MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THERAPY

“Marriage is more than your love for each other. It has a higher dignity and power, for it is God's holy
ordinance, through which he wills to perpetuate the human race until the end of time. In your love you see
only your two selves in the world, but in marriage you are a link in the chain of the generations, which
God causes to come and to pass away to his glory, and calls into his kingdom. In your love you see only the
heaven of your own happiness, but in marriage you are placed at a post of responsibility towards the world
and mankind. Your love is your own private possession, but marriage is more than something personal—it
is a status, an office. Just as it is the crown, and not merely the will to rule, that makes the king, so it is
marriage, and not merely your love for each other, that joins you together in the sight of God and man. It
is not your love that sustains marriage, but from now on, the marriage that sustains your love." - Dietrich
Bonhoeffer (a letter from his prison cell in Nazi Germany to a young couple who had just married. 1943)

INTRODUCTION
Marriage from time immemorial has been viewed as a sacred institution. The central feature of this
institution is the union of man and woman as husband and wife in relationship. This culturally
accepted institution of human marriage “has been a subject of critical investigation due to its close
and intimate relation to human happiness. In the large segment of an individual’s life which
constitutes his social life and involves relationship with another individual, this institution assumes
extreme significance.”1 With changing roles of family members in a well advancing globalised
society, there are growing signs of stress and strain in every aspect of life and marriage and family
are no exception. Therefore erosion of ‘values and trust’ in family or marriage is no more news.
Infidelity and promiscuousness has made the covenant of marriage just a formality. Even in
countries like India, where the ‘culture of shame’ seeks to hide the growing deterioration, families
are opening up to their problems seeking guidance that family and marriage might be preserved.

Professionals in marriage and family therapy are seeking “methods of education and enrichment
that enable couples to survive their changes in role and development and to persevere through
periods of adjustment. Imaginative and varied programs have been devised from written contracts
to behavioural modification in order to arrest the breakdown of marriage; for it is widely
recognized that our society is not so vigorous that it can forego the ideals and values that uphold
marital permanence and family life.”2

The effort therefore in this paper would be to take a brief look at the challenges confronting
families in India, to consider the counseling and therapy issues when working with Indian families
and to survey some major systems of therapy and their relationship to pastoral care and counseling.

1. DEFINITION

1.1 Bible: Marriage as Covenant

Throughout the Bible, marriage is considered a covenant (‫ )בּרית‬whose very nature is faithfulness.
“The covenant is not only between husband and wife but also between that couple and God. Unlike
a legal contract whose agreement may be broken when conditions change, this covenant is binding
for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health. It partakes of the age-old
covenantal characteristics; that is, it is a freely made promise that will involve an obligatory task,
and it is negotiated for permanence. It includes witnesses and social/family support; it can be
renewed, and it enjoys the blessing of God whose promise seals it.”3 Hence “Bonhoeffer insists that
in the sacrament of marriage one enters a covenant that presumes natural affections but goes far

1
Mabel Fonseca, Counselling for Marital Happiness (Bombay: Manaktalas, 1966), 29.
2
J. C. Wynn, “Marriage,” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by Rodney J. Hunter, (Bangalore:
Theological Publication in India, 2007), 678.
3
ibid.
1
beyond them. In a world that puts a premium on immediacy of feeling, Bonhoeffer calls for
commitments in an entirely different register.”4
“In Christian doctrine, marriage fulfils God’s plan of creation; for we were created in the image of
God, and blessed as male and female (Gen. 1:27). Moreover the doctrine of Christian marriage is so
integrally built into existence that it provides a paradigm for God’s relation to humanity. In a
cosmic analogy, God is to us as a loving husband to a wife (Jer. 31:32; Isa. 54:5) and this
ratiocination (conclusion) is echoed where Christ is pictured as the bridegroom in the Synoptic
Gospels as well as in the writings of Paul (II Cor. 11:2). From these and similar passages,
Christians may deduce that the mystical wedding of God-in-Christ to the church is an archetype for
human marriage.”5 Also Christian marriage is seen as a commitment to a “total life relationship in
faith that ideally reflects God’s unfailing love for his people. The traditional qualities of
permanence and exclusivity create the milieu in which a community of life and love flourishes and
in which a genuinely human procreation and education of children takes place.”6
Yet the concern today is that of marital impermanence and instability. Though the divorce rate in
India, considering the total population, is low it “does not guarantee marital peace, amity, fulfilment
and growth.”7

1.2 Society/Sociology: Familial Forms

From a sociology point of view “the essence of the family group is the parent-child relationship,
whose outlines vary widely among cultures. One prominent familial form is the nuclear family,
consisting of the marital pair living with their offspring in a separate dwelling. While some scholars
believe this to be the oldest form, others point to the inconclusive pre-historical record and the
widespread existence of other forms such as the polygynous family (a husband, two or more wives,
and their offspring) and the extended family (including at least parents, married children, and their
offspring). The family as an institution provides for the rearing and socialization of children, the
care of the aged, sick, or disabled, the legitimation of procreation, and the regulation of sexual
conduct in addition to supplying basic physical, economic, and emotional security for its members.8
In a time of marital instability, sociologists and marriage counselors have sought more exact, value-
laden definitions of the categories within marriage. Thus Lederer and Jackson designated four: the
stable satisfactory, the stable unsatisfactory, the unstable satisfactory, and the unstable
unsatisfactory marriages.9 Cuber and Harroff on the other hand, have divided marriages into the
total, the vital, the passive-congenial, the conflict-habituated, and the devitalized.10

1.3 Economic Basis: A Socioeconomic Approach

Friedrich Engels gave an economic interpretation of marriage, emphasizing property rights and
labor as a standard of marital history.11 This is in some ways noticeable among marriages
conducted in India where “the extended family remains the basic unit, marriages are usually
arranged by the family. The assumption is that love between the partners comes after marriage, and
much thought is given to the socioeconomic advantages accruing to the larger family from the

4
Gary A. Anderson, “A Marriage in Full,” http://web.ebscohost.com/login.aspx=true&db=rfh&AN= ATLA
0001648563&site=ehost-live.pdf (22 Dec 2009).
5
J. C. Wynn, “Marriage,” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling..., 677.
6
J.J.Young “Divorce and Remarriage,” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by Rodney J. Hunter,
(Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 301.
7
Deva Prasad Sen Mazumdar, “Some issues in Matrimonial and Family Counselling,” in Marital Disputes and
Counselling, Vol.1,edited by Manju Goel and Nirmala Sherjung (New Delhi: Aph Publishing Corporation, 1997), 16.
8
"Family," Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.)
9
W. J. Lederer and D. D. Jackson, The Mirages of Marriage (1968), cited by J. C. Wynn, “Marriage,” Dictionary of
Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by Rodney J. Hunter, (Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 676.
10
J. F. Cuber and P. B. Harroff, Sex and the Significant Americans: A Study of Sexual Behavior Among the Affluent
(1977), cited by J. C. Wynn, “Marriage,” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by Rodney J. Hunter,
(Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 676.
11
F. Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1942 [1884]), Cited by J. C. Wynn, “Marriage,”
Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by Rodney J. Hunter, (Bangalore: Theological Publication in India,
2007), 676
2
 match. Some form of dowry or bride wealth is almost universal in societies that use arranged
marriages.”12
The issue of dowry or promised dowry becomes a bone of contention and a point of wrangling
between the spouses. Also there are ample instances to prove how property division has also split
families apart proving that economics plays a key role in family life. Issues have also crept over
who would manage the household accounts especially in the light of wives starting to work.

2. CHALLENGES CONFRONTING COUPLES, AND FAMILIES IN MODERN INDIA

The Indian families are in the midst of a transition from the traditional to the not very traditional
(moderate) and with the influence of modernisation and globalisation there is also a transition to
independent, modern and universal type of families. These changes along with age old conservative
expectations bring in relational difficulties. The challenges that are mentioned below therefore are a
mix of both the traditional based issues as well those emerging because of the transition. Alongside
an effort is made to consider the counseling and therapy issues when working with Indian families

2.1 One Sided Marriage: Indian Marriages is mostly one sided. This is very true for a woman. For her
it is “more uprooting and irrevocable than other ‘passages’. She has to...adapt to a new family with
its own myths, rituals and practices. It involves a process of unlearning and relearning. This is
facilitated if the new environment is nurturant.”13 In the general Indian home, bride has to play a
prescribed and finely defined role. “The bride should be meek, submissive, tolerant and obedient
and should not enter into a controversy with her husband or his family.”14 Such abrupt changes
soon become a daily ordeal and she goes through a lot of insecurity and stress related symptoms.
Brown and Harris mention that “women who lack intimate relationship with their husbands and
good mutual communication are more vulnerable to stress of life events than others....Women by
virtue of their inferior position and status depend more on their husbands not only for material
support but also for a sense of recognition and self-esteem.”15 However many sons play a rather
submissive role to their mothers. Thus when their role as a husband is often guided by the mothers;
the wives find little support in turn.

Situations can change if “she has a male offspring. As a mother and later as a mother-in-law, she is
in her element. And then the old circle begins anew.”16 But as long as she does not bear a male
child, women go through a hell of a situation. It has been one of the reasons that many women
especially in North India are pushed to abortion until they deliver a male child.

2.2 Marriage and Extended Family: At the beginning of the 21st century, the Indian family system,
with a total of 193.5million (137.7 million rural and 55.8 million urban) households are
predominantly nuclear since the joint family accounts for only a fifth of the total households.17 In
spite of this development, marriage in India is generally a family contract that involves a union of
two families much more than two individuals, and couple and family difficulties tend to resonate
throughout the entire family system. The arranged marriage system is also still exceedingly
common even among educated individuals. Mazumdar mentions that “in India...one cannot cut
himself off from the total (family) nexus. Keeping this in view, a counsellor has to comprehend the
client’s need-satisfaction system, understand the underlying dynamics of the relationship part of the

12
"Marriage," Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.)
13
Asha Datta, “Marriage: Socio-Psychological Aspects,” in Marriage in India edited by B.B.Goswami, J.Sarkar and
D.Danda (Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, 1988), 290.
14
Giri Raj Gupta, Marriage, Religion and Society. Pattern of change in an Indian Village (Delhi:Vikas
Publication,1974), 100, cited by Asha Datta, “Marriage: Socio-Psychological Aspects”…,291.
15
George W.Brown and Tirril Harris, Social Origins of Depression; A study of psychiatric disorder in women (London:
Tavistock Publication, 1982) cited by Asha Datta, “Marriage: Socio-Psychological Aspects” …,293.
16
Asha Datta, “Marriage: Socio-Psychological Aspects” …, 293.
17
Census of India 2001 (registrar General and Census commissioners, India), 1. As per the 2001 Census of India, about
21% of the Indian families are joint families while 73 % are nuclear families under various sub-categories. About 6% of
the families are single person families.(where members of the family have died and not the emerging single parent
phenomenon).
3
 husband and wife and develop genuine insight into the pathology of marital and family dynamics
before making an effort for the change towards a more appropriate, healthy, realistic attitude by the
husband or by the wife.”18

At the same time inter-generational relationships are being strained today because the younger
generation of more educated Indians is adopting many of the values, lifestyles, and work styles thus
posing a challenge to the stability of traditional extended family and societal (e.g., caste) structures
and norms. For example, some younger generation members may no longer consider it their
primary duty to take care of their parents in their later life.19

2.3 Domestic Violence: A major issue focused among Indian families is domestic violence. Most of
such cases are the plight of “women who are trapped in abusive relationships and their never ending
intolerable plight at the hands of their husbands and the extended family members.”20 Such
behaviour has led to deeply disturbing and destructive situation where by a small provocation can
even lead to verbal, emotional, sexual and physical violence. This has resulted in the development
of children’s growth as well. “Family therapy may be threatening to husbands because it entails
being vulnerable in the presence of their wives; hence, wisdom and creativity are needed when
involving men in counseling.”21

2.4 Changing Roles of Indian Women: Over the last few decades there have been changes in the role
of women. This is mostly observed in semi urban and urban setups. But the dilemma is that Indian
society is still unable to cope with the changing roles of women especially when it comes to the
demands of a home and marriage. Mazumdar, former advisor of Psychology, Ministry of defence
mentions that “present day women are more educated, more economically independent and they
contribute substantially to the workforce....The wife as such may not consider the husband as the
sole provider, protector or philosopher who will direct and control major or even minor decisions.
Role models of spouses in urban India have become relatively more fluid and unstructured than
their rural counterparts.”22 This he says has resulted in “conjugal (marital) disharmony, bitterness,
recrimination (accusation) and prolonged unhappiness which may end up in violence or dissolution
of marriage. Often neither the husband nor the wife knows or cares to know what is really bothering
them, or what is correct, or at best realistic solution of their problems.”23

Also the emerging concept of gender equality has to be regarded as a challenge to marriage and
family life in India. “Various factors such as: higher education, material prosperity, higher
employment opportunities, financial independence of women, increasing personal freedom, easy
access to other cultures made possible especially through media, etc., contribute greatly in bringing
about the emerging concept of gender equality which in turn may cause a disharmony in the
dynamic rhythm of marriage and family in the Indian society”24

Situations like these and others lead to conflict of interest and the can become so intense and deep
rooted over a period of time. They can soon become contentious and would need to be helped
through marital counselling. Mazumdar mentions that counseling “needs to unravel the conscious

18
Deva Prasad Sen Mazumdar, “Some issues in Matrimonial and Family Counselling,” …, 13.
19
David K. Carson, Sachin Jain and Sylvia Ramirez, “Counseling and Family Therapy in India: Evolving
Professions in a Rapidly Developing Nation,” International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling , 31/ 1(
March, 2009), http://www.springerlink.com/content/569p420q35w72u81/ (1st December 2009)
20
Joseph George, “The changing pattern of the family in India: Contemporary exploration,” in The changing patterns
of Family in India, edited by P.D Devanandan and M.M Thomas (Bangalore: National Printing press, 2007 [1959]), 33.
21
David K. Carson, Sachin Jain and Sylvia Ramirez, “Counseling and Family Therapy in India..., (1 December 2009).
22
Deva Prasad Sen Mazumdar, “Some issues in Matrimonial and Family Counselling,” …, 12.
23
Ibid.
24
Knieps Thomas, The Emerging Concept of Gender Equality as a Challenge to Marriage and Family Life in India: A
Practical-Theological Inquiry in View of an Integral Pastoral Approach-A research report,
http://theo.kuleuven.be/page/projects/445/ (1December 2009)
4
 and unconscious reasons of such ‘false pride’ which may be largely responsible for the apparently
impregnable barrier to communication and understanding between the husband and wife.”25

2.5 The Culture of Shame: David Augsburger has noted that Asian cultures are shame oriented
cultures.26 In other words, “Losing face” is a disaster in Asian cultures. Therefore “therapeutic
intervention should be delivered in a way that does not challenge the integrity of individuals and
families or cause them to lose face in their families or communities... (In addition) as age and life
experience still matter greatly in Indian society; younger clinicians may find that the acceptance of
their role and function in counseling middle-aged and older adults takes time.”27 In other words to
open up and share their issues with a younger person is considered a matter of shame.

2.6 Economic Dynamics and the Family: With the advent of globalisation and liberalisation the
average middleclass family has a higher disposable income than what was the situation some time
back. This has laid out a “whole new set of behavioural pattern....Trends in job market have
changed considerably with the arrival of multinational corporations. The work force in BPO’s is
below 25 years. A new generation with a new outlook of life, possessions and
entertainment....People are valued for what they have rather than who they are, not just the society
but also within a family where possessions and wealth lay out alignments! As a result families are
soon losing the joy of living together, fundamental values and things that last.28

On the other hand India is also home to the economically poor. In spite of globalisation and other
developments there are millions in India starving each day. “The struggle to meet the basic needs
and their failures continue to diminish the joy of living in family context.”29 This has led to many
members of the family being abused for gain. There are stories of families’ suicide because of their
inability to live satisfactorily.
2.7 Sexual Related Issues: The traditional Indian families had a rather biased view regarding gender
equality and the sexual nature of persons and their functioning within the family. So “in the joint
family, with its lack of privacy and intimacy and the principle that the procreation of children was a
sacred duty and all sexual activity apart from this aim was lustful waste of precious energies, sexual
intercourse as a means of showing love and of reaffirming again and again a sense of belonging
together, often played a minor role or none at all”30
There are changes happening with the influence of media and right education. “Yet many still hold
the traditional views. After marriage there are lot of discrepancies between expectation and
fulfilment that causes deep frustration to which individuals may or may not reconcile or readjust.
The closeness and intimacy between spouses is endangered It is likely to be characterised by
disappointments, pessimism, irritability, bitterness, withdrawal or hostility. A major reason for
these developments are also because in India there is very little pre-marital counselling which has
resulted in different expectation and different temperament”31
Apart from this the contemporary society also points to a “liberal view and random practice of sex
outside marital relationship. A few of the major issues and concerns are expressed by caring
professions relating to pre-marital sex, extra marital sex, multiple partners, couple swapping, and
similar practices.”32

25
Ibid.
26
David Augsburger, Pastoral Counseling Across Cultures ( Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986),cited by Robert
Solomon, “Pastoral counselling in Asian context,” Intercultural Pastoral Care and Counselling, No 1, (1996): 22- 25,
http:/www.sipcc.org /workbook-sipcc.pdf, (1 December 2009)
27
David K. Carson, Sachin Jain and Sylvia Ramirez, “Counseling and Family Therapy in India..., (1 December 2009).
28
Bonnie Miriam Jacob, “Changing Trends in the Family,” in Talking Families, edited by Shantanu Datta et al., (New
Delhi: ISPCK, 2006), 37.
29
Joseph George, “The changing pattern of the family in India: Contemporary exploration,” …, 30.
30
P.D.Devanandan and M.M.Thomas, eds., The changing patterns of Family in India (Bangalore: National Printing
press, 2007 [1959]) 18.
31
Deva Prasad Sen Mazumdar, “Some issues in Matrimonial and Family Counselling,” …, 14.
32
Joseph George, “The changing pattern of the family in India: Contemporary exploration.”…, 28.
5
 3. THEORIES OF MARRIAGE THERAPY
A lot of marriages are in trouble today. Divorce rates have shown alarming proportion. And where
divorce does not happen, not ‘all is well.’ In counselling such marriages, as pastoral counselors
“having a theory makes counseling or therapy more efficient by directing the therapist rapidly to
areas that are potentially important.”33 But in India “mental health services are mostly sought as
either a last resort after trying various familial and extra-familial mechanisms or if people are
mandated to receive help in cases of divorce, psychiatric, medical reasons. But now as community
support in India is rapidly weakening with the advent of urbanization, industrialization, and
globalization of the economy, many of the age-old time proved mechanisms are being replaced
with different mental health professionals who are most often trained in providing services that
have been developed in the West.”34

In this section it becomes pertinent to look at some of those (western) major systems of therapy. In
doing so there is a need to interweave the spiritual nature of the individual and of marriage than
merely applying concepts of these marriage therapies to people who happen to be christians,
thereby realise their (therapies) relationship to pastoral care and counseling.
Some of the major systems of therapy are surveyed here;

3.1 Psychoanalytic Marriage Theories:

The major contribution by Freud as a psychoanalyst is his discovery of the ‘unconscious’. The
unconscious in most individuals can be described as a seething caldron of needs, emotions and
instincts.35 Therefore, as psychoanalysis has emphasised individual psychodynamic functioning, few
psychoanalytic marital therapies have been formally proposed. But there are available psychoanalytic
theories about the effects of the family on psychological development.36 A summary of the many
therapists who have conceptualised marriage counselling theories using psychodynamic techniques is
summed below;
1. The psychoanalytic approach addresses itself to understanding the unconscious conflicts that affect
the sense of self, which in turn affects the marital relationship.37 Anxiety are seen as due to the
developmental history of the individuals. While growing up, some of the psychological conflicts
which remain unresolved are reflected in life later and in this case in marital relationships.38
2. The goal of this therapy is to solve the marital problems through helping individuals gain insight into
the overt and unconscious reasons for their behaviour.39
3. Of the different stages of therapy, in the initial stage, the counselor helps the couple solve some of
their interactional problems. The couples discuss the symptoms of the problem. The therapist
recommends a variety of techniques to help people straighten out their interactions. In this interaction
the therapist induces the couple to talk to each other thus promoting communication.40
4. On the road of achievement of insight...the most notable being the transference phenomenon. The
transference can be negative or positive. In any case its resolution is an indispensable prerequisite to
the individual’s achievement of insight. This enables an unconscious as well as an intellectual
appreciation of the causes of his repression and consequent anxieties.41

33
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples (Illinois: Intervarsity
Press, 1989), 18.
34
Mona Mittal and Kenneth V. Hardy, “A Re-Examination of the Current Status and Future of Family therapy In
India,” Contemporary Family Therapy, 27(3) (September 2005), www.ncfr.com/pdf/sections/Re-
Examination_of%20_the_Family_India.pdf
35
Joseph F. Perez, Family Counseling (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979), 4-5.
36
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 330-31
37
T. F. Dixon-Murphy, “Marriage Counseling and Marital Therapy,” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling,
edited by Rodney J. Hunter, (Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 686.
38
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 331.
39
Ibid., 332.
40
Ibid.
41
Joseph F. Perez, Family Counseling ..., 6-7.
6
5. In this process, the therapist may “explore childhood experiences of one or both the partners and help
them understand their past and its employment in the current marriage. Reconstructive interpretation
may be offered”42
Critique of Psychodynamic Theory:
1. The psychodynamic therapists assume that marriages are troubled because individual spouses are
troubled. This is not always the case as many marriages are troubled even when the individuals are
healthy. On the contrary spouses are troubled because the marriage is troubled.43
2. This therapy goes deeper into long-term insight-oriented therapy which frustrates couples expecting
short-term problem-solving counseling.44
3. Psychodynamic marriage therapy is best thought of as a way of understanding problems rather than
a change inducing therapy for couples.45
3.2 Client Centred Therapy
This theory is based on Carl Rogers’ experiences and the conviction that “within the client reside
constructive forces whose strength and uniformity have been either entirely unrecognized or grossly
underestimated.”46 Rogers held to the strict criteria that genuineness, empathy and unconditional
positive regard are essential on the part of the therapist if the client is to be healed and "self-
actualize." Unconditional positive regard also infers a non-judgmental and non-directive stance on
the part of the therapist.47 Originally named nondirective counseling; it first came into professional
view during the early 1940s. In 1951 Rogers changed the name to client-centered therapy (CCT) to
emphasize a positive focus on human capacities.
A summary of the principles48 under which this therapy is operated with families are mentioned
here;
1. Case reports on the symptomatic and other family members are considered valuable.
2. The now problems of a family are viewed as symptoms, product of longstanding neurosis.
3. The focus is in the inner state of each of the family members not their external behaviour.
4. The needs and defences of each member are important because the dynamic counselor believes
that each member contributes to the sickness and health of the entire family.
5. How each member perceives and what each one expects from the other family members is
considered, interpreted and treated by the therapist.
6. Emotions are of paramount importance to the therapist. He observes closely hoe love, anger,
joy and sadness are expressed or withheld by each member towards each other member.
Confrontations, interpretations and ventilation of feelings are encouraged.
7. The therapist views as a prime goal to make each person in the family consciously aware not
only of his own motives and dynamics but also of the other family members.
8. “In this procedure the counselor/therapist refrains from giving advice; his role is to assist the
person in achieving insight into his problem and in making his own decisions.”49

As members of the family go through this process, “non-directive counselling assumes that as
genuine insight is gained, self acceptance will be enhanced and the person will deal with life
situations more realistically constructively. Gaining insights depends not only on the availability of a
non-directive counsellor but equally on one’s capacity for self-perception, self awareness and self
criticism.”50 By mid 20th century the reigning theory of pastoral counselling expressed a marked

42
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 333.
43
Ibid.
44
Gurman, Contemporary Marital Therapies, cited by Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian
approach to counseling couples …, 332.
45
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 334.
46
Carl R. Rogers. “Significant Aspects of Client-Centred Therapy,” http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Rogers/therapy.htm
(20 August 2009).
47
Dennis E. Saylor, A Guide to Pastoral Counseling & Care for Pastors and Laypersons (Washington: Seven Hills
Publishers, 1991), 15.
48
Joseph F. Perez, Family Counseling ..., 9.
49
Mabel Fonseca, Counselling for Marital Happiness (Bombay: Manaktalas, 1966), 230.
50
Nalini Arles, “Counselling in the Indian context,” Intercultural Pastoral Care and Counselling, No 1, (1996): 111,
http:/www.sipcc.org /workbook-sipcc.pdf, (1 December 2009)
7
 affinity to this tradition. Seward Hiltner’s “Educative Counselling”, Paul Johnson’s “Responsive
Counselling” and Carroll Wise’s “Non-coercive Counselling were all constructed along similar lines
to Carl Rogers’ client centred therapy51

Critique of Client Centred Therapy:

1. According to Stanton and Butman, the philosophical presuppositions underlying Person-Centred
therapy ought to raise a number of concerns for the Christian. It assumes that human beings are the
ultimate force and sole masters of their own destiny; all authority is within. “In the Christian
tradition to proclaim one-self to be in control of one’s own existence is the ultimate act of
rebellion.”52Pastoral counselling is based on the biblical view of man as created in the image of
God and is therefore worth respecting and accepting and also under divine purpose.
2. In Client Centred Therapy because of a one-sided embrace of love without discipline, it may
support clients without challenging them to do what is right. Robert Roberts cautions that “while
the psychologists offer insights and practices that can be helpfully adapted for Christian use, each
has a very real potential to lead us astray.”53
3. The effectiveness of the non-directive counselling depends on the motivation to get help and the
ability for self evaluation and criticism. This might go against the Indian context where the strong
motivation is to get advice from the elders (relatives, friends, neighbours and religious workers) and
family members. In other words, Indian clients may expect that the role of the counselor is to
provide them with answers or solutions, rather than involve them in the problem-solving process,
and they may have difficulty accepting that they are ultimately responsible for their own healing.54
4. To take a decision ‘right now’ is not the way many Indians operate. Depending on the problem,
people consult other sources as well. This varies in families depending on their education, exposure
to westernisation and the influence of modernisation on them. Though some take a decision, but
such decision is changed at home depending on the locus of control.55

3.3 Behavioural Therapies.

John B.Watson conducted significant research and publication on Behavioural theory but later
B.F.Skinner systematically refined and developed the principles of behaviourism. “The
behaviourists view behaviour as a set of learned responses to events, experiences, or stimuli in a
person’s life history. The behaviourist believes that behaviour can be modified by providing
appropriate learning conditions and experiences.”56 The fundamental premise of behavioural
marriage counseling is that in happy marriages, the rewards (reinforces) outweigh the costs
(punishers). It follows that for troubled couples, the balance has shifted to where the costs are
greater than the rewards. The counselor should then increase the rewards and decrease the costs in
the relationship; the counselor uses his influence to promote behaviour change that will increase the
couples marital happiness.57 Specific techniques include relaxation, systematic desensitization
where by individuals are successively introduced to more anxiety arousing situations to develop
less sensitivity to a trigger, and exposure therapy. Training includes development of assertiveness

51
Leroy Aden “On Carl Rogers' Becoming “ Theology Today 565-566,
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0000484395&site=ehost-live (20th August
2009).
52
Stanton L. Jones & Richard E. Butman, Modern Psychotherapies: A Comprehensive Christian
Appraisal, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1991),262, cited by Brian Bartley J, The Pastoral Applicability Of
Person-Centred Therapy, http://www.nvo.com/bartley/nss-folder/termpapers/Pastoral%20-%20Person-
Centred%20Therapy.pdf, (20 August 2009)
53
Robert C. Roberts, “Taking the Word to Heart: Self and Other in an Age of Therapies” (GrandRapids: William C.
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993), 3. cited by Brian Bartley J, The Pastoral Applicability Of Person-Centred
Therapy, http://www.nvo.com/bartley/nss-folder/termpapers/Pastoral%20-%20Person-Centred%20Therapy.pdf (20
August 2009)
54
David K. Carson, Sachin Jain and Sylvia Ramirez, “Counseling and Family Therapy in India..., (1 December 2009).
55
Nalini Arles, “Counselling in the Indian context...,(1 December 2009)
56
Robert L.Gibson and Marianne H.Mitchell, Introduction to Counseling and Guidance (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1999),130.
57
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 347.
8
 that helps individuals make the choice to behave in healthy ways in certain situations. Coaching,
training, and modeling are also key ingredients to a successful behavioral therapeutic approach.58
Thus “Behavior theory operates on learning principles, is outcome-oriented, and is directed to
positive behavioral change, to problem solving, and to the accomplishment of tasks.”59
Worthington, Jr.60 summarizes the therapy as follows:
1. Therapists begin with a thorough assessment which is usually distinct from counseling. It involves
some combination of questionnaires, observation within the interview and perhaps self monitoring
by the spouses.
2. Couples are made aware of destructive behaviour patterns, often by systematically recording their
behaviour until certain patterns emerge. The therapist then coaches them in various modifying
strategies with the goal of achieving positive, mutually reinforcing interactions.
3. On the basis of such assessment a therapy plan involving standardised ‘modules’ or ‘packages’ is
offered to the couple.
4. Counseling is structured. The therapist generally decides ahead of time what the therapeutic task of
what each session will be; unless a large crisis arises there is little scope of deviation from the plan.
5. Most techniques increase the spouse’s mental rewards. A list of things that pleases each other
(called ‘pleases’) is established. This exchange of pleases motivates a change in the behaviour and
thereby relationships.
6. The strongest part of behavioural treatment programme is communication training. Therapist
emphasise on positive talk, non-verbal communication and emotional communication.
7. The couples also establish behavioural exchange contracts in which they exchange pleases. There
are two types of contracts: Quid pro quo contract involves agreement like ‘I’ll do x, if you do y’;
one gives in order to get. Good-faith contract are unilateral agreements that specify what one
partner agrees to do for the other, regardless of what the other spouse does.

Critique of Behavioural Therapy:

1. Behavioural therapy has been experimentally verified far more than all other forms of marriage
therapy. Though it has assured changes in the couples, the effects are not permanent.61
2. There is a dire need for follow up or booster sessions to maintain the gains made in the
therapy.62
3. The strength of this therapy is its simplicity, as it focuses on a few primary causes of marital
distress. But on the other hand this simplicity is also its chief criticism. Critics say that this
therapy does not go deeper to consider the effects of meaning of events, personality needs and
motivations, and commitment of the participants.63
4. Many objections to behaviourism have been raised from a Christian perspective. Most focus on
behaviourism’s worldview and its reductionist emphasis on naturalism, materialism, and
determinism; other criticisms focus on the overt use of reinforcement and discouragement of
punishment.64
5. Behaviourism has made a major contribution to the science of psychology. It is also of value to
the Christian. However, the fact that it is often contaminated with humanistic, naturalistic,
materialistic philosophy suggests that caution must be exercised in adopting behavioural
approaches.65

58
Christie Hunter, “Family Systems Therapy from a Christian Perspective,”
http://www.christiehunter.com/personality/family-systems-therapy.htm (6 Jan 2010)
59
T. F. Dixon-Murphy, “Marriage Counseling And Marital Therapy,”..., 686.
60
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 347-49.
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid.
63
Gurman, Contemporary Marital Therapies cited by Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian
approach to counseling couples …, 350.
64
R. K. Bufford, “Behaviorism (Theoories and research),” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by
Rodney J. Hunter, (Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 80-81.
65
Ibid.
9
 3.4 Cognitive Therapy
Aaron Beck is the pioneering individual in cognitive therapy, which is the most influential and most
often researched approach to psychotherapy. In addition to Beck, Albert Ellis contributed to the
development of a cognitive based theory in his combination of humanism, philosophy, and
behaviour therapy when he formed rational – emotive behaviour therapy (REBT).66 Albert Ellis
argued that our feelings and behaviour are caused by our cognitions; what we think and say to
ourselves. Thus this therapy “attempts to understand how people think. Cognitive psychotherapy
applies this knowledge to the problem of how the individual can be helped to cope with emotional
problems such as depression or stress.” 67
Norman Epstein68 has outlined cognitive treatments within marriage, wherein cognitive techniques
can be used to change:
1. Unrealistic Expectation that are present in human existence and certainly exist within the
troubled marriage. Cognitive therapy is used to help modify people’s unrealistic expectations,
irrational ideas or marriage treaty. The first step is to make people aware of their expectations
that are faulty.
2. The second step is to provoke the clients to change their thinking. Situations are set up by
therapist where clients can test their assumptions and then helps analyse the outcome in
subsequent sessions. One key to successful cognitive modification is that it is done
systematically and repetitively throughout counseling. Here they are guided not to engage in
faulty thinking but to rather focus their attention on positive outcome. So, besides helping a
couple know what to think, the therapist must help them know how not to think.
3. Attribution (assigning to a cause or source) difficulties are common in troubled marriages.
Generally people err either by denying any personal responsibility for their marital situation or
by taking all the blame on themselves. The counsellor tries to change these attributional patterns.
4. Finally this therapy prescribes self-instructions within destructive/harmful interactions between
spouses. For example, a couple that fights frequently can be taught to delay their argumentation
through anger management strategies. The therapist usually teaches the client to recognise the
cues to the emotions or behaviours that the couples want to avoid. Through a process of
recognising the cues, couples are taught to instruct themselves to control their behaviour and
emotions.

Critique of Cognitive Therapy:

1. Cognitive therapy lays stress on the functioning of the individual’s rational and cognitive
capabilities as a source of mental health, there is a danger of elevating reason and cognitive
organizational capacity until it becomes the source or criterion of all information and knowledge,
including religious knowledge. This leads to an excessive rationalism with no room for
transcendent sources of knowledge.69
2. It also suggests an idolatrous overestimation of the mind and a disparagement (belittling) of the
role of the physical and biological factors in mental life—the position of idealistic philosophies.
Perhaps this elevation of mind attests to an inherent idealism in cognitive psychology.
3. On the positive side, however, cognitive therapy’s emphasis on argumentation with oneself is
reminiscent of the imago dei as defined by Reinhold Niebuhr. He pictures the image of God in
the individual as that aspect of the individual which is capable of dialogue with oneself and is
thus self-conscious. Thus, similarly, this seems to receive direct expression in cognitive
psychology’s control models, which postulate that self-control and self-efficacy, the essence of
mental health, are achieved when the individual becomes aware of self-statements and becomes
able to stand back from them and argue with them.70
66
Christie Hunter, “Family Systems Therapy from a Christian Perspective,”..., (6 Jan 2010)
67
L. R. Propst, “Cognitive Psychology and Psychotherapy,” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by
Rodney J. Hunter, (Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 188.
68
Norman Epstein, “Cognitive Therapy with couples,” American journal of family therapy, (1982):5-16 cited by
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 352-53.
69
D. Shapiro and S. Zifferblatt, “Zen Meditation and Behavior Self-control,” American Psychologist, 31 (1976), 519-
32. Cited by L. R. Propst, “Cognitive Psychology and Psychotherapy,”...,189.
70
R. Niebuhr, Nature and Destiny of Man, vol. 1 (1941), cited by L. R. Propst, “Cognitive Psychology and
Psychotherapy,”..., 189.
10
4. The unique way in which the cognitive and behavioural techniques have been combined in the
cognitive therapy paradigm allows for a more wholistic concept of the individual than is possible
in either the psychoanalytic model (with its emphasis on mind only) or on behavioural therapy
(with its emphasis on nature and the impact of the environment only). Because of this
inclusiveness, and because cognitive therapy emphasizes self-dialogue and the possibility of
self-transcendence, this model may be said to express fundamental features of the biblical—
especially the Hebraic—view of the person as both physical, subject to the vicissitudes (
variation) of the environment and the natural world, and self-transcendent, made in the image
and likeness of God.71

3.5 Systems theories.

In general, the term “systems” is applied loosely to a variety of theories (Bowens Theory, Mental
Research Institute Theory-MRI, Structural Therapy) addressing themselves to the interaction of the
couple as a unit. “Family systems theory is based on the assumption that the client cannot be
completely understood apart from his or family. The interactions between the individual and his or
her family members are usually significant.”72 Virginia Satir states that “the marital therapist
develops a systems approach to the care of the family that facilitates change, encourages
understanding, and provides an environment in which change and understanding actually take place.
The therapist's own interventions create a new system.”73 Wayne E.Oates74 summarises the
characteristics of ‘The systems approach’;
1. First, the approach is built on the assumption that the family as a whole system is more than any
one of its constituent parts or all of them put together. Parts and processes cannot be appreciated
independently of each other but always in relation to each other.
2. Second, the systems approach is built on the principle of equafinality. This means that the family is
not a closed system that is locked up neither to the conditions of its united origins nor to the process
in which it is apparently in at this time. To the contrary, the family is an open system, one not
isolated from its environment. The principle of equafinality, it seems, has a way of freeing up the
family to appreciate and interact rather than to "stonewall" the family from outside, purulent
influences.
3. Third, the systems approach is energized by the flow of information. The flow of information is an
educational process, because every system from a computer to a church is nourished by the quality
and flow of the information which feeds it. The collection of data as a part of the therapeutic task of
the counselor amounts to research. Inherent in the concept of information as being basic to
communication is the principle of feedback. The creative family counselor, of whatever profession,
often serves as a "broker" between these systems, both getting information and providing conduits
of feedback for the family.
“Family systems theory and therapy have brought ministers an awareness of systems thinking.
Early systems theorists—Gregory Bateson (1978), Don Jackson (1978), Virginia Satir (1967)—
placed the emphasis on communication between family members. Verbal and nonverbal feedback,
homeostasis (the tendency of the family system to seek balance), and the identified patient (the
family’s projection of guilt on a family scapegoat) were early emphases. Later systems theorists—
Murray Bowen (1978), Salvadore Minuchin (1976), and the Milan School—emphasized the
structure of the family, multi-generational transmission of emotional process, and strategic or
paradoxical intervention into family process.”75

71
L. R. Propst, “Cognitive Psychology and Psychotherapy,”..., 190.
72
Robert L.Gibson and Marianne H.Mitchell, Introduction to Counseling and Guidance…, 138.
73
Virginia Satir, Family Systems (New York: Aaronson, 1976), 216, cited by Wayne E. Oates, “The Psychosocial
Dynamics of Family Living,” http://search.ebscohost.com
/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0000764519&site=ehost-live (18 December 2009).
74
Wayne E. Oates, “The Psychosocial Dynamics of Family Living,” http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct
=true&db= rfh&AN=ATLA0000764519&site=ehost-live (18 December 2009).
75
C. W. Stewart, “Systems Theory”, Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling, edited by Rodney J. Hunter,
(Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007), 1250.

11
 Structural Family Therapy was developed by Salvador Minuchin and colleagues during the 1960s
as part of the growing interest in systemic ways of conceptualising human distress and relationship
dilemmas, and in working therapeutically with those natural systems and relationships, thought to
give rise to distress.76 Structuralism, resting on certain principles of structural functionalism
assumes patterns or codes that regulate human relationships.”77

Minuchin 78 has outlined six areas in assessing the family's interactions:

1. First, the therapist should consider the family structure, including its key transactional patterns
and preferred behaviours.
2. Second, the therapist evaluates the system's flexibility and its capacity to restructure alliances,
coalitions, and subsystems.(marriage, parent, child and grandparent subsystems). The marriage
subsystem is important because it can be clearly delineated as husband and wife.79
3. Third, the therapist examines the family’s resonance or cohesion. This would include relational
distance between family members, subsystem boundaries, and even the hierarchical distribution
of executive power.
4. Fourth, the therapist reviews the family life context, its sources of support and stress.
5. Fifth, he or she examines the family's developmental stage and the relevant tasks confronting
the system.
6. Sixth, the therapist should explore the function of the identified patient's symptoms in
maintaining the family's preferred transactional patterns.

Minuchin believes that a healthy marriage must have clear boundaries that are not so rigid ot too
undifferentiated. Families who have permeable boundaries indicate an enmeshed system where
rigid boundaries indicate a family that is disengaged and uninvolved. Boundaries need to be such
that transaction happens effectively with the members of the family. Transactions describe how the
family is structured. So once the structure of the marriage is determined the counselor attempts to
change it. In general, “family systems therapy works to reduce family stress, help members become
more differentiated, and alter coalitions and alliances in the family to bring about change. These
focal points are determined through strategies to reach goals in addition to develop new styles of
resolving problems. Family systems theory believes as members become healthy and differentiated
the family unit begins to change and adapt and in a healthy approach, this leads to better
functioning and relating between members.”80

Critique of Cognitive Therapy:

1. A difficulty with Family Systems therapy is the lack of dealing with individual issues. The problem
is addressed from the perspective of developing and resolving interpersonal issues among family
members. This approach has the possibility to overlook issues that are unique to one individual. A
sense of personal perspective may be lost as the therapist looks to understand the dyads, and
subsystems within the family unit.81
2. Systems approach is appreciated for its emphasis on group counseling. So much of the counseling
process is orientated to the individual, that the tremendous opportunities for growth that can come
as a result of group interaction is often missed. By having numerous group-centered techniques,

76
Arlene Vetere, “Structural Family Therapy,” Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 6 , (2001):133-139,
http://128.232.233.5/action/displayIssue?jid=CPR&volumeId=6&issueId=03 (6 Jan 2010)
77
Ron L Deal, “Counseling in the Church: A Biblical Critique of Structural Family Therapy,” Journal of Family
Ministry, Vol. 70, No. 2,( Fall 1996), http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db= rfh&AN=
ATLA0001432534&site=ehost-live (18 December 2009).
78
Minuchin. S, “Families and family therapy,” (1974), Ron L Deal, “Counseling in the Church..., (18 Dec 09)
79
Everett L.Worthington,Jr. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples …, 340.
80
Christie Hunter, “Family Systems Therapy from a Christian Perspective,”..., (6 Jan 2010)
81
Ibid.
12
 systems therapy is a useful tool in enhancing effective communication, the common ground
necessary for healing within the family unit.82
3. Thus this “therapy would appear to be a viable form of treatment for people who exist in cultures
that contain complex, extended family systems, such as those found in India. This is because in
Indian culture there is considerable emphasis on the importance of the interconnections between
family members.”83

CONCLUSION
Indian family in transition is a mixed baggage. It has the mix of the traditional, the moderate, the
modernised and the universal family. Though there is a visible shift from the joint family system to
nuclear, yet the link to the extended family seems to be the norm. Also, the challenges that the
Indian family face are diverse and unique to its own culture. While the family cohesive system does
help in prevailing over some, there are many challenges which has also brought to the fore the
stress, strain and the breaks from within. So apart from seeking advice from the family and friends,
there is also an emerging trend to seek professional hands. In this paper an effort has been made to
look at the different Marriage/Family therapies that serve to preserve the family.

In reviewing the different approaches to marital therapy, it becomes obvious that all therapies try to
solve problems by meeting with the couples/family. Most of the therapists believe that there are
deep causes for the problems though the ideas of what causes differ depending on the theory. Yet it
also becomes obvious that no theory is perfect and each has its own disadvantages.

To a given context as a marital therapist, there is a need to integrate, reinforce and expand the
theories which will have pre-eminence to the holding together of marriage and family. And as
pastoral counselors, there would be the need to give more attention to those theories that are
distinctly chrisitan in approach. In addition, pastoral counselors in India play a very crucial role in
extending guidance and hope to those families who may not be able to afford professional therapy.
They need to see the church as an extended family for help and the pastor as one who can be
accessible where their deeper needs can be shared and as a family be reconciled.

82
Ibid.
83
Reena Nath and Jane Craig, “Practising family therapy in India: How many people are there in a marital
subsystem?,” Journal of Family Therapy, 21 (1999): 390–406, http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-
bin/fulltext/119071568/PDFSTART (16 Dec 2009)

13
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

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J.Sarkar and D.Danda. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, 1988.
• Devanandan, P.D. and M.M.Thomas, eds. The changing patterns of Family in India. Bangalore:
National Printing press, 2007 [1959].
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• George, Joseph. “The changing pattern of the family in India: Contemporary exploration.” In The
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• Gibson, Robert L. and Marianne H.Mitchell. Introduction to Counseling and Guidance. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1999.
• Jacob, Bonnie Miriam. “Changing Trends in the Family.” In Talking Families. Edited by Shantanu
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• Mazumdar, Deva Prasad Sen. “Some issues in Matrimonial and Family Counselling.” In Marital
Disputes and Counselling. Vol.1. Edited by Manju Goel and Nirmala Sherjung. New Delhi: Aph
Publishing Corporation, 1997.
• Perez, Joseph F. Family Counseling. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979.
• Saylor, Dennis E. A Guide to Pastoral Counseling & Care for Pastors and Laypersons. Washington:
Seven Hills Publishers, 1991.
• Worthington,Jr., Everett L. Marriage Counseling: A Christian approach to counseling couples. Illinois:
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DICTIONARY
• Bufford,R. K. “Behaviorism.” (Theoories and research),” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling.
Edited by Rodney J. Hunter. Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007, 80-81.
• Murphy,T. F. Dixon. “Marriage Counseling and Marital Therapy.” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and
counseling. Edited by Rodney J. Hunter. Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007, 686.
• Propst, L. R. “Cognitive Psychology and Psychotherapy.” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling.
Edited by Rodney J. Hunter. Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007, 188.
• Stewart, C. W. “Systems Theory.” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling. Edited by Rodney J.
Hunter. Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007, 1250.
• Wynn, J. C. “Marriage.” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling. Edited by Rodney J. Hunter.
Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007, 678.
• Young, J.J. “Divorce and Remarriage.” Dictionary of Pastoral Care and counseling. Edited by Rodney
J. Hunter. Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007, 301.
• "Family." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.
• "Marriage." Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.

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(20th August 2009).
• Anderson,Gary A. “A Marriage in Full.” http://web.ebscohost.com/login.aspx=true&db=rfh&AN=
ATLA 0001648563&site=ehost-live.pdf (22 Dec 2009).
• Arles, Nalini. “Counselling in the Indian context.” Intercultural Pastoral Care and Counselling, No 1,
(1996): 111. http:/www.sipcc.org /workbook-sipcc.pdf, (1 December 2009)
• Bartley J, Brian. “The Pastoral Applicability Of Person-Centred Therapy.”
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(20 August 2009)
• Carson, David K. Sachin Jain and Sylvia Ramirez. “Counseling and Family Therapy in India: Evolving
• Deal, Ron L. “Counseling in the Church: A Biblical Critique of Structural Family Therapy.” Journal of
Family Ministry, Vol. 70, No. 2,( Fall 1996), http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
rfh&AN= ATLA0001432534&site=ehost-live (18 December 2009).

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bin/fulltext/119071568/PDFSTART (16 Dec 2009)
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15