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EXPLORING CONSUMER MOTIVATIONS FOR CREATING USER-

GENERATED CONTENT

Terry Daugherty, Matthew S. Eastin, Laura Bright

ABSTRACT: The advent of Web 2.0 technologies has enabled the efficient creation and distribution of user-generated content
(UGC), resulting in vast changes in the online media landscape. For instance, the proliferation of UGC has made a strong impact
on consumers, media suppliers, and marketing professionals while necessitating research in order to understand both the short
and long-term implications of this media content. This exploratory study (n = 325) seeks to investigate consumer consumption
and creation of UGC and the attitudinal factors that contribute to these actions. The data confirm the established relationship
between attitude and behavior and indicate attitude serves as a mediating factor between the use and creation of UGC. With
regard to the creation of UGC, the ego-defensive and social functions of attitude were found to have the most explanatory power.

During the past several decades, the media landscape has traditionally have identified audiences, with a lesser focus on
evolved into a complex and dynamic conglomeration of both examining the theoretical effects of media and a greater focus
traditional and interactive media that seek to serve the needs on understanding why and how consumers use media
of today's fast-paced lifestyles. While traditional media (Severin and Tankard 1992). Thus, it is imperative for
struggle under the weight of increased segmentation, the researchers to gain a better understanding of the impact of
interactive environment provides the capacity to capitalize on UGC within the media environment, specifically why users
this fragmented market by offering niche media vehicles that create such content. To date though, little research has
give consumers a voice amidst the whirlwind of information investigated UGC among either the users or the creators of
and advertising. In the online world, these niche media this type of media. In response, this exploratory study
markets increasingly are driven less by publishers and more examines the core relationship between a consumer's
by user-generated content (UGC). User-generated content motivational sources for creating UGC and how these sources
refers to media content created or produced by the general affect perceptions of UGC.
public rather than by paid professionals and primarily
LITERATURE REVIEW
distributed on the Internet. Although the creation and
dissemination of content has been a constant for hundreds of Media Evolution and the Internet
years, the potential for an ordinary consumer to communicate
Mainstream media, including television, radio, and print
with and influence a mass audience was only recently put
publications, have moved through evolutionary lifecycles
within reach given the advent of Web 2.0 technologies.
since their inception. Similarly, the online media landscape
Examples of prominent Web 2.0-based Web sites that support
has evolved into a robust information space that provides
the creation and consumption of UGC include YouTube,
both marketers and consumers with an outlet for efficient,
MySpace, Facebook, Wikipedia, StupidVideos, Flickr,
timely communication. As increasing numbers of consumers
Blogger, and personal Web pages, among many others.
direct their attention away from traditional media and toward
With the explosion of Web 2.0 technologies, UGC creates a interactive media, marketers confront the challenge of
plethora of niche markets within the media landscape that integrating their offerings with those created by consumers
attract more than 69 million users and generate more than themselves. The past several decades reveal a steady decline in
$450 million in advertising revenue (Verna 2007). As a result, newspaper readership and magazine circulation, and though
the online information market continues to shift toward a the television market continues to grow in terms of overall
user-centric model and away from the conventional media viewership, it also suffers a proliferation of program offerings,
model, characterized as publisher-centric. Consumers today leading to fragmented audiences and decreasing program
are active and in charge of their media experiences, making it ratings (Anderson 2005).
more important than ever to understand motivational factors
Amid an apparent mass media meltdown, the Internet has
that drive media consumption (McQuail 2000). This power
emerged as an outlet in which traditional forms of media
shift challenges media theorists to change the way they

Journal of Interactive Advertising, Vol 8 No 2 (Spring 2008), pp. 16‐25. 
© 2010 American Academy of Advertising, All rights reserved 
ISSN 1525‐2019 
17  Journal of Interactive Advertising  Spring 2008
 

entertainment can converge and offer consumers content at motivations (Eastin and Daugherty 2005). These internal
the time and place most convenient for them. Media scholars motivations represent functional sources designed to meet
acknowledge that traditional media models of communication specific consumer needs and serve as the foundation for
may no longer adequately represent digital media, for which attitude formation, ultimately influencing behavior (O'Keefe
"convergence" may serve as an increasingly more accurate 2002). A person's attitude represents a psychological
representation (Perry 2002). With online usage expanding tendency, expressed by evaluating a particular object, and can
annually, the Internet has come to serve as a media outlet for serve various motivations (Eagly and Chaiken 1993). In terms
an overwhelming majority of American adults (i.e., 71%) of media use, a consumer's willingness to experience UGC
(Verna 2007). Although traditional media are nowhere near depends on his or her attitude toward the consumption or
extinction, trends clearly are changing, such that consumers creation of UGC. However, because individual motivations
are in greater control of their media consumption, and can vary greatly, consumers may decide to consume, or more
audiences face the opportunity to make media content choices specifically create, UGC for different reasons, which is
themselves rather than rely on traditional gatekeepers (Perry precisely the justification for this study.
2002).
Katz's (1960) seminal work on functional theory is considered
The emergence of the Internet, by its very nature, has by many essential for understanding the complex
enhanced content and file sharing applications, which in turn motivational underpinnings and functions of attitude.
have shaped the creation and distribution mechanisms for Functional theory states that attitudes serve various
UGC. Over time, the Internet has become a highly motivations, depending on the purpose, such that one's
personalized information space in which consumers can tailor behavior becomes a function of their attitude toward that
their media exposure to their specific needs and desires behavior (O'Keefe 2002). The basis of this theory centers
(Liang, Lai, and Ku 2006). Tailored exposures become around the view that to influence behavior, we must
possible through Web-based applications that aggregate understand its motivational source (i.e., attitude). Overall,
information and UGC according to their subscriber's theorists widely accept functional theory as a robust
specifications, which again indicates consumer-centric media framework for recognizing diverse motivational sources
exposures rather than publisher-centric ones. As the (Abelson and Prentice 1989; Herek 1987; Locander and
consumption, creation, and distribution of UGC continues to Spivey 1978). Katz's (1960) typology posits that any given
evolve, content aggregation tools and Web 2.0 applications attitude serves one or more of four distinct personality
built on Really Simple Syndication (RSS) technology will functions: utilitarian, knowledge, ego-defensive, and value-
become more usable and accessible to consumers, helping expressive functions. The utilitarian function acknowledges
create a manageable information space that is both that people are motivated to gain rewards and avoid
customized and relevant. The ability to publish content in the punishment from their environment. Specifically, this
online environment has been possible since the inception of function represents attitudes based on self-interest. In terms
the Internet, because personal publication mechanisms are of UGC, consumers served by this motivational source create
inherent to the structure of this information space. However, UGC primarily for their own personal incentives. In contrast,
constant, organic growth and change is what leads to an the knowledge function recognizes that people are driven by
information explosion online and the creation of UGC. the need to gain information to organize and understand their
Ultimately, a balance of power between message producers environment. That is, we are motivated by the need to
and media audiences has been lacking for years, and UGC understand and make sense of our experiences. Creators of
potentially represents a power shift within the industry. The UGC therefore would produce UGC because it helps them
trend toward greater control means media theorists must understand their environment, the topic at hand, and/or
focus more on understanding audience motivations for ultimately themselves, because they feel a sense of intrinsic
consuming media content as users are confronted with more wisdom. The value-expressive function entails attitudes that
choices today than ever before (Severin and Tankard 1992). allow people to express or relate their self-concepts and
values, which enhance one's image in the eyes of the world
Motivational Sources for Creating UGC
through matching moral beliefs. Thus, creators of UGC feel
Media consumption represents a deliberate, active behavior in inherently gratified with a sense of self-esteem because they
which audiences seek content according to their internal have created content and become members of an online
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community that shares the principles they consider States engages in daily media consumption, media researchers
important. It validates and helps them feel good about who often end up comparing attitudes and experiences with media
they are and what they believe about the world. Finally, the (i.e., behavior) using a reciprocal relationship perspective
ego-defensive function represents motivations designed to (Perry 2002). According to Myers (1998), the attitude-
protect people from internal insecurities or external threats, >behavior relationship can range from nonexistent to very
which serve the internal function of defending one's self- strong, such that attitude about a given object determines the
image. In this case, UGC creators participate to minimize person's interactions with that object. Although varying
their own self-doubts, feel a sense of belonging, and possibly degrees of strength can exist in the attitude->behavior
reduce guilty feelings about not contributing. relationship, Fazio (1986) identifies three key components for
the development of an attitude: (1) affection, (2) cognition,
Although these four functions remain the core constructs for
and (3) behavioral intention. The affective and cognitive
understanding attitudinal motivations, contemporary
components of an attitude center around a consumer's
researchers continue to clarify and explore additional
feelings, beliefs, and ultimate evaluation of the object, whereas
contributions. For example, Smith (1973) proposes an
the behavioral component accounts for the action, if any, the
extension of the value-expressive function, focused on the
consumer takes. As it relates to UGC, a consumer's attitude
motivation for social adjustment, in which people express
derives from both the perceived value of the content and how
attitudes or behavior that are agreeable to others. The
it relates to his or her existing beliefs and feelings (i.e.,
function also has evolved to include motivations derived from
motivational sources).
relationships with others and recognizes the distinction
between internal beliefs and the desire for external To parse out the development of attitudes and their
relationships, independent of moral values. In particular, the relationship to behavior, Fazio and Towles-Schwen (1999)
social function compels people to seek opportunities to present an integrated framework of the attitude behavior
interact with friends or participate in activities perceived process called the "MODE" model, which classifies two
favorably by important others (Clary et al. 1998). In terms of processes that guide the attitude-behavior relationship:
the creation of UGC, the social function would be a strong spontaneous processing and deliberative processing. In a
motivator, because concepts of sharing and interacting situation that involves spontaneous processing, consumers
socially are widespread. In turn, UGC creators and consumers react and form an attitude based on their "perceptions of the
might be motivated by this function because of how their object in the immediate situation" (Fazio and Towles-Schwen
important reference groups would perceive their membership 1999, p. 97). Generally, this immediate situation depends on
in such an online community. environmental triggers that cue a memory for the consumer
and indicate an impending behavior. Any resulting behavior
Even though each functional source may make independent
indicates the consumer's attitude at that given time and
motivational contributions to the formation of one's attitude,
depends on the immediacy of the situation, as well as the
the theoretical assertion remains that a person's attitude
accessibility of memories about such a situation (i.e., personal
results from a multitude of origins and likely is driven by a
theory). In contrast, the deliberative processing approach does
combination of sources (Katz 1960). This study attempts to
not focus on preexisting attitudes provoked by environmental
expand the understanding of the creation of UGC by
cues but instead draws on the raw data present in a given
investigating consumer's motivations and subsequent
situation. With deliberative processing, people form their
attitudes from within the functional theory framework. We
attitudes on the basis of a data evaluation; specifically, "it
thus propose:
involves consideration of the specific attitude object and the
H1: A consumer's functional source of motivation relates potential consequences of engaging in a particular behavior"
positively to his or her attitude toward creating UGC (Fazio and Towles-Schwen, 1999 p. 100). Although it is
content. difficult to imagine a situation in which personal theories of
action do not apply to a certain degree, the deliberative
Attitude -> Behavior Relationship
approach is decidedly more applicable to UGC, because it
The motivational sources driving media consumption depend involves data-driven decisions based on aggregated content.
on the formation of positive or negative attitudes toward a Specific objects requiring evaluation change rapidly when
medium. However, because virtually everyone in the United examining UGC, but the act of consuming such content
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results from a consumer's attitude toward such an activity and Figure 1. Consumer Attitude->Behavior Relationship
the technological components with which he or she interacts Involving UGC
to obtain such content. Given a positive interaction with a
given piece of UGC, a consumer's attitude toward its
consumption and creation should become more positive.
The deliberative processing route lends itself well to the
consumption of UGC, whereas the spontaneous processing of
attitude objects applies better to the creation of UGC.
Spontaneous processing of attitudes relies on personal
theories of action associated with environmental triggers that
Behavior ultimately is influenced by the attitude of the
cue memories, which suggest an attitude and course of action
consumers who experience it; therefore, we must explicate a
needed. The act of creating UGC therefore depends on
more complete conceptualization of the elements of such
attitude toward both previous experiences with UGC and the
attitudes. Understanding how a consumer's attitude
immediacy of the situation that involves its creation. In this
influences his or her behavior may have significant
regard, consumers must have positive attitudes toward UGC
explanatory power in distinguishing the relationship between
in general to prompt their positive reaction to a situation in
the consumption and creation of UGC.
which they can create their own UGC. Provided a positive cue
exists, we expect the likelihood of UGC creation to increase as H2: A consumer's attitude toward UGC mediates the
positive exposures to UGC increases. relationship between his or her consumption and creation
A consumer's attitude also may affect both the creation and of UGC.
consumption of UGC independently, though we know little METHOD
about how attitude may explain this relationship.
Sample and Procedure
Nevertheless, research has attempted to clarify how attitudes
moderate the relationship between exposure to an attitude A survey was administered to an opt-in subject pool recruited
object and ultimate behavior, but few studies address how for Web-based research (i.e., online panel). Data was gathered
attitude might mediate such a relationship. Spivey, Munson, from 325 participants over a seven-day period with 1,000 e-
and Locander (1983) seek to determine which sources of mail invitations sent on day one, 1,500 on day three, and 500
attitude affect the relationship between exposure to on day 5. The survey was closed once 325 completed surveys
advertising and purchase intention by manipulating the were recorded (day seven). Because a purposive sample was
advertising content to serve different aspects of Katz's (1960) selected based on sample size, response rate was not
functional sources of attitude. They conclude that messages calculated since the survey was closed after being open for the
are more likely to induce attitude change if they match the designated duration. However, the completion rate, defined as
primary functional factor that determines a consumer's those who completed the survey divided by those who
attitude. According to their research, a consumer's attitude accessed it, was 77%.
toward a given object depends on its relationship with the
DESIGN
consumer's "primary functional profile" (Spivey, Munson, and
Locander 1983, p.267). Therefore, a consumer's attitude An 82-item questionnaire was developed and pre-tested on a
toward UGC should derive partially from how well UGC small sample of academic professionals to ensure clarity. In
maps to his or her functional attitude schema. That is, we addition, because UGC is an emerging form of media content,
propose a connection between a consumer's attitude toward a conceptual definition was provided as a reference for
consuming and creating UGC. Even though these behavior respondents to interpret the questionnaire:
types are distinct, the reciprocal nature of the attitude-
User-generated content (UGC) refers to media content that is
>behavior relationship suggests that a consumer's reinforced
created or produced by the general public rather than by paid
attitude mediates the relationship between the behaviors, such
professionals and is primarily distributed on the Internet.
that consumption of UGC precedes creation, as we depict in
This includes such online content as digital video, blogging,
Figure 1.
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podcasting, mobile phone photography, wikis, and user- people, is a great way to make new friends, and creating UGC
forum posts, among others. makes them feel like a part of a community (Clary et al.,
1994). In order to minimize response bias, all subsequent
Measured Variables. Measures include self-reported media
items were randomly ordered.
usage, attitude toward UGC, type of UGC experienced, how
often respondents create UGC, the five functional sources of RESULTS
attitude toward UGC, and basic demographic variables.
Data Analyses
Media Use. Media use (i.e., consuming UGC) was recorded
The sample consists of 50.5% men and 49.5% women with the
via a self-reported ‘average time spent per day' item, as well as
largest portion (25.8%) falling between the ages of 35 to 44
creating UGC. To assess the type of UGC most commonly
years (M = 44.3). Most respondents classified themselves as
experienced, prevalent categories previously identified were
Caucasian (82.5%) while attending some college (32.9%) with
selected (i.e., videos, pictures, audio, blogs, drawings,
a household income ranging from $20,001 to $40,000 (28.3%).
discussion forums, personal Web sites, and wikis).
For a complete profile of the sample characteristics see the
Attitude toward UGC. Attitude toward UGC was measured appendix.
using an established four-item seven-point semantic
Eighty-seven percent of respondents reported experiencing at
differential scale (unpleasant/pleasant,
least one type of UGC while spending on average 55.66
unappealing/appealing, unpleasant/pleasant, not
minutes each day consuming this type of media content. To
enjoyable/enjoyable) with higher values represent a more
parse consumption out further, respondents were asked to
positive attitude (Bruner, James, and Hensel 2001).
delineate which types of UGC they consume on a regular
Function Sources. Functional sources of attitude were basis. The findings reveal that viewing pictures online
derived from established scales found in the literature and (51.1%), watching videos (48.9%), and browsing personal web
restated to match the context of this study. Each of the items sites (25.5%) are the most common categories of UGC
were seven-point Likert type scales anchored by strongly experienced (Table 1). In turn, UGC creators represented
disagree (1) and strongly agree (7). To assess the utilitarian 21.84% of the sample and spend on average 112 minutes, or
function, respondents were asked to indicate their level of just under two hours, creating UGC on a typical day. The
agreement with three-items focused on identifying whether creators of UGC also exhibited interesting patterns in their
they create UGC because it benefits them personally, because creation of UGC: 44% have contributed pictures to the UGC
it helps them get what they want, and because it allows them community, roughly 41% have created a blog, 46.5% have
to get as much out of the Internet as they can (Bosnjak and participated in a discussion forum, and 42.3% have created
Batinic, 2002; Gastil, 1992). In turn, the knowledge and ego- their own website (Table 1). Thus, most UGC content
defensive functions were measured by scales adopted from creation appears to be in the realm of text and photos with
Clary et al (1998). The three knowledge items used measured video, audio, and drawing creations slightly less popular.
respondent's agreement with whether they learn more about
Overall, respondent's reported a moderately favorable attitude
things when creating UGC, whether they are able to gain a
toward UGC overall (M = 4.2, SD = 1.38,α=.93). Furthermore,
new perspective on things when creating UGC, and whether
the knowledge (M = 4.45, SD = 1.36) and social (M = 4.36, SD
creating UGC enables them to learn things through direct,
= 1.39) motivational sources were identified as the most
hands on experience. The three-item ego-defensive measures
favorable descriptively (Table 2). All functional sources of
assessed agreement with the notion that creating UGC makes
attitude measures were tested for internal consistency and a
them feel important, increases their self-esteem, and makes
specified factor structure based on theory-driven indicators
them feel needed. Subsequently, the three-item value-
using principal components factor analysis. The analysis was
expressive function was measured by ascertaining
performed in order to verify that the items used were indeed
respondent's level of agreement with statements such as
measuring different functions. Reliability assessment was
creating UGC is consistent with my most basic beliefs, I feel
conducted using Cronbach's Alpha with each scale (Social α =
morally obligated to create UGC, and creating UGC reflects
.93; Ego-Defensive α = .96; Knowledge α = .95; Utilitarian α =
my moral beliefs (Gastil, 1992). Finally, the social function of
.85; Value-Expressive α = .87) exceeding the generally
attitude was measured by assessing three-items focused on the
accepted guideline of .70 (Hair et al. 1998).
agreement with whether creating UGC is a good way to meet
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Table 1. Consumption of UGC by Type for Consumers and with the independent variable. When these conditions are
Creators of UGC met, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable also must be lesser in the third step than in the
second step (Baron and Kenny 1986).
The first analysis indicates that consumption positively
influences a consumer's attitude toward UGC (β = .39, t(324)
= 7.52, p < .01, R2 = .15). Furthermore, consumption
positively influences the creation of UGC (β = .33, t(70) =
2.93, p < .01,R2= .11). Finally, the third analysis indicates that
attitude (β = .25, t(2,70) = 2.01, p < .05) mediates the
relationship between the consumption and creation
Table 2. Attitude toward UGC Across Functional Sources dimensions of UGC (F(5,70) = 6.51, p < .01; R2 = .16).
for Creators of UGC Accordingly, the effect of consumption on the creation of
UGC weakens when included in the analysis with attitude (β
= .23, t(2,70) = 1.88, p > .05). Thus, a consumer's attitude
serves as a mediator in the relationship between consumption
and creation of UGC, in support of the hypothesis.
DISCUSSION
Hypothesis Testing
As UGC becomes more prevalent, understanding why
Hypothesis one posits that a consumer's functional source of
consumers are drawn to create content becomes increasingly
motivation relates positively to his or her attitude toward
important, especially as the media industry moves toward a
creating UGC content. Using multiple regression to test this
user-centric model of consumption. Identifying motivational
relationship within the realm of UGC, we find significance
sources that influence the formation of consumer attitudes
(F(5,70) = 5.19, p < .01; R2 = .29), in support of the
toward UGC also may result in a more robust predictive
hypothesis. However, when examining the contribution of
model of audience behavior, which is increasingly important
each individual function, we find significant relationships for
to both scholars and industry professionals. As a result, it is
only three of the five motivational sources. Specifically,
imperative to gain an understanding of how consumer
creators of UGC rely predominantly on the ego-defensive
attitudes interact with motivational sources for the creation of
function (β = .42, t(5,70) = 2.38, p < .05) and social function
UGC to recognize how such content might benefit advertisers
(β = .34, t(5,70) = 2.54, p < .01) as their motivational sources
and marketers.
when forming attitudes toward UGC. In contrast, a negative
relationship was discovered with the value-expressive The ego-defensive and social functional sources contribute
function (β = -.43, t(5,70) = -2.89, p < .01) and no significant significantly to attitudes formulated about the creation of
relationships for the utilitarian (β = .17, t(5,70) = 1.26, p > .05) UGC. The ego-defensive function specifically compels people
and knowledge (b = -.07, t(5,70) = -.48, p > .05) functions in to protect themselves from internal insecurities and external
contributing to participants' attitude toward UGC creation. threats, and the creation of UGC in this sense helps
consumers minimize their self-doubts and feel a sense of
Hypothesis two states that a consumer's attitude toward UGC community. The social function assists consumers in seeking
should mediate the relationship between consumption and out activities that are perceived as favorable by important
creation. To determine whether attitude mediates the others and gives them the opportunity to associate with
relationship between the consumption and creation of UGC, friends. In relation to the creation of UGC, consumers engage
an analysis was conducted as specified by Baron and Kenny in such actions to connect with others and feel important.
(1986). To establish mediation, (1) the consumption of UGC Even though we identify a negative relationship between the
must positively affect the mediator (attitude toward UGC); (2) value-expressive function and a consumer's attitude toward
consumption of UGC must positively affect the dependent UGC, this is not necessarily a surprising result given the
variable (creating UGC); and (3) the mediator must positively conceptual construct. Value expressiveness reflects internal
affect the dependent variable when regressed in conjunction moral beliefs, often associated with serious or controversial
22  Journal of Interactive Advertising  Spring 2008
 

topics and issues (e.g., religion, political positions). However, interpreting the findings. For example, a purposive sample
most types of UGC offer entertainment, focused on humor was used that does not represent the Internet population as a
and light-hearted topics (Verna 2007). This claim is not to whole. Although strong consideration was taken in the choice
suggest that content reflecting moral beliefs is not created and of an online panel to collect data for this study, little control
distributed online but rather that this type of content tends to was given to the researchers in terms of sampling.
be professionally produced. Nevertheless, the objective of this research was not to
generalize findings to the entire online panel universe but
One unforeseen result is the noticeable difference between
rather to explore the relationships among the proposed
UGC creation and consumption behavior. Our findings
theoretical constructs. In addition, another limitation is the
indicate that consumers are substantially more likely to create
extremely broad definition of UGC used in this study. In
blogs, post within discussion forums, and construct Web sites
considering this definition, it is possible that respondents
than simply to consume these forms of UGC. In contrast,
could have over-reported consumption and creation of UGC.
UGC audiences are more inclined to watch videos, view
pictures, listen to audio, and visit wiki sites when experiencing CONCLUSIONS
UGC rather than when creating such content. These findings
This study attempts to expand the knowledge of UGC by
are intriguing in the sense that they suggest different
testing the motivations for creating UGC. This framework is
motivations or expected outcomes associated with specific
important to both scholars and practitioners because the
behaviors. Although content control remains a strong
Internet can serve as a more powerful medium than
advantage of the Internet, UGC users appear more inclined to
traditional media, in the sense that consumers now may
treat these vehicles like traditional sources and adopt a passive
consume, interact with, control, create, and distribute media
approach. In contrast, UGC creators strive toward self-
content. As UGC becomes more prevalent, identifying the
expression by engaging in behaviors that provide them with a
motivational reasons for creating such media also becomes
voice or showcase their individual thoughts (e.g., blogs,
increasingly important. Therefore, understanding consumer
forums, personal Web sites). These differences also may
attitudes toward UGC, especially motivational sources, should
simply reflect the impact of individual skill or self-efficacy.
result in a better model of behavior, which is increasingly
For example, the creation of videos, production of music, and
important to researchers focused on Internet marketing.
acquisition of necessary knowledge to post a wiki require
more aptitude than simply using a computer keyboard (i.e., as From a theoretical perspective, we offer what Calder, Phillips,
required by an online discussion forum). Nevertheless, the and Tybout (1981) refer to as an "effects application" of
differences between these two activities demand more theory. That is, the observed data help identify functional
investigation to provide a more thorough understanding. sources of motivation for creating UGC rather than
specifically assessing the status of or extending an existing
In addition, these findings confirm the relationship between a
theoretical framework. It is not that the findings fail to
consumer's attitude and behavior toward a given attitude
enhance our understanding of functional theory (Katz 1960);
object (i.e., consumption and creation of UGC). Determining
rather the purpose is to examine a current phenomenon
this positive relationship is critical as we attempt to
through an established theoretical framework instead of
investigate the effects of the consumption and creation of
testing a theoretical framework to provide a general
UGC on both consumer behavior and marketing efforts. This
understanding of the world (Calder and Tybout 1999).
relationship suggests that as a consumer's attitudes toward
Research conducted from this perspective relies on the notion
UGC strengthens, the consumption and creation of such
of theoretical explication to verify and replicate previous
content increases, while being mediated by attitude. This
research in different contexts (Chaffee 1996). Unquestionably,
finding spotlights the importance of creating positive
the confirmation of ego-defensive, social, and value-
customer experiences with UGC, in terms of both products
expressive functional sources of motivation and their
offered and content provided by marketers to promote goods
contributions to the attitude formation toward creating UGC
and services through UGC.
offers a positive theoretical affirmation. The next step is to
Any study contains inherent limitations that affect the overall identify how these motivational sources differ in affecting the
validity and reliability of the results. With regard to this consumption of UGC and whether additional sources exist.
research, a few limitations should be considered when
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Furthermore, the managerial implications of this research are and continued work must verify and validate these results to
immediate as the ability to develop brand relationships via provide a full understanding of the impact of UGC.
social experiences through UGC, and the means to deliver
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in a new and unexplored area of online consumer behavior,
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APPENDIX : RESPONDENT PROFILE
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Myers, David G. (1998) Social Psychology, 9th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill. Terry Daugherty (Ph.D., Michigan State University) is an
Assistant Professor in the Department of Advertising and Co-
O'Keefe, Daniel J. (2002), Persuasion: Theory & Research 2d Director of the Media Research Lab
ed.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. <http://mediaresearch.communication.utexas.edu/> at The
University of Texas at Austin. His research focuses on
25  Journal of Interactive Advertising  Spring 2008
 

understanding consumer psychology by investigating


strategic, social, and technological issues involving the mass
media with work appearing in the Journal of Advertising,
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Journal of
Consumer Psychology, Journal of Interactive Advertising,
Journal of Interactive Marketing, and the International
Journal of Internet Marketing and Advertising, among
numerous other scholarly publications. Email:
Terry.Daugherty@mail.utexas.edu.
Matthew S. Eastin (Ph.D., Michigan State University) is an
Associate Professor in the Department of Advertising and Co-
Director of the Media Research Lab
<http://mediaresearch.communication.utexas.edu/> at The
University of Texas at Austin. Dr. Eastin1s research focuses on
investigating information processing as well as the social and
psychological factors associated with new media behavior
including game play involvement, media adoption, e-
commerce, and e-health. Dr. Eastin1s work can be found in
the Journal of Communication, Communication Research,
Human Communication Research, Journal of Broadcasting &
Electronic Media, CyberPsychology & Behavior, Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, and Computers in
Human Behavior, to name a few. Email:
Matt.Eastin@mail.utexas.edu.
Laura Bright (Ph.D. Candidate., University of Texas at
Austin) is a doctoral student in the Department of
Advertising at The University of Texas at Austin. Her
research interests focus on interactive media, digital content
management and understanding consumer consumption of
media. Email: lbright@seedling.com.

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