . " E f f e c t s o f Fuel

A d d i t i v e s on A i r P o l l u t a n t E m i s s i o n s f r o m D i s t i l l a t e - O i l - F i r e d
Furnaces." U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency AP-87, U.S.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, Research T r i a n g l e P a r k , NC, 1971.

Sem, G. e t a l . " S t a t e o f t h e A r t : 1971 I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r

Measurement o f P a r t i c u l a t e Mass - D e t a i l R e p o r t . " P r e p a r e d f o r t h e
U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency by Thermo-Systems, i n c . , A p r i l ,
1971.

P r i v a t e communication w i t h R e s e a r c h - C o t t r e l l , Inc

P r i v a t e communication w i t h Long I s l a n d L i g h t i n g Company.

" P l a n t d e s i g n R e p o r t " 1955 t h r o u g h 1982 i n c l u s i v e , Power Magazine.

C o n s t a n t i n e , 3 . G. and F. J. McGarry. "A Comparison o f t h e S i z e

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P a r t i c u l a t e s E m i t t e d f r o m A i r , M e c h a n i c a l , a n d Steam
Atomized O i l - F i r e d B u r n e r s , " JAPCA, Volume 22, No. 8, A u g u s t 1972.

P i l o t , M. and D. E n s o r . "Plume O p a c i t y and P a r t i c u l a t e Mass

C o n c e n t r a t i o n . " A t m o s p h e r i c Environment, Volume 4, i 9 7 0 .

H a l l , F . D . , e t a l . " A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Technology Development

Waste-as-Fuel Processes." P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 1978 N a t i o n a l Waste
P r o c e s s i n g C o n f e r e n c e , May, 1978.

C o n n e l l , J. M. "Refuse F i r e d B o i l e r s . " F o s t e r Wheeler C o r p o r a t i o n , May

1967.

Smock, R . "Trash-Power P r o j e c t s Turn t o European Mass Burn T e c h n i q u e . "

E l e c t r i c L i q h t and Power, August 1983.

Rigo, H. G . , J. Raschko, and S . W o r s t e r . " C o n s o ? i d a t e d Data Base f o r

Waste-to-Energy P l a n t Emissions." P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 1982 N a t i o n a l
Waste P r o c e s s i n g Conference, 1982.

H a l l , J . L . , e t a l . " E n v i r o n m e n t a l Emissions f r o m a Suspension F i r e d

B o i l e r W h i l e B u r n i n g Refuse D e r i v e d Fuel and Coal M i x t u r e s . "
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 1980 N a t i o n a l Waste P r o c e s s i n g Conference, 1980.
149. Bump, R. L. " D i s c u s s i o n on A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Technology Development
Waste-as-Fuel P r o c e s s e s . " P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 1978 N a t i o n a l Waste
P r o c e s s i n g Conference, May, 1978.

150. Gar, R . " F a b r i c F i l t e r a n d E l e c t r o s t a t i c P r e c i p i t a t o r F i n e P a r t i c u l a t e

E m i s s i o n Cornparisan." EPRI, A p r i l 1977.

151. A l t i n , C . L I C o s t - E f f e c t i v e Deci sion-Making f o r A i r Qua1i t y C o n t r o l

Systems and B y - P r o d u c t s . " Ebasco S e r v i c e s I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1981.

152. B u o n i c o r e , A. " C o n t r o l o f F l y Ash f r o m C o n v e n t i o n a l Coal F i r e d U t i l i t y

Boilers." Y o r k Research C o r p o r a t i o n , May 1980.

M e y l e r , J. A. "The P r e c i p i t a t o r As An O p t i o n f o r D r y FGD S c r u b b i n g . "

Burgess, R. J . , Lane, W. R . , and T a k v o r y z n , N. " P i l o t E l e c t r o s t a t i c

P r e c i p i t a t o r T e s t R e s u l t s : S a n f o r d COM P r o j e c t , F l o r i d a Power a n d
L i g h t Company." Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Coal Water Mix Symposium;
O r l a n d o , FL., 1981. The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o a l o i l m i x t u r e (pp. 8-72
t h r o u g h 8-84) i s e s s e n t i a l l y a d e t a i l e d copy o f t h e r e f e r e n c e d p a p e r .

A l t i n , C h a r l e s A. " S t r u c t u r a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f L a r g e H o t - S i d e
Electrostatic Precipitators." Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e EPA/EPPI S i x t h
Symposium on t h e T r a n s f e r and U t i l i z a t i o n o f P a r t i c u l a t e C o n t r o l
Techno1 ogy, F e b r u a r y 1986.
INDEX
 INDEX
SUBJECT

A Method for Precipitator Performance Evaluation 111, 6-2

ASME Performance Test Code 111, 5A-5
ASTM Method 111, 5A-3
Abnormal Meter Readings, Guide for Interpreting 1 1 , 4-24
Accelerated Life Test I , 4B-3
Acceleration, Rapping I, 4B-1
Access Doors, Platforming, Stairways,
Inter-Field Walkways I, 6-18
Access Openings 11, 5-12
Access, Hopper I , 4-38
Access, Internal 11, 1-12
Acoustical Treatment I, 6-24
Adjustments, Air Load 11, 4-12
Administration and Record Keeping 11, 5-18
Aerators, Hopper I, 4-36
Aids, General Diagnostic I, 7-10
Air Inleakage Ii, 4-14
Air Load 11, 4-5
Air Load Adjustments 11, 4-12
Air Load Test Procedure 11, 4-5
A Method for ESP Performance Evaluation 111, 6-2
Alabama Coal I, 2-31; 11,
2-14
Alarm and Monitoring Features I, 5-6
Alternative Economic Comparison Methods I, 7-93
AnaLyses of Ash, Mineral 11, 2-8
Analyses, Coal and Ash Ii, 2-8
Analyses, Proximate 1 1 , 2-8
Analyses, Ultimate 11, 2-8
Anti-Sway Devices I, 4-33
Application to ESfs (Key Interlock) I, 6-4
Arrangement, Ductwork I, 4-13
Arrangement, General I, 4-10
Arrangement, Precipitator I, 4-11
Ash Deposits I, 2-35; 11,
2 - 18
Ash Handling, Integration with 1, 8-16
Ash Handling System I, 2-37; T I ,
2-20
Ash Handling System and Precipitator Interface I, 4-39
Ash Hopper System 11, 3-28
Ash Resistivity 111, 5-40
Aspect Ratio I , 2-44; I,
4-8; 11, 2-27
Attenuation Monitors, Beta Particle 111, 5-5
Automatic Voltage Control I, 5-13; 111,
8-34
 INDEX

Automatic Voltage ControlsfPower Units

Auxiliary Controls, Energization of
Auxiliary Equipment Controls
Aaxiliary Systems, Deenergization of

Back Corona
Bearings, Slide
Bearings, Sliding
Beta Particle Attentuation Monitors
Blending, Fuel Selection
Boiler
Boiler Conditions
Boilers, Oil-Fired
Bracing, Internal vs. External
Bus Sections, Deenergization of
Bus Sections, Energization of High Voltage
Buses, High Voltage
Cabinets, Control
Calculated Performance, Compare Actual and
Capacity, Spare Casing
Cascade Impactor, A. P . T .
Cascade Impactor, Andersen
Cascade Impactor, Brink
Cascade Impactor, Flow Sensor
Cascade Impactor, MRI
Cascade Impactor, Pilot/U. of W.
Cascade Impactor, Sierra Instruments
Cascade Impactors

Casing and Hoppers 11, 5-13

Category 1 Evaluation 1 1 , 6-13
Category 1 Testing 1 1 , 6-12
Category 2 Evaluation 11, 6-14
Category 2 Testing 11, 6-19
Category 3 Evaluation 11, 6-15
Category 3 Testing 1 1 , 6-23
Central versus Localized Control I, 5-3
Chambers, Number of I, 4-2
Characteristics, Fly ash I, 2-26; 11,
2-8
characteristics, Fuel I , 2-25; 11,
2-7
Characteristics, Particulate 11, 6-17
Checklist 1 1 , 4-5
Checklist, Internal Inspection 11, 4-40
Checklist, Preventive Maintenance 11, 6-9
Chemical Composition and Fly ash Resistivity I, 2-28; 11,
2-11
Clearances, Precipitator I, 2 - 3 5 ; 11,
2-17
Coal Mills I, 2-37; 11,
2-20
Coal-Oil Mixture I, 8-72
 SUBJECT

Coal Properties, Design

Coal Quality
Coal Variability
Coal-Water Slurrey (CWS)
Coal and Ash Analyses
Coal, Alabama
Coal, Eastern High Sulfur
Coal, Wyoming
Cold-Side Precipitator Designs
Cold-Side, Hot-Side versus
Collecting Electrode Design
Collecting Electrodes
Collecting Electrodes and Support System
Collecting Electrodes, Inspection of Discharge
and
Collecting Plate Acceleration
Collecting Plate Area
Collecting Plate Area, Enlargement of
Collecting Plate Height
Collecting Plate Spacing
Collecting Plates
Collection Area, Specific
Commercial Evaluation
Commercial Terms and Conditions, Preparation of
Common Division Walls
Compare Actual and Calculated Performance
Compare Actual with Expected Performance
Components, Electrostatic Precipitator
Components, Miscellaneous
Concentration

Concentration, Fly ash

Concepts for Material Supply
Condensation Nuclei Counters
Conditioning, Gas
Conditions, Boiler
Conduct an Internal Inspection
Construction and Thickness, Materials of
Construction, Materials of
Contemporary Sizing Practices
Contractor's Employees
Contractor, Obligations of
 SUBJECT INDEX

Control Adjustments, Load Savings and 11, 4-34

Control Cabinets I, 5-11
Control Centers, Motors/Motor 11, 5 - 4
Control Room Equipment Location I, 5 - 4
Control Vibrator I, 5-15
Control, Central versus Localized I, 5-3
Control, Hopper Heater I, 5-15
Control, Rapper I, 5 - 1 4
Controls, Auxiliary Equipment 11, 5-3
Controls, Electrical I, 2-34; 11,
2-16
Controls, Optimization of 11, 4-19, 11,
4-27
Controls, Power Supplies and 111, 8-22
Controls, Rapper 111, 8-57
Controls, Rappers and 111, 8-45
Conventional Transmissometers 111, 5 - 6
Cooling and Purging for Personnel Entry 11, 4-36
Counters, Condensation Nuclei 111, 5-29
Critical Equipment List 11, 6-5
CRTs, Keyboards, Printers I, 5-19
Curves, Current vs. Voltage 111, 1-4;
111, 3-7
Curves, Voltage vs. Current 1 1 1 , 1-3;
111, 3 - 7
Cycle, Rapping 111, 8-51
Cyclones 111, 5-26
Dampers 11, 5-12
Dampers, Flue Gas I, 4-14
Dampers, Isolation I, 6-28
Data Analysis, Size Distribution 111, 5B-1
Data Review 111, 7-4
Data, Precipitator and Boiler 11, 4-25
Deenergization of Auxiliary Systems TI, 4-35
Deenergization of High Voltage Bus Sections 11, 4-35
Default, Termination for I, 7D-13
Defeat of the System (Key Interlock) I, 6-6
Density, Power 11, 1-4
Deposits, Ash I, 2-35; 11,
2-17
Description of the ESP Model 111, 6-24
Design Coal Properties I, 3-3
Design/Callecting Plate Acceleration, Rapper I, 4-27
Design Factors Affecting ESP Performance I, 2-38; 11,
2-20
Design Gas Velocity I, 2-41; 11,
2-25
Design Margins I, 3-35
Design Methods (Grounding) I, 6-9
Design Philosophy I, 5-1
Design Range, Performance Fuel versus I, 7-6
 SUBJECT INDEX

Design, Collecting Electrode

Design, Discharge Electrode
Design, Electrode System

Design, Hopper
Design, Rapper

Design, Weighted Wire, Rigid Frame, and Rigid

Electrode
Designs, Cold-Side
Designs, Hot-Side
Design Specifications, Performance Oriented
versus
Determine Whether an Internal Inspection Is
Required 111, 7-5
Deutsch-Anderson Equation I, 3-21
Diagnostic Aids, General 111, 7-10
Diagnostic Methods 111, 1-6
Differential Pressure Loads I, 4-25
Direction of Gas Flow, Number of Fields I, 2-46
Discharge Electrode Design I, 4-29
Discharge Electrodes I, 7-44; 11,
1-4; 11, 5-8
Discharge Electrodes and Support System 11, 3-8
Discharge and Collecting Electrode Rapping
Systems
Discharge and Collecting Electrodes,
Inspection of
Distribution Devices, Gas

Distribution, Flow
Distribution, G a s Flow
Distribution, Particle Size

Distribution, Particulate Loading

Distribution, Temperature
Division Walls, Common
Documentation, System
Drop Rod Rappers
Ductwork
Ductwork Arrangement
Ductwork and Expansion Joints
Ductwork/Precipitator Gas Velocities and
Distribution
Dust and Ash Handling Equipment Loads-Hoppers
Dust Loads
Eastern High Sulfur Coal
 SUBJECT

EPA Computer Simulation I, 3-25

EPA Method 17 111, 5A-5
EPA/SRI Computer Simulation I, 3-26
EPS Mass Sampling Methods 111, 5-4
ESP Control Room (BVAC) I , 6-17
ESP Hopper Areas I , 6-15
ESP Inspection Guidelines 11, 5-15
ESP Model, Description of the 111, 6-24
ESP Performance Determination 111, 5-1
ESP Performance Evaluation, A Method for 111, 6-2
ESP Performance, Design Factors Affecting 11, 2-20
ESP Performance, Factors Affecting I , 2-23; I,
2-40; 11, 2-7
ESP Performance, Operating Factors Affecting I , 2-25; 11,
2-7
ESP Roof (Enclosures) I, 6-14
ESP Terminology 11, 1-4
ESPs, Theoretical Simulation of I, 2-9
Eastern High Sulfur Coal I, 2-32; 11,
2 - 14
Economic Comparison Methods, Alternative I, 7-61
Economic Evaluation I, 7-61
Effects of Dry Scrubbers on Precipitators I , 9-1
Efficiency, Penetration 1 1 1 , 5-17
Electrical Controls I, 2-34; 11,
2-16
Electrical Equipment 11, 5-1
Electrical Inspection 11, 4-4
Electrical Insulators, Inspection of 1 1 1 , 4-20
Electrical Operating Points I, 3-19; 111,
3-3
Electrical Performance Evaluation 111, 3-1
Electrical Power Systems I, 5-i
Electrical Resistivity 111, 1-5
Electrical Sectionalization I, 2-50; I ,
4-7; 11, 2-32
Electrical and Control Equipment Considerations I , 5-8
Electrical/Control Features, Specification of I, 5-1
Electrode Systems I, 4-25
Electrode System Design I, 2-39; 11,
2 -2 3
Electrodes, Collecting 11, 5-8
Electrodes, Discharge 11, 1-4; 11,
5-8
Electrostatic Precipitation, Theory of 11, 2-1; 111,
2-1
Electrostatic Precipitator Components 1 1 , 3-1
Electrostatic Precipitator Terminology 11, 1-4; 11,
Appendix A
Emissions, Stack Visible I, 4D-4
Employees, contractor' s I, 7-72
 SUBJECT

Enclosure, Hopper I, 4-39

Enclosures I, 6-14; 1 1 ,
3- 18
Energization of Auxiliary Controls 11, 4-18
Energization of High Voltage Bus Sections 11, 4-18
Energization, Pulse 111, 8-83
Enlargement of Collecting Plate Area 111, 8-91
Environmental Agency Reporting 11, 4-28
EPA/SRI Computer Simulation I, 3-26
Equation, Deutsch Anderson I, 3-21
Equation, Matts-Ohnfeldt I, 3-23
Equipment Configuration 1 1 1 , 8-91
Equipment Reliability 11, 6-1
Evaluation, Investment 1, 7-53
Equipment, Electrical 11, 5-1
Equipment List, Critlcal 11, 6-5
Equipment, Mechanical 1 1 , 5-6
Evaluation, A Method for Precipitator Performanc:e 111, 6-2
Evaluation, Commercial I, 7-56
Evaluation, Economic I, 7-61
Evaluation, Electrical Performance 111, 3-1
Evaluation, Investment I, 7-53
Evaluation, Mechanical Condition 111, 4-1
Evaluation, Performance Warranty I, 7-54
Evaluation, Three Categories of 11, 6-11
Evaluations, Technical Merit 1, 7-54
Examine Actual Electrical Conditions 111, 7-2
Example of Purchaser Provided Technical Data I, 7B
Example of Seller Provided Microprocessor Based
Control System Data
Example of Seller Provided Technical Data
Example Scope of Supply Statement
Exceptions and Negotiations, Treatment of
Excursions, Temperature
Expansion Joints
Expected Performance, Compare Actual with
Factors Affecting ESP Design Performance
Factors Affecting ESP Performance
Factors, Design
Failure Analysis, Summary of
Failure Frequencies of Precipitator Components
Failure Probabilities
Field Leakage Test
Field Performance Tests
Field Velocity Distribution Test
Fields, Number of
Final Analysis and Report
 SUBJECT INDEX

Flow Distribution
Flow Modeling
Flue Gas Characterization
Flue Gas Dampers
Flue Gas Flow
Flue Gas Opacity

Flue Gas Volume Flow

Fluidizing Stones
Fly ash Characteristics
Fly ash Concentration
Fly ash Resistivity

Fly ash Resistivity, Chemical Composition and

Force Ma j eure
Fuel Characteristics
Fuel, Refuse Derived
Fuel Selection/Blending
Fuels Other than Coal
Gas Analysis, Quantitative
Gas Composition
Gas Conditioning
Gas Conditioning, Size Reduction with
Gas Distribution Devices

Gas Flow Direction, Number of Fields

Gas Flow Distribution
Gas Passages, Number of
Gas Sneakage, Untreated
Gas Stream Uniformity
Gas Temperature
Gas Velocities and Distribution, Ductwork/
Precipitator I, 4-4
Gas Velocity, Design I, 2-41; 11,
2-23
Gas Velocity, Precipitator I, 3-9
General Arrangement I, 4 - 1 0
General Diagnostic Aids 111, 7-10
General Grid (Grounding) I, 6-9
GLossary of Terms 11, 1-4; 11,
Appendix A
Ground System 11, 5-6
Grounding (Lightning) I, 6-8
Guide for Interpreting Abnormal Meter Readings 1 1 , 4-24
 SUBJECT INDEX

Hardware, Precipitator Control System

Heater Control, Hopper
Heaters, Hopper
Heaters, Insulator Air Purge
Heating and Ventilation System, Insulator
Compartment
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning ( W A C )
High Sulfur Coal, Eastern
High Voltage Bus Sections, Energization of
High Voltage Bus Sections, Deenergization of
High Voltage Buses, Switches, and Insulators
High Voltage Support Insulators, Enclosures, and
Purge Air System
High Voltage System
Historical Perspective
Hoist, Personnel
Hoists, Monorails/Equipment
- -

Hopper Access
Hopper Aerators
Hopper Areas (Enclosures)
Hopper Design
Hopper Enclosure
Hopper Heater Control
Hopper Heaters
Hopper Level Indicators
Hopper Level Meters
Hopper Materials of Construction
Hopper Pokeholes and Anvils
Hopper Reentrainment
Hopper System, Ash
Hopper Vibration/Fluidizing Stones
Hopper Vibrators
Hoppers I, 4-19
Hoppers and Accessories I, 4-33
Hoppers, Casing and 11, 5-12
Hoppers-Dust and Ash Handling Equipment Loads I, 4-19
Hot-Side Precipitator Designs 11, 1-12
Hot Side versus Cold Side I, 3 - 3 8
Impactors, Cascade 1 1 1 , 5-20
Importance of Effective Operation and
Maintenance Programs
Improvements in Transformer-Rectifier Set Design
In Situ Measurements
Indicators, Hopper Level
Inleakage, Air
Inlet Data Analysis
Inlet Mass Loading
 SUBJECT INDEX

Inlet Particle Size Distribution

Inspect and Test all Rappers
Inspecting and Reporting Internal Condition
Inspection Guidelines, ESP
Inspection and Checkout of System Components
Inspection for Effects of Thermal Expansion
Inspection of Discharge and Collecting Electrodes
Inspection of Electrical Insulators
Inspection of the Precipitator Casing and
Hardware
Inspection of the Rapping System
Inspection, Electrical
Inspection, Internal

Inspection, On-Line
Inspection, Support System
Inspections, Tests and
Installation Considerations
Instrumentation
Instrumentation, Light Scattering
Instrumentation, Troubleshooting
Insulation System, Thermal
Insulation, Thermal
Insulator Air Purge/Heaters
Insulator Compartment - Heating and Ventilation
System
Insulators, High Voltage Support
Insurance Requirements
Integration with Ash Handling
Interfaces with Other Plant Systems
Intensity, Rapper
Internal Access
Internal Condition, Inspection and Reporting
Internal Inspection
Internal vs. External Bracing
Introduction
Introduction, Manual 1
Introduction, Manual I I
Introduction, Manual III
Inventory, Spare Parts
Investment Evaluation
Isolation Dampers
Joints, Expansion
Key Interlock System
Key Interlock System Design
Laboratory Measurements
Lagging
Level Indicators, Hopper
Liability, Limitation of
Light Scattering Instrumentation
Lighting
Lignite, North Dakota
Lime Spray Dryer Process
Limestone Injection Multistage Burners (LIMB)
Modified Boilers
Limitation of Liability
Load Swings and Control Adjustments
Loading Distribution, Particulate
Loading, Inlet Mass
Loading, Mass
Loads, Dust
Loads; Wind, Ice and Snow
Lock Components
Low Load Operation
Maintainability Review of Drawings
Maintenance
Maintenance Drawings and Check Sheets
Maintenance (of ESP)

Maintenance Program
Maintenance Request Form
Maintenance, Preventive
Ma jeure , Force
Management System, Precipitator Control
Management System, Precipitator Power
Manual, Scope of
Margins, Design
Mass Concentration
Mass Concentration Measurement Methods
Mass Loading
Mass Loading, Inlet
Mass Sampling Methods
Mass Sampling, Precipitator Inlet and Outlet
Material Only versus Deliver and Erect Contracts
Material Supply, Concepts for
Material Thickness
Material Type and Thickness
Materials of Construction and Thickness
Materials of Construction, Hopper
Matts-Ohnfeldt Equation
Measurement Methods
Measurement Methods, Mass Concentration
Measurement Methods, Voltage Waveforms and
Measurement Techniques
 SUBJECT

Measurements, In Situ 1 1 1 , 5-24

Measurements, Laboratory 1 1 1 , 5-24
Mechanical Condition Evaluation 1 1 1 , 4-1
Mechanical Equipment 11, 5-6
Mechanical Features, Specification of I, 4-1
Mechanical Sectionalization I, 4-6
Meter Readings, Guide for Interpreting Abnormal IT, 4-24
Meters, Hopper Level 111, 5-3
Meters, Opacity I, 6-18; 1 1 1 ,
5-3
Meters, Secondary Voltage and Current 1 1 1 , 5-2
Meters, Spark Rate 111, 5-2
Method, ASTM 111, 5A-3
Method, Prediction 1 1 1 , 5-33
Methods, Diagnostic 111, 1-6
Methods, Measurement 1 1 1 , 5-22
Mills, Coal I, 2-37; 11,
2-19
Mineral Analyses of Ash iI, 2-8
Miscellaneous Components 11, 3-33
Mixture, Coal-Oi1 I, 8-72
Modeling, Flow I, 4-42
Monorai ls/Equipment Hoists I, 6-22
Motors/Motor Control Centers 11, 5-4
North Dakota Lignite I, 2-31; 1 1 ,
2-12
Nuclei Counters, Condensation 111, 5-29
Number of Chambers I, 4-2
Number of Fields in Direction of Gas Flow I, 2-46; 1 1 ,
2-29
Number of Gas Passages I, 4-2
Number of Precipitators I, 4-1
Number of Rappers 111, 8-51
Number of Transformer-Rectifier Sets 1 1 1 , 8-31
O&M Related Systems, Specification for I, 6-1
Obligations of Contractor I, 7D-5; I,
7D-26
Obligations of Owner I, 7D-6; I,
7D-28
Occupational Safety and Health Act I, 7D-19
Oil-Fired Boilers I, 8-4
On-Line Inspection 11, 4-25
Opacity 111, 1-6;
1 1 1 , 5-56
Opacity Meters I , 6-18; 1 1 1 ,
5-3
Opacity, Flue Gas I, 3-37; 11,
3-35
Openings, Access 1 1 , 5-12
Operating Data, Precipitator Design and 11, 6-10
Operating Factors 11, 2-6
 SUBJECT INDEX

Operating Factors Affecting ESP Performance

Operating Points, Electrical

Operation
Operation Routine
Operation and Maintenance Programs, Importance of
Operation, Low Load
Optimization of Controls

Outage - Internal Inspection/Action/Report

Outlet Data Analysis
Overview of Principles of Precipitator Design
Owner, Obligations of
Parameter Selection
Particle Size Distribution

Particle Size Distribution, Inlet

Particulate Characteristics
Particulate Emissions Testing
Particulate Loading Distribution
Particulate Manual Sampling
Patents
Penetration/Efficiency
Performance Determination, ESP
Performance Fuel versus Design Range
Performance Oriented versus Design Specifications
Performance Tests
Performance Warranty Evaluation
Performance, Design Factors Affecting
Performance, Factors Affecting
Performance, Operating Factors Affecting
Performance, Upgrading
Personnel Entry, Cooling and Purging for
Personnel Hoist
Physics and Principles of Operation
Plate Area, Collecting
Plate Height, Collecting
Plates, Collecting
Plate Spacing, Collecting
Pokeholes and Anvils, Hopper
Power Consumption
Power Density
Power Distribution Equipment
Power Management System/Supervisory Control
System
Power Supplies and Controls
 SUBJECT INDEX

Power Supply
Power Systems, Electrical
Power Units
Power-Off/Power-Reduced Rapping
Pre-Test Site Survey
Pre-startup
Precautions, Safety
Precipitation Process
Precipitator Arrangement
Precipitator Casing and Hardware, Inspection of
Precipitator Clearances
Precipitator Control Management System
Precipitator Control System Hardware
Precipitator Control System Philosophy
Precipitator Design and Operating Data
Precipitator Design, Overview of Principles of
Precipitator Gas Velocity
Precipitator Inlet and Outlet Mass Sampling
Precipitator Operation Safety Precautions
Precipitator Performance Calculation
Precipitator Performance Evaluation, A Method for
Precipitator Power Management System
Precipitator She11
Precipitator Size Selection
Precipitator Sizing Models
Precipitator Survey
Precipitator and Boiler Data
frecipitators, Number of I, 4-1
Prediction Method 111, 5-34
Preparation of Commercial Terms and Conditions I, 7-46
Preparation of Technical Specifications I, 7-7
Pressure Drop I, 4D-6
Pressure Loads, Differential I, 4-25
Pre-startup 11, 4-1
Pretest Site Survey 11, 6 - 2 0
Preventive Maintenance 11, 6-7
Preventive Maintenance Checklist 11, 6-9
Principles of Precipitator Design, Overview of I, 2-1
Probabilities, Failure 11, 6-1
Problems, Symptomatic 111, 7 - 1 0
Procedure, Air Load Test 11, 4-5
Procurement Aspects (Key Interlock) 1, 6-7
Profile, Velocity 11, 4-12
Program/Evaluation, Testing 11, 6-8
Properties, Design Coal I, 3-3
Proximate Analyses 11, 2-8
Pulse Energization 111, 8-83
 SUBJECT INDEX

Purchasing Process
Purge Air System
Quality, Coal

Quantitative Gas Analysis

Rapper Control

Rapper Design

Rapper Design/Discharge Electrode Acceleration

Response
Rapper Intensity
Rappers

Rappers and Controls

Rappers, Drop Rod
Rappers, Inspect and Test
Rappers, Number of
Rapping Acceleration
Rapping Cycle
Rapping System, Inspection of
Rapping Systems
Rapping Systems, Discharge and Collecting
Electrode
Rapping Tests

Rapping, Power-Off/Power-Reduced
Rating, Transformer-Rectifier Set
Ratio, Aspect
Recommended Spare Parts List
Record Keeping, Administration and
Reentrainment, Hopper
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
Reliability, Equipment
Reliability of Operation (Key Interlock)
Reporting, Environmental Agency
Requirements, Insurance
Requiremects, Structural
Resistivity, Chemical Composition and Fly ash

Resistivity, Electrical
Resistivity, Fly ash

Review Available Plant Data

Rigid Electrode Design
Rigid Frame Design
Roof, ESP
Routine Operation
 INDEX

Safety and Health Act, ~ccupational

Safety Precautions

Sample Ports
Sampling Methods, EPS Mass
Sampling Methods, Mass
Scope of the Manual

Secondary Voltage and Current Meters

Sectionalization
Sectionalization, Electrical

Sectionalization, Mechanical
Seismic Considerations
Sets, Transformer Rectifier
Shipping and Storage
Shutdown
Simulation of ESPs, Theoretical
Simulation, EPA/SRI Computer
Size Distribution Data Analysis
Size Estimating Techniques
Size Reduction with Gas Conditioning
Size Selection, Precipitator
Sizing Models, Precipitator
Sizing Practices, Contemporary
Slide Bearings
Sliding Bearings
Sneakage, Untreated Gas
Spacing, Collecting Plate
Spare Casing Capacity
Spare Parts Inventory
Spare Parts ii st, Recommenced
Spark Rate Meters
Special Considerations (Grounding)
Special Tools
Specific Collection Area (SCA)
Specification Preparation, inquiry, Proposal
Evaluation and Coctract Administration
Specification Requirements, (Access Doors . . . )
Specification Requirements (Enciosures)
Specification Requirements (Grounding)
Specification Requirements (Key Interlock)
Specification for O&M Related Systems
Specification of Electrical/Control Features
Specification of Mechanical Features
Specifications, Performance Oriented versus
Design
Stack Visible Emissions
Startup
Structural Failure
 SUBJECT INDEX

Structural Requirements
Supplier Qualification
Supplies and Controls, Power
Supply, Power

Support Insulator Material, Suspension System and

Support System, Coliecting Electrodes and
Support System, Discharge Electrodes and
Support System Inspection
Suspension System and Support Insulator Material
Switches and Insulators
Symptomatic Problems
System Architecture
System Components, Inspection and Check of
System Design, Electrode

System Design, Key Interlock

System Documentation
System, Ash Handling
System, Ash Hopper
System, Collecting Electrodes and Support
System Design, Electrode
System, Discharge Electrodes and Support
System, Electrical Power
System, Electrode

System, Ground
System, High Voltage
System, Key Interlock
System, Power Management System/Supervisory
Control
System, Precipitator Control Management

System, Precipitator Power Management

System, Purge Air
System, Rapping
System, T/R Removal
System, Tumbling Hammer
System, Thermal Insulation
System, Voltage Control
T/R Removal System
Technical Merlt Evaluations
Technical Specifications, Preparation of
Techniques, Measurements
Temperature Considerations
Temperature Distribution
Temperature Excursions
Temperature, Gas
 SUBJECT

Termination for Default I, 7D-13

Terminology, Electrostatic Precipitator 11, 1-3; 11,
Appendix A
Terms, Glossary of 11, 1-3; 11,
Appendix A
Test Code, ASME 111, 5A-5
Test, Accelerated Life I, 4B-3
Test, Field Leakage I , 4-45
Test, Field Velocity Distribution I, 4-46; I,
4C-1
Test Procedure, Air Load 11, 4-5
Testing I, 4-41
Testing Program/Evaluation 11, 6-8
Testing, Category 1 11, 6-10
Testing, Category 2 11, 6-18
Testing, Category 3 11, 6-22
Testing, Particulate Emissions I, 4D-1
Tests and Inspections 1, 5-20; I,
7-73
Tests, Field Leakage r , 4-45
Tests, Field Performance I, 4-46; I,
4D-1
Tests, Rapping I, 4-44; I,
4B-1
Theoretical Simulation of ESPs I, 2-9
Theory of Electrostatic Precipitation 11, 2-1; 111,
2-1
Thermal Expansion, Inspection for Effects of 11, 4-19
Thermal Insulation I, 4-40; 11,
5-13
Thermal Insulation System I, 4-40
Thickness, Material I , 4-27
Three Categories for Precipitator Evaluation 11, 6-11
Transformer Rectifier Sets, Number of 111, 8-31
Transformer-Rectifier Sets I , 5-8
Transformer-Rectifier Set Rating 111, 8-27
Transformer, Rectifiers/Linear Reactors 11, 5-1
Transmissorneters, Conventional 111, 5-6
Treatment Time 1 , 4-10
Treatment of Exceptions and Negotiations I, 7-47
Troubleshooting Guide 1 1 1 , 7-1
Troubleshooting Instrumentation 111, 5-2
Tumbling Hammer Systems 11, 5-7
Ultimate Analyses 11, 2-8
Uniformity, Gas Stream 111, 8-9
Untreated G a s Sneakage 111, 8-21
Upgrading Performance 111, 8-1
Vacuum Cleaning Systems I , 6-23
Variability, Coal I, 2-25; 11,
2-8
Velocity, Precipitator Gas I, 3 - 9
 SUBJECT

Velocity Profile
Vibrator Control
Vibrators, Hopper

Voltage Control System

Voltage Controls, Automatic

Voltage versus Current Curves

Voltage Waveforms and Measurement Methods
Volume Flow, Flue Gas
Warranties
Water Washing
Weighted Wire Design
Weighted Wire, Rigid Frame, and Rigid Electrode
Design
Wind, Ice and Snow Loads
Wyoming Coal
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